Kilogram

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Kilogram

General information

Unit system SI base unit

Unit of mass

Symbol kg

Conversions

1 kg in ... ... is equal to ...

Avoirdupois ≈ 2.205pounds[Note 1] 

British Gravitational ≈ 0.0685 slugs 

The kilogram (also kilogramme) is the base unit of mass in the metric system, formally
the International System of Units (SI), having the unit symbol kg. It is a widely used
measure in science, engineering, and commerce worldwide, and is often called a kilo. The
kilogram is almost exactly the mass of one litre of water.
The kilogram was originally defined in 1795 as the mass of a litre of water. This was a
simple definition, but hard to replicate precisely. In 1799, the Kilogramme des Archives, a
platinum artefact, replaced it as the standard of mass. In 1879 a cylinder of platinum-
iridium, the International Prototype of the Kilogram (IPK) became the standard of the unit of
mass for the metric system, and remained so until May 20, 2019,[1], making the kilogram the
last of the metric base units to be defined by a physical artefact.
Despite best efforts to maintain it, evidence accumulated that the mass of the International
Prototype Kilogram had been changing; the IPK had diverged from its replicas by
approximately 50 micrograms since their manufacture late in the 19th century. This led
to several competing efforts to develop measurement technology precise enough to allow
replacing the kilogram artefact with a definition based directly on physical fundamental
constants.[1] This culminated in 2018 with a redefinition of the kilogram in terms of
the Planck constant.[1] As a result of this redefinition, the kilogram is now defined in terms of
the second and the metre, replacing the IPK as primary standard.[2] The new definition was
approved by the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) on November 16,
2018.[3] Physical standard masses such as the IPK and its replicas still serve as secondary
standards.

Contents

 1Definition
o 1.1Previous definitions
o 1.2Replacement of the International Prototype Kilogram
 2Name and terminology
 3Mass and weight
 4Redefinition based on fundamental constants
 5SI multiples
 6See also
 7Notes
 8References
 9External links
o 9.1Videos

Definition[edit]
The kilogram is defined in terms of three fundamental physical constants: The speed of
light c, a specific atomic transition frequency ΔνCs, and the Planck constant h. The formal
definition is:
The kilogram, symbol kg, is the SI unit of mass. It is
defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the
Planck constant h to be 6.62607015×10−34 when
expressed in the unit J⋅s, which is equal to kg⋅m2⋅s−1,
where the metre and the second are defined in terms
of c and ΔνCs.[2][4]
This definition makes the kilogram consistent with the
older definitions: the mass remains almost exactly the
same as the mass of a litre of water.
Previous definitions[edit]
The development of the first metric system began about
1790. The initial mass unit was the grave, defined in
1793.[5] Within three years it was replaced by the kilogram.
The gram, 1/1000 of a kilogram, was provisionally defined
in 1795 as the mass of one cubic centimetre of water at
the melting point of ice.[6] The Kilogramme des
Archives was manufactured as a prototype in 1799 and
served as a basis for the International Prototype Kilogram
(IPK) in 1875. It had a mass equal to the mass of 1 dm3 of
water under atmospheric pressure and at the temperature
of its maximum density, which is approximately 4 °C.

A replica of the International Prototype Kilogram on display

at Cité des Sciences et de l'Industrie, featuring the protective
double glass bell. The IPK served as primary standard for
the kilogram until 2019.

The International Prototype Kilogram was commissioned

by the General Conference on Weights and
Measures (CGPM) under the authority of the Metre
Convention (1875), and is in the custody of
the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM)
who hold it on behalf of the CGPM. The IPK was rarely
used or handled. Copies of the IPK kept by national
metrology laboratories around the world were compared
with the IPK in 1889, 1948, and 1989 to
provide traceability of measurements of mass anywhere in
the world back to the IPK.
The kilogram was the last SI unit that was directly defined
by an artefact rather than fundamental physical properties
that could be independently reproduced in different
laboratories.[1] Three other base units (cd, A, mol) and 17
derived units
(N, Pa, J, W, C, V, F, Ω, S, Wb, T, H, kat, Gy, Sv, lm, lx) in
the SI system were defined in relation to the kilogram, and
thus its stability was important. The definitions of only eight
other named SI units did not depend on the kilogram:
those of temperature (K, °C), time and frequency
(s, Hz, Bq), length (m), and angle (rad, sr).[7]
Replacement of the International Prototype
Kilogram[edit]
Main article: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units
After the International Prototype Kilogram had been found
to vary in mass over time relative to its
reproductions,[8] the International Committee for Weights
and Measures (CIPM) recommended in 2005 that the
kilogram be redefined in terms of a fundamental constant
of nature. At its 2011 meeting, the CGPM agreed in
principle that the kilogram should be redefined in terms of
the Planck constant, h. The decision was originally
deferred until 2014; in 2014 it was deferred again until the
next meeting.[9] CIPM proposed revised definitions of
the SI base units for consideration at the 26th
CGPM.[10] The formal vote on 16 November 2018 approved
the change.[11][12]

Name and terminology[edit]

The kilogram is the only base SI unit with an SI prefix (kilo)
as part of its name. The word kilogramme or kilogram is
derived from the French kilogramme,[13] which itself was a
learned coinage, prefixing the Greek stem
of χίλιοι khilioi "a thousand" to gramma, a Late Latin term
for "a small weight", itself from Greek γράμμα.[14] The
word kilogramme was written into French law in 1795, in
the Decree of 18 Germinal,[15] which revised the provisional
system of units introduced by the French National
Convention two years earlier, where the gravet had been
defined as weight (poids) of a cubic centimetre of water,
equal to 1/1000 of a grave.[16] In the decree of 1795, the
term gramme thus replaced gravet,
and kilogramme replaced grave.
The French spelling was adopted in Great Britain when the
word was used for the first time in English in
1795,[17] [13] with the spelling kilogram being adopted in the
United States. In the United Kingdom both spellings are
used, with "kilogram" having become by far the more
common.[18][Note 2] UK law regulating the units to be used
when trading by weight or measure does not prevent the
use of either spelling.[19]
In the 19th century the French word kilo,
a shortening of kilogramme, was imported into the English
language where it has been used to mean both
kilogram[20] and kilometre.[21]While kilo as an alternative is
acceptable, to The Economist for example,[22] the Canadian
government's Termium Plus system states that "SI
(International System of Units) usage, followed in scientific
and technical writing" does not allow its usage and it is
described as "a common informal name" on Russ
Rowlett's Dictionary of Units of Measurement.[23][24] When
the United States Congress gave the metric system legal
status in 1866, it permitted the use of the word kilo as an
alternative to the word kilogram,[25]but in 1990 revoked the
status of the word kilo.[26]
During the 19th century, the standard system of metric
units was the centimetre–gram–second system of units,
treating the gram as the fundamental unit of mass and
the kilogram as a derived unit. In 1901, however, following
the discovery by James Clerk Maxwell that electric
measurements could not be explained solely in terms of
the three fundamental units of length, mass and
time, Giovanni Giorgi proposed a new standard system
that would include a fourth fundamental unit to measure
quantities in electromagnetism.[27] In 1935 this was adopted
by the IEC as the Giorgi system, now also known as MKS
system,[28] and in 1946 the CIPM approved a proposal to
adopt the ampere as the electromagnetic unit of the
"MKSA system".[29]:109,110 In 1948 the CGPM commissioned
the CIPM "to make recommendations for a single practical
system of units of measurement, suitable for adoption by
all countries adhering to the Metre Convention".[30] This led
to the launch of SI in 1960 and the subsequent publication
of the "SI Brochure", which stated that "It is not permissible
to use abbreviations for unit symbols or unit names
...".[31][Note 3] The CGS and MKS systems co-existed during
much of the early-to-mid 20th century, but as a result of
the decision to adopt the "Giorgi system" as the
international system of units in 1960, the kilogram is now
the SI base unit for mass, while the definition of the gram
is derived from that of the kilogram.

Mass and weight[edit]

Measurement of weight – gravitational attraction of the

measurand causes a distortion of the spring

Measurement of mass – the gravitational force on the

measurand is balanced against the gravitational force on the
weights.

See also: Mass versus weight

The kilogram is a unit of mass. Mass is an inertial property;
that is, it is related to the tendency of an object at rest to
remain at rest, or if in motion to remain in motion at a
constant velocity, unless acted upon by a force.
While the weight of an object is dependent on the strength
of the local gravitational field, the mass of an object is
independent of gravity, as mass is a measure of the
quantity of matter. Accordingly, for astronauts
in microgravity, no effort is required to hold objects off the
cabin floor; they are "weightless". However, since objects
in microgravity still retain their mass and inertia, an
astronaut must exert ten times as much force to accelerate
a 10-kilogram object at the same rate as a 1-kilogram
object.
Because at any given point on Earth the weight of an
object is proportional to its mass, the mass of an object in
kilograms is usually measured by comparing its weight to
the weight of a standard mass, whose mass is known in
kilograms, using a device called a weighing scale. The
ratio of the force of gravity on the two objects, measured
by the scale, is equal to the ratio of their masses.

Redefinition based on fundamental

constants[edit]

The SI system after the 2019 redefinition: the kilogram is

now fixed in terms of the second, the speed of light and
the Planck constant, and the ampere no longer depends on
the kilogram

Main articles: 2019 redefinition of the SI base

units and CODATA 2018
The International Committee for Weights and Measures
(CIPM) approved a redefinition of the SI base units in
November 2018 that defines the kilogram by defining
the Planck constant to be
exactly 6.62607015×10−34 kg⋅m2⋅s−1, effectively defining the
kilogram in terms of the second and the metre. The new
definition took effect on 20 May 2019.[1][2][32]
Prior to the redefinition, the kilogram and several other SI
units based on the kilogram were defined by a man-made
metal artefact: the Kilogramme des Archives from 1799 to
1889, and the International Prototype Kilogram from 1889
onward.[1]
In 1960, the metre, previously similarly having been
defined with reference to a single platinum-iridium bar with
two marks on it, was redefined in terms of an invariant
physical constant (the wavelength of a particular emission
of light emitted by krypton,[33] and later the speed of light)
so that the standard can be independently reproduced in
different laboratories by following a written specification.
At the 94th Meeting of the International Committee for
Weights and Measures (CIPM) in 2005, it was
recommended that the same be done with the kilogram.[34]
In October 2010, the CIPM voted to submit a resolution for
consideration at the General Conference on Weights and
Measures (CGPM), to "take note of an intention" that the
kilogram be defined in terms of the Planck
constant, h (which has dimensions of energy times time)
together with other physical constants.[35][36] This resolution
was accepted by the 24th conference of the CGPM[37] in
October 2011 and further discussed at the 25th
conference in 2014.[38][39] Although the Committee
recognised that significant progress had been made, they
concluded that the data did not yet appear sufficiently
robust to adopt the revised definition, and that work should
continue to enable the adoption at the 26th meeting,
scheduled for 2018.[38] Such a definition would theoretically
permit any apparatus that was capable of delineating the
kilogram in terms of the Planck constant to be used as
long as it possessed sufficient precision, accuracy and
stability. The Kibble balance is one way to do this.
As part of this project, a variety of very different
technologies and approaches were considered and
explored over many years. Some of these approaches
were based on equipment and procedures that would
enable the reproducible production of new, kilogram-mass
prototypes on demand (albeit with extraordinary effort)
using measurement techniques and material properties
that are ultimately based on, or traceable to, physical
constants. Others were based on devices that measured
either the acceleration or weight of hand-tuned kilogram
test masses and which expressed their magnitudes in
electrical terms via special components that permit
traceability to physical constants. All approaches depend
on converting a weight measurement to a mass, and
therefore require the precise measurement of the strength
of gravity in laboratories. All approaches would have
precisely fixed one or more constants of nature at a
defined value.

SI multiples[edit]
Main article: Orders of magnitude (mass)
Because SI prefixes may not be concatenated (serially
linked) within the name or symbol for a unit of measure, SI
prefixes are used with the unit gram, not kilogram, which
already has a prefix as part of its name.[40] For instance,
one-millionth of a kilogram is 1 mg (one milligram), not
1 μkg (one microkilogram).
 SI multiples of gram (g)
Submultiples Multiples
Value SI symbol Name Value SI symbol Name
10−1 g dg decigram 101 g dag decagram
10−2 g cg centigram 102 g hg hectogram
−3
10 g mg milligram 10 g 3
kg kilogram
10−6 g µg microgram 106 g Mg megagram (tonne)
−9
10 g ng nanogram 10 g 9
Gg gigagram
10−12 g pg picogram 1012 g Tg teragram
10−15 g fg femtogram 1015 g Pg petagram
−18
10 g ag attogram 10 g 18
Eg exagram
10−21 g zg zeptogram 1021 g Zg zettagram
−24
10 g yg yoctogram 10 g 24
Yg yottagram
Common prefixed units are in bold face.[Note 4]

 The microgram is typically abbreviated "mcg" in

pharmaceutical and nutritional supplement labelling, to
avoid confusion, since the "μ" prefix is not always well
recognised outside of technical disciplines.[Note 5] (The
expression "mcg" is also the symbol for an
obsolete CGS unit of measure known as the
"millicentigram", which is equal to 10 μg.)
 In the United Kingdom, because serious medication
errors have been made from the confusion between
milligrams and micrograms when micrograms has
been abbreviated, the recommendation given in the
Scottish Palliative Care Guidelines is that doses of
less than one milligram must be expressed in
micrograms and that the word microgram must be
written in full, and that it is never acceptable to use
"mcg" or "μg".[41]
 The hectogram (100 g) is a very commonly used unit
in the retail food trade in Italy, usually called an etto,
short for ettogrammo, the Italian for hectogram.[42][43][44]
 The former standard spelling and abbreviation "deka-"
and "dk" produced abbreviations such as "dkm"
(dekametre) and "dkg" (dekagram).[45] The abbreviation
"dkg" (10 g) is still used in parts of central Europe in
retail for some foods such as cheese and meat.[citation
needed]

 The unit name megagram is rarely used, and even

then typically only in technical fields in contexts where
especially rigorous consistency with the SI standard is
desired. For most purposes, the name tonne is instead
used. The tonne and its symbol, "t", were adopted by
the CIPM in 1879. It is a non-SI unit accepted by the
BIPM for use with the SI. According to the BIPM, "This
unit is sometimes referred to as 'metric ton' in some
English-speaking countries."[46] The unit
name megatonne or megaton (Mt) is often used in
general-interest literature on greenhouse
 gas emissions, whereas the equivalent unit in scientific
papers on the subject is often the teragram (Tg).

See also[edit]

 Physics portal

 1795 in science
 1799 in science
 General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM)
 Gram
 Grave (orig. name of the kilogram, history of)
 Gravimetry
 Inertia
 International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM)
 International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM)
 International System of Units (SI)
 Kibble balance
 Kilogram-force
 Litre
 Mass
 Mass versus weight
 Metric system
 Metric ton
 Milligram per cent
 National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
 Newton
 SI base units
 Standard gravity
 Weight

Notes[edit]
1. ^ The avoirdupois pound is part of both United States
customary system of units and the Imperial system of
units. It is defined as exactly 0.45359237 kilograms.
2. ^ The spelling kilogram is the modern spelling used by
the International Bureau of Weights and Measures
(BIPM), the US National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST), the UK's National Measurement
Office, National Research Council of Canada, and
the National Measurement Institute, Australia.
3. ^ The French text (which is the authoritative text) states
"Il n'est pas autorisé d'utiliser des abréviations pour les
symboles et noms d'unités ..."
4. ^ Criterion: A combined total of at least five
occurrences on the British National Corpus and
the Corpus of Contemporary American English,
including both the singular and the plural for both the -
gram and the -gramme spelling.
5. ^ The practice of using the abbreviation "mcg" rather
than the SI symbol "μg" was formally mandated in the
US for medical practitioners in 2004 by the Joint
Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare
Organizations (JCAHO) in their "Do Not Use" List:
 Abbreviations, Acronyms, and Symbols because "μg"
and "mg" when handwritten can be confused with one
another, resulting in a thousand-fold overdosing (or
underdosing). The mandate was also adopted by
the Institute for Safe Medication Practices.

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Contemporary Usage, 2004, ISBN 0521485568, p. 231
44. ^ Giacomo Devoto, Gian Carlo Oli, Nuovo vocabolario
illustrato della lingua italiana, 1987, s.v. 'ètto':
"frequentissima nell'uso comune: un e. di caffè, un e. di
mortadella; formaggio a 2000 lire l'etto"
45. ^ U.S. National Bureau of Standards, The International
Metric System of Weights and Measures, "Official
Abbreviations of International Metric Units", 1932, p. 13
46. ^ Non-SI units that are accepted for use with the SI, SI
Brochure: Section 4 (Table 8), BIPM

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Kilogram.

External images

BIPM: The IPK in three nested bell jars

NIST: K20, the US National Prototype Kilogram resting on an egg crate fluorescent

light panel

BIPM: Steam cleaning a 1 kg prototype before a mass comparison

BIPM: The IPK and its six sister copies in their vault

The Age: Silicon sphere for the Avogadro Project

NPL: The NPL's Watt Balance project

NIST: This particular Rueprecht Balance, an Austrian-made precision balance, was

used by the NIST from 1945 until 1960

 BIPM: The FB-2 flexure-strip balance, the BIPM's modern precision balance

featuring a standard deviation of one ten-billionth of a kilogram (0.1 μg)

BIPM: Mettler HK1000 balance, featuring 1 μg resolution and a 4 kg maximum

mass. Also used by NIST and Sandia National Laboratories' Primary Standards

Laboratory

Micro-g LaCoste: FG-5 absolute gravimeter, (diagram), used in national laboratories

to measure gravity to 2 μGal accuracy

 NIST Improves Accuracy of 'Watt Balance' Method for

Defining the Kilogram
 The UK's National Physical Laboratory (NPL): Are any
problems caused by having the kilogram defined in
terms of a physical artefact? (FAQ - Mass & Density)
 NPL: NPL Kibble balance
 Metrology in France: Watt balance
 Australian National Measurement Institute: Redefining
the kilogram through the Avogadro constant
 International Bureau of Weights and Measures
(BIPM): Home page
 NZZ Folio: What a kilogram really weighs
 NPL: What are the differences between mass, weight,
force and load?
 BBC: Getting the measure of a kilogram
 NPR: This Kilogram Has A Weight-Loss Problem, an
interview with National Institute of Standards and
Technology physicist Richard Steiner
 Avogadro and molar Planck constants for the
redefinition of the kilogram
 Realization of the awaited definition of the kilogram
 Sample, Ian (November 9, 2018). "In the balance:
scientists vote on first change to kilogram in a
century". The Guardian. Retrieved November 9, 2018.
Videos[edit]

 The BIPM YouTube channel

 "The role of the Planck constant in physics" -
presentation at 26th CGPM meeting at Versailles,
France, November 2018 when voting on superseding
the IPK took place.

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 SI units

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la

am

uerel

mb

e Celsius

on

ns

ian

nomical unit

el

e of arc
onvolt
re

e and second of arc

ersion of units

c prefixes

–2019 definition

redefinition

ms of measurement

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