Geodesy

• Geodesy is the division of science associated with the measurement and

portrayal of the Earth.
• Geodesy, known also as geodetics, is concerned with the determination of the
size and shape of the Earth, as well as its elements. These Earth-based
elements include its terrestrial gravity, magnetic field, tides and polar motion.
• Geodesy has advanced and now, to some extent, relies upon two forms of
terrestrial measurement: geomensuration and surveying
– Geomensuration is the measurement of the Earth as a whole (i.e., on a
global level)
– Surveying is the measurement of individual parts on the Earth’s surface
(the ever-changing physical terrain).
 Shape of the Earth

• The ellipsoid, also referred to as a spheroid, is a much better approximation

for the shape of the Earth than the sphere; the poles are slightly flattened
and the equator bulges.
• Unlike the sphere, the ellipsoid can handle dissimilar dimensions. GIS
relies heavily upon geographic positioning and the Earth model; therefore,
the closer a model comes to the actual surface of the Earth, the better for
geographic positioning. A sphere proves adequate along the equator
(equatorial plane) but fails at locations closer to the poles.
• In the case of the Earth, the north-to-south measurement is only slightly
shorter than the east-to-west measurement and has a small flattening of
approximately 1/300.
• Variation on Earth Surface
– The Earth is hardly smooth. We have mountains, plains, and valleys
on land and deep, cavernous terrain within the oceans. We have cities
that are below sea level (such as New Orleans, Louisiana) and others
many miles above sea level (such as Katmandu in Nepal).

– The highest feature on Earth is Mount Everest at about 9 km above

sea level. The lowest feature is the Pacific Ocean’s Marianas Trench
at roughly 11 km below sea level. The topographic height variation
from highest to lowest is 20 km. Given that the shortest core-to-crust
radius is 6,356.7 km, this topographic height variation would provide
a minuscule surface change and is therefore negligible for Earth-
modeling purposes.
• Thus this topographic height variation would provide a small surface
change. Therefore smooth ellipsoid shape can be assumed for the earth.
 Mathematical Model of the Earth

• To adequately represent the shape of the Earth in scientific and real-life

applications, a calculatable, formula-driven figure of the Earth is needed.
• The ellipsoid’s flattening causes two unequal axes: a longer axis and a
shorter axis.
– The north-to-south axis through the Earth’s core is the shorter axis and,
as such, is called the minor axis or polar axis.

– The east-to-west axis through the Earth’s core is longer and is called the
major axis or equatorial axis.

• The Earth’s ellipsoid is an ellipse rotated upon its minor axis, which is
functionally called the axis of rotation or axis of revolution.
• Due to the Earth’s symmetry and to minimize complexity, the mathematical
model targets one quadrant in the ellipse and imparts six key parameters for
calculation. The six parameters are
– semimajor axis
– semiminor axis
– flattening
– inverse flattening
– eccentricity
– second eccentricity.
• The semimajor axis (a) is an equatorial radius and is defined as one-half of the
major axis.
• The semiminor axis (b) is a polar radius and is defined as one-half of the minor
axis.
• The flattening of the ellipse is directly related to the differences in both the
semimajor and semiminor axes. It is represented by the formula
• To minimize error and simplify the calculations, the Earth’s flattening is
sometimes displayed as a reciprocal called the inverse flattening. For
instance, a flattening of 0.003389831 (or 1/295) can be portrayed as an
inverse flattening of 295.
• Eccentricity and second eccentricity, have more to do with the mathematical
nature of the ellipse than its geographic use. Both eccentricities uniquely
characterize the shape of the ellipse through a relational measurement for the
degree of flattening.
• The ellipsoid known as WGS84 (the World Geodetic System of 1984) is now
widely accepted.
 Mean Sea Level

• Tides are constantly changing, rising and falling, the term mean sea level
(MSL) is considered the average of the tide levels.
• The height measurement is the distance from the point to the MSL. This is
generally called the mean sea level elevation. Formally known as the
orthometric height, the measurement is the height above the MSL
• Depending upon position, can be represented as a
– positive (above MSL)
– negative (below MSL)
 Geoid

• The geoid is an equipotential (or level) surface of the Earth’s gravity field,
which coincides with the MSL. For all reasonable purposes, the geoid is
defined by the MSL and is considered a good reference by which elevations
or heights can be measured.
• The geoid is not a smooth surface. The gravitational pull of the Earth is
stronger in topology rich in iron and other dense materials, and, as such,
causes the geoid to take on a less refined shape.
• The geodetic height h (also called the ellipsoid height) is defined as the
height above the ellipsoid to the topographic surface.
h= N+H
– H = orthometric height, height above the MSL.
– N= geoid separation N is the distance between the ellipsoid and the
geoid
• Geoid separation (undulation) values are positive when the geoid is above
the ellipsoid and negative when the geoid dips below the ellipsoid.
Incidentally, throughout a large portion of the Earth, the geoid is above the
ellipsoid (N is positive). In the United States, however, the geoid is below
the ellipsoid and N is negative.
Coordinate Systems
 Coordinate System

• A coordinate is a number set that denotes a specific location within a

reference system. Typical coordinates are
– the x-y set ([x, y]), which is used in a two-dimensional system
– the x-y-z set ([x, y, z]), which is used in a three-dimensional system.
• A coordinate system is the reference system upon which coordinates are
defined.
 Geographic Coordinate System

• A geographic coordinate system is a three-dimensional positional reference

that utilizes latitude, longitude, and ellipsoidal height.
• Now we will briefly explored them
 Measuring the Earth: Longitude (λ)
• Lines of longitude (also known as meridians) start at one pole and radiate
outwards until they converge at the opposite pole.
• Conceptually they can be thought of as semicircles. If you slice a globe along
two opposing lines of longitude you will always cut the globe in half. You can
thought it like the slices of an orange.
• The longitude of a point is a horizontal angle measured in the plane of the
Equator between the plane of the meridian through the point and the plane of the
prime meridian.
• The arbitrary choice for a central line of longitude (i.e. zero degree longitude) is
that which runs through the Royal Observatory in Greenwich in England, and is
hence known as the Greenwich meridian or the prime meridian.
• Each of the 360 degrees of longitude is divided into 60 minutes and each
minute into 60 seconds. But it is more conventional to refer to longitude by
degrees East or West, so longitude ranges from 180 degrees West to 180
degrees East.
• Finally, because computers are designed to handle numbers ranging from
very large and negative to very large and positive, we normally store
longitude in computers as if West were negative and East were positive;
and we store parts of degrees using decimals rather than minutes and
seconds. A line of constant longitude is termed a meridian
 Latitude (φ)

• Lines of latitude lie at right angles to lines of longitude and run parallel to
one another. Each line of latitude represents a circle running round the globe.
Each circle will have a different circumference and area depending on where
it lies relative to the two poles.
• The circle with the greatest circumference is the equator (or central parallel)
and lies equidistant from the two poles. At the two poles the lines of latitude
are represented by a single point – the pole.
• The latitude of a point is a vertical angle measured at the center of Earth
between the plane of the Equator and the radius drawn to the point.
• It is measured in angular units north or south of the Equator, so that the
Equator's latitude is 0', the North Pole's latitude is 90' N and the South
Pole's latitude is 90° S.
• It varies from 900 South to 900 North. South latitudes are usually stored as
negative numbers and north latitudes as positive.
• A line of constant latitude is termed a parallel.
• Lines of latitude and longitude are equally far apart only at the Equator;
towards the Poles lines of longitude converge.
• Latitude is often symbolized by the Greek letter phi (φ) and longitude by
the Greek letter lambda (λ), so the respective ranges can be expressed in
mathematical shorthand as:
−180 ≤ λ ≤ 180;
−90 ≤ φ ≤ 90.
• On the surface of Earth, a series of parallels of latitude can be drawn
parallel to the Equator, and a series of meridians of longitude can be drawn
from pole to pole, crossing each parallel of latitude at right angles, but
striking Earth at various points. These series of imaginary lines form a
network of parallels and meridians that comprise the system of geographic
coordinates explained earlier. This network is known as graticule.
 Example
• Using lines of latitude and longitude any point on the Earth’s surface can be
located by a reference given in degrees and minutes.
• For example, the city of Moscow represented as a point can be given a
geographical co-ordinate reference using latitude and longitude of 55 degrees 45
minutes north and 36 degrees 0 minutes east (55° 45’N 36° 0’E).
• The first set of numbers, 55° 45’N, represents latitude. The N informs us that
Moscow can be found north of the equator. The second set of numbers, 36° 0’E,
tells us that Moscow lies to the east of the prime meridian. Therefore, the N and
E together give the quarter of the globe in which Moscow is located (Figure a).
• The line of latitude on which Moscow lies is given by the degrees and minutes
of this latitude away from the equator (Figure b).
• Finally, the line of longitude on which Moscow lies must be identified. Figure c
shows how this angle is calculated based on relative distance from the prime
meridian.
• Adopting this approach, all features on the surface of the Earth can be located
relative to one another and the distance between them calculated.
Figure
(a) Latitude and longitude of Moscow;
(b) calculating the latitude;
(c) calculating the longitude
 Longitude Latitude
Horizontal lines Vertical lines
Meridians Parallels
Do not converge Convene at each pole
Equator Prime meridian
From equator From prime meridian
0° to 90° north 1° to 180° east
0° to 90° south 1° to 180° west
 Decimal Degrees Notation

• Geographic coordinates may be expressed in decimal degrees, or in

degrees, minutes, and seconds. Sometimes, you need to convert from one
form to another.
• Spherical coordinates are most often recorded in a degrees-minutes seconds
(DMS) notation, e.g. N43° 35' 20", signifying 43 degrees, 35 minutes, and
20 seconds of latitude. Minutes and seconds range from zero to sixty.
• Alternatively, spherical coordinates may be expressed as decimal degrees
(DD). DMS may be converted to DD by:
DD =DEG + MIN/60 + SEC/3600
 43°4'31" to DD

• To convert 43° 4' 31" from degrees, minutes, seconds to decimal degrees:
DD = Degrees + (Minutes/60) + (Seconds/3600)
– Divide the number of seconds by 60 (31 ÷ 60 = 0.5166).
– Add the quotient of step (1) to the whole number of minutes (4 +
0.5166).
– Divide the result of step (2) by 60 (4.5166 ÷ 60 = 0.0753).
– Add the quotient of step (3) to the number of whole number degrees
(43 + 0.0753).
– The result is 43.0753°
 -89.400460 to DMS

• To convert -89.40062 from decimal degrees to degrees, minutes, seconds:

– Subtract the number of whole degrees (89°) from the total (89.40062°).
(The minus sign is used in the decimal degree format only to indicate that
the value is a west longitude or a south latitude.)
– Multiply the remainder by 60 minutes (.40062 x 60 = 24.0372).
– Subtract the number of whole minutes (24') from the product.
– Multiply the remainder by 60 seconds (.0372 x 60 = 2.232).
– The result is 89° 24' 2.232" W or S.
 Cartesian Coordinate System

• It was named after famous French mathematician, scientist and philosopher

René Descartes (1596–1650).
• It is a reference structure in which point positions are measured along
intersecting planes in two and three dimensions.
• The common coordinate or intersection point for all planes is called the origin.
All measurement distance increments are consistent on every intersecting plane
and throughout the system. These planes are detailed along the x, y, and/or z
axes.
• The Cartesian 2D coordinate
system involves two axes: the
horizontal x axis and the vertical
y axis.
• The origin is detailed as
coordinate (0, 0).
• This planar, 2D model is divided
into four quadrants by the
perpendicular, intersecting axes.
These are labeled quadrants I
through IV, starting in the upper
right-hand quadrant and
progressing counter clockwise.
 Earth-Centered, Earth-Fixed (ECEF)

• The Earth is set to a three-dimensional Cartesian system called the Earth-

centered, Earth-fixed (ECEF) Cartesian coordinate system.
• ECEF is used to define three-dimensional positions with respect to the
earth’s mass center of gravity and the center of the reference ellipsoid. The
Earth’s center serves as the origin (0, 0, 0).
• It is called Earth fixed because each axis is fixed in respect to the
orientation of the Earth. For example, if the Earth rotates, the axes rotate
sympathetically and proportionately.
 Easting-Northing
• Cartography and surveying practices use Cartesian coordinates to define
positions on maps for which
– the x-axis is considered an easting
– the y-axis is considered a northing.
• An easting is the distance east from a north-south reference line, or meridian.
Often the prime meridian is used as this reference line.
• A northing is the distance north from an east-west reference line, or parallel.
The equator is often used as this reference line.
• To simplify positions in the northing-easting reference method, negative
numbers are eliminated. To do this, false easting and false northing constants
are used. A false easting is an adjustment constant added to x-axis coordinates
to eliminate negative numbers. Likewise, a false northing is an adjustment
constant added to y-axis coordinates to eliminate negative numbers.
 Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)

• It is a planar coordinate system which is capable of representing the Earth’s

geographic coordinates on a flat plane.
• It employs an international plane coordinate system that extends around the
world from 84° north above the equator to 80° south below. It is extended an
extra 4° in the North to cover the northernmost land on Earth.
• The UTM coordinate system is set upon a zoned grid, which divides the Earth
into 60 equal zones that are all 6° wide in longitude (east-west). The UTM
zones are numbered 1 through 60, starting at the international date line (zone 1
at 180° west longitude), progressing east past the prime meridian (zone 30), and
back to the international date line (zone 60 at 180° east longitude).