Concept of Time - Geologic time; Relative versus absolute age; Principles of stratigraphy;
Geologic time and life; Radiometric dating; The age of the Earth

Geologic Time

Two ways to relate time in geology

Relative: Placing events in a sequence based on their positions in the geologic record

Absolute/Chronologic: Placing a specific number of years on an event or rock sample.

Relative Geologic Time

1. Principle of Superposition: The oldest rocks are found on the bottom and the youngest
rocks on the top.
2. Original Horizontality: Sediments are deposited at the earth’s surface in flat layers.
3. Lateral Continuity: A bed will extend laterally until
 Pinches out.
 Abuts against older rock.
 Truncated by erosion.
 Cut by fault.
4. Cross cutting Relationship: Rock that is cut by another geologic feature is older than the
feature that cuts them.
5. Rule of Inclusion: If pieces of rock “A” are included in rock “B”, then rock “A” formed
before rock “B”.
6. Faunal Succession: Systematic sequence of fossils with time. Extinct fossils do not
reappear in younger rocks.
7. Correlation: Relating rocks in one location to those in another using relative age
stratigraphic principles

Absolute Geologic Time

Radioactive decay: Radioactive decay into daughter isotopes at known rates.

Decay: An unstable nucleus in parent isotope emits subatomic particles and transform into
another isotopic elements (daughter elements).

Half Life: The amount of time needed for one-half of a radioactive parent to decay into daughter
isotope.

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Principles of Stratigraphy

It is the study of the 3-D spatial and temporal relationships among rocks.

• Stratigraphy deals with the study of any layered (stratified) rock, but primarily with
sedimentary rocks and their
• composition
• origin
• age relationships
• geographic extent
• Many igneous rocks
– such as a succession of lava flows or ash beds are stratified and obey the
principles of stratigraphy
• Many metamorphic rocks are stratified

Vertical Stratigraphic Relationships

• Surfaces known as bedding planes separate individual strata from one another
– or the strata grade vertically from one rock type to another
• Rocks above and below a bedding plane differ in composition, texture, color or a
combination of these features
• The bedding plane signifies
– a rapid change in sedimentation
– or perhaps a period of non-deposition

Unconformities

• So far we have discussed vertical relationships among conformable strata, which are
sequences of rocks in which deposition was more or less continuous
• Unconformities in sequences of strata represent times of non-deposition and/or erosion
that encompass long periods of geologic time, perhaps millions or tens of millions of
years
• The rock record is incomplete.
– The interval of time not represented by strata is a hiatus.

Origin of unconformity

The process of forming an unconformity deposition began 12 million years ago (MYA),
continues until 4 MYA.
– For 1 million years erosion occurred and removed 2 MY of rocks

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– and giving rise to a 3 million year hiatus

Types of Unconformities

• Four types of surfaces can be unconformities:

– A disconformity is a surface separating younger from older rocks, both of which
are parallel to one another.
– A Paraconformity is where there is a deposition but no erosional surface.
– Nonconformity is an erosional surface cut into metamorphic or intrusive rocks
and covered by sedimentary rocks.
– An angular unconformity is an erosional surface on tilted or folded strata over
which younger rocks were deposited.

Principles of Lateral Continuity

• In 1669, Nicolas Steno proposed his principle of lateral continuity, meaning that layers of
sediment extend outward in all directions until they terminate.
• Terminations may be
• Abrupt at the edge of a depositional basin where eroded
• where truncated by faults

• or they may be gradual

• Where a rock unit becomes progressively thinner until it pinches out.

• Or where it splits into thinner units each of which pinches out, called
intertonging.
• Where a rock unit changes by lateral gradation as its composition and/or texture
becomes increasingly different.

Types of Stratigraphy

• Because sedimentary rock units are time transgressive, they may belong to one system in
one area and to another system elsewhere
• At some localities a rock unit
– straddles the boundary between systems
• We need terminology that deals with both:
– rocks—defined by their content
• Lithostratigraphic unit – rock content
• Biostratigraphic unit – fossil content
– and time—expressing or related to geologic time

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• time-stratigraphic unit – rocks of a certain age

• time units – referring to time not rocks

Lithostratigraphic Units

• Lithostratigraphic units are based on rock type

– with no consideration of time of origin
• The basic lithostratigraphic element is a formation
– a mappable rock unit with distinctive upper and lower boundaries
– It may consist of a single rock type
– or a variety of rock types
• Formations may be subdivided
– into members and beds
– or collected into groups and supergroups

Biostratigraphic Units

• A body of strata recognized only on the basis of its fossil content is a biostratigraphic unit
• the boundaries of which do not necessarily correspond to those of
lithostratigraphic units
• The fundamental biostratigraphic unit is the biozone

Biozones

• For all organisms now extinct, their existence marks two points in time
• their time of origin
• their time of extinction
• One type of biozone, the range zone, is defined by the geologic range (total time of
existence) of a particular fossil group, species, or a group of related species called a
genus
• Most useful are fossils that are
– easily identified
– geographically widespread
 and had a rather short geologic range

Time-Stratigraphic Units

• Time-stratigraphic units
• also called Chronostratigraphic units
– consist of rocks deposited during a particular interval of geologic time
• The basic time-stratigraphic unit is the system

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Time Units

• Time units simply designate certain parts of geologic time

• Period is the most commonly used time designation
• Two or more periods may be designated as an era
• Two or more eras constitute and eon
• Periods can be made up of shorter time units
– epochs, which can be subdivided into ages
• The time-stratigraphic unit, system, corresponds to the time unit, period

Correlation

• Correlation is the process of matching up rocks in different areas

• There are two types of correlation:
– Lithostratigraphic correlation
• simply matching up the same rock units over a larger area with no regard
for time
– Time-stratigraphic correlation
• demonstrates time-equivalence of events

The Geological Time Scale

Based on their interpretations of the rock record, geologists have divided Earth’s 4.56-
billion-year history into units that represent specific amounts of time. Taken together,
these time spans make up the geologic time scale.

1. Recognize the relationship among the units—era, epoch, and period—into which the
geologic time scale is divided.
2. Illustrate the vast diversity of life that has been present on Earth over time by using the
geologic time scale.
3. Summarize how scientists study Earth’s past environment and diverse life-forms by
examining different types of fossils (including molds, casts, petrified fossils, preserved
and carbonized remains of plants and animals, and trace fossils).
4. Explain how Earth’s history has been influenced by catastrophes (including the impact of
an asteroid or comet, climatic changes, and volcanic activity) that have affected the
conditions on Earth and the diversity of its life-forms.
5. The Geological time scale is a record of the life forms and geological events in Earth’s
history.
6. Scientists developed the time scale by studying rock layers and fossils worldwide.
7. Radioactive dating helped determine the absolute divisions in the time scale.

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Divisions of Geologic Time

• Eons represent the greatest expanses of time. Eons are divided into eras. Each era is
subdivided into periods. Finally, periods are divided into smaller units called epochs.

• Geological time begins with Precambrian Time. Precambrian time covers

approximately 88% of Earth’s history.

FOUR Eras

• PRE-CAMBRIAN – 88% of earth’s history

– Paleozoic (ancient life): 544 million years ago…lasted 300 million yrs.

– Mesozoic (middle life): 245 million years ago…lasted 180 million yrs.

– Cenozoic (recent life): 65 million years ago…continues through present day

– Today we are in the Holocene Epoch of the Quaternary Period of the

Cenozoic Era.

Paleozoic Era (Ancient Life)

• The Cambrian period is the 1st period of the Paleozoic Era. “Age of the Trilobites”

• Explosion of life in the oceans began during this era.

• Most of the continents were covered in warm, shallow seas.

– Invertebrates were dominate - Trilobites

– Fish emerged during this time

– Fish led to the arrival of amphibians

• The end of the Paleozoic era is called the “Age of Amphibians”

– Early land plants including mosses, ferns and cone-bearing plants.

– The early coal forming forests were also formed during this time.

• Much of the limestone quarried for building and industrial purposes, as well as the coal
deposits of Western Europe and the eastern United States, were formed during the
Paleozoic.

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• The Cambrian (beginning) opened with the breakup of the world-continent Rodinia and
closed with the formation of Pangaea, as the Earth's continents came together once again.

– This event is thought to have caused the climate changes that led to mass
extinction event.

• The Appalachian Mountains were formed during this time.

• At the end of the Paleozoic, the largest mass extinction in history wiped out
approximately 90% of all marine animal species and 70% of land animals.

– Possible causes of this Mass Extinction Event

• Lowering of sea levels when the continents were rejoined as Pangaea

(convergent boundary)

• Increased volcanic activity (ash and dust)

• Climate changes – cooler climate

Mesozoic Era – Middle Life

• At the beginning of this era the continents were joined as Pangaea.

• Pangaea broke up around the middle of this era.

• Reptiles became the most abundant animals because of their ability to adapt to the drier
climate of the Mesozoic Era.

– Skin maintains body fluids

– Embryos live in shells

• Dinosaurs were also very active in this era.

– First small dinosaurs appeared in the Triassic Period.

– Larger and more abundant dinosaurs appeared in the Jurassic Period.

• Small mammals and birds also appeared during this era.

– The mammals were small, warm-blooded animals. Hair covering their bodies.

• These characteristics help them survive in changing environments.

• The main plant lives of this time were Gymnosperms or plants that produce seeds, but
no flowers.

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– Pine Trees

• Flowering plants appeared during the END of this era.

• This era ended with a mass extinction event about 65 million years ago.

• Many groups of animals, including the dinosaurs disappeared suddenly at this time.

• Many scientists believe that this event was caused by a comet or asteroid colliding with
the Earth.

Mesozoic Era – Mass Extinction Event

• Asteroid or Comet collides with Earth.

– Huge cloud of smoke and dust fills the air

– Blocks out sunlight

– Plants die

– Animals that eat plants die

– Animals that eat plant-eaters die.

However, not all forms of life died during this event. Many animals that you see today are
descendants from the survivors of this extinction event

Cenozoic Era – Recent Life

• Began about 65 million years ago and continues today!!!!!

– Climate was warm and mild.

– Marine animals such as whales and dolphins evolved.

– Mammals began to increase and evolve adaptations that allowed them to live in
many different environments – land, air and the sea.

– Grasses increased and provided a food source for grazing animals

• Many mountain ranges formed during the Cenozoic Era

– Alps in Europe and Himalayas in India; Rocky Mountains in the USA

• Growth of these mountains may have helped to cool down the climate

– Ice Ages occurred late in the Cenozoic Era (Quaternary Period).

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• As the climate changed, the animals had to adapt to the rise and fall of the oceans caused
by melting glaciers.

• This era is sometimes called the “Age of Mammals”

• Marine animal examples:

– Algae, Mollusks, Fish and Mammals

– Land animal examples:

– Bats, Cats, Dogs, Cattle and Humans

– Humans are thought to have appeared around 3.5 million years ago (during the
most recent period – Quaternary).

– Flowering plants were now the most common plant life.

Radiometric Dating

• Each radioactive isotope has been decaying at a constant rate since the formation of the
rocks in which it occurs.
• Radiometric dating is the procedure of calculating the absolute ages of rocks and
minerals that contain radioactive isotopes.
• As a radioactive isotope decays, atoms of the daughter product are formed and
accumulate.
• An accurate radiometric date can be obtained only if the mineral remained in a closed
system during the entire period since its formation.

Dating with Carbon-14

• Radiocarbon dating is the method for determining age by comparing the amount of
carbon-14 to the amount of carbon-12 in a sample.
• When an organism dies, the amount of carbon-14 it contains gradually decreases as it
decays. By comparing the ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 in a sample, radiocarbon dates
can be determined.
• Importance of Radiometric Dating: Radiometric dating has supported the ideas of
James Hutton, Charles Darwin, and others who inferred that geologic time must be
immense.

Difficulties with the Geologic Time Scale

• A sedimentary rock may contain particles that contain radioactive isotopes, but these
particles are not the same age as the rock in which they occur.

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• The age of a particular mineral in a metamorphic rock does not necessarily represent the
time when the rock was first formed. Instead, the date may indicate when the rock was
metamorphosed.

The age of the Earth is 4.54 ± 0.05 billion years (4.54 ×

109 years ± 1%).

See the Geological Time Scale from the Book “ Introduction

to Physical Geology” by Thompson and Turk, Page 151.

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