NILE VALLEY CIVILISATION

ORIGIN OF THE NILE VALLEY CIVILISATION

 Egyptian civilization developed along the Nile River in large part because
the river’s annual flooding ensured reliable, rich soil for growing
crops.Ancient Egyptians developed wide-reaching trade networks along the
Nile, in the Red Sea, and in the Near East.
 Evidence of human habitation in Egypt stretches back tens of thousands of
years. However, it was only in about 6000 BCE that widespread settlement
began in the region. Around this time, the Sahara Desert expanded. Some
scientists think this expansion was caused by a slight shift in the tilt of the
Earth. Others have explored changing rainfall patterns, but the specific
causes are not entirely clearly.
  The most important result of this expansion of the Sahara for human
civilization was that it pushed humans closer to the Nile River in search of
reliable water sources.
 This annual flooding was vital to agriculture because it deposited a new
layer of nutrient-rich soil each year. In years when the Nile did not flood, the
nutrient level in the soil was seriously depleted, and the chance of food
shortages increased greatly.

FEATURES OF THE CIVILISATION

 The Egyptians kept written records using a writing system known as

hieroglyphics. Some writing was preserved on stone or clay, and some was
preserved on papyrus, a paper-like product made from reed fiber. Papyrus is
very fragile, but due to the hot and dry climate of Egypt, a few papyrus
documents have survived.
 Much of the history of Egypt is divided into three “kingdom” periods—Old,
Middle, and New—with shorter intermediate periods separating the
kingdoms. The term intermediate here refers to the fact that during these
times Egypt was not a unified political power, and thus was “in-between”
powerful kingdoms.
 Even before the Old Kingdom period, the foundations of Egyptian
civilization were being laid for thousands of years as people living near the
Nile increasingly focused on sedentary agriculture, which led to urbanization
and specialized, non-agricultural economic activity.
 The Egyptians began to study the stars very early on their history. They were
among the first astronomers, and the temple of the sun god at Heliopolis was
an important center for the study of astronomy. Unfortunately, very little
original manuscripts have survived to the present.
  One of the two lasting contributions of the Egyptians to astronomy (in the
large sense) is the 24-hour division of the day.
 The second lasting contribution of the Egyptians is the fixed and constant
Year of 365 Days. In this instance, a common sense desire for something
fixed in the calendaric jungle led (quite early) to the adoption of a 360-day
year, to which were added 5 extra days (for feasting), which the Greeks
called 'epagomanal' days, making a total of 365 days.
 Egyptians also began to build ships, constructed of wooden planks tied
together with rope and stuffed with reeds, to trade goods such as ebony,
incense, gold, copper, and Lebanese cedar—which was particularly
important for construction projects—along maritime routes.
POLITICAL POWER

 Egyptian rulers used the idea of divine kingship and constructed monumental
architecture to demonstrate and maintain power.After political unification, divine
kingship, or the idea that a political ruler held his power by favor of a god or
gods—or that he was a living incarnation of a god—became firmly established in
Egypt.
 During the Old Kingdom period, Egypt was largely unified as a single state; it
gained in complexity and achievement and expanded militarily. Old Kingdom
rulers built the first pyramids, which were both tombs and monuments for the
kings who had them built.
 The Middle Kingdom saw Egypt unified again as kings found ways to take back
power from regional governors. From the Middle Kingdom forward, Egyptian
kings often kept well-trained standing armies. The ability of the Egyptian state to
create and maintain a standing military force and to build fortifications showed that
it had regained control of substantial resources.
 Taking advantage of this political instability in Egypt, the Hyksos appeared around
1650 BCE. They were a Semitic people, meaning they spoke a language that
originated in the Middle East, which indicated that they were not native to Egypt.
The Hyksos imposed their own political rulers but also brought many cultural and
technological innovations, such as bronze working and pottery techniques, new
breeds of animals and new crops, the horse and chariot, the composite bow, battle-
axes, and fortification techniques for warfare.
 Around 1550 BCE, the New Kingdom period of Egyptian history began with the
expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt and restored centralized political control. This
period was Egypt's most prosperous time and marked the peak of its power.


 Also in this period, Hatshepsut, Egypt’s most famous female ruler, established
trade networks that helped build the wealth of Egypt and commissioned hundreds
of construction projects and pieces of statuary, as well as an impressive mortuary
temple at Deir el-Bahri. She also ordered repairs to temples that had been
neglected or damaged during the period of Hyksos rule.
.
SOCIAL STRUCTURE
 Egyptian society was structured like a pyramid. At the top were the gods,
such as Ra, Osiris, and Isis. Egyptians believed that the gods controlled the
universe. Therefore, it was important to keep them happy. They could make
the Nile overflow, cause famine, or even bring death.

In the social pyramid of ancient Egypt the pharaoh and those associated with divinity were at the top, and servants
and slaves made up the bottom.

 The Egyptians also elevated some human beings to gods. Their leaders,
called pharaohs, were believed to be gods in human form. They had absolute
power over their subjects. After pharaohs died, huge stone pyramids were
built as their tombs. Pharaohs were buried in chambers within the pyramids.
 Because the people of Egypt believed that their pharaohs were gods, they
entrusted their rulers with many responsibilities. Protection was at the top of
the list. The pharaoh directed the army in case of a foreign threat or an
internal conflict. All laws were enacted at the discretion of the pharaoh.
Each farmer paid taxes in the form of grain, which were stored in the
pharaoh's warehouses. This grain was used to feed the people in the event of
a famine.
 Right below the pharaoh in status were powerful nobles and priests. Only
nobles could hold government posts; in these positions they profited from
tributes paid to the pharaoh. Priests were responsible for pleasing the
gods.Nobles enjoyed great status and also grew wealthy from donations to
the gods. All Egyptians — from pharaohs to farmers — gave gifts to the
gods.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ARCHITECTURE
 Elites, those individuals who were wealthy and powerful, began
building larger tombs which were precursors to the pyramids. These
tombs represented a growing divide between the elite and common
 people in Egyptian society. Only the wealthy and important could
afford and be considered as deserving of such elaborate burials.
 Due to the scarcity of wood,[1] the two predominant building materials used
in ancient Egypt were sun-baked mud brick and stone, mainly limestone, but
also sandstone and granite in considerable quantities. From the Old
Kingdom onward, stone was generally reserved for tombs and temples,
while bricks were used even for royal palaces, fortresses, the walls of temple
precincts and towns, and for subsidiary buildings in temple complexes.
 The core of the pyramids consisted of locally quarried stone, mudbricks,
sand or gravel. For the casing stones were used that had to be transported
from farther away, predominantly white limestone from Tura and red granite
from upper Egypt.
 Ancient Egyptian houses were made out of mud collected from the damp
banks of the Nile river. It was placed in moulds and left to dry in the hot sun
to harden for use in construction. If the bricks were intended to be used in a
royal tomb like a pyramid, the exterior bricks would also be finely chiselled
and polished.

MASTABA
 Mastaba, (Arabic: “bench”) rectangular superstructure of
ancient Egyptian tombs, built of mud brick or, later, stone, with sloping
walls and a flat roof. A deep shaft descended to the underground burial
chamber.
 The term mastaba was first used archaeologically in the 19th century by
workmen on Auguste Mariette’s excavation at Ṣaqqārah to describe the
rectangular, flat-topped stone superstructures of tombs.
 A mastaba, which was the typical grave marker for early Egyptian
elites. Looks like a pyramid except lower to the ground and with a flat
top instead of a pointed one.

 As chosen by Egyptian rulers, many of the tombs found throughout time

were located along the Nile river.[25] The structural exterior regarding
Mastabas varies throughout history but there is a noticeable evolution of the
course of Egyptian dynasties.
 Subsequently, mastaba was also used for mud brick superstructures.Old
Kingdom mastabas were used chiefly for nonroyal burials. In nonroyal
tombs a chapel was provided that included a formal tablet or stela on which
the deceased was shown seated at a table of offerings.
  Storage chambers were stocked with food and equipment, and walls were
often decorated with scenes showing the deceased’s expected daily
activities. What had earlier been a niche on the side grew into a chapel with
an offering table and a false door through which the spirit of the deceased
could leave and enter the burial chamber.
 Mastabas from the old empire, took upon a pyramid design structure. This
design was largely reserved for rulers, such as the king, and his family as a
means for burial. Other design characteristics regarding Mastabas from the
old empire include having rectangular outlines, walls that were slanted
which were made of stone and brick materials, and having the axis of a
building run both North and South.

PYRAMIDS OF GIZA
 The Great Pyramid of Giza (also known as the Pyramid of Khufu or
the Pyramid of Cheops) is the oldest and largest of the three pyramids in
the Giza pyramid complex bordering what is now El Giza, Egypt. It is the
oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only one to
remain largely intact.
 The pyramids, which were built in the Fourth Dynasty, testify to the power
of the pharaonic religion and state. They were built to serve both as grave
sites and also as a way to make their names last forever. The size and simple
design show the high skill level of Egyptian design and engineering on a
large scale. The Great Pyramid of Giza, which was probably completed c.
2580 BC, is the oldest of the Giza pyramids and the largest pyramid in the
world, and is the only surviving monument of the Seven Wonders of the
Ancient World.
 Egyptologists believe the pyramid was built as a tomb for the Fourth
Dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Khufu (often Hellenized as "Cheops") and was
constructed over a 20-year period. Khufu's vizier, Hemiunu (also called
Hemon) is believed by some to be the architect of the Great Pyramid.
 PYRAMID OF KHUFU
 For the Old Kingdom the most characteristic form of tomb building
was the true pyramid, the finest example of which is the Great
Pyramid of King Khufu (Cheops) of the 4th dynasty, at Al-
Jīzah (Giza). The form itself reached its maturity in the reign of
Snefru, father of Khufu. Subsequently only the pyramid
of Khafre (Chephren), Khufu’s successor, approached the size and
perfection of the Great Pyramid.
 The pyramid formed the focal point of a group of buildings
that constituted the funerary complex of a king. Two temples linked
by a causeway were essential components. The valley temple, built on
the edge of the desert escarpment, was the place of reception for the
royal body.

 Other features in its construction contribute substantially to its remarkable

character: the lofty, corbeled Grand Gallery and the granite-built King’s
Chamber with five relieving compartments (empty rooms for reducing
pressure) above.
PYRAMID OF CHEOPS
 The pyramid of Kheops is the first of the seven wonders of the world and the
only one of its wonders still standing today. It is an imposing monument
built by the Egyptians at the time of antiquity. On a square base, it was about
150m high for a 230m side. Nowadays it is a little smaller due to its erosion.
It is from almost safe source the tomb of the Pharaoh Kheops who lived
under the Fourth Dynasty, almost 4,500 years ago. This pyramid is the
largest of all the pyramids ever built on Earth, regardless of civilization and
time, so it is a curiosity that raises questions about its architecture, its
methods of construction, and reasons for its construction. It is the main tomb
of the necropolis of which it forms part, on the plateau of Giza, near the
capital of Egypt, Cairo.

TEMPLE AT KARANAK
 The temple complex of Karnak is located on the banks of the Nile River
some 2.5 kilometers (1.5 mi) north of Luxor. It consists of four main parts,
the Precinct of Amon-Re, the Precinct of Montu, the Precinct of Mut and
the Temple of Amenhotep IV (dismantled), as well as a few smaller temples
and sanctuaries located outside the enclosing walls of the four main parts,
and several avenues of ram-headed sphinxes connecting the Precinct of Mut,
the Precinct of Amon-Re and Luxor Temple
 This temple complex is particularly significant, for many rulers have added
to it. However, notably every ruler of the New Kingdom added to it. The site
covers over 200 acres and consists of a series of pylons, leading into
courtyards, halls, chapels, obelisks, and smaller temples. The key difference
between Karnak and most of the other temples and sites in Egypt is the
length of time over which it was developed and used.
  One of the greatest temples in Egyptian history is that of Amun-Ra at
Karnak. As with many other temples in Egypt, this one details the feats of
the past (including thousands of years of history detailed via inscriptions on
many of the walls and columns found on site, often modified or completely
erased and redone by following rulers), and honors the gods.

TEL-EL-AMARNA
 Amarna is an extensive Egyptian archaeological site that represents the
remains of the capital city newly established (1346 BC) and built by
the Pharaoh Akhenaten of the late Eighteenth Dynasty, and abandoned
shortly after his death (1332 BC).The name for the city employed by
the ancient Egyptians is written as Akhetaten (or Akhetaton—
transliterations vary) in English transliteration. Akhetaten means
"Horizon of the Aten".[2]
 The area is located on the east bank of the Nile River in the modern
Egyptian province of Minya, some 58 km (36 mi) south of the city of al-
Minya, 312 km (194 mi) south of the Egyptian capital Cairo and 402 km
(250 mi) north of Luxor.] The city of Deir Mawas lies directly west across
from the site of Amarna. Amarna, on the east side, includes several modern
villages, chief of which are el-Till in the north and el-Hagg Qandil in the
south.
 The area was also occupied during later Roman and early Christian times;
excavations to the south of the city have found several structures from this
period.