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 liistory Glass That Changes Its properties
Other Types of Glass
! ire Material Glass
Plastic Glazing
SusrelN.qrlt,tly or Guss Aerogel-Filled Glazine

i :',icknesses
o Glazing
of Glass
i:.:at-Tieated Glass Glazing Small Lites
i -::rninated Glass Glazing I_arge Lites
. ihemically Strengthened Advanced Glazing Svstems
Glass
::;lfetv Glazing
r Glass and Energy
iiiie-Rated Glass
if:.!tted Glass o Glass and the Building
S,-.andrel Glass Codes
j'iuted and Reflective
Coated Glass
lrisulating Glass FBOM CONCEPT TO REALITY
;.cr"Emissivity Coated Glass Skating Rink at yerba Buena
Self-Cleaning Glass Gardens

M MIPY PA],.>
t rrr,r

R trDnrrcn 5 uwr_+u
Aur: urr . t? Ic.r v
(ilass staircase,
desigrred by Eckersrey o,carlaghan
shucturar Design and Bohrin
btVt* b^y3U
.u""r"g L't"Jiii".'*.'n;;;;
;;:l'#,:#fJlf;ff'"
__* ll_ llllne. lano.) (plzoto blJctseph
ffi;f;'lr,o...,,,'ur

717
 o-hapter l7 . Glass and Glazing
-rking tecltniques. crorr,n glass
,rorccl over cvlinder glass for its
rce {inish. rr{-rich rras srnooth and
rliant because it u'as formed rtith-
dt contacting another tnaterial. Cy,l_
rnder glass, though more economical
to procluce, rr'as lirnited in surface
quali6'bv the textllre and cleanliness
of the surface on rvhich it rr,as flat-
tened.
Neither cl-o\\'n glass nor cylinder
slass rvas of sufficient opricai quali6.
fbr the fine mirrors clesirecl b1. the
I7th-centurv nobilit_v. For this rea-
son. ftlrtle 11a.r.r rras first produced. irr
France, in tl.re late lTth cerrttrrr,.. N.fol-
terr elrrss rras cast into Iiarnt.s. ipr.,ad
into sheets bv roilers, cooled, ther-r
erorrncl flat arrd polisl-red rvith abra-
siles. Iirst olt olre side anci then tl.re
otl'rer-. T1're result n'as a costlv glass
ol near-perl'e ct opticai qualitv in
of unpreceder-rtedly, large size
"-sheets
fleclianization of rhe grincline ar.rd
polishinu operarions in the lgtl-r cen-
trrn mciuced the ltr.ice of plate elass
to a le.,,el that :rllorved it to be rrsed
for stcllefronts in both Europe and
America.
lr.r the 19tl-r ceutur1,, the o,lin-
cler plocess evoh'ed into a ntethocl
of clrarving cylinclers of molten glass
verticallv from a crucible. This made
possible tl-re routine, economical
productior-r of cllinder-s 40 to 50 feet
(12-15 m) long. In 1851, tl-re Cr1,s-
tal P:rliice in Londorr (Figure l1.l)
rr.as glzrzed u,ith 900,000 squar-e feet
RAW
BATCH
ll
^4.
HEAT
lI HEAT
-. Il^.
GLASS TANK
ORRIRNACE
(84,000 m:) of cr.,linder elass sup-
portecl on a cast iron franre.
In the early vears of the 20dr
centliry cylinder glass productior-t
rvas gradualll' replaced bv processes
that pulled flat sheets of drawn glas.s
directlv from a container of molten
glass. Highlv mechanized production
lines fbr the grinding ancl polishing
o{' plate slass u'ere established, rvith
rough slass sheets entering the line
continuously at one end and finished
sheets emerging at rhe other.
In 1959, the English firm of pilk-
ington Brothers Ltd. started produc-
tiorr of .float glass, ,rvhich has since
been licensed to other glassmakers
and has become the lvorldwide stan-
clard, replacing both drarvn glass
ancl plate glass. In this process, a rib-
borr of nrolten siass is floated across
a bath of molten tin, rr,here it hard-
ens before touching a solid surface
.
(Figures I7.4, 17.5, and 17.6). The
resulting sheets o{' glass have paral-
lel surfaces, hie'h optical qualitv (r,ir-
tually indistinguishable frorl rhar of
pl:rte giass), and a brilliant surface
finish. Nearly all glass used in buiicl-
ings is norv produced as float glass.
Float slass has been prociuced in
Nortl-r Arnerica since 1963 and nolr,
accounts for neariy all domestic flat
elass productiot-t.
The terminology associated rvith
ulass der.eloped early in this long his-
tor,r''. The term glazing as it applies to
building refers to the insrallarion of
*l
wj
HEAT
FLOAT ANNEAIJNG CIITTING
BATH LEFIR SECTION
glass in an openir-rg or to llrr. rl ,,,.
itself (usually glass, brrr :r1.,,, 1,r .
or other tl'ansparent ol.tr.rr lr,
material) in a glazed ()l)( tnr]! t !
installer of glass is knowrr ;r\ ,r , ;,..,
Irrdividual pieces of gltss ,rr, | ,,
as lights, or often, to atoirl r lrilt.,r
with visible light, llres.
The major ingredient o1'ql.r::, 1,, ,,.,,-j
(silicon dioxide). Sanrl i1 ;1irq1:,i
'lvith soda ash (sodium ltvrlr,r:i,1,: ,,;
sodium carbonate), limr...rrr,t ,, ,i
amounts of alumina,
lr!tt,i
oxide, and various elernt'rrtr t,i
trol color, then heated [o lor ur
The finished material, r,r'lrrl,
inglv crystalline and rigirl, r:,
zrn amorphous soiid, willr
melting point and an op(.u.
tailine microstructure.
\\rhen drarvn into srrr;rll liiit:ig..,,.'
glass is stronger than slt'r.1. rl,,;r;r,!:':l
not nearly as stiff. In lar.iicr li!, , i,i-,-
the microscopic imperli.r tr,rrr, ii,;i,:.
are an inherent charu< tr.r r,,rii ::i
glass t'cduce irs trseful slr r rrr li
r r
significantly lolver levt.ls, l, ri ii::.
larlr irr tension. \\'hen a \ur 1.r,, ..r ;
sheet of glass is placed in rrrnr, r. ,,1
tension, as happens lvhcn .rr,,,l,i:ri'=--.
strikes the glass. cracks ;,r ,,1, ," .ti
from an imperfection ne:u tlr, ;i,,1;1!-',
of rnaximum tension anrl rlr, o14..:,
shatters. -=
i'1{;-i:!i.i.] i ?"-1.
In the float glass process, moltr.rr pl$.
from the furnace is floated on l hlift
liquid tin to form a continuous rlrrt*f
glass. The annealing /e/rrcools rlrl
at a controlled rate to avoid iDt()r.rtgl.-r
stresses, after which it is cut into
sheets. ICnurlcs| of PPC Indu);rrin.t

,! ,i, i ()r lesser degrees of residual
. ::ta\, be introcirrced into tl-re
|
' lri oducing prodticts refe|red
,., '. , ither ternpered glass or heat-
ii, rr'li1rened elass.
li nr!';T ed. Glass
i:,:!,,:itl glass has higher residual
it, ,,, s than heat-strengthened glass
four times as stron€l
',,, I rs abollt
,,, ;,, niiing as :tnnealed glass. I{' it
1,,' . lrleilk. the sudden release of its
ir
d Laminated glass is made by sandwich-
,t1-4e.i
;*i;
internal stfesses fct:.-.r:: :c:1.:-rclld
glassalit-tostittstltttiillc-' --'-' .1:'-:11.
square-edgcd gr.rrtr..' ' :..'.. : -l..rll
1or-rg, sharp-eciged sh.l: r;' Tl-.:' .ll-'r-
acteristic, conlbilled ".l:ll l:: :--i.i-r
strengtll. qualifies it l' 'r' :.'- .,' '.ricI-'
glazing (discussed latcr r:l '".r-
tions of possible o( ( LlP.ll;' -:: :' , '.
Tempered glass is also ltsctl :' r' -..1-
glass doo|s tlrat ltare Ilt ' i:'.:::.r -'.'
all (Figure 17.7), for rih' 'it -'..-.:
of sqtrash arrd handbrll c"rtt''. :":'
The N{aterial Glass / 7
hocke-v rink enciosures, and lbr bas-6
ketball backboarcls.
Temperecl slass is more costlY
rhan annealed glass. It often l-ras
noticeable optical distortions created
br the temperine process. In addition,
all cutting to size, drillins, and edging
lnr,lst be done before the heat treat-
ment of the giass, because an]- such
, rperations after ternpering n'iil release
ihe stresses in the glass and cause it to
,-li.integrate. Tempered glass is also
:f,r'nelinres referred to as t'ul\ tetnNtend
.-r'rrr to distingtrish it more clearlv
ir','rlr heat-stl-engthened glass'
H e at- Sb'ength ene d Glas s
Fr,rr nr.lll\ .ipplications, lor'ver-cost
lr. r. i-:i,t :,1ti1;111'fl gla.is mav be used
inste .'.d t,i tcn-rpcred glass. The
inciuccci cr.unpressive stresses in the
snr-face and cdgcs of heat-strengt-h-
er-red gla.s are .ibout one-third as l-righ
as those ir.r ftrllr tetttllered glass (npi-
calh'5f100 psi cotnpat't'd to 15,000 psi
for ternper-ed --.1a... or 3-l \IPa verstls
104 N'{Pa). He:rt--*tletrgthcned glirss is
about twice as strollg irl llerlcling :rs
arttrealed gl:tss altd is lllt,l'e t rsistattl
to thermal stress. It Ltsr.tllllv has fel'er
distortions thatt tetlpet'ec1 3*lass and
cutting atld otltcl f'abriclrtiUrt oPerJ-
tions can be perforn'red after it l-ras
been heat trcated withotlt shatter-
ing the glass. Its breakage behavior
is more like that of allnealed glass
than tempered glass. For ttrat reason,
it cannot be used as safet-v glazing
except in lan.rinated fcrrm (laminated
glass is discussed in the next section).
Laminated Glass
ing a transparent polvuinvl btt$ral
(P\E) interkqer between shects of
glass and bonding the three layers
together under heat and Pressure.
iilti-'li:, r 7":
Tempered glass is used for strength and
breakage safety in both the doors and
windows of this store in a downtown
shopping mall . (Photo lry Edward Alkn. )
 Chapter l7 . Glass and Glazins

_tated slass is not as strong trs
:ale d gl:rsso{'titc sante thickncss,
r uhcit latrrinnteci glass br-er..rks,
.re soft interlaver holcis the shards
of slass ir-r place rather than ailou-
ing ther.n to lall orit of rht: {iame of
the rr'indorr. Tl-ris rrt:ikes larninatecl
alass trselirl lirr skvlig^hts and over-
heaci glazinq', because it reduces the
risk of in-jur-v to pcople belorv in case
of blcekase (Figures 17.8 ancl I 7.9).
fhc P\-B interlaver ntav be colored
,,r lr:rttet necl to procluce a uide range
,
'i Vi,rultl eflccts in lamiri:rtecl glass.
Be'cause lirrninatecl glzrss cloes not cre-
;Ltc clangcrotrs, loosc sharcls of glass
r'hen it breaks, it iilst.r can qLialifr as
saf'etr. slazing (disctrssecl later)
.
Lantirratccl glass is a lttr tcr ltei - rr'ltich alc cir:ct'iitecl in nrorr, ,l, r ,,r
t'icr [o the transltissior) ol ,sorrncl th:rn (.haptcr' f .i.
sr)lid glass. It is used to glaze rr.inclorr-s
of residence s, classroorls, hospital
r-ooms, and other spaces that rrtust be
kept quie t in the midst of noisv envi-
r()ltments. Ir is esltt.ciallr elft,crire
rvhen ir-rstalled in tu,o or rnorc lavers
rrit h ailsper'es betrrer.rr.
Sectniry glru s,i, rrseci fitr clrir.e-ir.r
b:rnkine n'indolls and other facilities
thut must be rcsistant to burglarv, is
made oI'rnrrltiple lavcrs of al:rss and
PYB, ancl is ai'ailable in a r:uree of'
tfricknesses to stop iu-rr. clesireci cali-
bcr of brrllet. l.anrinatecl glass is also
uscd in blast-r'esistant and rvirtdborne
(lehlis-l c:iistlrnl ul:rzing
s\ st(.llls.

--*_--
-

F-lci:l;.: ::...
The entrance canopv of the Nerport, Rhode Island, Hospital is
made ot'rr,urinii{*-j
glass supported bv stainless steel spider fittings that transmit
the weight ,rf rtrr- l*t*
cantilevered steel beams. The heads of the bolts that fasten the
glass to tlrr littlt
recessed unobtrusivelv rirlein the thickness of the glass. (,!rchircct.;: -faylttr.
utt,l r1rttr
r,,.r! rtJfs-i
Photogruph oJ Pilltiit.1t,_.,,t Plr;rt.r S,,stt,nt ln ll'c_- IY Glass Systems,
Int.) .:
 F

The trIaterial Glass / t- .

ir, iit tr:lltslllittecl bv tlre glazing m:rte_
'r.rl iilust bc taken into zrccount. Ihis
lr;,, il)e( tt'urrt bt'lt:rri,rr is rxpr.esserl
lrs
, .qirrzing nlaterial's Datnage llreig.hted
'fdrl o1'appr-oxinr:rrelr 0.85 ancl larni_
Chemicallv Strengthened Glass $
nated slass, of'l).65. 'fir-rtcd, reflective,
Cltcnit u/1.,, :it, ii!.lliritul. lla.r,r is
and loir.entissivitl' coated glass proci_
ucts, clescribed later in this chaptcr.. :l .. ,-,-l l.., .11 i( )n erchttnge paoaara
1;r.o_

!:,::t.\tnttlan.e (I-dut), a ,n,aiue that . .. ,.. . :-.-,-,-. ... lrclt ltrtncirlecl glass
r

,
, ri),Jes fi-or-n I to 0. For exarnple,
';.''rrine u'ithorrt any el:rzing insertecl
a tvall
are also capable cif Tdrv \.alues as i, ,r..
as approxin'ratelv 0.35. \\,hcre pr.Lji.,-_
tion agzrinst dantaee frorn exlto:iir.
: '"""'::"'l]'lli
lr.rs lrTdrv of 1, ancl an opaque lnate_. to sunliaht is a concern. elass pr-t,,i- . :
';li
.,':i\
,i that blocks the passage of all liehr,
r
r

., lrlrr o1'0. Ordinar_v clear glass has a

ucts rvith lorv Tcllv valrres shor,rld bc .:
selectcd.
:c.:
r: : -- '.-
ill
oltc t. -: .

Horic,, c. .

involvcci.:.
At-c iotr c r'. . .

'I
glass does ltui i-- .-.
disltlt lir )lts il1 ...:
trtott riitlt lletrt-tlt.r., . _
irtg,ril tlre p:rr.t it rr).,r. :

l)to(('\s. tlle stlcn,ltlr ....

of clremiczilh, strengrllclrrL. - ..
cxcecci thosc ol tenrPer-cci g,.,..
Unlikc tcrnper-ed elass. clrcn.. -.
strengtlretrccl g^lass can bc cLrt .it-.:
.strenetJrening, althciLrgh in str.cngrh ;.
dirninisircd along tlrc cut erlges. \\-h.,n
ctrcrtricallv str-engtltcnccl glass brcaks.
it plocluccs larq.e, lr:rzlu.rlolrs sh:rr.cls.
So. like Iteitt-strens.rhcnccl glass, it
cannot lte usecl as salttr.glazing^ unlc-ss
;t iq lantirlrtecl. Chcrnical str-cngtheri_
:n-I :r Lrrccl li rr- lticcr-: o1'gless that at-e
,i c.,.i," l,c.,-- tl c,1lcCi. ,LrC lr ltS tltqst
i.'*a;: .--:,:l:.1,.1,,1
i,
ll.
if-"
iil
:ca.i:-.:-. _--r.-.
il rtinclL,,,r:tr -..
Ii""''.
li
Safeg'Glazing
Glass ar-rcl orher transpltrelti :j.:z,t-._
malcrials insta]lcd rrlrt.r.c tlrcr r,,rrlti
be srrbject to htrm:rrr irrrlrat I rrrrr.l
rneet leqtrilerreuts for .tnJr:t1, glnzittp..
This means that tire ntateri:rl mrrst
be resistant to impact :rncl must be

liculift r:.q
Laminated glass provides safety against
falling shards in an overhead glazing
installation. (Photo bl.loscph lano. )
 Chapter l7 o Glass and Glazing
uted such that, ii'it does fail. it
not break into knifelike. Doterr-
-Erarrr-
,rlile-rhrearenirrg slrards.
es of hozardous locations subject to
,afety glazing requirements include
elazing in and adjacent to doors,
floor-to-ceilirre glazing, shorver and
other wet area enclosures, giazing in
guards and railings, glazing adjacent
to stairs and ramps, and windorvs
having individual lites larser than 9
square feet (0.9 m21 in area and rvith
the lolvest eclge less than 18 inches
(450 mm) abor,e the floor.
Nlost safety ulazing nust comply
rvith Consurner Products ancl Safety'
Commission requirements identi-
fied as CPSC 15 CI'R Part 1201. Thrs
\lrndard t'stablishes t\\'o categ()t'ics
rrf perlbrmant'c. L'ategurl ll it,t-i ,tg
iias a higher impact resistance th:rn
()ategort I glazing and is required for
larger pieces of glazinu and elazing
in r'r,hat are considered nrore haz-
ardous locations. In other locations,
Cateeorl' I giazinr rnay be uscd. In
sorne instances the buildins code
also recognizes a separate but corn-
parable standard, ANSI 297.1, for
compliance. Safety qlazing must be
permaltentiy etched or marked in
the factory ivith an indication of its
testing compliance so that, once
installed, it is possible to r,erif,v that
appropriate products h:rve been used
tvhere required. Ternpere d glass,
heatstrengthened laminated glass,
and sorne plastics can all be used in
safety glazing appl ications.
Fire-Rated Glass
be used in build-
Fi're-rated g/ass may
ings in fivo wavs: in its traditional
role as glazing within fire doors and
fire windorvs, or, with more recentiy
available higher-performing glass
products, as a complete substitute for
rated wall assernblies.
Fire-protection rated glazing is used
rr.ithin fire-rated door and windorv
assemblies. Depending on the specific
application. rhe glazing musr pass
one of several tests that demonstrate
resistance to the passage of srnoke
ar-rd flarne Ibr tire requir-cd clrrr:rtion,
and if in a cloor or other location con-
siderecl hazardous fbr hrrman impact,
also meet saf'en glazing criteri:r. File-
protectior-r rated slazing used in f1l'e
doors must achieve rarings of 20 to 90
minutes, clepending or1 rhe rcquire-
ments of the rvall in u'hich the door is
located. Clazing in fire nindorvs rnust
achieve ratings of 20 to 45 rninutes,
and is limited to u'irrdolvs in rvalls'lvith
a l-hour fire-resistance ratins or less,
rvith a glazing area nor exceeding
25 percent of the r,vall or,erall.
Histori callr,, wired g'kts:;--'.-ernncaled
glass with a w.ire rnesh cr.nbcdded in it
rvhile hot-t'as used {br glazing in fire
doclrs and fire windo.n's. Thoueh this
slass shatters in the heat of fire,
the
i rrtelnlrl rr ilc
forccnt(.1)t con I i l lrrcs
r r.irr
to hold the glass in the opening l'here
it can block the p:rssuee of smoke ancl
fire. Todav', mosr fircJrrorectior-l raled
glazine is rvire-frec, rracle {i'om either
sper:ial11' tenrpe|ed slass or oprical-
quaiin' cer:rnric, both capable of
meetirle' the necessarrr fire and saf-et1,
aiazing criteria. Iiaditional wired glass
can be uscd in locatior-rs not sLrbject to
safetv slazirlg rcquirc-t-nents; if a pro-
tective filrn is addcd, it can be rrsed in
safetl glazine- locations as rvell.
|irc-resistaruz rnted, glttzirLa' call
substitute, in full, for solid, {rre-rzrted
u,all assernblies. Tr-r quali{1' lbr- this
appiication, the glazing ntust pass thc
same fire testing applied ro rvalls and
partitions, ASTXI E119, rather rhan
the less stringent tests applied to firc-
rated doors and u'indorvs. (This test
explained further in Chapters and I in both translucent and op:rt1rrr. ltl,
19.) In addition to preventinu rhe
passage of flanre and srnoke for the
prescribed time period, the glazing
mlrst also protect cornbustible mate-
rials on the side of rhe glazing c_rppo-
site the fire frorn ignition by blocking
radiant heat frorn the fire and limit-
ing the rise in surface temperature of
the glass itself on its non-fire side.
Tiro n pes of glazing can pass
ASTM E1l9 testing. In one, a
heat-absorbing polmer sel is con-
tained betrveen nr.o sheets of tem-
pered glass. In the orher. thin lavers
F
=
::
o1' transparent intr.rmescenl tn.rr, r, , j ...;
are sandrvicl-red benveen rrrrrlrrl.t
lavers of aunealed glass. Tlrt 1,l.r.
',..
ut-tits range in thickness fi'onr ', i*
(19 rnm) to a little over 2 in. (!r() rrrri,:
depending on the fire r:rtirrr: ,rir,i
tvpe of unit. \{'hen either gl:rss rr 1,, r.,
exposed to the heat of fire, tlrc r,, | ,:i
intumescent interla,vers rez( [ to lr,r,:i
opaqlle, insulating la,vers. As ;r rr.l,lr
these products not only resist tlr, p,.'
sage of flame and smoke, llrlr ,rlr;:
limit the rise in surface tenrlrt'r,rlrr;.'
of the glass on the side op1;osrri rli.,
fire and prevent the transfr:r',rl r.r,lr
iitrt heat throtigh the glazinu. li,'tlr,:i
these types can :rlso nteet sali.tr r1l r..
ing requirements. \{rhen us<'rl rrrtlr ,r
tested liaming svstem, fir(:-r'r.rr.,i.rirr
rated glazine cart pror.ide tltc .rlrri:
alent protection of a rvall :tss.rrtl,ti
rvith up to :r Z-hour rating. I lq111, :r r
fire-resistance rated glazing i:. rt..'r
very expensir.c, scl its use lr.nr,riil
Iimited to spccialized or hislr 1,r,,t,1,
applications.
Fritted Glass
\Nith ./t"itterl or silksr:reened !!ltttt. rt,.
sttrfice of' the glass is imprirrtr',1 ',
"t.
silkscreened patterns of t t'r,rriri,
based paints. Tl-re paints collsi\t l,i,
marilv of pigrnented glass l);n u, t' '
called frit. After the frit lrls 1,,, i,
applied to the surface of tlrt' gl,r=..
the glass is dried and then lilr.rl rir .;
tempering furnace, transforrrrirrl.' rlrt
frit into a hard, permanent ((.t,rlrit,
is coating. N{anv colors are porrrlll::
ishes. The rrosl cornmon patt(.r ni.rr*
dot and stripe rnorifs (Figure l7 l!!1,
bur custonr-designed pattel'ns,lrtl
even te\l ale easilv leprodrrtr., l llr
contlollirrg thc transparent r. ,rtit
densiq' of the frirted patrern. lultir{
glass can also be u\ed to cor)tt,rl rlr,
penetration of solar lighr anrl lrr.,x
into a space.
Spandrel Glass
Frits are also used to create r1r., 141
opaque slass shees for cor'r.r rirg
 The Material Glass )
/
CI,EAR FLOAT GI,ASS
REFI,ECTIVE GLASS
DOUBLE GI,AZING
W]TH REFLECTIVE ;"
COATING INSIDE THE \c
OUTER L]GHT
.a
'{

\ l:evnatic representation of the

" elrect of three dilTerent glazing assemblies
o'
'{;i]l;ng sunlight. outdoors is to the reft, The relati'e rr.iclths
r'|rt

rlr'' rt'lati'e percentages of the of trre arro*s indicate

incoming tight transmitted. reflected.
l' ' llar float glass, to the left, most or and absorbed.
the light is transmitted. rrith srna,
, {l.i:r€d1 0r absorbed and reradiatecl quantiries Who when he first saw
as hea"t. Reflective coated grass.
l"'riirces a large proportion of ar rhe center.
the right back to the outdoors,
and also absorbs and
the sand and ashes . , . would
i ;rliates a sigrrificant amount. (Because
''r the reflective coating is on the inner have imagined that in this
i iice' the larger portion glass
"ttr of reflected light is reflected f.o- ihi. shapeless lump lay concealed
1'l'r;ri'gr nanv different combination" or qpes
,.r.fu..., In double
of glass are possible; the one sho*l so many conveniences in
tlr'' right of this diagrarn utilizes glass with a .eflective cnating on the inner
on life.
,'rrir:. Iite. side of the . . . [B]V some such fortuitous
liquefaction was mankind
taught to procure a body at
.,tri'cts Ltnder closely once in a high degree solid
controlled con_ metallic coatins ancl the tinting
, l,r I i()ns..to_ make .re.f ectiue cooted glas.s, of and transparent; which might
the glass ro which it is applied.
,rlsir called solar controlgla.rs.
Dep'end_
R"il.c- admit the light of the sun,
rir,e coated glasses appear as
nre on its cornposition, the mirrors and exclude the violence of
film rtr:rv trom the outside on a bright da,v and
i,, rpplit'd ro t.irhcr rlrc insidt. uf arc oftcn choscn b,v architects for the wind; which might extend
tlrr. glass or the outside. In double this
properry alone. At night, rvith lighis the sight of the philosopher to
iilrrzinu, it may also be applied to on inside tl-re building, they appea"r new ranges of existence . . . .
,'iilierof the surfaces thai iace the as
dark but transparentllass.
'.1;ace befir'e en the lal,ers
of glass. -Dr. Samuel fohnson, writer and
\\ hile remainir.rg tl-rin enough to
see
. The sunlight reflected by a build_
ina glazed rvith reflective coated glass
lexico graph er, The Ram.bler,
April
tlrlough, the film reflects a*substan_ l?, l?50
calr be helpfrrl irr sorne circu,nsta"nces
tirii portion of the incident r,isible
by lighting an orher.hise dark urban
lrtirr. \'isible light transmrtrance and
street space. It can also create
t,rlar heat gain coefficients for prob_ Insulating Glass
reflec_ lems in other situations by tro.,r-r.i,-rg
rive coated glasses vary significantll., Glass,on irc orr.n, is a poor thermal
solar hear and glare into neighborini
rlcpendine on rhe densitv of the insulator A single sheet of glass
buildinss and onto the street.
\stngle gkrzing) conducrs heat a6out
 ,hapter 17 ' Glass and Glazing
as fast as I inch (25 mm) ot
foan insulation and
.rene 20
a we ll-insuiated rvall' A
, as f ast as
-lnd sheet of glass aPPlied to a
rvin-
beilveen the tr'vo
.11a, rvith an airspace
neets (doubte glazing) cuts this rate
of heat loss in half, and a third sheet
rvith its addidonai airspace (triple glaz-
lrzg) reduces the rate of heat loss to
about a third of the rate through a
sinp;le she et' A triple-glazed rvin-
clorr', horvever, still loses heat man,v
times faster than the wall in rvhich it
is placed. Continuins to add more
sheets of glass and airspaces to tur-
ther imPro\e thc thcrmal Perfbr-
rnance of a glazing unit becomes
increasinglv impractical, as it contin-
ues to add n'eight, buik, and expense
to both the glass r-rnit and the frame
that l-rolcls it. As discussed later in this
chapter, triple and quadruple glazing
can also be made using thin, specially
coatcd lrlastic filnrs for the inner lar-
ers of the unit, resulting in lighter'
thinner units.
To prerent tnoistute cotrdensa-
tion nithin such inrrr/a1ing glass unils'
or IGLIs, the units are hermeticallv
scalcd at thc time of manulaciure
rvith dry air PumPed into the sPace
betrveen the lites' A hollolv metal edge
:pncn'or spllncis inserted betrrecn the
eclges of ihe sheets of glass, and the
edges al'c closed rvith a sealant cotn-
pound. A small amount of a chemi-
cal drying agent' or desiccant, inside
the sPacer remains in the finished
unit to remove residual moisture
from the trapped air or from air that
seerrs into the unit after manufac[ure'
\!'hen an insulating glass unit does
exhibit internal condensation, it is
usually a sign of failure of the edge
seal, at which Point the unit must be
replaced. To increase the longeviry of
thl insulating glass unit, a dual seal
space4 combining a primary bugvl seal
*tttt u secondary seal of silicone, ure-
thane, or other organic sealant may
be used (Figure 17.13)'
Because the edge seals are more
conductive of heat than the glass-
only portions of an insulating glass
unit, ihey tend to lorver the insulating
The thernal ttr''rr"
efficiency of the unit as a rtl.role' \Iak- Perfcrt '
insulated glazing uttit-s t:ttr 'rl "
t
irrg the spacer ft oln a l(:s col)dtlcLi\e
irnprored bv irrtroclucitrg q'r""'i
metal, such as staiuless steel lnsteao
greater densitv and lcl'll't'r lil I r" '!
o[ aluminttm. is one \\'a\ to intprove
conductivir;'* than that of otrltrr'tr I ri:
thermal Performance' To achieve
more significant efficiclrcl gains' into the space betr'l'een th(' :lr' i l" '
g:ts rl\r rl
glass. Depending on the "t
warm edge sp(rcL"rs, rnade of thermalll'
the thickness of the spat't" itrr1""
broken aluminuln and Plastic or oi
ments in thermal perforttt:ttrt i rrf ! i
extruded rubber or dense foam' are
used. \\'arm cdge spacers also result
to 18 percent are possiblc' '\l l'! rtr !!]il
krypton are the gases mosl ('rtlltlrt"irlt
in a more rrniform surfece lcmPela-
used.
ture across the entire inner surface
of the glazing, increasing occupant The Performance ol 1".1'i
as a thermal instllatol'ir rltl'ili
comforiancl reducing the chance of ' l"r' r'
rified as its Ll-Faclor' I " '
condensation ar<lrnd the inner edges s(1r'rt' ij"'i'
expressecl as BTUs per
of the r"rnit. Very high-efficiencY u'arm l" I I i:: '
hoirr-clegree Fahrenheit t
eclge spacers mat' have thermal con-
hr-"F) or, in metric units' 'r' l:ill{:'
duitiviiies as little as one-tenth that
of traclitional aluminum edge seals per square meter-clegree Kclr.rrr i\i:'r'
*2-'K). U-Factor is the trr'rtlti trrit'!-.r '
(Fieure 17.13).
cal reciprocal of R-value, ltttrl 'r" "iit !:'
The thickness of the airsPace in (!\1'l !l!' il
insulating glass r-lnits is less critical lOnervalleS represent inlJ)l
rnal perforlnance. Sonlt' r':'rtir1;i='!
to the units' insulating value than
the mere Presence of the airsPace: of glaziug config;uratiotrs ;ttr'l ilt;1i'
U-Factors and R-values :ttr' lt:tll i€-:
From % inch (9 rnm) uP to about 1
inch (25 mm) of thickness' thc insu- Figure 17.14. For more dt't;ril' rl rr'i:''
tnation, consult glass mattttl'rt !rri' r!'
Iating valuc of the airspace increases
somervhat, but above that thickness product literatut'e.
The Performance t'rl lrr'rrrl it':3
little aclditional benellt is gained'
The most common overall thick- glazing units can aiso llt' itrrf i":'+
by evacuating most of tlrt' 'rrr l!::1:;
ness for large, double-glazed lites is
1 inch (25.4 mm), which results in the space benveen the glrrr" 'li":':
In such aacrLurn-insulalt''l Y i'" ' '-t'
an airsPace 7: inch (13 mm) thick if
V+-tr'cin (6-mm) glass is used'
glass sht'els are spact'tl t ' | 'ri" ':
Dry air
Dry air
Foam spacer
Metal sPacer with desiccant
Desiccant Vapor barrier
PrimarY seal Primary seal
SecondarY seal SecondarY seal
irti-lLRil Il';3
spacer is fi'ed tit*tl t:i
i.l;" l;ft.}"a, -"t r spacer for a doubre-glazed unit. Theallow the desit:**t ';; ,l-,.'r.l ':*
ir,rr. inward-facing side of the spacer
il;;i,-[;r* of warm edge spacen nlxs
-1:11
one type
to absorb moisture from the airspace. Right,
...-,i":!
between the foam tPt:": T1 :t1t P.:t*!'llq
dual-sealed. The thin foil vapor barrier
is embedded within the |i|$l!i.i.;*
moisture diffusion into the a.y ui'space' Desiccant
..::ti
 The Material Glass / 7.

SHGC Ur Rz Comparative properties of sample

rrgle glazine. clear. 91255
'1, 0.90 0.85 I ..) 1.1 0.91 unirs. Note rhe high light_ro_solar_gain
5.J 0.15 ratio possible with lo*,-e double glazing.
i)ouble glazing, clear 0.79 0.70 Higher LSG values indicate better oveiall
r.r 0.47 2.1
2.7 energy efficiency of the glazing unit (in
0.37
l).ruble glazing, medium gray 0.40 buildings r.r'here cooling loads dominatel.
0.15 0.9 2.1
r rrrted U-Factors and R-values are center_of.-
2.7 0.37
ii iple glazing, clear glass values and, for the insulating
0.53 0.52 1.0 0.34 glass
2.9
units listed, do not account for reduced
1.9 0.5 2
l)ouble glazing, clear, lorv-e, thermal performance around the edges
lor,v 0.ri-1 0.2 t- 2.1 0.28
SiIGC J.O due to the greater conductivity of ths
1.6 0.63 spacers. The Iolver the U_Factor (higher
ll11b]e glazing, clear, loil.e, hiel.) 0.78 0.63 1.2 0.2 t- the R-value), the better the thermal
JIJGC, argon filled
1.5 0.65 performance of the unit.
liiple glazing,
clear, lor,r.e. 0.65 0.50 I.3 0.15 6.7
'r:edium SHGC, krvpton filled 0.8i 1.2
' I '-F-actor: BrLr,,'tt2-hil,F follor.vecl br \\'/ ml r'K
;*\ arue f::h:llF/Btu fi|1ved br t,t2." K/W

(ii; e togetlter, separatetd b_v a barely high r,isiblc light tr:rnsmirrance and,
' may be selecred. For buildings ciomi_
ii, r'ceptible alrltr. o{ s,r.rall-dinrneter ricpenclir-rg on the particrrl:rr coating,
..1):icers that preveltt nated b,v cooling loacls, irr-rits rvith
tire sheets fi.om a 1o\\' transmithnce for somc or all
l',rrr'ing inward duc to the dill-erence lorv solarr heat gain coefficicnts (to
n'pes of infrarecl radi:rtion (l.reat). minirrtize solar he?it.ing) ancl loncr
rr ai1 plg5sure on their trvo sicles. Lorr'e t o:tlt.d gilrss is rnosl conr_
I irils as little as Z+ inch (6 mrn) in visible light transrnitt:utce are trsecl
monlv used as one of the tr.,.o lites in (Fieures 17.14 and JZ.l-5).I_ike larni-
rlrii:kncss cari replacc single glass in double s-lazina, rvher-e it offers sev_
, risting rvindorvs, rvitl-r n-rinirrtal ,,,isual nated glass, lou.e coated e;lass 6x11
er:rl benefits: Bv reducing tire racliant reduce the transrnittance o{' sol:rr
ilil1)act but providing thermal perfor_ tr:Lnsfer of heat bet\cecr-l indir,ichial wavelengths responsible for fadir-rg
rxutce contparable to convelttiolt:il lites, the overall therr.nal transmit_ of
,l,tible elazina.. Thev can also be nlaterials. rherebl. redut.irrg .lam"rg"
tancc o1'the elazing r_rnit is reduced. to inlerior finislrcs arrd fru nishirrq5.
rrsird as one lite in an other.wise cor-r_ This allorvs lorr.e dotrble glazing to
r i rrtionallv constructecl cl<>uble-
Lon e coatecl glass may also t . urla
or rneet or exceed tlte tirermal perfbr- in single or triple glazing ro improve
tr i1;le-ulazed insrrlatir-rs unit. Higher_
rrance of ordinarv triplc e-lazing. By the ther-mal performance of these
1,. . lorrrring rrrriu tllat irrcorltorare reflecting tlre rnajor-itv of the infiared glass tvpes.
l,rrr.emissir.ity coatings (see tl.re next conrponcllt of solar radiation, lou,e
r, r'tion) are expecteci to arrive on the When specifring glass rr.irh anv
cloubie glazing can also simultane_ type of lon.e giass or reflectir.e coar_
{ i)itstruction market soon. These
are oush'provide liish visible lisht trans_ ing, it is necessal.r to specifi,oll which
lrrr'dicted to achieve U-Factors as lo,rv mitt:rnce rvith low solar heat gain, glass surface rhe coating is ro be
.rs 0.08 BTU/tt?-hr-"F (0.5 \4,/m2-.K) allorving such units to achieve the located. By convention, glass surfaces
,rncl in units only roughly 1A tnch highest LSG ratios of any ir-rsulated
\12 are numbered starting fl.om the exte_
rrrrn) thick. glass type. rior side_of a glazing unit anci working
By vary'ing the properties of the inrvard. In single glazing, the outrvari
l-ow-Emissivity Coated Glass lon e coating ancl ltv combining it face is surface number I and the inward
rvitl'r different tvpes of tinted glass, face is surface nurnber 2. In double
l'he thermal performance of glaz- tl're performance characteristics of
irrs can be improvecl substantialll, by glazing, the outward face of the outer
the glazine unit can be tailored to glass lite is surface number I and
rlrc use of slass r,r,ith a lout_emis.siuity meet dilferent needs. For buildings the
r i,,iu-e) coating. Lorv-e coarings
inward face of this lite is surface num_
are dominated bv wintertime heating ber 2; the outward face of the inner
rrlrrathin, virtually transparent, and loads, lo,lr.e unirs rvith high U-Factors glass lite is surface number 3, and
.rlrnost colorless metallic coatings (to minimize heat loss) and high its
tlrat selectively reflect solar radiarion
inward face is surface number 4. In
solar heat gain coefficients (to pro_ lolv-e double glazing, rhe lou e coat_
lt different wavelengths. Thev have a mote winrertime solar heat gains) ing is most commonly located on the

il
 Chapter l7 . Glass and Glazing
.ber 2 surlacc. allhoueb. \\:hcre
.rigl-r solar- heat g:rin coelficient
desirecl. it tlrat' lte loc:rted on thc
/lurnbe r' 3 sur'{'ircc instead.
l-orr.e coatinss can aiso be applied
to \.crv thin rncr-nbranes of transpar-
cnt plnstic. One ol trlo of these plas-
tic {ihns can be installed rvithin the
centcr of thc airsp:rce or g2rs space of
rr double---lazed unit, stretched tighr,
par:rilcl to the sheets of glass, u,here
thc'r' act as virtrially rveishtless adcli-
tion:rl glirzir)g elcmt:l-lts. (lombinccl
rr'ith selcctile properties of tite lorv-e
coatillg, theltnal perlbrmancc valnes
ransins fl'orn U-0.i7 to LI-0.05 RTU/
fi:_5r.JI. (0.gir to 11.99 \\r/nr2-oli) ar.e
lcpor-tccl br, m'rnLrf' cturers of glazing
units irrcolpor':1tinlr thcse iihls (see
Fisulc 18. l 1).
a1
!-tJ
r'1
5
E ,!
rit !T i!.,
#Er
Self-Cleaning Glass
Gluss tcncis to attr:rct clirt. and mllst be
rr'nshecl pcriodicallr borh insicle zrnd
olrt to maintain its transparencl'. .Vf
clcaning glas.i is coated rvith titanium
oxide on its exterior sr.rrlace. This
coatirlg acts as a catal),st that enables
surrlight to convert organic particles
to carbon dioxiclc and rvater'. It also
callses r:1in\\'ater to rtut dorvn the sur-
lhce in sheets rather than to bead up.
\onorgiruic material, such as szrnd,
is rrna{f'ectccl bv the catah,st, btrt tl-re
sheets of u'ater ar-e lnore effective
?rt rcmovil-)Ll strch rnattcr fr-orl self-
cle:ruilrg glass th:n ou cottr,entioual
g-iass. The coirtinq is applied onlv to
the out.side of the glass; therefore, the
Fict" :i:r r -. : =.
Lov.e, lou.SHGC glazing on the southlvest facade of
(.\n:hitecl: Z()F. Plioti, ';r, [,,s,ni, Iaiio.,
intr:rior sur-face of tllc gl:r.,: r,,,, r I
rr,ashed manuallv.
Glass That Changes Its
Properties
Class tirat can change it.s o1rtr, .,1
1"..i;
crtics is called clrom,ogr.ttir' 1,1,t', i;,..'
tnnt lttomir glrl.rs becomt's rl:rr l, I , 1,.
it is I'armed bv the SUlr. /'/rr,/,r li,,-r..:,:
g/a.r.r becotttes darker tr'lrcrr r '. l" t
to blight light. Both t\'[)(: .u' 1"., .
tialh' usel'ul as passiv<: (l('\ li i':i i.,:
rt'drtcc coolirtg loads irr lruil,1,r,,.
I'lct:ltothrontic glass < lt;rrrr,:. ri'
transparcl-lcy in responst' lo rlr, 1:..::
sase of eiectric current. ,\lrr, r,r!L,:i
stuikhable gktss, it can ;,,' .1, ii, , i!
ct.rtttrollcrl br building (,( ( ulr,rrl
::r'1..':i
,,-,-$
: ]::+;
*
f'!
a university lab sciences
 The N{arerial Glass / I
:riitontated svstelns, allorr-ing. in corn_
ancl tcxtrrres, is usecl rr.here light lo lrt't'nk undcr,,r.ciirran corrtlitiorrs.
';lrrison to p:rssii'e techr-ioi<lgics, llrore
'rte(:lsc response to requirellr.rents
tr-an,smission is cresire d but :rre also n iclclv usecl l.or rvirtrk;rvs t
for nlust be obscurecl for. privacv. 'isi.l-r Glass in builclings nhere r.ar.rdalisnr is a
'.rrrol ofsola. heat eain, cravlis=hr- nr:rnrrfricr'recr *.ith il;s;;';.,;;;,:
problern or high irnpact resistance
"'9, rI occrpant pri'ac1'. Electroc:irro- ase of re acl 0xide can" be .sed as izdj_ is L
'tric
glass products tYpicall' cotrsist
r\\-o ol'more larni'atecl sheets of glass
r'ith one of several varicties of sltict- silicon
of ai'tion-sltietdittg gla.s,s. pltotouoltaic glassis
c.:rted rvitl-r a t.-hir-, fi',.r, of antorpho's
that gencrates electricitv from
;:'ilTl'"TlH'1"'il:::;::?:ili:
and van'ing degr-ees of transp:rrencr,.
\
sr:ire or ron-condrrcti'g interra'ers The;'can also be manufacturecl in
sru-rlight, .n' thus help reduce a
.tr."g" their optical proper:ties a builciir.rg,s ",-rld doublc-rralled corrfigrrrarion. caliecl
l]l,l: ner electricirv consump_ utllular ltolycnrbonat) plazing, crreat_
r:i fesponse to electrical sd'-iul:rti.r-r.
ti.r.r. (See-chapter 16 for more infor_
l'r'oducts for botrr i'teri.r arcl exte* ir.rg, l-roliolv par-rels, r.oushlv
rnation ab.ut photovoltaic svstems rn Z incl-r
| !()r applicarions are available. to l% irrches (6_40 rnnr) thick, rvith
buildinas.) Tmditional ,',";'"))' greater stifihess atrd better
()asrx;hrom.ir p./r.r.i.r is atrothcr
clelci- .fir', ther-mnl
.o,_,tarporarv ,r't"rr,O g/ass, for_ perforrnance than solicl shcets. plas_
,,1-il-rg srvitchable techr-rologr, "rl.1
lbr:rlrer- rnulatetl
i:rEtheliqhttr:r'sntittl'tcc.fe-lass,in tl_re colorrvitir ingreclierlts that alter tic e-lazing sheets can also rnce t s:rl.elr,
irlricir tl-re transparcnc).of a r.e:rctir.e in
of tlte glass, ca. be r-rsed tcqrriremt'rrts li,t. glalillg rrst.rl
a rvide .r,r-rg" ()f'o.ristic a'cl archi_ irr
.rating on the'*mbcr 2 srr'r'.ce'f iect.ral n|ras sulr1.6l Io lrrrntarr irilp:rct.
.pplicatior-rs. Glass mav be Translucent but
".rr i'sulatecl glass rr'it is alterecr bv blorr', mortred, rus.a,
iirc pumpi't of q'as i't. ()r ()rt ()r lrrc arrA :;l;;; ptastic sheers r",,rti,,:::t:;lili|,::j
r{r rlrodlrce a. inf ite'arie* of.tr_pes
i:rterstitial space o1'the unit. hbers Qfi bergkt.st-tt, itt
of art llass used for clccor:rtive zrncl lmed lt ol1.es ter"glaz_
erzg.):rre also rrscd in builclina.s. ior.-
scul ptriral prlrposes. rugateci sheets are used fitr inclrrstr.ial
{}aher TJpes of Glass skvliehts and rrtilitar-ian r-oo[s.
Thin,
flat sheets o1'plastic specialll. fbr_nrLr_
,p{astic Glazing
(
'iass can be prodrrced trit.h trn anaz-
r j{ rane'e of pli_vsical propcrties and lated itith a high tran.slucencv to
r:ii'iations in appearance, anrl nerv
The tlvo rnost corr
plastic gl,rzins',.".I.:ji,
tT:";fi: ellergv ar-e used for skvlights :rncl
soliir.

l r(xlucts r,vitl-r uniqtre chara<.teristics lorl-cosr solar- colleco r glaziiig.

,,;ntinue to be developed. Fins ol.
:,:tt.ctural g/a.i.i f-unction as beants
to
r, sist wind loads in verv Lrll or u.icle
i rirtaln rt,alls, and one glass lnauu_
l.r.turcr has producecl hollorv glass
, r iinders prestressecl rr,ith
steel ir.ire
rr: 111i11q throrrgh thr.ir cerrtt.r. lrrt_s
tllrt it clainrs can take the place o{,
I ritct'e t€ or steel elenrcr-rts irt resisting
..i r itctural compressir,e loacls.
Antirefler:tiue glass nriniurizes frirmes ivith
i,'sidual reflections rh:lt nonnallv ing
, ', ( u.r rr hcn lighr lei-cls
difle.r sigrrifi_
i iintly on the opposite sides of
glass.
Ir is r-rsed for glazing in shorvroon.rs,
,lisplay areas, sports stadiums, art_
rr,rrk framing, and other applicatiorls
rri;r're rhe highest possible optical
ltnd po\cotltonate. Both are ,-,rnr.
expensive than ordinary float slass.
Aerogel-FilIed Glazing
Both have ven, Irish coefficieriis of
thermal exp:rnsion, nl-rich cause Atrogel, a silicon-based foam thar
is
thent not mereh, to expancl and con-
more than 99 pcrcent air, can be usecl
rrtlct \\'ith tet-nperature char-rges, but
to fill the cavitv ir-r dorrble_slazecl
also to b<trv visibly torvard the rr,arm slass
or plastic prociucts. Thorigh ae.ogel
sicle rlhcn subjectccl to high incloor._
outcloor tetnperatrlre clifferentials.
tvas invented rnartv decades ag-o."its
This, in tnrn, requires that
cornmercializ:ltioll rr.as clel:rvecl bl
plastic its flagiiitr:lntl iriglr crrit of ltr:rnu_
sheet mareriirls be ir.rstalleci in their
tacture-problellts nlorc r.ccentl\'
relativelt. expensive glaz_ soh'ed.
Aerogel is ntilkr. in color.
details that allorv pi.,rt_u oitir-,_ not
fullv traltspareltr. and has li ri:_
e2tr movement and rotation. Botlt
ible transmittance th:rt varie s r, itl_r
poh,carbonate and acrylic are soft
rts tltickness. Aerogel_filleci glazing
and easily scratchecl, although more
nas_ a good light-to_soiar.gain
scratch-resistant formulations are ratio.
available.
making it an efficienr source of dif_
fuse, lon.contrast, narural dal,liglit. rli
Plastic glazing is most commonly rll

,lrrllitv is desired. Nlirrors are rnade nsed Currentlv available aerogel p.ocli.t,
rvhere glass is inappropriate: plas_
t'l tnirror g/as,s, which has a thin sil_ tics can can achieve insulatinq values of
about rli
be cut to shapes rtith inside R-8 per inch (RSI-l.l per 25 mm),
,ti

rcr.based coating on its back side.

A corners (L-shapes and T:shapes, for tii

tlrin la_ver of copper applied o\rer rhe more than nl.ice that of glass fiber li
exampie) rhar are likely to crack if products unctei develop_
",rlver prevenG corrosion, and a sec_ insulation. rlri

cnt from
,n(l layer of backing paint provicies ily to fit glass. The1,can be bent eas_ menr rhat relv on nanotechnolo[y
il
,,l
in cun'ed frames. Thev can to improve
,rrlrlitional protecrion. pattn.ied glass,
be heat-formed inro dorned glazing thermal p..for..,ur." ui.
predicted to have insulating values
I

rvlrich is hot glass roiled into ,h..t, I

for sk,vlights. plastics such as pll,u.arl
rr'ith many different surface patterns
bonare, u'hich are literally inrporriUt. i: hisl as R-40 per inch lRSt-7 pcr
25 mm).
r,l

ll
.i

ti
li
I
I

construction site. The iites of slass
are lransported to the site alreadv
adhered to the aluminum channels
that rvill connect them to the mul-
lions. In comparison to structural
silicone glazine, acrvlic foam struc-
tural glazing tape exhibits superior
elastic properties, it can be applied
more quicklv and i,vith less waste,
it develops its adhesive bond more
guickiy, and it produces a cleaner
visual appearat-lce.
t:
,]:.
'i,.,!
:]
,";t1
,j.t:::1
i#
Most striking of all are the sas-
f
pended glazing systems, used primarily
for high walls of glass around build-
irg Iobbies and enclosed grand-
stands. In the glass mullion slstem, the
tempered glass sheets are suspended
fiom above on special clamps and are
stabilized against rvind pressure by
perpendicular stiffeners, also made
of tempered glass (Figure 17.26).
Alternatively, strucrural columns
(Figures i7.1, 17.10, and 17.27) or
Glazing /?
li" *-tlJ;|?^s in the Mugi.;oho,o(
Theater in New York City is highly i;
transparent, an effect that is accennrated I
by suspending the glass from above, \
using only vertical glass stiffeners to \
resist wind loads. Where a single sheet
of glass spans from the top of the
window to the bottom, the glass and
stiffeners may be joined with sealant
alone. To create walls that are taller than
a single sheet, stainless steel fittings,
as seen here, are used to join sheets at
the corners and edges. (Photograph oi
Pilkington Planar System b1 W U W Glass
Systems, Inc.)
systems of
stainless tension cables
and glass fittings (Figure 17.28) mav
be used to brace the glass.
Stainless steel cable suspension
systems may also be used to supporr
overhead glass (Figur es 17 .29 , 17 .30 .
and 17.341. In any rension cable svs-
tem, the building srructure around
the perimeter of the opening musr
be strong and stiff enough to resist
the pull of the cables that sustain the
glass"
-
 Glass and the Building Codes / E
!-

-f Ii:-;Lilqii ,1
7"34
Airside 2 Terminal at orlando International Airport. (photograph oJ pilhingtort
Phnar ,\t';ren h \\t U 1I; Gktss ,\)stems, Inc, )

,,lli-,.i
51.:r A -\Iil TX{E
g to the use of glass in
ii: i; :l l-,';liii CCna mS
Building codes ;rre concerned with
sel'eral functional aspecrs of glass:
rts stnlctrlral adequacy against rvind
anci ilnpact loads; its role in provid-
ins narural light in habitable rooms;
irs breakage safety; its abilit_v ro pre-
vent thc spread of fire through a
building; ancl its roie in determin-
ing the energr: consumption of a
hurricanes are common, the code
also requires windows or windou'
coverings io meet requirements for
resistance to the impact of objects
blown against glazed areas by high
winds.
The Internation,al Residen-
tial Code requires all habitable
rooms to have a net exterior glazed
area equal to at least B percent of
their floor area. The use of natu-
ral light to provide inrerior illumi-
nation and the provision of views
Other regulaton. concern: r-elarec.
bLuldii-rgs har.
alreadl' been drscussed:'\-erticri Ela-..
that is strbjecr to hrrmarr irrrpacr rrrrrrr
be of a tlpe that does not break ir-rto
dangerous shards. Oterhead slass, it
it breaks, must not fall onto br,ulding
occupants. Glass in fire-rared rvalls,
doors, and windorvs must meet various
standards to ensure that it remains
sufficiently intact and performs ;rs
needed during a building fire
.

Lastly, energy conservation codes

building.
l'he International Building Code
provides structur:rl criteria fbr deter-
rnining the necessart' thicknesses of
slirss ro resist rvihd and other struc-
turarl lo:rcls. In cclastal regiorrs where
,,1
to the exterior for building occu-
pants are recognized components
of healthy, energy-efficient build-
ings and are encouraged b,v LEED
for Nen'Construction and other sus-
tainable design programs.
limit the loss of hear (or cooling)
through windows and other slazecl
openings, either bv limiting the area
of glazing or by mandating minimum
levels of resistance to heat florv bv the
glass and its framing svstem.

,,ri$
i::i
,i
{
.,d
 868 i ch.: .- : . ,-,i:::lg
The Rar---:een Principle in
-,i4lass Curtain Walls
S{etal-,
-- ' :--::..e . neiti.rer of the curtain
' .,. :-.>irfitS presented in this chap-
:cl llllgilt seem t0 be a rainscreer]
design. becar,rse both use rubber sas-
kets to -seal around the giass on rhe
outside r:f the wall as rvell as olt rhe
rLusicie. Hor,r,ever. consider rr'hat hap-
;rens in either of these slsrems if both
iirc uller nnci ritrrer gaskets arotrnd
; lite r,f 'llas. are ciefecrire: Dr-rrinq a
',, rnci-clrir ert rrrin. grarin' and capillarr
acttolt rt'ould be likeir to ciratr. sonre
\rater past the outer sasket into the
sp.tces benr'een the edses
oi the
and the aluminum. Horvever. as u'e
discovered in Chapter 19, an imper-
fect inner gasket is unlikelv to allorv
air currents strong enough to carrv
water farther toward the inrerior of
the assemblr,'. If r,vater has leaked in
along a vertical edge of the glass, it is
contained rvithin the vertical mullion
and will fall b,v gravigv ro rhe bomom.
r,r'here ir drains out throuch weep
holes. If water accumulatcs in the
horizontal mr-rllion. it is prevented
fiom running out of the ends of the
rnrillion b,v seaied rubber end plues
iFigrrre 21 .241 . Its onlv recourse is
to drain to the outdoors through
r,veep holes that are drilled hor.izor-r-
urllv tlrrough the pressure plate ancl
verticall,v through the bottom eclge
of'the external snap-on cover. Thus,
the externzrl gasket need serve onlv
as a deterrenl .real-essentiallv a rain-
screen-to discourage r,vater from
entering rvithout necessarily barring
its entrv altogether" The internal
gasket serves as an air barrier. ancl
the hollolv spaces between the edges
of the glass and rhe rnullions act as
pressure equalization charnbers. The
entire system functions rairrscreerr
as a
assembl_v. In practice, of
course, the
manufacturer and installer take everv
precaution ro ensure that the exter-
nal gaskets are properh'installed ancl
n'ill act as positive barriers to the pas-
sage of rvater, but curtain rvall s,vsterns
do not depend on a perfect seal to
retain their watertightness.
r^-ith \Ietal and Glass
glass
FrcrrRu z r.z4
A curtain wall installer uses a putty knife
to smooth silicone sealant into the joint
between horizontal and vertical mullions,
A rubtrer plug, as shown in Figure 2l.l l,
previously inserted into the end of the
horizontal mullion, is concealed by the
sealant.
ExpansionJoints in Metal-
and-Glass Walls
Numinum has a relatively high coel
ficient of thermal expansion. The
coefficient for glass is less than half
as much. Because the claclciing of a
brrilding is exposed to air rempera-
ture fluctuations as well as direct
heatinq by the sun. it must he pro-
vided with expansion joints to allow
thermal movement to occur without
darnaging the ciadding or the frame
of the buildins.
The differences in therrnal move-
ment behveen the glass and the alumi-
num are generally accommodated b1'
verv small sliding and flexing motions
that occtrr betrveen the glass and the
gaskets in which it is mounted. Rub-
ber blocks placecl betrveen the edse
of the glass and the mullion on either
sicle of each lite prevenr the glass
from "u'alking" too far in either direc-
tion during repeated o'cles of heat-
ins and cooling.
In the curtain n-all svsie nr.
illustratecl in this cirapter, \'errical
thermal movement in the alurninrrnt
is absorbed by relescopine-joiurs thar
are provided at regular interr.als rn thc
vertical mullions (Figure 2i.15). Hor-
izontal thermal troventent ts accont-
modated br. intentionalli.' curril.re
horizontal alurninurl comporlenrs
sliehth'short bl' a calctrlared fi.action
of an inch at each. \'ertical colluec-
tion. Because the horizor-rtal rnrrlli<tns
are interrupted at each .,'ertical nul-
lion, there are ntanv of these.jr;ints ro
rvork together in altsorbing horizorr-
tal exparr.iiorr arrd corrlmr tiori.
tloun,r,n-Sxrilr
-fir.ir,,r, .: ,, .
ht a rlotrl.tle-.skin fncade. thc n';rlj sr'-+
tem is constmcted of trvo sepii.r.atc
glass cladding svstcrns separatt:d br
an airspace that is rvide enorrqh il
most cases ro allorv sen:ice persc.rnne
1
to pass benveen thern. Dcluble-skrl
facades have lonir been propular rn
Europe;rn br.rilciing cr:)ltstfucti()l) aud
are norvv appearine in sorrte Noi.tlr
Arnerican builclings as rvell. \ar.irius
configurations of glazing and rr-tar"
ment of the space betlr,een tirt' ilrr
skins are possible. Nlost ofte n, onc rtl
the two skins i-s dotrbie-glazecl. n,hilc
the other relies ot-r silule glass. Tite
interstiti:il airspace mav bc ventilatcd
to the interior of the buildine (whr:n
the outer skin is doultle-glazeri) ur,
to the exterior (rvhen the inner skin
is clouble-ulazed). Natural ventiia.
tion of the building interior. thr-oush
operable openings in one or ltoril
skins is also possible. \'enrilirriorr nt
the interstitial space mav be passu,c.
that is. porvered b1' tiatut':rl conlec-
tion; or active, :rccomplished rvith rhe
aid of fans. and in some cases ]ril\
be coupJed to the buildins's FI\.{t.
system.iShading devices. such as lori-
vered blinds or roller shacles. manu-
allv controlled or driven bv autornatic
timers or solar tracking clcvices. arc
aiso frequentll: integrated into the
interstitial space.

1 Dorrble-skin fhcactes r.art reciuce
trttrr'ltttt.rl so1111|Iq. 1Jq.in. ittt t.c.r.t.rf .tr-
iieittins potential. lninintize rherntal
cntI{lllctiolI ancl radiation tl-rrougit rlte
tr,all svstelt), provider a space for shacl-
lng elefi]eltts thztt is protectecl tiorl
ih t, r.r'eathet, pentri t naturirl ven tilatiol.l
rtcsrgns iu tall builclings, ancl create
rlrrieter ituilcling inrerior than is possi_
l;le rr'ith cotrventional glazing s\stelns.
Asainst these porential benefim urust
irt' rreishcd dle ciisaclr"anraqes: The
airsltacc niav subtract zrs tnuch as 5 tct
li) pelccn[ <ti'the usable fjoor arcir ol.
tite builclilts. Thougit the seconcl skin
r.ri fhr: lacacle nlit' be constn-rcteci of
irss cxpensive tramiitg and glass than
the Ilr"sr skin, this still constitrrtes a sig_
,iilic;rnt irrcrease ilt cr_.rrrstt.rrcti()l) (.ost
iiver a rraclitional curtain lvall. Also.
clurins the life of thc bLrildine, nrjce
as rrrrLch gl:rss surface lnust be l:rshed
oli a legtrlar ltasis.
Given these 'trade-ofls. clouble_
-rLin lacaclc slstetns are most appro_
prlat(' tor glass ryalls that nrrst nreet
;tr i r gr.'i t I cltcrgl cunserlal lolt ta rgeLs.
r
rlhc-.r'e rlre building o\vnef,s financial
plunnine allons the hisher cost of
lonstrtrction to be an)ortizcd over a
reiativch lonq tirne periocl in witich
ii tllri l;r olTset bv increaserl c-nerpr
s:r\'1ng$. anrl n'here the cr.eation o{'
:r iriuh-performnnce builclins is :rn
in;piicit Eoal ot the builcling prograrn.
.,,r r-1 ;11
r{-.s G.r-,A zx,}"itr_;
\{artl btrildin_-s featr_rr.e elass root.s
or,cr strch areas as lobbies.
re srau_
mnts. ca1cs. sivrmntilrg pools, garden
corir''r'1r'[ls. ancl other ;rmenitics. A
glus-r rool' presents partrcular. prJb_
lcnrs rr"ith respcct ro potential \\,ater
ieakltgi-. ircc:nrse it is rrnpossible to
u('uI rl ] ir(. tlte ic,r.cr' ol qr ar.i n uu,t sur:
iace rhut is not vertical. Furtherrnore,
nloi:iiut'e that conder-rses on the inte_
rrol surfices of the glass can accumu_
latt, anci clrip onto occupants belorr..
I lt,.rt'li trr. rl,,ftrr! .glrr.rtt{ s\.slclns Are
rlcsrgnecl to include an internal drain_
iigr s\'stein. This dratnage sysiem col_
rcct-\ \rilfei that results fiont
leakas.e
The Curtain Wall Design ancl Construction process
or condensation and channels it to
the outdoorsrr The glass stirface is
slopecl rather than absolutelv flat
beciurse the slope enables gravi8 to
in keeping n'arer fiom poncling
assisr
olt the roof, in causing condensate to
fun to the lolr,er edge of each lite of
a glass before dripping off, and in rnor"
Ins \rater through the drainage chan_
nels to the rveep holes thror-rgh rvhich
it is conducted back [o the ollrdoors.
The sloped glazing iliustratecl in
Figures 21.25 and 21.26 is clesigneci
to adapt to a range of slopes fiom lb
to 60 degrees. Water leakase is dis_
couraged bv a weli-clesigned svstem of
elazing gaskers. But if leakage should
occur because of gasket deteriora-
tron or fauln'installation. the internal
drainase svsteln rvill catch it along
,anv purlin or rafter and drain it arval,.
\Joistrrre corrclensation is rniniruized
-br"double
glazing ancl thermal breaks. ,
Anv condeusate that mav lbnn uncier
exrreme conditions is also car.rql-rt ancl
cirained b,v the sante svstem of chan_
nels in the aluminum members.
For glass svstems sloped. more
than 15 degrees fiom vertical, builcl_
ine codes restrict the tvpes of glass
usecl, to protect occupaltts below
from the risk of injun. frorn fallins
broken glass. The onh'glazinu nrateri_
als permittecl lvithour anl, limitations
are laminared glass and plastic. Other
slass n'pes are permitted, sultject ro
restrictions relating ro rhe height of
the glass above the floor. size of the
iites, trpe of occupanct, anci other
factors. Alternativelr,, anv glass n,pe is
permitted if a metal screen is installecl
beiol' the ql:rss that can catch shards
shoulcl the slass break.
'i"'i1{Fl
{l U.g.A,ri.fi.,..
\,tl6lg- $;SSXC:,; -iFJ:)
cmrus rn rJi:o' r, Fii_:
" {, E :} s ;:13: ll:ili:.l|..#ffiTil:T::l.
x,{etalcurtai'rr-erlldesrq, is r.ror urcter-
taken bt' an arcliirect arone: ir is roo rr.itlr
complex ancl specralizeci .r
l)!n(c::. .rncl stanciarcls. This installauon expe-
For buildinss. rire .l'chirecr rience is .rrso inr.;rluable
.rnanv
sirr-rplv aclopts a propt-tet.rl-, r,,ii6.;,, ,1c..igrr pl..)ce\\.
i/ S6;\
thar meets design requirenrents. fl-ris
puts the pnrnarv responsibilin.c.rn rhc
mannfacturer and installer oi'the sls_
tem to ensure thar the proper coll]_
ponelt$ are choserr zrnd tire rvall i:.
correctil, installed.
\\hen arr archirect Scts orrt
L,
design a ltelv s\,stent
of metal cl;rci_
ding, as is often done for large,
irlportant buildings, other profes_
sionals are brought into the process.
A ciadding consultant brings r-rniqrir:
experience anC specializecl erpertise
to the ef'fort. The structural engineet.
mLtst understand the rr,eight rilcl
attachmenr requirements oi rire sr..,-
tem antI Itorv rlrnd loacls acritr{i o,,
the curtain lr.all lvill be tr-ansf'crreli
to the br_riiding frame. This ensineei.
musr also clefine the deflecdon crire-
ria o1'the building srrLlcrure and cour-
rnnnicate this informiition to thr,;se
responsible for the elesign ol. tjte cr-:r-
tain wall. A curlain ll,all manufa.trlrer.
is also brought ir-rto the design ieiuit
eariv in the process.
The architect and buiiding
oh'ner rnai elect eitlrer ol rrrr, 11i1,,-
ocls for seiectinq a manuthctr u-er:
One curttrin n'all rnanufhcturer rtrr,
be chosen on the b:isis of reput2lti.)ri
and past expenence. Alternatrvr-l-,
the architect and ciirdcLng consultan.
ma]'prepare a rough design ancl pe r.
tormance specifications and sulllir
these to several rnanrrfacnrrcl-s ict.
proposals. Eaclt manLrfacfurer rr.iii
then submit a more cletailecl clesisn
artd r hrrarrcilrl pr.opo.;rl. lrrrl
"lt. r.l,
j
be selectecl on lhe basis of fltesc-
1tr.r;-
posals to proceed nith the
llro1ecr.
The ruanr_ridctlrrer uncierstancir
better than ant'other rnember,tf rlrr
team titet uranulacturing. assernitir
rnstallation. ancl cost iniplicarion: u1
:1 new curt:tin rvall clesisn. T}ie rniu)ir-
tacturer often does the installati.rn ;*
H:'''r:;".'i":tr?r}ili:f::1ilffi;
rhe m;rnufactLrrer,s pr'tlucts
chrring thr
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