Carbon & Oxygen Isotopes

12/10/2018 Carbon & Oxygen Isotopes – Time Scavengers
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TIME SCAVENGERS
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C L I M AT E A N D L I F E
Carbon & Oxygen Isotopes

On the previous Isotope page, you learned a bit about what isotopes are, how they are obtained,
and how the isotopes of certain elements are measured. Here, we’ll elaborate on how to read
carbon and oxygen isotope data and how the values are often interpreted by
paleoclimatologists.
Reading Isotope Data
Measurements of carbon and oxygen isotope values of a sample obtained using a mass
spectrometer are compared to a sample of known isotopic values, called a reference standard.
The resultant isotopic signature of a sample is expressed using a delta (δ) followed by the
isotope number and the symbol of the element being measured. Oxygen isotope measurements
are read as δ18O, or delta oxygen eighteen, and carbon is read as δ13C, or delta carbon thirteen.
These values are expressed as per mil (‰). The definitions of δ13C and δ18O are as follows:
Thus, delta values of carbon and oxygen can be either positive or negative.
Interpreting Carbon and Oxygen Isotopes

https://timescavengers.blog/introductory-material/what-is-paleoclimatology/proxy-data/carbon-oxygen-isotopes/ 1/8
Because both carbon and oxygen isotopes are measured simultaneously from one sample, the
data are usually interpreted together. Oxygen and carbon isotope data from samples that are
plotted, either against age or depth, are called ‘curves’ by scientists. There are several factors
that influence carbon and oxygen curves, but below, we will focus on carbon and isotope curves
obtained from planktic and benthic foraminifera, and a few of the ways these curves can be
interpreted. Carbon isotopes are a bit more complex, so we have only included a few of the
ways they can be interpreted. As a reminder, planktic foraminifera live near the surface of the
ocean (in the mixed layer or the upper thermocline), and benthic foraminifera live at the ocean
bottom, with some species living within the sediment on the seafloor.
Oxygen Isotopes
Evaporation and
precipitation are two factors
that most influence the ratio
of heavy (oxygen 18; O18) to
light (O16) oxygen in the
oceans. When seawater
evaporates, O16 is
preferentially uptaken
because it is lighter, while the
heavier O18 is left behind.
This image illustrates the ice volume effect, which explains why
the oxygen isotopic signature of seawater changes due to the When water vapor
amount of ice on the continents. As more ice is formed, the more condenses, the heavier
enriched with O18 the oceans become because O16 is preferentially oxygen leaves first, as
evaporated from the oceans. Image modified from Silent precipitation, before the
Witnesses blog. lighter oxygen.
During different times in Earth’s history, the oceans had more O18 relative to O16. We’ll briefly
discuss how these oxygen isotope values are interpreted by paleoclimatologists.
Increased Oxygen 18 Values

Water evaporated from the ocean surface is enriched in O16 (it has a lighter or more negative
δ18O signal). When this water precipitates out as snow at the poles, it becomes trapped on land,
compacting over time to create ice. When Earth is cool enough year-round that ice caps are
permanent, the ice on Earth’s surface is enriched in O16 relative to O18. This happens as more
and more of the lighter O16 is locked up in ice (the water has a more positive δ18O signal).
During colder times in Earth’s history, the oxygen isotope value extracted from the shells (tests)
of benthic and planktic foraminifera shells have heavier, or more positive, δ18O values. The
foraminifera will preferentially create their tests out of the lighter O16 unless it is not available
and during these cold intervals, O18 is more abundant. Warmer intervals are indicated by
lighter, or more negative, δ18O values.
Decreased Oxygen 18 Values

When the Earth begins to
warm, ice caps begin to melt
back, and if the Earth warms
further, there are hardly any
permanent ice sheets at the
poles. When this happens, the
O16-enriched ice returns to
the ocean as water. A huge
influx of water enriched with
O16 creates ocean waters that
then become diluted with
respect to O18. On the chart
on the right, warmer times
are indicated by more
negative (or ‘lighter’) O18
values (more negative δ18O),
indicating a reduction in the
amount of ice on the Earth.
The above scenario applies to

the global oxygen values of
the oceans. Isotopic values of
oxygen can also be measured
from different regions and
compared for the same time
in Earth’s history. Regionally
negative δ18O signals (more
O16) can indicate that an area
experienced increased An oxygen isotope curve from benthic foraminifera. Red areas
indicate warmer climates with less ice sheets, whereas the blue
rainfall.
area indicates cooler climate with more ice sheets. Data replotted
from Zachos et al. (2001).
Benthic Foraminifera
Because the ocean bottom water is more homogeneous, or well-mixed, compared to the surface
ocean water, benthic foraminifera record ‘global’ isotope values. The figure at the right show
the δ18O values from benthic foraminifera for the last 10 million years. Because we are
geoscientists, we read time from the oldest to the youngest, just like you read English from the
left to right. Thus, to interpret what is happening through time, begin at the bottom of the
curve and ‘read’ up, towards younger dates. Notice at the bottom of the curve, values are in
the red color with more negative values. This indicates that at this time in Earth’s history, the
Miocene, the bottom ocean temperature was much warmer, and there was much less ice at the
poles. As you move up the curve, the values fluctuate quite a bit, but notice how the curve, in
general, trends to the right in the blue area. This means the values are becoming more positive,
which indicates that there are more O18 molecules in the water, which is interpreted to mean
the Earth was cooling down during this time, and there was more ice at the poles.
Planktic Foraminifera
Oxygen curves from planktic foraminifera record a more local signal than benthic foraminifera.
This is because the surface ocean is very dynamic (it’s always changing) compared to the deep
ocean. In addition, it is not as homogeneous (well-mixed) as the bottom of the water column.
Curves from planktic foraminifera can be interpreted the same as benthic foraminifera in
general, but the effects of evaporation and precipitation can also affect the isotope signal.
Evaporation causes a decrease of O16 ions and thus an increase of O18 in the water column,
which causes the curve to move towards more positive δ18O values. Precipitation increases the
amount of O16 ions in the water column, which causes the curve to move towards more
negative δ18O values.
Carbon Isotopes
Carbon isotopes obtained from the
shells of marine organisms are
strongly influenced by
photosynthesis, respiration, and
upwelling of ocean waters, the
process by which older, more C12-
rich waters are brought from the
bottom ocean to the surface.
Therefore, when a planktic
foraminifera builds its shell in an
upwelling area, the δ13C signal will
be more negative. There are two

main isotopes of carbon that we are
concerned with in this website:
carbon 13 (C13) and carbon 12 (C12).
Just like oxygen isotopes, the carbon
isotope with more neutrons (C13) is
heavier, whereas C12 is lighter.
Throughout Earth’s history, the

amount of C12 and C13 in the
atmosphere and in the oceans has
changed, which makes working with
carbon isotopes a bit trickier than
oxygen. Thus, we’ll just briefly
discuss some of the ways carbon
curves can be interpreted without
bogging you down with too many
technical terms and background
information (although if you are
interested in learning more about
this, please contact us!).
Increased Carbon 13 Values

Increased, or heavier, δ13C values,
generally indicate increased
productivity in the ocean.
Photosynthesizing organisms, such
A carbon 13 curve for the last 10 million years of Earth’s
as algae and plankton, preferentially
history. Carbon values are plotted along the top, and age
uptake C12 during photosynthesis,
along the left side. The data plotted here come from
benthic foraminifera. Data replotted from Zachos et al. which leaves more C13 in the water
(2001). column with which marine

organisms build their shells. When
there is a lot of photosynthesis
happening in the water column geoscientists refer to this as a time of increased productivity.
When there are times of increased productivity (lots of things growing and photosynthesizing in
the water column), this usually means there is increased burial of carbon, or sediment
accumulation on the seafloor (because there’s lots of things pooping and dying and falling down
to the seafloor).
An increase in δ13C values can also indicate that erosion from land (the terrestrial realm) is
decreased. Soil tends to have a more negative δ13C value because it contains remains of dead
plants (that are generally made of C12 ions). When this soil washes into the ocean, it puts more
C12 in the waters.
Decreased Carbon 13 Values

Alternatively, when there is very little photosynthesis occurring in the water column, there are
more C12 molecules in solution, and thus more are incorporated into the shells of marine
organisms. This can also correlate with times of decreased burial, because there are not as
many organisms living in the water column (less poop and fewer dead organisms falling to the
seafloor).
δ13C values can also become more

negative due to increased erosion
from land into the ocean (see above
paragraph). CO2 from volcanoes
tends to also be very enriched in C12,
so times in Earth’s history that are
characterized by intense volcanism
can create more negative δ13C
values.
High productivity indicated by an algae bloom in Lake
Benthic Foraminifera Erie. The algae are so abundant, they appear teal to blue
Carbon curves created from benthic in the image. Sediment is also suspended in the water
foraminifer shells tell geoscientists column, which is most apparent at the lake’s edges and
appears as a lighter brown color. Image courtesy of
something about the bottom water
NASA’s Visible Earth.
conditions in the ocean. Respiration,
or the decay of organic matter
(remember the poop and dead organisms we talked about earlier?) tends to release more C12
into the bottom waters. As water masses move along the seafloor, they pick up this C12
signature, which gets incorporated into the benthic foraminifer’s shell. Thus, a benthic
foraminifer’s δ13C value can tell us about the age of the bottom waters (older bottom waters that
have picked up more C12= more negative δ13C values; younger bottom waters= more positive
δ13C values). The δ13C curve at left is a global stack (lots of carbon curves from all over the
world were plotted together) from benthic foraminifera. Again, we read the figure from the
bottom (oldest) to the top (youngest). Notice that δ13C values, in general, from 10-0 million years
become more negative. This signal is in part from the bottom ocean waters becoming older as
the modern-day deep-water ocean circulation began (youngest waters sink in the Arctic and
travel along the bottom of the water column into the Pacific Ocean).
Benthic foraminifera carbon values also tell us something about sea level through time, as
related to weathering. When sea level is high, this generally leads to less weathering, or less
transport of soils (which, remember, are enriched in C12), into the oceans, and thus is recorded
as a more positive δ13C signal. Low sea level generally correlates to higher global erosion rates,
and thus a more negative δ13C signal. On the chart at left, notice that during 10-6.5 million years
ago, δ13C values are generally more positive. As you move into the modern towards 0 million
years, the values are more negative. If you look back at the oxygen isotope chart, you’ll notice
that these relatively negative carbon values correlate with times of cooler climate and more ice.
When there is more ice, this leads to a drop in sea level. Thus, the more negative values on the
carbon isotope curve are partly due to a sea level fall from increased ice sheets at the poles,
which led to increased weathering.
Planktic
Foraminifera
Similar to oxygen
isotopes, carbon
isotopes obtained
from planktic
foraminifera are
generally interpreted
as a more local signal,
as the surface layer in
the ocean is not as
Summary of carbon and oxygen isotopes obtained from benthic and homogeneous (well-
planktic foraminifera, and how they are interpreted. This summary for mixed) as the bottom
carbon isotopes is simplified, as interpreting them is not as waters. Carbon isotope
straightforward as one would like. values in planktic
foraminifera shells are
mainly affected by photosynthesis and upwelling. When more organisms are photosynthesizing
in the upper water column (increased productivity), this leads to more C13 ions available in the
water for foraminifera to build their shells (because the C12 ions are being used for
photosynthesis). When there is little to no photosynthesis happening in the water column, more
C12 ions are available for the foraminifera to build into their shells, causing the δ13C signal to
become more negative.
To learn more about oxygen and carbon isotopes, visit the following sites:
Harvard University Isotope Analysis

University of Oregon Oxygen Isotopes in Paleoclimate Studies
NASA Paleoclimatology: the Oxygen Balance
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12/10/2018 Carbon & Oxygen Isotopes – Time Scavengers

Reading Isotope Data

Interpreting Carbon and Oxygen Isotopes

Increased Oxygen 18 Values

Decreased Oxygen 18 Values

The above scenario applies to

be more negative. There are two

Throughout Earth’s history, the

Increased Carbon 13 Values

(2001). column with which marine

Decreased Carbon 13 Values

δ13C values can also become more

Harvard University Isotope Analysis

 Twitter  Facebook 31  Google

 Field Work on the Greenland Ice Sheet, Part 2

 Joy Buongiorno Altom, Geomicrobiologist

 2017 Hurricane Season Changes Lizard Population in Turks and Caicos

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