CYSTIC OVARIAN DEGENERATION

Ovarian cysts-Follicle like structure that are clinically

found to be atleast 2.5cms in dia and persist for at least
10days usually in the absence of Corpus Luteum (CL)

Follicular
Luteal Cyst Cystic CL
Cyst

~-
.~
.
.
o\.\
.a,
(1)W
~~ .. ' ..... ,
.
2
- -. .
........ ~
~-

• Anovulatory • Anovulatory • CL with fluid filled

cavity
• Single or Multiple • Single
• Thin walled • Thick walled • Not pathological

• One or both • Partial or incomplete • Does not alter

oestrous cycle
ovaries luteinization
length

• Insensitivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis to elevated

levels of oestradiol
• Deficiency in release of GnRH
• Failure of LH release mechanism
• Inadequate LH receptors in the follicle

•
"IJr
High milk production
• Hereditary
• High protein diet
• Post partum uterine infection

Nymphomania· Frequent, irregular, Anoestrus· No signs of oestrus·lf untreated for

prolonged or continuous oestrus· sexually prolonged period·some become virilised·
aggressive· 'Bullers'· Sterility hump masculine in appearance
• Anovulatory • Anovulatory
• Multiple in both ovaries • Single
• Dia. > 2.5 cm Dia. >2.5 cm
• Persists >10 days • Prolonged period
 Manual for
REFRESHER TRAINING TO FIELD VETERINARIANS

Compiled and edited by

Dr. C. Balachandran
Dr. S. Gomathinayagam
Dr. Ganne Venkata Sudhakar Rao

Sponsored by
DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, TAMILNADU
under
TAMILNADU IRRIGATED AGRICULTURAL MODERNISAIION
AND WATER·BODIES RESTORATION
AND MANAGEMENT (lAMWARM) PROJECT

~~,~RIN'",. "'0
o"'~ ?<;.
: ~
,
,
MADRAS VETERINARY COLLEGE ,

Chennai-600 007
TAMIL NADU VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY

2009
 TAMIL NADU VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY

Dr. P. THANGARAJU Madhavaram Milk Colony

VICE-CHANCELLOR Chennai - 600 051.

FOREWARD

Animal Husbandry sector is growing as a most sustainable avocation among

all agricultural segments surpassing the macro and micro agro climatic conditions of
this State of Tamil Nadu and the country at large. Apart from more economic gain
per unit of investment in this sector, there is ever growing demand for livestock
products especially among urban and semi-urban consumers .
Though the livestock wealth matches our human population it is paradoxical
to note that there is deficit of livestock products owing to low productivity of majority
of our animal population. Hence, there is a dire necessity to improve the productive
and reproductive performance of our livestock and poultry through scientific
management and appropriate location specific technological interventions suiting the
needs of our livestock farmers and other stakeholders .
In order to achieve this, we have to fill the critical gaps in technological know-
how of our field staff in the areas of breed improvement, fertility management,
assisted re productive techno logies, latest concepts in feeding and nutrition,
prevention and contro l of economically important diseases, improved and quick
healing techniq ues of common and complicated ailments, post-harvest technology,
clean product preparation, preservation and value addition. This requires a battery
of training programmes and exposure workshops to our field veterina rians with tailor
made syllabi, encompassing all the above components.
I believe this IAMWARM Refresher Training Programme is organized with
such mandate targeting field veterinarians . I request all our fellow veterinarians to
utilize this opp ortunity to update their knowledge and sharpen their skills to better
serve our stakeholders.
I extend my whole hearted best wishes to one and all involved in this
programme and such efforts shal l be a continuous process as a continued education
that will be a great stimulus to the animal husbandry sector of our State .

Date : 18.5.2009
g, (P. THANGA AJU)
'S' ~
Place: C hennai - 51 VICE-CHANCELLOR

Telephone: (Off.) 0091-44-2555 1574 / 75 (Res.) 0091-44-2654 6997 Fax: 0091 -44-2555 1576
E-mail: tanuvas@vsnJ.com; vctanuvas@vsnl.com; ptrajuagb@yahoo.com Website: www.tanuvas. ac.in
"
 REFRESHER TRAINING TO FIELD VETERINARIANS

Nodal Officer
Dr. Lalitha John
Dean
Madras Veterinary College
Chennai-600 007
Course Director
Dr.C. Balachandran
Professor and Head
Department of Veterinary Pathology
Madras Veterinary College
Chennai-600 007
Associate Directors
Dr. S. Gomathinayagam
Associate Professor
Department of Veterinary Parasitology
Madras Veterinary College
Chennai-600 007

Dr. Ganne Venkata Sudhakar Rao

Associate Professor
Department of Veterinary Pathology
Madras Veterinary College
Chennai-600 007

Course Coordinators

Dr. S. Thilagar Dr. S. Prathaban

Dr. R. Sureshkumar Dr. C. Veerapandian
Dr. P. S. Rahamathullah Dr. T. Sivakumar
Dr. V. Balakrishnan Dr. K.N. Selvakumar
Dr. P. Mathialagan Dr. M. Thirunavukkarasu
Dr. L. Gunaseelan Dr. C. Balachandran
Dr. V. Ramasamy Dr. S. Abdul Basith
Dr. C. N areshkumar Dr. M.G. Jayathangaraj
Dr. K. Kumanan Dr. S.N. Sivaselvam
 RESOURCE PERSONS
DEPT. OF CLINICS
Dr.S. ThiJagar, Professor and Head
Dr. B. Nagarajan, Professor
DEPT. OF VETERINARY CLINICAL MEDICINE, ETHICSAND JURISPRUDENCE
Dr. S. Prathaban, Professor and Head
Dr. A. P. Nambi, Professor
Dr. P.S. Thirunavukarasu, Professor
Dr. R.v. Suresh, Professor
Dr. G. Vijayakumar, Associate Professor
Dr. P. Selvaraj, Assistant Professor
Dr. M. Chandrasekar, Assistant Professor
Dr. B. Gowri, Assistant Professor
Or. S. Kavitha, Assistant Professor
Dr. C.S. Arunaman, Assistant Professor
DEPT. OF VETERINARY SURGERY AND RADIOLOGY
Or. R. Sureshkumar, Professor and Head
Dr. R. Ganesh, Professor
Dr. C. Ramani, Associate Professor

DEPT. OF ANIMAL REPRODUCTION, GYNAECOLOGY AND OBSTETRICS

Dr. C.veerapandian, Professor and Head
Dr. S.A. Asokan, Professor
CENTRALISED CLINICAL LABORATORY
Dr. S. Vairamuthu, Associate Professor and Head
Dr. K. Senthilkumar, Assistant Professor
DEPT. OF ANIMAL GENETICS AND BREEDING
Dr. P. S. Rahamathullah, Professor and Head
Dr. J. Kalatharan, Professor
Dr. K. Thilak Pon Jawahar, Associate Professor
DEPT. OF LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT
Dr. T. Sivakumar, Professor and Head
Dr. Thanga Thamil Vanan, Associate Professor
Dr. N. Kumaravelu, Assistant Professor
DEPT. OF ANIMAL NUTRITION
Dr. V. Balakrishnan, Professor and Head
Dr. K. Viswanathan, Professor

DEPT. OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY ECONOMICS

Dr. K.N. Selvakumar, Professor and Head
Dr. M. Prabu, Assistant Professor
 DEPT. OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY EXTENSION AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Dr. P. Mathialagan, Professor and Head
Dr. N.K. Sudeepkumar, Associate Professor
DEPT. OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY STATISTICS AND COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
Dr. M. Thirunavukkarasu, Professor and Head
Dr. A. Kalaikannan, Assistant Professor
DEPT. OF VETERINARY EPIDEMIOLOGY AND PREVENTIVE MEDICINE
Dr. L. Gunaseelan, Professor and Head
. Dr. K.S. Venkataraman, Professor
Dr. M. Sekar, Associate Professor ):
Dr. K. Sathiyabama, Assistant Professor
Dr. R. Rishikesavan, Assistant Professor ,JO" t.:
~,"

DEPT. OF VETERINARY PATHOLOGY

Dr.C.Balachandran, Professor and Head
Dr. Ganne Venkata Sudhakar Rao, Associate Professor
Dr. S. Hemalatha, Associate Professor
Dr. S.M. Sakthivelan, Assistant Professor
Dr. N. Pazhanivel, Assistant Professor
Dr. N. Jayanthi, Assistant Professor
Dr. K. Krithiga, Assistant Professor

DEPT. OF VETERINARY MICROBIOLOGY

Dr. V. Ramasamy, Professor and Head
Dr. T.G. Prabhakar, Professor
Dr. J. John Kirubaharan, Associate Professor
Dr. A. Thangavelu, Associate Professor

DEPT. OF VETERINARY PARASITOLOGY

Dr. S. Abdul 8asith, Professor and Head
Dr. Bhaskaran Ravi Latha, Professor
Dr. M. Raman, Associate Professor
Dr. S. Gomathinayagam, Associate Professor
Dr. A. Sangaran, Associate Professor
Dr. C. Soundararajan, Associate Professor
Dr. N. Jayathilakan, Assistant Professor
Dr. S. Arunkumar, Assistant Professor

DEPT. OF DAIRY SCIENCE

Dr. C. Nareshkumar, Professor and Head

DEPT. OF WILDLIFE SCIENCE

Dr. M.G. Jayathangaraj, Professor and Head

DEPT. OF ANIMAL BIOTECHNOLOGY

Dr. K. Kumanan, Professor and Head
DEPT. OF LIBRARY SCIENCE
Dr. C. Balachandran, Professor and Head
Dr. G. Rathinasabapathy, Assistant Librarian
Dr. L. Rajendran, Assistant Librarian
DIRECTORATE OF CENTRE FOR ANIMAL HEALTH STUDIES
Dr. B. Murali Manohar, Director
Dr. S. Baegan, Professor
CENTRAL UNIVERSITY LABORATORY
Dr. Pari mal Roy, Professor and Head
Dr. G. Ravikumar, Associate Professor
Dr. J. Selva raj, Associate Professor
Dr. A. Wilson Santhosh Kumar Aruni, Associate Professor
Dr. S. Balakrishnan, Assistant Professor
Dr. S. Suresh Kannan, Assistant Professor
LEPTOSPIROSIS LABORATORY
Dr. Vajiravel Jayakumar, Assistant Professor
Dr. K. Manimaran, Assistant Professor
CENTRAL ANIMAL FEED AND FOOD RESIDUE ANALYTICAL LABORATORY
Dr. G. Sarath Chandra, Associate Professor, CAFFRAL

LIVESTOCK RESEARCH STATION, KATTUPAKKAM

Dr. S.N. Sivaselvam, Professor and Head
Dr. N. Ramamurthi, Professor
Dr. H. Gopi, Associate Professor
Dr. K. Krishnakumar, Associate Professor
Dr. S.T. Selvan, Associate Professor
Dr. S.M.K. Karthickeyan, Associate Professor
Dr. D. Balasubramanian, Associate Professor
Dr. K.M. Palanivel, Associate Professor
Dr. S. Nagarajan, Assistant Professor
Dr. N. Akila, Assistant Professor
Dr. P. Muthusamy, Assistant Professor
Dr. S. Jaishankar, Assistant Professor
Dr. K. Suresh Kumar, Assistant Professor
Dr. P. Veeramani, Assistant Professor
Dr. Karu. Pasupathi, Assistant Professor
Dr. J. Ramesh, Assistant Professor
Dr. S. Senthilkumar, Assistant Professor
Dr. A. Gopinathan, Assistant Professor
Dr. R. Selvam, Assistant Professor
Dr. M. Sudha, Assistant Professor
Dr. G. Prabukumar, Assistant Professor
S.No. CONTENTS Page No.

1 Tamilnadu irrigated agricultural modernisation

and water-bodies restoration and management
(IAMWARM) project - Animal husbandry component
- A bird's eye view 1
II VETERINARY CLINICAL MEDICINE, ETHICS AND
JURISPRUDENCE
Management of common ailments in domestic I tel,

animals ,ill 9
Principles of diagnostic ultrasound 13
Endoscopy in veterinary practice 17
III VETERINARY SURGERY AND RADIOLOGY
Field level minor surgeries for domestic animals 20
Radiographic techniques in farm and pet animals 23
Physical examination for lameness 28
Op h thalmology 34
IV ANIMAL REPRODUCTION, GYNAECOLOGY AND OBSTETRICS
Infertility in animals 38
V ANIMAL GENETICS AND BREEDING
Handling and maintenance of frozen semen for
better conception rate in the field 51 ,
(

VI DAIRY SCIENCE
Clean milk production 60
Quality control of milk and milk products 62
Vll ANIMAL NUTRITION
Latest concepts in animal nutrition-I 66
Latest concepts in animal nutrition-II 72
Cultivated cereal fodders 81
Preparation of mineral mixture 87
VIII LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT
Animal management, handling, housing and record
keeping 90
IX ANIMAL HUSBANDRY ECONOMICS
Livestock project preparation 95
S.No. CONTENTS Page No.

X ANIMAL HUSBANDRY STATISTICS AND COMPUTER

APPLICATIONS
Basics of computers for field veterinarians 99
Xl LIBRARY SCIENCE
Internet resources for field veterinarians 121
XII ANIMAL HUSBANDRY EXTENSION AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Personal management for field veterinarians
in efficient livestock disease management 127
Why and how to effectively communicate 133
XIII VETERINARY EPIDEMIOLOGY AND PREVENTIVE MEDICINE
Disease forecasting, surveillance and prevention 138
XIV VETERINARY MICROBIOLOGY
Collection of specimen for specific diseases 143
Disc-diffusion test of sensitivity to antibiotics 148
XV VETERINARY PARASITOLOGY
Management of parasitic diseases in domestic
animals 149
Diagnosis of parasitic diseases
d

151
t 3:~-<r
Anthelmintic resistance 158
;,rn
XVI VETERINARY PATHOLOGY ~10 ~:

Necropsy examination 160

Necropsy technique and observations 163
Clinical pathology laboratory for practising veterinarians dr., 169
XVII WILDLIFE SCIENCE . ~rtUlI1/~A
Wildlife diseases and medicine [i ¢lq9~flO:) 173
XVTII &ITW.!b6IDL ~lJlTliJtflft ,dl6IDS>UJw ;Ii f.:'
.§\6lJ6lJTU ULOlrTffi6TI 180
., 1"C".,.:)t [Q~.

IJL(llll I';1')nirn . l

; >" .
,~ ~
I
\
~
I
\.
I I
I j

!
TAMILNADU IRRIGATED AGRICULTURAL MODERNISATION AND WATER-BODIES
RESTORATION AND MANAGEMENT (lAMWARM) PROJECT -
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY COMPONENT - A BIRD'S EYE VIEW
Thiru. P.R. Shampath, I.A.S.
Commissioner of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Services
Chennai-600 006
--------------------------------------------------------------------
Agricuture forms the backbone of rural and trigger the economy by its multiplying
economy of our State as more than 60% of effects.
the people are engaged in animal husbandry,
PRESENT STATE SCENARIO
agriculture and allied activities. Animal
husb~ndry contributes significantly in Tamil Nadu is home to 96.891akhs head of
supplementing the income of small and cattle, 14.45 lakhs buffaloes, 74.84 lakhs
marginal farmers and landless labourers sheep, 89.42 lakhs goats besides 2.71 lakhs
th
many of whom are women who playa major pigs and 823.22 lakhs poultry as per the 18
role in the care and management of livestock. Livestock and Poultry Census. The livestock
Livestock is not only an important source of ownership is more evenly distributed among
income to the rural·poor but also helps them landless labourers, small and marginal
sustain their livelihood in times of drought farmers and livestock production systems are
and famine. based on low cost agro-by-products as
nutritional inputs.
Livestock provide a diverse range of
output varying from draught power and Veterinary assistance, health cover and
organic manure for agriculture, self breeding support to the livestock and poultry in
employment throughout the year especially the State is provided by 1,374 Government
for women as well as direct production of graduate veterinary institutions. In addition
milk, meat and eggs for human food. During 1,829 sub-centres provide first aid and
2007 -08, the estimated milk production was breeding support. Feed and fodder are the
55.86 lakh MT and the egg production was major limiting factors in enhanCing farm animal
8,394 million numbers. During the same productivity. In the State, a huge gap of
period, the per capita availability of milk per around 42% exists between the requirement
day was 233 gms and eggs per annum was and availability of green fodder. Though
128numbers. farmers are well aware of the artificial
insemination programme, their awareness
Animal husbandry is having a high
level on best and latest animal husbandry
potential for growth and its hidden potential
practices, know-how on emerging new
needs to be explored as this can provide the
diseases and their control are not up to the·
much needed gainful employment
expected level. More over with changing
opportunities to the weaker sections of the
global scenario, the knowledge level of the
society and can contribute significantly in
veterinarians and para-veterinarians needs to
regeneration of the rural economy. Animal
be updated frequently to take the technology
husbandry can ensure a better quality of life
instantaneously to the end users - the farmers.
for the rural farmer by not only providing
sustainable employment at their location Though the State is endowed with large
itself but can also act as assets or rural livestock population, the breedable age
currencies. Animal husbandry thus can act as females covered through artificial
a powerful instrument for the comprehensive insemination is only 30 to 35%. The
socio-economic transformation of the rural conception rate under field conditions ranges
people and can act as an engine for growth

------------------ .... from 35 to 40%. This is due to a mixture of

~----------------
factors like low nutritional status , improper * To ensure complete cattle protection
time of insemination and stress due to (Disease prevention and cure)
animals walking for long distances to the
institutions for artificial insemination ,
* To increase the conception and
calving rate in bovines
shortage of feed and fodder, prevalence of
endemic livestock diseases etc.,. In the * Enhancing the knowledge level of
State, per day average productivity of human resource in the project area
crossbred cattle and buffalo is 6.25 kg and
ACTIVITIES UNDERTAKEN BY THE
4.15 kg respectively, which is much below the
DEPARTMENT IN THE SUB BASINS
expected yield'. The productivity can be
enhanced by adopting good management 1. Productivity enhancement by
practices , feeding practices , biosecurity improving the delivery of veterinary
measures, effective disease prevention services
measures etc.
To provide veterinary services and
IAMWARM PROJECT breeding support to animals in areas where
veterinary services are not available or
To address the above issues, one of the
inadequate, Cluster Sub basin Veterinary
schemes in which the department is involved
Units are established by utilizing the services
is Tamilnadu Irrigated Agriculture
Modernization and Water-bodies Restoration
and Management project (IAMWARM
project). IAMWARM project is being
implemented at a cost of RS.2 547 crores
integrating eight Departments from 2007 to
2013 for a period of six years with the
assistance of the World Bank. A sum of
RS .39 .38 crores has been allotted to carry out
animal husbandry activities .
The prime objective is to increase the
income of farmers by improving the utilization
of each and every unit of water resource in
agriculture and related activities . The motto of unemployed veterinary graduates on
of the project is 'More income per drop of Public-Private partnership . They visit the
water' . The project is to be implemented in 63 villages as per the scheduled programme
sub basins in three phases. (Phase I - 9 sub and provide veterinary services and breeding
basins in 2007-08, Phase 11-16 sub basins in support at the farmer's doorsteps or nearest
2008-09 and Phase III - 38 sub basins in to the farmer's doorstep. Out of the 65 units
2009-10). planned to be established in the 24 sub
basins of Phase I and Phase 11,50 have been
The objectives of Animal Husbandry
established .
Department in the project are
* To increase the productivity of Necessary inputs like LN2 containers (a
livestock in the sub basins 35 Land 3 L), artificial insemination gun ,
thawing flask, basic diagnostic equipments,
* To provide veterinary services and
castrator, LN 2, frozen semen straws ,
breeding support at the farmers door
dewormers, basic medicines, vaccines and
step or nearest to the farmers door
furniture are provided free of cost. The
steps
veterinarian's are provided an assured lump
* Increasing availability of green fodder sum professional incentive of RS.8 000/- per
and other fodder for sustenance month , in addition to built in artificial

--~--------------1111~----------------
IAMWARM ~fwt. flw.i.ning. flo.:ijJd VeWtitlaltiaM 2009

insemination and calf born incentives in the
project. Apart from this, they are permitted to
collect RS . 50/- for each artificial
insemination , RS .50/- for minor treatments
and Rs.1 00/- for major treatments from the
farmers as professional charges for
themselves .
The above endeavor ensures that areas
hitherto un-serviced are covered qualitatively
by increased breeding coverage and health
cover. Further it strengthens the disease
control measures and creates livestock with
better genetic potentialities , leading to
increased productivity per animal and better
profits to farmers in the project area .
2. Bringing additional areas under
fodder cultivation thereby increasing the
availability of fodder
In our State , fodder production is still
deemed ancillary to agricultural production.
The green fodder resources for livestock are
mainly derived from grazing in grasslands
and pastures, fodder crops from cropped
lands, weeds , bund grasseR, tree leaves and
----------------~·1111~-----------------
Jlladuu rlJt1£I'Ulal'lJ-@m_/uje, @1wuwi-600 007
mixed forages . Crop residues mainly
sorghum and paddy straws which are poor in
nutritive value constitute the major fodder for
livestock. The economic viability of livestock
husbandry depends on sources of feed and
fodder, as feeding cost constitutes 65 to 70%
of the total cost of livestock farming . The
effects of better breeding and management
can largely be negatived, if the animals are
not properly fed . Better feeding alone can
bring about an increase of 30% in milk
production.
The availability of green fodder is
restricted to selected areas and seasons.
From 2002-03 to 2006-07 , the area under
permanent pastures and other grazing lands
has decreased from 1.24 lakh hectares to
1.10 lakh hectares. Moreover high population
pressure on grazing lands has led to
depletion and over exploitation of available
grazing lands. In addition rapid urbanization,
increasing pressure on land for growing food
grains, oil seeds and pulses and diversified
use of agriculture has all affected the fodder
status in the State.
In the project area a considerable gap
exists between requirement and availability
of green fodder. To propagate green fodder
CUltivation in the sub basin, around 6,500
hectares of private land will be brought under
fodder cultivation as demo plots in the sub
basin area by supply of fodder inputs like C03
slips and certified fodder seeds of kollukattai,
fodder cholam and fodder maize free of cost.
In the last two years, 2,582 ha of private
land that includes 472 ha under C03, 1,120
ha under fodder cholam , 690 ha under fodder
 maize and 300 ha under kollukattai grass
cUltivation have been additionally brought in
and 9,535 farmers were benefited . In
addition, emphasis is given to create
awareness among the farmers on feeding
unconventional feeds like sugar cane tops
and tree fodder available in the sub basin.
Apart from this, feeding of Azolla fern as
an additional feed to the livestock is
propagated by conducting demos and supply
of inputs to interested farmers free of cost.
Out of 120 demos planned in 7 sub basins of
Phase II, 60 demos have been conducted
and 600 farmers have been provided azolla
inputs free of cost during 2008-09.
------------------1111~----------------
IAMWARM ~fwt.
5'U1imng. 50. fJiJ.d 2009
3. Ensuring complete veterinary care
and increasing conception through
conduct of Fertility cum Health Care
Camps and distribution of mineral
mixture
Under Fertility cum Health Care camps,
total health cover both preventive and
curative are provided to livestock and poultry
by conducting special camps @ Rs.6 000/-
per camp in the project area . A total of 3540
camps have been planned to be conducted in
the Phase I and II sub basins during the
project period. In the last two years, 1 380
camps have been conducted and 10.17 lakh
animals and 1.58 lakh farmers have been
benefited .
In these camps, various activities like
health care, disease prevention , vaccination
against endemic diseases, deworming ,
castration, artificial insemination, pregnancy
verification, infertility treatment, etc. are
carried out free of cost. An exhibition
V~
 preventive measures, fodder
development measures, calf rally along with 4. Information, education and
demonstration are conducted for creating communication campaigns
awareness among the farmers. A calf rally is Pamphlets and
organised and best calf / calves are given leaflets on best
prizes which acts as motivation for other practices in animal
farmers . During the camps, pamphlets and husbandry, biosecurity
leaflets on best and latest animal husbandry measures to be taken to
practices, emerging new diseases and their prevent diseases,
control and optimum utilisation of fodder are economic diseases
distributed. The camps are supplemented by affecting livestock and
regular follow up visits. their prevention and
One of the major problems affecting control measures,
conception is infertility due to mineral optimum utilisation of
deficiency. To tackle the above issue, mineral fodder resources with
mixtures are distributed to needy animals in emphasis on inclusion level of non-
the project area @ 25 g per day for 365 days. conventional feeds , etc. are printed in Tamil
The animals are identified by the Cluster Sub and distributed to the farmers in the project
area . In addition, wall paintings, posters,
hoardings and banners
carrying the activities
undertaken in the
project area are
displayed in places
where people con
-gregate in large
numbers. Apart from
this, advertisements in
local cable T.V network
on promotion of animal
husbandry activities are
basin Veterinary Unit Officer's, Department being carried out.
Veterinarians and during the camps 5. Farmer's interactive meeting
conducted in the project area. In the Phase I
and Phase II sub basins, it has been planned Meetings not only enable participation of
to distribute mineral mixture to 29,500 all the farmers in the sub basin but also act as
animals and up to 2008-09, 5,000 animals a source of information to other farmers.
have benefited . Hence, regular Farmers Interactive Meetings
involving the Water Users Association ,
The conduct of the Fertility cum Health
care Camps and distribution of mineral
mixture is expected to improve the
conception and calving rate and reduce the
inter-calving period there by increasing the
productive life of the animal. The effect of
conducting Fertility cum Health care Camps
and distribution of mineral mixture is already
noticed in the project area.

--~------------~·1111~----------------
JIlo.r.fmJ_ ({)td.t.l<UL(1I'fj- ~
@1wtltai-600 007
Animal Husbandry Department officials and
other line department officials are being
carried out@ RS .1 ,000/- per meeting.
During the farmers meetings, village
folks are enlightened on the benefits of
rearing livestock and motivated to take up
livestock rearing . Pamphlets and leaflets are
distributed to the farmers. In addition, demos
are being conducted and successful animal
husbandry entrepreneurs in the village or
neighboring villages are requested to share
production potential of small ruminants is not
fully tapped due to absence of periodically
deworming by the farmers . Hence to bring in

their views on their methodology followed for

their success . Also such meetings help the
department staff to know the unique
problems affecting the area , which plays a
key role in planning of other activities like
camps or training. In the Phase I and Phase
II sub basins, it has been planned to conduct
3,016 meetings and up to 2008-09, 1,490
meetings have been conducted with a
participation of 68,002 farmers that includes
45,624 males and 22,435 females.
6. Deworming of sheep and goats
Sheep and goats are reared mainly by
natural grazing making them highly
vulnerable to parasitic infestations, leading to
many health problems like weight loss ,
delayed maturity, high mortality rate, low
fertility rate, etc., apart from making them
susceptible to other infections. This also
affects the quality at meat, skin and carcass
yield .
the practice of periodical deworming, all
sheep and goats in the project area are
dewormed periodically once in three months
free of cost for the first year at the rate of
RS.6/- per animal. During 2008-09, out of
9.12lakhs deworming planned in the Phase I
and Phase II sub basins, 4 .96 lakhs have
been completed .
7. Enhancing the knowledge level of
human resource in the project area
Continuing education is the
touchstone of success. The project
envisages capacity building at all levels like
farmer's and veterinarians operating in the
sub b~sin to achieve the desired results of
increased sustainable productivity at the end
of the project. .

To overcome all the deleterious impact a. Trainin~ ~~ !~rmers: Farmers generally

due to parasites, sheep and goat have to be have a traditional knowledge of breeding and
dewormed periodically. At present, the full management of livestock. The . existing

----------------·1111~--------------
IAMWARM ~ft«. 9'wUUtuj 9'(1.' fJidd VeWW~ 2009
awareness, knowledge level and skills in
profitable rearing of livestock with latest
animal husbandry techniques among
majority of farmers are lacking in the project
area. Hence to upgrade the skills and
knowledge level of the farmers on profitable
animal husbandry rearing , a three day
training is organized in the project at the rate
of Rs.4001- per farmer.
Under this programme , elite farmers
interested in animal husbandry activities are
given training on best practices in livestock
rearing. They are enlightened on the
importance of feeding and cultivation of
fodder crops. Emphasis is given to enlighten
the farmers on feeding of unconventional
feeds and their inclusion level. They are
briefed about the diseases generally
affecting the livestock in the sub basin and
their symptoms and control measures. In
addition, they are enlightened on the
importance of deworming, vaccination and
clean milk production. The trained farmers
help in disseminati on of the above
information to their counterparts in the
----------------41111~---------------
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information to their counterparts in the
villages.
b. Refresher Training to Field
Veterinarians
Veterinarians have an overall knowledge on
breeding , management , diagnosis and
treatment of livestock. But with advancing
science and technology, the techniques
followed may have become obsolete .
Moreover, new and simple techniques may
have evolved in animal husbandry
management, breeding , diagnosis and
treatment. Hence to take the benefits of the
above to the end users - the farmers , it is
imperative to update the knowledge and
skills of the veterinarians in Government
institutions in the project area . The
veterinarians working in the project area are
provided a 10 days refresher training in
Madras Veterinary College @ Rs.7,OOOI- per
individual. In addition , 17 veterinarians in the
Disease Diagnostic Laboratories are
provided a three days Semi-auto biochemical
analyser training in Madras Veterinary

analyser training in Madras Veterinary
College @ RsA,5001- per individual.
OUTC'OMES EXPECTED FROM THE
PROJECT
Livestock development activities ,
accounting for about 2% of the project cost
are focused on improving breed , feed and
health care management in the project area .
.. . Providing veterinary services and
breeding support at the farmer's
doorstep or nearest to the farmer's
doorstep.
* In the project area 5.26 lakh artificial
inseminations would beincrementally
performed, resulting in improving the
genetic potential of bovines as
reflected by an additional 1.66 lakhs
lactating crossbred cattle.
*- The incremental demand for green
fodder would be supplemented by
----------------~-1111~-----------------
IAMWARM ~fwt. g~
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bringing an additional 6 500 ha area
under green fodder cultivation .
*- The conduct of the Fertility cum
Health care Camps and distribution
of mineral mixture is expected to
improve the conception (from 30% to
50%) and calving rate and reduce the
inter-calving period there by
increasing the productive life of the
animal.
*- Incremental milk production in the
project area would reach 587 million
litres annually at full project
developmental stage to be reached
in year2010.
*- The overall incremental milk
production growth would ensure an
annual growth of 10% in the project
sub basins while the trend growth in
milk production in the state is over
4.4% now. By the end of the project
period, the annual incremental
production from all the project sub
basins would account for over 10% of
the state level milk production .
*- An assured 10% increase in weight
gain by periodical deworming ,
leading to increased total meat yield
per animal.
* Enhancing the knowledge level of
farmers on best animal husbandry
practices in the sub basin area
leading to more productivity per
animal.
 Veterinary Clinical Medicine

MANAGEMENT OF COMMON AILMENTS IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS

Dr. R.V. Suresh
Professor
Department of Veterinary Clinical Medicine Ethics and Jurisprudence
Madras Veterinary <2tJ-"!1ege, Chennai-600 007

--------------------------------------------------------------------
Dairy cattle are selected for high milk
production and fed large quantities of grain,
kept more commonly in total confinement
where exercise is limited all of which may
contribute to digestive dysfunction. Digestive
dysfunctions are the most common ailments
and almost form 70% of the overall disease
problems in ruminant animals. So, one must
acquire the desired skill in handling them
successfully.
1. SIMPLE INDIGESTION
It is common in dairy cattle because of
the variability in quality and the large
amounts of feed consumed. Dietary
abnormalities, indigestible roughage, low
protein intake, mouldy feeds, over heated
feeds and sudden changes in the quality and
quantity of feeds are the main causes of this
disease.
Prolonged oral antibiotic or sulphonamide
therapy inactivate microbial population
resulting in change of pH of rumen content
leading to indigestion.
According to nature and quantity of
feeds, the dysfunction may vary in character.
The ruminal motility goes down both in
frequency and amplitude. This may be due to
altered pH. Ruminal motility is very much
dependent on ruminal pH. High protein diets
including legumes or urea depress motility
because of increase in alkafinity of the
ruminal fluid due to excessive increase in the
rumen ammonia, nitrogen and decrease of
total volatile fatty acids. Heavy carbohydrate
diet may lower the pH leading to an acidic
environment and the pH may remain around
5. In this pH, there is abnormal fermentation
and over production of lactic acid. Lactic acid
causes further stasis of rumen.
Antibiotics, Sulphonamides, cold and hot
water suppress the ruminal flora thereby
interfere with cellulose digestion. Ingestion of
putrid toxic substances may lead to
toxaemia. In toxaemia, rumen contractions
are absent. There may also be liberation of
toxic amides, amines and histamine which
induces ruminal atony.
The clinical profiles of simple indigestion
are anorexia, dullness, depression, atony of
rumen and reduced ruminal content pH.
There is not much alteration in the number of
infusoria.
Simple indigestion should be differentiated
from Acetonemia, Traumatic reticulo
peritonitis, Vagus indigestion, Abomasal
displacement and carbohydrate engorge
-ment.
Treatment
1. Starvation forfewdays.
2. Correction of ruminal pH to activate
the ruminal microbial population. If
the pH is acidic, then neutralise it
with antacid like Magnesium
carbonate or Magnesium hydroxide
200 - 400 gms, orally. Magnesium
trisilicate, sodium bicarbonate and
Aluminum hydroxy gel may also be
added. If the pH is alkaline in nature,
neutralise it with acetic acid
(Vinegar) 5-10% solution at the rate
of2 ml/kg b.wtorally.

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 3. Rumen cud transplantation
Fresh ruminal fluid from healthy
cattle is to be collected and fed to the
affected one. Goat's ruminal fluid
may alternatively be given.
4. Mineral oil 2 to 4 liters to evacuate
indigestible ingesta and facilitate
slower absorption of toxic materials.
5. In overfeeding, saline purgative
drench of Magnesium sulphate
(Epsom salt) 400 to 600 gms may be
given for evacuation of the rumen.
6. In severe cases, low dose of
parasympathomimetic drugs like
Neostigmine 2.5 mg 145 kg b.wt Sic.
may be'used to induce peristalsis.
7. Rehydrate the animal by 5%
Dextrose through parenteral route.
2. SIMPLE INACTIVITY OF RUMINAL
FLORA AND FAUNA
Animals fed on coarse fibered forage,
deficiency and nutrients, treatment with
antibiotic or sulphonamides can give rise to
this disease.
The clinical signs are decreased milk
production, weight loss, rough hair coat, alopecia,
poor quality semen, pica and recurrent tympany.
Rumen fluid is grayish brown, watery, alkaline
pH, fast sedimenta tion activity, less of
infusoria and methylene blue reduction time
(MBRT) more than 6 minutes. Faeces is dry
and covered with mucus.
Treatment
Change of ration, supplementation of
minerals and trace elements in diet and
inoculation of rumen contents.
Rumen alkalosis
The incidence of rumen alkalosis in
ruminants is comparatively less than
acidosis. It occurs in protein rich feed, urea
poisoning, drinking of contaminated and
sewerage water and high nitrate content in
forage.
The clinical signs are inappetence or
anorexia, constant drooling of saliva,
depressed rumen motility, inhibition of rumen
--------------------.~~-------------------
IAMWARM ~fwt gttaUUnff go. fJ;dd VeWtitUl!tia.M 2009
activity, ruminal tympany, increased pulse
and respiration rates and passage of
semisolid faeces. Urea positioning may stlow
convulsion, ophisthotonus and death. The
pH of rumen fluid is 7.0 to 8.5 and has smell of
ammonia.
Treatment
1. 2.5% kitchen vinegar 1 to 2 litre
orally.
2. 5% acetic acid 5 to 10 mllkg b.wt
orally.
til
f; 3. Antibiotic Tetracycline orally to
prevent further production of
ammonia.
4. Rumen cud transplantation.
5. Change the diet to readily digestible
carbohydrate (grain, molasses and
good quality hay).
6. For paresis, Calcium - Magnesium
solutions may be administered
parenterally. Ringers lactate solution
may be tried.
3. RUMEN PUTREFACTION
Putrefaction of rumen ingesta
infrequently results from over growth of
microflora that decompose feed material in a
putrefactive manner. The existence of a high
rumen fluid pH, as occurs with high protein
feeds, repeated inoculation with abnormal
bacteria allow the development of the
putrefactive decomposition. Fermented
feeds undergoing spoilage, feed and water
contaminated with faeces, contaminated
concentrates supply the offending microflora
which include Coliform group and Proteus
spp. This type of abnormal decomposition is
normally inhibited by the existence of an
active physiologic microflora.
Cattle may have decreased rumen
motility, poor appetite, recurrent ruminal
tympany, intermittent diarrhoea and low milk
yield. The rumen fluid is black green in
colour, foamy watery, foul putrefactive odour,
pH 7.5 to 8.5, poor protozoal and bacterial ,
activity. The treatment of this conditions is
similar to alkalosis.
4. RUMEN ACIDOSIS COMPLEX
The term "Rumen Acidosis" is used
to the acute disease of the rumen caused by
excessive production of lactic acid due to
grain engorgement (Rumen lactic acidosis).
Further, pathological changes can take place
in the acid - base statuses of the rumen
contents which may also be referred to as
rumen acidosis.
.
Chronic latent rumen acidosis
There is hyperacidity attributable to a
great increase in the total amount of organic
acids with simultaneous shift in the
proportions of short chain fatty acids within
the total amount. They do not cause disease
and the adverse effects on the system and
metabolism will be evident only when there is
regular recurrence or persistence of the
hyperacidity for a prolonged time.
Treatment
1. Minimum structured roughage 1S-
20% dry matter.
2. Biological feeding i.e 4 to 6 portion of
concentrate with simultaneous or
alternate feeding with roughage,
buffer to concentrate ration (Sodium
bicarbonate 1% or Bentonite 2 to 3%
and periodic addition of antibiotic in
feedlot to prevent liver abscess are
recommended.
Latent hydrochloric acidosis
The rumen pH of both young and adult
cattle is altered by black flow abomasal
contents (Abomasal reflux) containing
hydrochloric acid. This condition occurs in
omasal transport failure (Anterior functional
stenosis), pyloric stenosis (Posterior functional
stenosis), abomasitis, abomasal ulcer and
peritoritis. Abomasal reflux interfere with
passage of ingesta through the abomasum
and lead to more or less pronounced increase
in the total acidity to a reduction in buffer
exhaustion to a decrease in the pH.
Treatment
The primary cause should be treated with
correction of fluid and electrolyte loss and
removal of rumen content.
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Acute lactic acidosis
It occurs as an acute engorgement with
carbohydrate substance mostly in dairy
cattle, goat and sheep. Rice, wheat, barley
and corn grains when grounded and fed to
animals are more toxic when ingested in
large quantities. Cooked rice, overnight
stored rice and vegetable waste are also
toxic to animal. All these substances are
readily fermented by the ruminal microflora
and produce more toxic effects .
Mild lactacidosis can also occur with
gradually increasing proportions of
concentrates in the ration with simultaneous
decline of the rumen pH to S. In this pH, apart
from voltatile fatty acids (VFA), lactic acid is
increasingly formed due to the fact that
microorganisms producing lactic acid now
find a favourable pH for multiplication. This
hyperacidity occurs at intervals and may lead
to temporary refusal of feed by the animal, as
a regulatory process until the pH rises again
on account of saliva flow, absorption of acid
and transport of acidic rumen contents into
the abomasum.
Treatment
1. Oral antacids with Magnesium oxide
or Sodium bicarbonate 100-300 g.
2. Baker's or Brewer's yeast 1 to 2 kg as
a source of thiamine.
3. Change of feed to straw or hay
should be recommended.
4. Oral antibiotic at 6-S hourly intervals
to control pathogeniC microbes.
5. Rumen cud transplantation to revive
the rumen microbes.
6. Parenteral Physiological saline to
correct dehydration
7. Inj. Vit B, 2 to 4 gms should be
administered partly ilm and party ilv
regularly along with antihistamine.
S. In severe cases - rumenotomy is
necessary.
5. RUMINAL TYMPANY (BLOAT)
Bloat is a disease of ruminants. It occurs
either due to excessive production of gas or
physical obstrUction of the process of
eructation of gas. The rumen and reticulum
are filled with gases of fermentation due to
excessive intaKe of easify fermentabfe foods.
It is called as frothy bloat as there is lot of
production of foam within the rumen. Acute
frothy bloat and oesophageal obstruction are
two emergency situations that can become
rapidly fatal.
The clinical signs, observed in affected
animal are dull, complete anorexia,
depression, obvious distension in the upper
left para lumbar fossa, extension of head and
neck, protrusion of tongue, champing of
mouth, grinding of teeth, marked dyspnoea,
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mouth breathing, salivation, increased l
thoracic type of respiration. Cyanosis
of mucous membrane, tachycardia, projectile;
vomition of ruminal ingesta, constipation or
diarrhoea and hypomotility of rumen.
Treatment
Affected animals are to be kept
with their anterior portion remain elevated
over posterior part to reduce pressure'.
on diaphragm. Probang is to be passed
into the rumen and mineral oil or vegetable I
oil can be introduced directly into,
the rumen in frothy bloat. It will also help I .
in clearing oesophageal obstruction and r
release accumulated gas in the rumen;
and reticulum otherwise oesophagotomy I
is to be done to relieve the obstruction.
 Veterinary Clinical Medicine

PRINCIPLES OF DIAGNOSTIC ULTRASOUND

Dr. S. Prathaban
Professor and Head
Department of Veterinary Clinical Medicine Ethics and Jurisprudence
Madras Veterinary College, Chennai-600 007
----------------------------------~------------------- --------------
Ultrasound interactions are highly
interactive. Accurate interpretation depends
directly on the abnormal anatomy. Unlike
other imaging modalities interpretation is
required at the time of the study. It is merely
impossible to render a meaningful
interpretation from another sonographers;
static images to videotape.
PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES
Ultrasound is characterized by sound
waves with frequency higher than the upper
range of human hearings, approximately
20,000 cycles per second (20 KHz).
One cycle per second - One hertz
1000 cycle per second - 1 Kilo hertz
1 million cycle per second - 1 Mega hertz
2-10 MHz are commonly employed in
diagnostic examination.
Normally each transducer (scan head)
emits sound waves of only one frequency.
The sonographer must select the appropriate
transducer frequency according to the
anatomic region to be examined. Frequency
is defined as the number of times a wave is
repeated (cycles/ second). Frequencies in
millions of cycles per second have short
wave lengths that are essential for high
resolution imaging. Wave length is the
distance that a wave travels during one cycle.
Shorter the wave length better will be the
resolution. Frequently and wave length are
inversely related. If the sound velocity within
the medium remains constant. Since sound
and velocity is independent of frequency and
nearly constant (1540 / s) in the body's soft
tissues, selecting a higher frequently
transducer will result in decreased wave
length of the emitted sound, providing better
resolution.
Velocity = Frequency (cycles/ sec) x
wave length (m)
The wavelengths of commonly used
ultrasound frequencies can be determined by
rearranging this ea,uati('n. Ultra sound
scanners assume constant velocity of sound
within soft tissues even though slight
differences in these media result in high
reflection and improper echo interpretation.
This strong reflection is due to a combination
of an abrupt change in sound velocity or
destiny of the media (acoustic impedience) at
a soft tissue -bone or soft tissues is directly.
The depth of which sound penetrates into soft
tissues is directly related to the frequency
employed. Higher frequency sound waves
are attenuated more than the lower
frequency waves. Any attempt improve
resolution by increasing the frequency will
invariably decrease the penetration.
TRANSDUCER SELECTION
1. Single frequency transducer (Scan
head)
2. Multi frequency transducer
Multifrequency transducers generally
have the disadvantages of slower frame
rates, which limit their use to imaging
primarily static structures. Advances in
transducer technology now allow
simultaneous imaging of the near and far .
fields with sound waves of different
frequencies:This allows maximum resolution
possibilities for a given depth, without having
to switch transducers.

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DIRECTIONS
Choose the highest frequency (eg.
Resolution) that will penetrate to the depth
needed for particular examination.
Small dogs: 7.50r 10 MHz
Medium sized dogs: 5 MHz
Large dogs: 3 MHz
Sonography typicaJJy switches the
transducer several times throughout an
examination to optimize the trading between
resolution and penetration depending on the
organ of interest.
Other factors affecting resolution and
ability to separate adjacent structures are
1. Ultrasound pulse strength
2. Beam diameter
3. Resolution of the video-monitor
The parameters usually cannot be
altered by the sonographer with a given
transducer at the time of examination.
However the depth at which the beam is
narrowest (focal point) may be altered with
selective or dynamic focusing in newer
ultrasound equipment. .
AXIAL RESOLUTION
Ultrasound imaging is based on the pulse
echo principle. Sound is produced by the
transducer rather than continuously.
Adequate time must be allowed for all echoes
to return before the transducer is pulsed
again. When the crystal is pulsed
approximately 2-3 wavelengths are emitted
in each pulse before a backing block in the
transducer dampens the vibration thus a
spatial pulse length is commonly 2-3 wave
lengths long. It is the pulse length which in
turn is dependent on the transducer
frequency that determines the ability to
separate points along the axis of the sound
beam (axial resolution). Axial resolution
cannot be better than one half of the pulse
length because of the overlap of the returning
echoes reflected of interfaces spaced closely
together. Lateral resolutions refer to the
ability to resolve adjacent points
perpendicular to the axis of the sound beam.
This is a dependant on ultrasound beam
diameter which varies with transducer
frequency and the distance from the
transducer.
Maximum lateral resolution is at the focal
pOint. (Focal point is the center of the
narrowest part of the beam). Resolution
decreases as one move away from the focal
point, but acceptable lateral resolution is
found for several centimeters along the beam
axis on either side of the focal point. Axial
resolution in most scanners is superior to
lateral resolution, consequently all
measurements should be taken along the
beam axis possible.
SCANNER CONTROLS
In every real time ultrasound scanner the
controls are given a variety of names
depending on the manufacturer. There is only
one control to alter the intensity of sound
output from the transducer whereas the other
controls are used to adjust amplification of
the returning echoes.
POWER GAIN
The power control modifies voltage
applied to pulse the piezo electric crystal
there by regulating the intensity of the sound
output from the transducer.
TIME GAIN
The echo return time is directly related to
the depth of the reflecting surface. Increasing
the gain as the length of echo return time
increase will selectively compensate for
weaker echoes arriving at the transducer
from deeper structures.
MODES OF DISPLAY
1 . A mode (Amplitude mode)
Less frequently used but still has a special
use for ophthalmic examinations and other
applications requiring precise length or depth
measurements.
2. B mode (Brightness mode)
Based on gray scale or brightness

----------------~·IIDI~-----------------
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 3. M mode (Time motion mode)
Used in echocardiography.
LIVER
Ultrasonography evaluation of liver size
is based on subjective assessment. An
increased distances between the stomach
and diaphragm and caudal displacement and
ventral covering of the right kidney by liver
indicates hepatomegaly. A single longitudinal
measurement at the mid portion of the liver
has been used in-humans to evaluate liver
size. Normally liver is equal to a lightly more
echogenic than the cortex of the right kidney
at the same scanning depth and instrument
gain settings. The spleen has somewhat
higher echo intensity than the liver. Therefore
changes in echogenicity indicate that one or
more organs are abnormal. Portal and
hepatic veins are easily recognized. The
branches of portal vein can be distinguished
from the hepatic veins by their echogenic
peripheral echoes caused by fibro fatty
tissue. Gall bladder is seen as an round to
oval structure just to the right of midline. The
gall bladder is seen as an oval structure just
to the right of mid line. The gall bladder wall is
usually not well seen. Liver parenchymal
abnormalities, cysts, haematoma and
neoplasia of the liver, Gall bladder
abnormalities and portosystemic shunts can
be detected by ultrasonography.
SPLEEN
Ultrasonography examination of spleen
is useful clinically to determine the size,
location and presence of parenchymal
abnormalities. The main indications for the
examinations are generalized splenomegaly,
mass lesions and haemoperitoneum.
PANCREAS
The pancreas is a difficult organ to
evaluate by most abdominal imaging
methods. A 5.0 or 7.5 MHz transducer is
preferred in dogs. Diagnostic hydroperitoneum
may be also be useful to enhance pancreatic
visualization when other non-invasive
methods fail. Pancreatitis does not always
produce sufficient changes within the
pancreas for detection by ultrasonography
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Pancreatic disease is usually diagnosed by
recognizing an enlarged pancreas or an ill
defined, hypoechoic to complex mass in the
pancreatic region. .
KIDNEYS
A 5.0 MHz transducer is adequate for
most dogs. Normal relationship of kidney
echogenicity to that of liver and spleen is
important for recognising major
abnormalities. The renal cortex is similar or
slightly less echogenic than normal liver
parenchyma and quite a bit less echogenic
than splenic parenchyma. Size of the kidney
also aids in the assessment of the kidney.
Diffuse disease involving the kidneys have
been separated in to those that cause
increased cortical echogenicity with
enhanced cortico medullary definition
between the cortex and medulla. Increased
cortical echogenicity can be found with
glomerular and interstitial nephritis and acute
tubular necrosis or nephrosis as a result of
toxic agents or ethylene glycol toxicosis, end
stage renal disease and parenchymal
calcification. In dogs with hyper calcemic
nephropathy a hyperechoic band has been
observed at the cortico medullary junction
during ultrasonography.. Renal masses and
nephroliths are also detected during
ultrasonography.
URINARY BLADDER
Urinary bladder is readily examined
when distended with rine and can serve as a
useful acoustic window for visualizing colon,
uterus or iliac lymph nodes, calculi, tumor
and blood clots are also recorded.
GASTRO-INTESTINAl TRACT
A wide range of gastric distension is
observed in dogs. Intussusceptions, ileus,
inflammatory bowel and neoplastic diseases
are diagnosed easily with the aid of
ultrasound.
GENITAL TRACT
Ultrasound is extenSively used for the
diagnosis of ovarian, uterine diseases and
pregnancy diagnosis. Pregnancy can be
diagnosed as early as sixteen days and the
()()7
viability and number of the fetuses are
assessed. Prediction of gestational age is
also attempted in the dogs but sexing of the
foetus is not successful.
LARGE ANIMAL PRACTICE
For ultrasound scanning in bovine a 3.5
MHz probe is commonly used. A 5 MHz rectal
probe is used for scanning the uterus and
ovaries. Pregnancy diagnosis can be done
early and foetal structures is an addit~onal
advantage in ultrasonography. GestatIonal
age of the foetus can also be calculated ~n
ovaries and bovines. Sexing of the foetus IS
---------------.1111~--------------
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also attempted based on the position of the
genital tubercle.
In addition fatty infiltration of the liver
which is a major cause for the occurrence of
periparturient and post parturient diseases
can be diagnosed by ultrasonography.
Rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum
can be imaged and diseases like traumatic
reticulitis, abomasal displacement, ulcer are
diagnosed early using ultrasonography.
Other organs like kidney, heart and pancreas
are also evaluated.
 Veterinary Clinical Medicine
ENDOSCOPY IN VETERINARY PRACTICE
Dr. B. Nagarajan
Professor
Department of Clinics
Madras Veterinary College, Chennai-600 007
----------------~------------------------------------- --------------
Endoscopy is widely used to diagnose transmitted electronically to video monitor
various systemic disorders. It gives more from the distal tip of the endoscope where its
information about the internal environment of sensed by a charge coupled device chip
the organs. It helps in diagnosis of anatomical (CCD).Fibreoptic images can be transmitted
abnormalities like stricture, displacement, to video monitors and accessories by
torsion, compression growth like nodules, attaching a CCD camera to the eyepiece of
tumors, ulcers, polyps, bleeding points, the endoscope. Both flexible and rigid
foreign bodies, rupture of the organs and all endoscopes may accommodate the passage
pathological changes. of the flexible accessory instruments. Biopsy
and foreign body retrieval instruments are
EndoscopiC biopsy of internal organs are
commonly used. Many other accessory
highly useful in classification confirmation
instruments like grasping forceps, cytology
diagnosis and treatment of various diseases.
brushes, aspiration tubing, injection and
Endoscopy is a common term and
aspiration needles, polypectomy snares and
depending on the organ in which the
coagulation electrodes electrosurgery or
procedure is used it is recognized in various
laser surgery are used depending upon the
names like oesophagoscopy, gastroscopy,
need. The three common light sources used
duodenoscopy, colonoscopy, otoscopy,
in endoscopes are xenon, metal halide and
rhinoscopy, bronchoscopy, pharyngoscopy,
tungsten halogen, power ranging from 25-
vaginoscopy, urethrocystoscopy.
500W.
Depending upon the animal, organ, age,
In small animal practice, the patient
and application the size, shape, utility
should be anasethetised before endoscopy
accessories of the instrument will vary. Two
to prevent damage to the endoscopes by
types of endoscopes are in use; one is rigid
chewing. In large animals endoscopy can be
and other is flexible. Rigid endoscopes are
performed. without anaethesia or with slight
used commonly for otoscopy, rhinoscopy,
sedation since the instrument can be passed
u rethrocystoscopy in females and
through nostrils easily.
laparoscopy. Flexible endoscopes are
commonly used for oesophagoscopy, OESOPHAGOSCOPY
gastroscopy, duodenoscopy, colonoscopy,
After preparing the animal under
rhinoscopy, anterior and posterior nares,
anesthesia head and neck should be
guttural pouch examination in horses,
extended, the endoscope is directed
pharyngoscopy, bronchoscopy, vaginoscopy
centrally through the oropharynx and guided
and urethrocystoscopy in males.
dorsally to larynx so that the cranial
Flexible endoscopes available as esophageal sphincter (CES) comes into
fibroscopes and videoendoscopes. The view. The CES is the entrance of the
difference between the two relates to the esophagus and is normally closed appearing
system for sensing and transmitting images. as a star shaped area of folded mucosa
In the flexible fibreoptic endoscope the image dorsally to the larynx.
is carried from the subject being examined to
With insufflation and minimal pressure
the eyepiece via bundles of optical glass
against CES, the tip of the scope is easily
fibres. In videoendoscopes the image is

----------------~·IIiI~-----------------
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advanced through the lower resistant
sphincter into the cervical oesophagus. The
cervical oesophagus is normally collapsed,
insufflation of the air makes lumen clear
minimum amount of clear fluid or foam or
empty appearance is the normal oesophagus.
As the oesophagus passes over the base of
the heart the outline of the pulsating aorta
against the oesophageal wall forms a useful
landmark. Gastroesophageal sphincter
usually forms a slit like opening that is
centrally located at the confluence of small
radial folds configured in a rosette pattern.
Megaesophagus will appear as a flaccid,
pendulus oesophagus draped over the
adjacent structures. Nodules, diverticulum,
stricture, obstruction hernia and esophagitis
can be recognized by endoscopy.
GASTROSCOPY
It helps in detecting abnormalities of the
gastric mucosa distortion of stomach normal
anatomic relationship by displacement or
extrinsic compression by adjacent organ
involvement, growth nodules hypertrophy
ulcers foreign body can be detected.
As the endoscope advances into
gastroesophageal junction, gastric lumen is
seen. Rugal folds are seen generally at the
greater curvature of the body. Partially
collapsed stomach can be visualized by
insufflating a small amount of air so that the
distension should be atleast to the point that
the rugal folds begin to separate. This helps
in spatial orientation and identification of
most gross abnormalities. As the scope is
advanced through the proximal stomach,
gastric body can be visible thoroughly by
using the control knobs to deflect the
endoscope tip or by rotating the insertion
tube with right hand. The endoscope is
advanced along the greater curvature until
the angulus is identified. The angulus
appears as large fold that extends from
lesser curvature. The angulus is the area
which separates the body of the stomach
from the antrum. Once the antrum is reached
pyloric canal is viewed. Endoscope can be
advanced through the pyloric canal to
examine the duodenum for thorough
-------------------ImII~-----------------
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examination of cardia and fundus; the scope
must be retroflexed as the scope is advanced
along the greater curvature to the level of the
distal body. The inner control knob is turned
counterclockwise with the left thumb and as
the endoscope is gradually advanced the
angulus can be seen.
ENTEROSCOPY
Indications include clinical signs like
vomiting diarrhea hematemesis melena
change in appetite and weight loss. Most
commonly recommended when signs are
chronic and acute signs fail to resolve in a
reasonable period. Biopsy samples obtained
from the upper small intestine are
representative of the intestinal disorder
present in majority of the patients. Duodenal
fluid aspirated into tubing passed through the
endoscope can be examined for Giardia
organism. Useful also in cases of gastric
bleeding. Tumors involving the small bowel
mucosa can be diagnosed by biopsy.
COLONOSCOPY
Many a"imals with signs of the large (
bowel diarrhea, diagnosing infiltrative
disorders like lBO, fungal infection neoplasia
stricture and intussuception masses. Other
potential indications include hematochezia,
chronic vomiting dyschezia tenesmus
constipation. .
RHINOSCOPY
It is the visualization of the nasal cavity.
Examination can be anterior rhinoscopy
evaluating nasal cavity using an approach
through external nares, and posterior
rhinoscopy involves evaluating the choanae
and nasopharynx by inserting the
endoscopic instrument through the oral
cavity, maneuvering around the free edge of
the soft palate looking backwards towards
the choanae.
Indications include sneezing reverse
sneezing nasal discharge epistaxis stertor
stridor facial swelling .Rhinoscopy is also
indicated when a specific diagnosis is
suspected and biopsy or culture specimen is
needed to confirm the location and extent of
disease. Also used for removing foreign
V~
bodies instillation of the drugs in the sinuses
with aspergilloses infection or removing
nasal polyp.
TRACHEOBRONCHOSCOPY
Indications of this method include acute
cough for which a foreign body is a suspected
cause, chronic cough that has an unknown
cause or does not respond to standard
therapy, unexplained lung infiltrate, abnormal
breathing problem, tracheal collapse, chronic
bronchitis, distinction of cardiac and
respiratory origin cough, stridor, metastatic
pulmonary neoplasia, removal of mucoid
infiltrate in atelectatic lung lobes.
CYSTOSCOPY
During cystoscopy the bladder mucosa
can be examined when the wall of this organ
is distended.The magnified cystoscopic
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image is much more revealing than the one at
the open surgery when bladder is incised
and is contracted. A wide variety of
procedures can be performed during
cystoscopy. Rigid, flexible and percutaneous
all allow direct visualization, biopsy and
photography. Light sources used for the other
endoscopic equipments are adaptable to
most of the cystoscopes.
Indications include hematuria, recurrent
urinary tract infection, lower urinary tract
infection, urolithiasis, Urinary incontinence,
bladder tumours, urethral obstruction,
suspected trauma and renal disease.
Iatrogenic rupture of the urethra during
cystoscopy is usually due to use of excessive
force and operator's inexperience.
 Veterinary Surgery and Radiology

FIELD LEVEL MINOR SURGERIES FOR DOMESTIC ANIMALS

-------------------------------~------.--------------- --------------
TYPES OF ANAESTHESIA
1. Local anaesthesia
2. Regional anaesthesia
3. General anaesthesia
ANAESTHESIA
by surface application - subcutaneous
injections and field anaesthesia by blocking an
area of skin by linear infiltration.
by perineural injections - spinal anaesthesia consisting
of (a) epidural injection
(b) $ub arachnoid injection.
By using volatile and non volatile general
anaesthetic agents.

PREMEDICANTS INJECTABLE ANAESTHETICS

Preanaesthetic medication helps
both anaesthetist and animal to make the
induction and maintenance of anaesthesia
easier for the anaesthetist. It renders the
experience safer and more comfortable for
the patient.
Anticholinergic agents
a. Atropine
Dose rate
dogs 0.02-0.05 mg/kg
cats 0.1 mg/kg
Pigs 0.3-1.8 mg/Kg
b. Glycopyrrolate
Dose rate 0.01 - 0.02 mg Ikg. It is a
drug of choice in horses and cats.
c. Benzodiazepines
1. Diazepam (Calmpose, Valium) It
can be given at the dose of
0.05-4 mg/kg intravenously.
2. Midazolam: Midazolum (0.3 mg/kg)
and droperidol (0.5 mg Ikg) also
produces excellent sedation.
d. Adrenoceptor
1. Xylazine
Dose- Dogs & Cats 0.5 - 1 mg and
1-2mg
Ketamine
Ketamine hydrochloride is an analogue
of phencyclidine with a short duration of
action. When used alone it fails to produce
good skeletal muscle relaxation .To eliminate
these side effects diazepam, or midazolam
are used concurrently with ketamine.
The dose of ketamine in cats is 5-20 mg
per Ib intramuscularly depending on the
condition and age. They become recumbent
in 1-8 mts and the duration of anesthesia is
for 30-40 mins. It is also given intravenously
at the rate of 2-4 mg per Ib and found
satisfactory in dogs and cats.
GENERAL SURGERY
Tenet's of Halstead (1852 - 1922)
1. Gentle handling of tissues
2. Aseptic Surgery
3. Anatomical dissection
4. Control of hemorrhage
5. Obliteration of dead space
6. Use of a minimum quantity of suture
material 7. Avoidance of suture tension
8. Immobilization
Hernia
A hernia is the protrusion of an organ or \
tissue through an opening. The opening may

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be one caused by a tear in the abdominal wall
or diaphragm or it may be a natural opening
like the inguinal canal or femoral canal.
Parts of hernia
A typical hernia has a hernial ring and
the hernial sac. The hernial sac encloses the
hernial contents and consists of the neck,
body and fundus. The neck is that portion of
the hernial sac close to the hernial ring, the
fundus is the lowest part and the body is the
portion between the fundus and neck. The
hernial sac is formed by the parietal
peritoneum.
Portions of visceral organs (e.g.
intestines, omentum, liver, spleen, bladder,
uterus) usually form the hernial contents.
Tne sac ffia» SDffie\)ffieS 'De emp\».
Umbilical hernia
(Omphalocele; Exomphalos)
A hernia situated in the umbilical
region is known as umbilical hernia. The
contents usually consist of omentum or
intestines.
Treatment
(1) In the case of foals and calves below
one year and puppies below six months
spontaneous recovery may take place
when the animal grows. Recovery may be
accelerated by reducing the contents and
putting an "elastoplast" bandage. In
favourable cases, the hernial ring closes up
within two to three weeks. (2) Radical
operation is preferably done under general
anaesthesia. The skin over the hernia is
incised by an elliptical or linear incision: (If
the peritoneal sac is present it is the
peritoneum.) The contents are reduced
through the hernial ring and the edges of the
ring are freshened and sutured. "Double
breasting".is sometimes preferred for closing
the hernial opening. This is done by suturing
the respective pairs of superficial and deep
muscle sheaths of the rectus abdominis
muscle so that the muscle bellies of either
side will slightly overlap each other at this
point. If the edges cannot be brought together
a piece of sterile stainless steel wire mesh cut
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to the required size and shape can be sutured
and fixed in position to cover the gap of the
hernial ring.
After the hernial ring has been properly
closed the skin edges are also sutured, after
removing any excess skin.
Rumenotomy
Indications: Exploratory. Foreign body
reticulitis. Severe impaction.
Technique
A vertical incision about 6 to 8 inches
long is made commencing about 2 inches
below the level of the lumbar transverse
process. The abdominal muscles and the
parietal peritoneum are traversed by a direct
:(i'"(ij(~htJfI "CtJil~"j)tfi'iUrrt"9 \-u \TiC: "S1~(i'"1 ;(i'"(ij~(i)TI.
The wound is kept retracted and the rumen
wall is fixed to the skin edges by a set of
temporary through-and-through mattress
sutures before opening into the rumen.
Ashort incision is made on the rumen and this
is extended enough to permit easy access by
hand into the rumen and reticulum. The
rumen contents contents are removed
without contaminating the peritoneal cavity
by proper packing. The reticulum can also be
examined by stretching the hand through the
rumen. The large rumeno-reticular passage,
the oesophageal groove, and the opening of
oesophagus into the stomach are also
palpable this way.
The temporary fixation sutures of the
rumen to the skin are removed only after the
incision on the rumen wall is closed by
inversion sutures. Connel's or Cushing's
sutures are used to close the rumen,
commencing Slightly above and extending a
little below the line of incision. A continuous
Lembert's suture is also placed over this.
The parietal peritoneum and muscles are
closed by continuous .suture. The skin
incision is closed by vertical mattress sutures
or ordinary interrupted apposition sutures.
Patellar desmotomy in bovine
Site: Close to the insertion of the medial
ligament to the anterior tuberosity of tibia.
This is the most suitable site as it is easier to
 locate, causes .lesser bleeding and there is
no danger of injuring the joint capsule.
Open technique: A sufficiently long
vertical incision, 2 to 3 em., is made at the site
described above, cutting through the skin
and subcutaneous fascia, and through it the
ligament is pulled out with a tenaculum and is
cut. Instill about 1 ml. Of Tr. Iodine into the
wound before it is sutured.
Closed technique (Blind technique): A
small i,ncision or stab wound is made at the
site, through the skin and subcutaneous
fascia, and a scalpel (or, a probe-pointed
tenotomy knife) is introduced flat-wise under
the ligament from its posterior aspect until the
tip of the scalpel/knife can be palpated
anteriorly under the skin in the space
between the medical and median patellar
ligaments. Afterwards turn the sharp edge of
the knife towards the ligament to cut it by a
sawing movement. Then the knife is turned
back to the flat-wise position and is
withdrawn. No suture is necessary if the
wound is small.
Castration (Orchiectomy) in dog
Sites: Pre-Scrotal site: Mid-line in front of
the scrotum.
Technique
One testis is pushed forward to bring it
under the skin over the ventral aspect of
sheath. An incision is placed over it in the
mid-line and the testis is squeezed out by
mild pressure between thumb and finger.
The other testis is removed similarly through
the same opening. The skin wound is closed
, preferably by subcuticular sutures.
Oopherectomy in bitch
Anaesthesia and control
General anaesthesia
Lateral recumbency
Site
Right flank
Technique
Perform laparotomy through the flank
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site. The right ovary with its bursa is held with
fingers. A ligature is applied anterior to.the
ovary and another one behind it, around the
respective vascular connections. The
ovarian bursa is opened and the ovary is
removed leaving the bursa. The other ovary
also is removed in a similar manner and the
laparotomy would is closed as usual.
Panhysterectomy in bitch
Indications
1. Chronic endometritis or pyometra
2. Neoplastic or other incurable lesions
affecting the uterus
Anaesthesia and control
General anaesthesia
Dorsal recumbency
Site
From a point a little behind the umbilicus
backwards along the midline over a length of
3to 5 inches
Technique
Perform. laparotomy. The anterior
ovarian ligament is cut. Ligate the anterior
utero-ovarian vessels. The ovarian bursa is
cut across its middle to expose the ovary.
The ovary is disconnected from its anterior
attachment. After both ovaries are freed in
this manner, the posterior uterine arteries are
ligated and cut in level with the cervix. The
broad ligament of the uterus is torn to liberate
the uterine cornua. Apply two clamps
anterior to the cervix and cut in between them
to finally disconnect and remove the uterus
with the ovaries. (This amputation can be
done posterior to the cervix, instead 01
anteriorly, if so desired.)The stump can be
either closed by inversion sutures when the
clamp is removed ("Parker - Kerr" sutures),
or may be just ligated. The stump may then
be covered with a fold of omentum stitched
to it. The laparotomy wound is sutured as
usual.
 Veterinary Surgery and Radiology

RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES IN FARM AND PET ANIMALS

Dr. R. Ganesh
Professor
Department of Veterinary Surgery and Radiology
Madras Veterinary College, Chennai-600 007
--------------------------------------------------------------------
INTRODUCTION
X-rays were discovered by German
Physicist on November 8, 1895. X- rays are
electromagnetic radiations of high energy
and low and short wavelength.
Electromagnetic radiation is a new method of
transporting energy through the space and is
differentiated by its wavelength, frequency
and energy. Electromagnetic radiation is a
combination of electric and magnetic fields
that travel together. The velocity of
electromagnetic radiation is the product of
frequency and wavelength.
Velocity (m/sec) = frequency (per
second) X wavelength (m)
EXPOSURE FACTORS, POSITIONING
ANIMALS AND VIEWS
Milliampere[ma1 and time [seconds] and
kilovolt peak [kvpJ, thickness of body are the
deciding factors to get good radiographic
image. Milliampere [mAl and time [seconds]
decide the quantum of electron clouds which
in turn produce good number of electrons
available to hit the target so that sufficient
quantity of X- rays are produced. When the
milliampere is low, the quatity of X-rays
produced is low which in turn results in less
reacting X-rays . The electrical current that
heats the filament is measured in
milliampere. When the milliampere (mA) is
increased the number of electrons are
increased. The number of X-rays produced at
the anode is dependent on the size of
electron cloud. Thus the milliampere affects
the intensity of the X-ray beam and is the
quantity of x-radiation produced.
Total amount of x-rays produced during a
given time (exposure in seconds) is also
dependent on the length of exposure. There
is a correlation between milliampere and
length of exposure in seconds. Exposure
time is measured in fraction of seconds.
Hence the quantity of x-rays required for a
given exposure is expressed as milliampere-
seconds (mAs).
mA*time (in seconds) = mAs
Higher mA setting will allow shorter
exposure time which helps to prevent motion
on the radiograph.
Kilo voltage peak (KVP)
Kilo voltage influences the penetrating
capacity of x-ray beam. Higher kilo voltage
increases the capacity of x-ray beam to
penetrate the issue more. Higher kvp settings
will lower the mAs settings. Kv can be
estimated by Sante's Rule which states that
(twice the thickness of body) +40 inches is
the distance between the focal spot in the x-
ray tube that the x-ray film in the cassette.
Distance
The distance between the sources of
x-ray (focal spot) and the x-ray film affects the
intensity of the image produced. Since the
source image distance (SID)is decreased the
intensity of the x-rays is increased.The ideal
SID or FFD (Focal Film Distance) is 36 to 40
inches or90-100 cms.
Collimation of x-ray beam
When collimator factors depend on
thickness of the body to be radiographed,
nature of the tissue, presence / absence of
pathological lesion, air and bone etc. the KVP
and mAs have to be adjusted.

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Movement of the body anaesthetization or sedation or by other
The movement of body during exposure means of restraint of the animal. Minimum
will cause blurring of the radiographic image. exposure time is advisable for which high mA
This can be minimised only be capacity machine is preferred.

TECHNIQUE CHART FOR LARGE ANIMALS ( FFD 1-1.5 Mts)

Region KVP mAs

Skull 66-70 13-15 (without Grid)
Neck 66-70 13-15
Thorax 66-70 20-30
Reticulum 90-96 40-50
Limbs 50-57 5-10

TECHNIQUE CHART FOR SMALL ANIMALS ( WITH GRID) (FFD-1 Meter)

Region Dog Cats

KVP mAs KVP mAs
Skull 55-60 20-25 55-57 15-20
Neck 57-60 20-25 52-55 15
Thorax 55-57 15-25 46-48 10-13
Abdomen 57,60-63 20-25 48-50 10-13
Abdomen ( Preg) 60,63,66,70 20-30 48-50 10-13
Shoulder 50,52,55 20-25 Limbs
f--
Radius ulna 50 5-6.4
(without grid) 40,42,46 2-4
Metacarpal/tarsus 46-48 5-6.4 (without grid)
Digits 44-46 2-4

Positioning of animals Caudal: Part of head,neck and trunk

Dorsal: Upper aspect of the head,
neck,trunk and tail. Legs from the carpus and
tarsus jOints towards the head.
Ventral: Lower aspect of the neck, head,
trunk and tail.
Cranial: Position towards the head from
tail,trunk and neck. Also the limb above the
carpal and tarsal jOint that face towards the
head.
Rostral: Parts of the head towards the
nares from any given point on the head.
positioned towards the tail. Also limbs above
the carpal and tarsal joints facing towards the
tail.
Palmar: Used instead of caudal when
describing the forelimb from the carpal joint
distally.
Plantar: Used instead of caudal when
describing the hindlimb from the tarsal joint
distally.
Lateral: X-ray beam enters through
either left or right side of the body and
emerges on the opposite side.

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 Mediolateral: x-ray beam enters a limb
through the lateral side and exits on the
medial side.
Proximal: Nearer to the point of origin of
structure.
Distal: Farther away from the point of
origin 01 stf\.lcture.
Superior and inferior: Describe the upper
and lower dental arcades respectively.
THE DARK ROOM TECHNIQUES AND
FILM PROCESSING
The layout of the dark room
1. Floor area - not less than 8 * 6 ft or
2.6 * 2 cm
2. Light proof
3. Should not be damp
4.Water and electricity outlets are
provided.
Light proofing
1. Doors must fit closely into the frames,
against strips of felt or rubber
2. Light entering under a door or through
a pin hole defects in the black out can
cause appreciable fogging offilms.
3. Those whose eyes are not adapted to
the dark and its necessary to spend 5
minutes in the dark room without
lighting.
4. A bolt should be fitted to prevent it from
being opened at wrong movement
Windows
1. Completely sealed
2. Light proof roller-blinds running in 6
inches or 15cm.
3. Adequate ventilation is essential
4. Ventilation holes are baffled and
painted matt~black on the inside.
Walls
1. Painted with white or cream enamel
2. The part of wall around the developing
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chemicals protected with china tiles,
plastic laminate or sheets of stainless
steel.
Ceiling
Painted with matt white enamel or
emulsion paint to acts as a good reflecting
surface for the safe-l'Ight'm9.
Floor
1. Should be easily washable and
impervious for processing solution.
2.Suitable flooring materials are
terrazzo, earthen ware.
Dry bench
The dry bench is where the cas~ette is
unloaded and recharged with fresh film. It
must be impossible for splashes of developer
to reach the dry bench surface.
The top of the dry bench must be large
enough to accommodate the largest cassette
in use when opened out. The top surface
should be either of wood or linoleum.
The processing frames should hang
above the bench, each size on its appropriate
bracket
Wet bench
The wet bench is where the processing of
the films is carried out.
The tanks can either stand in a low sink or
in a deep water - jacket which keeps the
solutions at the correct working temperature
of 20°C (68°F) by thermostatic control.
Two-gallon (imperial), (9 litre) developer
and fixer tanks are suitable where not more
than 3 films need developing simultaneously
5 gallon (22 litre) processing tanks are
available if a larger number of films have to be
dealt with.
. Tanks are manufactured in vulcanite,
porcelain and stainless steei".
Heaters and thermostats
Standardized processing requires the
de'leloper to be Kept at the optimum
temperature of 20°C (68°F)
Washing tank
The washing tank should be atleast 4
times larger than the developer tank, with a
supply of cold water constantly circulating
through it, via a rubber hose, when films are
being washed.
Drying
1. Films can be dried by removing them
from the channel hanger, attaching a
Ie film clip, and hanging on a tensioned
wire strung up in a dust-free place.
t' 2. Drying cabinets can be bought but are
not necessary unless atleast 20 films a
day are processed.
Safe-lighting
1. X-Ray film before processing is
sensitive to white light; it must be only
handled under safe-lighting.
2. A safe-light is a box containing a low
wattage bulb behind a specified filter. This is·a
sheet of dyed gelatin between glasses.
Manufacturers specify the correct type.
Two forms of safe-light can be used in the
radiographic dark room.
• Direct - a diffused light shines directly
over the work point, such as the dry &
wet bench.
• Indirect -the filtered light is directed
up to the ceiling where it is reflected
overthe room.
Developer
• Developing agents - Metol,
hydroquinone or phenidone
• Accelerators - Potassium carbonate
or sodium carbonate To increase the
pH to an alkaline range of 9.8-11.4
• Preservatives - Sodium sulphite
• Restrainers
• Hardeners
• Solvent
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Fixer
• Fixing bath contains a solvent of
silver halide, either sodium or
ammonium thiosulphate. When a film
is put in the fixer, the unexposed
halide is dissolved, leaving the
metallic silver image, which can then
be viewed in white light.
• The secondary function of the x-ray
fixer bath is to harden the gelatin by
means of a tanning agent to render it
less susceptible scratches. It also
contains an acid buffer to neutralize
any developer which may be carried
over.
Clearing time
The time taken forthe unexposed halides
to be dissolved. It depends on a number of
factors
a. Emulsion thickness : A screen type
film will fix in a shorter time than a !
non screen film.
b. Temperature: A warm solution fixes
faster than a cold one (21 DC)
c. Exhaustion: A fixer is exhausted
when the initial clearing time is
doubled.
d. Agitation: This can reduce fixation
time by half.
e. Concentration time : Usually 40%
concentration is optimum.
Washing
• Water performs a valuable
photographic function, namely the
removal of residual developer and
fixer salts from the film which
otherwise would attack the image
and turn it yellow and faded in a few
years.
• Ideally a whole film hanger should be
immersed in the wash tank.
• Washing usually takes 10 minutes at
D
normal temperatures (13 C-
V~
 RADIOGRAPHICDIAGNOSIS-DOG

Mandibular fracture Lumbar vertebra fracture

Radius & ulna fracture Tibial fracture

Dynamic compression plate implant Patellar luxation

 RADIOGRAPHIC DlAGNOSIS.DOG

Foetal skeleton Osteopaenia

Throco·lumbar spondylosis Osteolytic changes

Cystic and urethral calculi

Pulmonary metastases
 Q
25 C).This time should be doubled if
the film is to be kept for a long period.
Identification of the radiograph
It is essential to have certain information
incorporated in the radiograph for
subsequent examination. This may include:
• An 'L' or 'R' to identify particular side
of a patient.
cabinet or on open shelf
• Indication of the time which has
lapsed since the administration of a
contrast medium.
• Date of radiography
• Identification of the patients.
Care and storage of the dry radiograph
• Make sure the films are dry.
• It is more convenient to keep them in
film storage envelopes.
Film envelopes can be filed either in a
It should be fitted to prevent it from being
opened at wrong movement

Dark room processing ·Time schedule

Steps Procedure Time

1 Developer 1-2 minutes (20-22°C)
2 Washing 2-3 rinses
3 Fixer 5-10 minutes ((20-22°C)
4 Washing 5 minutes in running tap water

________________ ~~~ ____ --------~5-· . ·'-

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 Veterinary Surgery and Radiology
vrtOi' '
.' I PHYSICAL EXAMINATION FOR LAMENESS
'!fit
. Dr.S.Ayyappan
riqEHQOlb!:1 (it.. 'J Associate Professor
'
. Department of Veterinary Surgery and Radiology
Madras Veterinary College, Chennai-600 007
--------------------------------------------------------------------
I. GOALS normal CP -> assume that the patient has
an orthopedic problem; neuro exam not
1) to determine which limb(s) isfare
needed
affected,
delayed or absent CP -> patient may
2) to determine whether the problem is
have a neurologic problem -> do
orthopedic or neurologic
complete neuro exam
3) to determine in which region of the
5) Palpation
affected limb 1he cause of the
lameness is localized, superficial palpation of the trunk and
the extremities
4) to determine - if possible - which
particular structure and pathology is detection of asymmetry of size,
causing the lameness. shape, heat, and sensitivity
II. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION 6) Evaluation of joints
1) History How do you determine whether a
joint is abnormal?
Assessment of activity at home
Primary indicators (screening)
2) General physical examination
Pain on hyperextension / hyperflexion
TPR of the jOint
Mucous membranes
Decreased range of motion
Lymph nodes (Guarding or old injury)
3) Inspection/observation of gait Secondary indicators
Observation Pain on flexion, extension, endoro
-tation, exorotation,
Head goes up during the swing
phase of the affected fore limb Abnormal sounds, crepitus
Instrumented gait analysis . :: Evaluation of joint stability
Kinetics - forces - force plate Collateral ligaments
analysis Stretching of ligaments with joints in
Kinematics - motion - motion extension (stressing" the ligaments)
analysis system Pain (mild-moderate sprain) or
instability (moderate-severe sprain)
Paw pressure analysis - gait
cycle, forces Shoulder (mediolateral instability)

4) Neurological examination Abduction of the limb with joint in

extension (pain and/or increased
Conscious proprioception abduction)

-------------------IEII~-----------------
IAMWARM g'tainUtg go. jiJd ~fwt.
2009 VeWtit~
Hip origin-muscle belly-myotendinous
Barden's sign junction-tendon-tendon insertion
Ortolani sign - preferred How do you determine whether a
muscle-tendon unit is abnormal?
Barlow's sign
Primary indicators (screening)
hip asymmetry for coxofemoral
luxations Pain on stretching of the affected
MTU
Stifle
Patella luxation Secondary indicators

Collateral ligament instability Pain on deep palpation

Drawer movement - "positive Three muscle that can be selectively
drawer" stretched
Tibial compression test - "positive Biceps maneuver - simultaneous
tibial thrust" flexion of the shoulder and extension
of the elbow joint
7) Evaluation of bones
How do you determine whether a Infraspinatus (teres minor?)
bone is abnormal? maneuver - simulateous extension
and internal rotation of the shoulder
Primary indicators (screening) joint
Pain on deep palpation Iliopsoas maneuver - simultaneous
gentle, deep palpation over the internal rotation and extension of the
distal, middle, and proximal hip joint
ends of long bones
9) Assessment
detection of bone or periosteal
pain localize lameness and establish
differential diagnosis
abnormal findings mostly
indicative of bone disease establish causal relationship
Abnormal motion if possible determine the affected
tissue type
8) Evaluation of muscle-tendon units
10) Diagnostic or therapeutic plan
MTU =Muscle tendon unit =muscle

--------------~·IEmI~---------------­
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 ; Q'Oifferential diagnosis of common orthopaedic Q9I1ditions
. "19.;, of the pectoral and pelvic limb

Pectoral limb lameness Pectoral limb lameness

Skeletally immature large breed dogs Skeletally immature small breed dogs

General/Multiple General/Multiple
• Trauma-fracture, luxation • Trauma-fracture, luxation
• Panosteitis • Atlantoaxial luxation
• Hypertrophic osteodystrophy
• Cervical cord lesiolwertebral instability

Shoulder Region Shoulder Region

• Osteochondritis Disseccans (OCD) of humeral • Congenital luxation
head

Elbow Region Elbow Region

• Osteochondritis disseccans of medial trochlear • Congenital luxation
-ridge • Subluxation due to premature physeal closure
• Ununited Anconeal Process (UAP)
• Fragmentation of the medial coronoid process
(FCP)
• Avulsion and calcification of the flexor tendons of
the medial epicondyle
• Subluxation due to premature physeal closue

Carpal Region Carpal Region

• Subluxation/valgus or varus deformity due to • Subluxation/valgus or varus deformity due to
premature physeal closure premature physeal closure
• Valgus deformity due to retained cartilage cores in
the ulna

\
'~'_----------"IEII"-----------
IAMWARM ~fwr. gwining go. !Jield VeWW~ 2{){)9
.,
 Pectoral limb lameness Pectoral limb lameness
Skeletally mature large breed dogs Skeletally mature small breed dogs

General/Multiple General/Multiple
Trauma -fracture, luxation, muscle and nerve Trauma -fracture, luxation, muscle and nerve
injuries injuries
Panosteitis Cervical cord lesion - Disc tumour
Cervical cord lesion - Disc tumour, vertebral instability Brachial plexus tumour
Brachial plexus tumour Hypertrophic osteoarthropathy
Bone and cartilage tumour
Hypertrophic osteoarthropathy

Shoulder Region Shoulder Region

Osteochondritis Disseccans (OeD) of humeral Degenerative joint disease
head Medial luxation, nontraumatic
Degenerative joint disease
Contracture of infraspinatus muscle
Tenosynovitis of biceps brachii tendon
Luxation

Elbow Region Elbow Region

Degenerative joint disease Degenerative joint disease
Fragmentation of th e medial coronoid process Subluxation due to premature physeal closure
(FCP)
Avulsion injury of the medial epicondyle
Subluxation due to premature physeal closure
Luxation

Carpal Region Carpal Region

Ligamentous instability/hyperextension Degenerative joint disease
Subluxation due to premature physeal closure Subluxation due to premature physeal closure
Degenerative joint disease Inflammatory joint disease
Inflammatory joint disease

------------------IEDI~----------------
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 Pelvic limb lameness Pelvic limb lameness
Skeletally immature large breed dogs Skeletally immature small breed dogs

General/Multiple General/Multiple
Trauma-Fracture, luxation Trauma-Fracture, luxation
Pan osteitis
Hypertrophic osteodystrophy

Hip Region Hip Region

Hip dysplasia Avascular necrosis/Legg-Calve-Perthes disease
Luxation

Stifle Region Stifle Region

Osteochondrosis disseccans of femoral condyle Patellar luxation
Patellar luxation
Avulsion of the origin of the long digital extensor
muscle
Avulsion of cruciate ligament
Rupture of cruciate ligament
Valgus or varus deformity due to premature
physeal closure

Tarsal Region Tarsal Region

Valgus or varus deformity due to premature Varus deformity due to premature physeal closure
physeal closure
Osteochondritis disseccans of talus

--"~-.----------------IEaI~----------------
IAMWARM 50. 2009 ~~ 5~ [jiJd V~
 Pelvic limb lameness Pelvic limb lameness
skeletally mature large breed dogs Skeletally mature small breed dogs

General/Multiple General/Multiple
Trauma-Fracture, luxation, muscle and nerve injury Trauma-Fracture, luxation, muscle and nerve injury
Spinal cord lesion Spinal cord lesion-Disc tumour
Cauda equina lesion
Bone and cartilage tumour
Hypertrophic osteoarthropathy

Hip Region Hip Region

Degenerative jOint disease Degenerative joint disease
Luxation Luxation
Iliopsoas strain

Stifle Region Stifle Region

Degenerative joint disease Degenerative joint disease
Rupture of cruciate ligament Rupture of cruciate ligament
Patellar luxation Patellar luxation

Tarsal Region Tarsal Region

Ligamentous instabilies/hyperextension Luxation of the tendon of the superficial digital
Avulsion of gastrocnemius tendon flexor muscle
Luxation of the tendon of the superficial digital Degenerative joint disease
flexor muscle Inflammatory jont disease
Degenerative joint disease

REFERENCE
Brinker, Piermattei and Flo, 2006. Handbook of small animal orthopedics & fracture
treatment. 4th ed. Saunders, Philadelphia.

----------------41ED1~--------------­
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OPHTHALMOLOGY
----------------------------_.------------------------ --~-----------
EXTRA OCULAR AFFECTIONS
Chalazion
A chalazion is an accumulation of
secretory products in a blocked tarsal gland.
It is a relatively common disease in dogs but
rare in other species and is usually
recognized as a painless swelling 4 to 6 mm
from the lid margin. It appears as a thickened
yellow-white swelling seen through the
palpebral conjunctiva when the eyelid is
everted. The treatment of choice for
chalasion ·,s incision and curettage of the
lesion. This may be done under either manual
restraint or general anesthesia, depending
on the patient. With general anesthesia, a
chalazion clamp can be used to stabilize the
lid.
Anatomy of the lacrimal system
The lacrimal glands are responsible for
producing most of the tears. They are
enclosed within a fold of periorbita but are
isolated from the rectus muscles by a fascial
plane. The ducts in dogs are not visible but
open through the conjunctive in the superior
temporal fornix.
The gland of the third eyelid is an
accessory lacrimal gland. In dogs, 29 to 57
per cent of the serous tear component may
be produced by this gland. The secretions
pass through two to four invisible ducts that
open into the inferior cul-de-sac between the
globe and third eyelid.
The tarsal glands are grossly visible
through the thin palpebral conjunctiva,
perpendicular to the margin of the eyelid. In
dogs, approximately 40 openings are found
in the upper eyelid and fewer in the lower
eyelid. r. The secretion is a lipid-laden
sebaceous material, which can be manually
expressed on the margin of the eyelid as a
cream-colored exudates.
The upper and lower eyelids each have a
small opening, the lacrimal punctum-the
------------------·1191~-----------------
IAMWARM ~fwt.
fJ'tCWWlf} fJo.:Jie£d 2009
Veterinary Surgery and Radiology
beginning of the lacrimal drainage system.
The puncta are 2 to 5 mm from the nasal
canthus.
After entering a punctum, the tears pass
into the upper or lower canaliculus. The total
length of each canaliculus is between 4 and 7
mm, and the diameter varies in dogs from 0.5
t01.0mm.
The lacrimal sac at the confluence of the
canaliculi is not always a distinct structure in
animals, as it is humans, ItoGcupies the fossa
in the lacrimal and frontal bones posterior to
the lacrimal crest.
The nasolacrimal duct begins at the
lacrimal sac. The duct continues rostrally
through the bony channel of the lacrimal
bone and into the lacrimal sulcus of the
maxilla. This section is the narrowest portion
of the nasolacrimal duct
Protrusion of the third-eyelid gland
Third-eyelid gland protrusion or prolapse
is seen in puppies and dogs usually less
than 1 year of age. Because a breed
predisposition is noted in beagles, American
cocker spanies, Boston terriers, poodles, and
brachycephalic breeds, a genetic anatomical
defect is suspected
The third-eyelid gland, which is normally
hidden from view, protrudes above the free
border of the membrane and typically
becomes swollen and inflamed Manual
replacement of a prolapsed gland followed by
medical thera.py, consisting of topical
antibiotic-corticosteroid, may be attempted in
puppies. However, this usually produces a
temporary response only. Replacement is the
definitive treatment.
Replacement Techniques
A number of replacement techniques\
have been described. Most involve inverting \
the gland and using suture to anchor the \
gland to adjacent fibrous tissue.
VeWtit~
 The first technique is a modified purse-
string suture technique used for repair of
acute third-eyelid gland prolapses in
puppies. A 7-0 absorbable braided suture
with a small cutting needle is used. After the
third eyelid is extended to expose the bulbar
side and the prolapsed gland, a number 15
Bard-Parker blade is used to mildly scarify
the conjunctiva overlying the prolapsed
gland. After the repair, this stimulates
symblepharon and thereby fixes the gland in
position.
EYELID TUMOURS
Eyelid tumours are common in dogs.
Tarsal gland adenomas are the most
frequently diagnosed eyelid tumours in dogs.
Less commonly found are adenocarcinomas,
melanomas, and papillomas. Tarsal gland
adenoma, as with most tumours of the canine
eyelid, is clinically benign, and surgical
excision is usually curative. Cryosurgery
using liquid nitrogen at - 4°F can also be used
to treat these tumours.
Excision of eyelid tumours
A full-thickness eyelid resection is the
simplest procedure. This procedure can be
used in lesions that involve up to one-third of
the lid margin on either the upper or lower lid ..
The wound is closed by suturing only the
conjunctiva and skin, allowing the lid to
stretch and return to a nearly normal
appearance postoperatively. The conjunctiva
is closed using 5-0 or 6-0 chromic gut in a
continuous pattern, starting at the bottom of
the V and working toward the margin. The
skin is closed with 5-0 or 6-0 silk in an
interrupted pattern starting at the lid margin.
Alternative methods for removing small
tumours of the eyelid include electrocautery
and cryosurgery.
SURGICAL PROCEDURES
Treatment of corneal injuries
With a penetrating wound of the globe,
pressure may cause further intraocular
damage. A third-eyelid flap is initially placed
JIlaLlflu roel£l'iJllll'lj
over the eye to prevent further damage until
skilled assistance is available
Closure of a corneal wound
1. The corneal endothelium is
exquisitely sensitive to trauma. It
must not be touched with
instruments or flushed vigorously
with irrigating solutions. When the
edges of a corneal wound are held
only stroma and epithelium ar~
touched with forceps.
2. The edges of corneal wounds are not
debrided; as much tissue as
possible is left in place to complete
closure.
3. If the wound is fresh, an attempt is
made to replace protruding iris with
an iris repository.
4. Blood and fibrin clots in the anterior
chamber are carefully removed with
a cyclodialysis spatula or blunt iris
hook before the wound is closed.
5. Partial-thickness rather than full-
thickness sutures are used in the
cornea.
6. The cornea is sutured with simple
interrupted sutures placed about
1 mmapart.
Removal of corneal foreign bodies
Corneal foreign bodies are removed to
limit pain, reduce infection, and prevent
vascularization and scarring. Many corneal
foreign bodies can be flushed off with a jet of
physiological saline through a 23 to 27 gauge
needle. Small embedded foreign bodies are
removed with an instrument called a foreign
body spud. In an emergency, the top of a 25
or 27 gauge needle may be used with
magnification. Deeply embedded foreign
bodies may require an incision in the
overlying epithelium and stroma over the
long axis the object. Extraction via the
anterior chamber and a Iimbal corneal
incision may be necessary. Foreign body
extractions are performed with the utmost
care. Immnrnnri::ltp ::Ittempts at removal may
@JJ!ftlfl, @Jwuwi-600 007
result in penetration into the anterior
chamber or corneal damage with more
severe vascularization and scarring.
Superficial keratectomy
Keratectomy is removal of the
corneal epithelium or stroma.
Superficial keratectomy is indicated in
several situations:
1. Removal of neoplasms encroaching
on the cornea from the limbus
2. Treatment of specific keratopathies
(e.g., chronic superficial erosion
syndrome in boxers
3. Debridement of any superficial
epithelial corneal wound
Keratoplasty
Corneal transplantation is not widely
used in veterinary ophthalmic surgery but
may be useful in selected cases. It is the only
specific treatment for chronic corneal edema
due to canine endothelial dystrophy.
Reports of long-term success in clinical
cases are few owing to graft rejection.
Microsurgical technique and immuno-
suppression are important for success.
GeneraJJy, indications for keratoplasty are
fewer in cats, but the long-term prognosis is
better. The two main types of corneal grafts
are penetrating and lamellar.
Penetrating keratoplasty
Penetrating keratoplasty is used to
replace scarred or diseased cornea. Affected
tissue is removed full thickness and replaced
with a donor button lined with viable
endothelium.
Lamellar ketatoplasty
In lamellar keratoplasty, epithelium and
superficial stroma are dissected free and
replaced with donor tissue, usually for
structural support during healing of a wound.
LENS
Anatomy
A fully developed lens is composed of
anterior and posterior capsules, anterior
epithelium, and elongated cells.
------------------1111~----------------
IAMWARM go. gidd, ~fwt. g~
2009
The anterior lens capsule is thicker than
the posterior capsule, which is formed by the
posterior lens epithelium during lens
development. The capsule is composed of a
collagen framework with interstices of
mucopolysaccharide and has elastic
properties that permit alteration in lens shape
owing to the effect of the ciliary muscle, which
exerts traction on the lens capsule via the
zonular fibers during accommodation. The
ciliary muscle is generally poorly developed
in subprimates, and accommodation is not as
activenor as important in subprimates. The
lens capsule also acts as a semipermeable
membrane between the ocular fluids and the
lens.
Cataracts
Cataracts are a nonspecific disease that
results in ipacification of the lens fibers or
capsule. Stages of Development The stages
of development are incipient, immature,
mature, and hypermature.
Incipient. Focal opacification of the lens
or its capsule characterizes an incipient
cataract. An affected (inimal can still see well,
and the fundus is readily observed with an
ophthalmoscope.
Immature. In an immature cataract,
opacity is more or less diffuse, although there
may be areas of variable density. The fundic
reflex is present, and the animal may
experience some visual impairment.
Mature. A mature cataract shows total
dense opacification of the lens with absence
of the fundic reflex. Visual function is
significantly impaired. Cataract surgery is
recommended at this stage.
Hypermature. Lens protein liquefies and
may leak through the capsule. If leakage is
extensive with significant resorption of
protein, the lens capsule becomes wrinkled,
initially at the equator. The nucleus, which is
insoluble albuminoid protein, may migrate
inferiorly within the lens capsule to form a
morgagnian cataract.
V~
EtiOlogy
Etiology may be difficult to determine;
cataracts may occur secondary to ocular
diseases, including uveitis, retinal
degeneration, lens dislocation, and
glaucoma. They may occur in association
with systemic metabolic disease, including
diabetes mellitus and Cushing's disease, or
may be secondary to blunt or penetrating
trauma. They may also represent a
congenital developmental disorder..
Cataract surgery
Cataracts are a surgical disease; there is
no reliable topical, systemic, or intraocular
medication that prevents progression or
induces resorption of cataracts. Extracapsular
lens extraction is routinely performed for the
majority of cataract extractions owing to the
strong hyaloideocapsular ligament;
intracapsular extraction almost invariably
results in disruption of the hyaloids
membrane, with vitreous presentation and
associated compHcations, including corneal
edema, glaucoma, and retinal detachment.
With the extracapsular technique, the
posterior lens capsule and vitreous face are
not disturbed. In addition, enzymatic
dissolution of the zonules is unreliable in
dogs, and intracapsular extraction results in
excessive traction on the ciliary processes.
Phacoemulsification Is the removal of the
emulsified lens through a small corneal
incision.Following this procedure an
intraocular lens can be also implanted
Although not all patients presented with
cataracts are candidates for surgery, cataract
extraction is a most successful and
rewarding procedure.
Selection of patients
~----------------1111~----------------
The objective of cataract surgery is to
restore functional vision. Because of the
ability of dogs and cats to adjust and
compensate .for incomplete lens opacity or
monocular blindness, functional vision is not
significantly impaired until bilateral
cataracts approach maturity. Critical
opthalmoscopy performed while the
cataracts are stili immature, rather than
waitin.g until. the fun~us cannot be critically
examined, IS beneficial. Rare dogs with
genetic tendenCies to develop both retinal
degeneration and primary cataracts cause
occasional disappOintment if the retinal
degeneration develops subsequent to the
primary cataract.
Generally, if a fundic reflex can be
obtained, some vision should be present and
should change minimally with alterations in
ambient light if the retina is healthy.
Electroretinography should be
performed on all patients with cataracts and
unobservable fundi; in those breeds with
predisposition to inherited retinal
degeneration, electroretinography is a
prerequisite to cataract surgery.
GLAUCOMA
Glaucoma is an important therapeutic
enigma in dogs because of its relatively high
incidence in certain breeds and in cats
Glaucoma is defined as an elevation in lOP
that is accompanied by impaired ocular
function. In humans, 50 per cent of optic
nerve fibers are lost before the milder visual
field disturbances are detected, and 90 per
cent of the fibers are lost in patients with
severe glaucomatous field losses.
etected, and 90 per cent of the fibers are
lost in patients with severe glaucomatous
field losses.
 Animal Reproduction, Gynaecology and Obstetrics
INFERTILITY IN ANIMALS
Dr. S.A. Asokan
Professor
Department of Animal Reproduction, Gynaecology and Obstetrics
Madras Veterinary College, Chennai-600 007
--------------------------------------------------------------------
ANOESTRUS
Anoestrus is defined as failure of oestrus
or absence of oestrus and is observed more
commonly either after parturition as
postpartum or pre service anoestrus and
following service as post service anoestrus
when conception does not occur.
There are two categories of anoestrus:
Class lor False anoestrus - with
functional CL
Class II or True anoestrus - with no
functional CL
False anoestrus
* Anoestrus due to pregnancy.
* Anoestrus due to persistent CL -
Conditions associated with uterine
pathology such as pyometra,
mummified foetus, foetal maceration,
other disease status, mucometra and
hydrometra.
* Anoestrus associated with CL of
pregnancy that terminated early and
not recognized.
Note: Persistent CL does not occur in the
presence of a normal nonpregnant uterus.
Many veterinarians tend to call wrongly a
cyclic CL as persistent CL.
* Subestrus, weak or silent oestrus and
unobserved oestrus.
* Normal cyclical changes in the genital
organs but the signs of heat are not
exhibited or not observed. Most
common especially in buffalo cows.
Common during post partum period.
Rectal examination would reveal the
condition.
Causes
Physiological basis is not known - may be
due to a lack of oestrogen and a potentiating
action of progesterone.
------------------IEII~----------------
IAMWARM ~fwt
gwi.ning go- fJidd 2009
* Advanced age.
* Arthritis.
* Poor nutrition.
* Seasonal stress.
* 'Suckling.
Unobserved oestrum may be due to
managerial deficiencies and short period of
oestrus.
Diagnosis
Rectal examination
*
Reveals a mature CL in one of the
ovaries and a flaccid uterus indicating
dioestrus condition.
*
A tonic uterus with regressing CL and
follicle or developing CL indicating
oestrus, proestrus or metoestrus. In
such cases a mature CL can be
palpated by re-examination after 10
days.
~:; "
*
Examination of postpartum anoestrus
cows at 60-90 days, heifers at 18-24
months of age and buffalo heifers at
30-36 months of age is necessary.
Treatment
* Education of herdsman.
* Unobserved oestrus.
* Improving the managerial practice.
* Increased regular observation thrice
a day for estrus.
* Provision of adequate lighting to
improve oestrus detection
* The use of oestrus detection aids.
* Use of teaser bulls.
* CarelUi and frequent examination of
cows, prediction and confirmation of
oestrus and breeding.
V~
 I I
,
BOVINE OESTROUS CYCLE

Depending upon the dominant

-. structure on the ovary
l l
Phase FOLLICULAR 20% ! LUTEAL S()Of.

Follicle ~lI·pUS lutl"Ulll J

• Primary
ovarian
structure

l
Primary
hormone
I- PROGESTERONE -&1

U
Period From regression of CL From ovulation until
until ovulation luteal regression

Stage

Duration

PROESTRUS L--_O_E_S_TR_U__ s_---'11 METOESTRUS ,I DfOESTRUS ·1

;_ ...
• T hyperplasia • Oviducts tonic i. Capillary • r hypertrophy
of myometrial • Epithelia mature hemorrhage - of endometrial
cells • Cilia active postoestrual glands
• 1 growth of • Oviductal contractions or • t thickening
cells & cilia of • 1 oviduct secretions metoestrual of endometrium
oviduct • Fimbriated end of oviduct bleeding • Endometrial
• T vascularity assumes close affinity to • 1 mucus glands - uterine
of uterine follicle secretion mifk or
mucosa • 1 blood supply to uterus • Uterus less histotroph -
• 1 neutrophilic infiltration tonic nourishment of
in uterine lumen embryo

Courtesy: S.Balasubramanian and C. Veerapandian (2008)

----------------~IIDI-----------------
Schematic..representation of the palpable changes that occur during the oestrus
cycle of the cow

2 5

6
3
b

Figure shows the different forms of ovaries (pairs) with functional structures.

1. A typical CL: Crown (a), base of the CL (b), substance of ovary (c).
2. CL prominently projecting over the surface of the ovary.
3. Presence of a CL and a follicle in same ovary - a triangular shape.
4. CL almost entirely outside the ovary giving a bilobed appearance.
5. CL completely embedded with no crown.
(Note in all above cases: (i) increase in the size of ovary with CL;
(ii) change in shape)
6. Ovaries with mature follicle (a) and regressing Cl (b) (Note: No
disparity in size of ovaries).

------------------~IImII~------------------
IAMWARM ~fwt guUniJlff go. giJd V~ 2009
 ENDOCRINE CONTROL OF OESTROUS CYCLE

- ". HYPOTHALAMUS "

Ventromedial Preoptic

Arcuate Suprachiasmatic

·-·
BASAL
secretion in small pulses over SURGE
substantial period of time

··
T.ransport . HYPOTHALAMO-HYPOPHYSEAL PORTAL SYSTEM

• ·•

U'
ANTERIOR PITUITARY Stimulates LH

--_--.,.,..,.'=-:.:.:..............i" i ······················
• ···:· .:.
".'.•
.•• BFSH ···.....
••• Cause growth and development of follicles ···: ....
Atresia of ··· ..:
unselected
follicles Oestrogen
r'1';
~::In:h:ib:i:n:~~ .:
Leads to

OVULATION

Drawn by S.Balasubramanian and C. Veerapa dian (ZOO8)

----------------~·IIDI~-----------------
.JIltuba.t rveluutal'lJ f!.IJll£g.e., €i1utuwi-6_OO (107
 * Specific treatment using prostaglandin
or progesterone therapy and fixed
time insemination. Highly effective
True Anoestrus
* Small inactive ovaries - no functional
CL
* May be due to an insufficient release
of gonadotropins or failure of ovaries
to respond
causes
*' A low plane of nutrition - most
common cause - lack of energy and
protein, deficiency of minerals
namely P, Co, Fe, Cu, I and Mn and
VitaminA
* Heavy lactation - negative energy
balance
* Chronic debilitating disease - like JD,
TBetc
* Senility with loss of teeth
* Seasonal and environmental influence
* Closely confined dark stables, lack of
exercise combined with nutritive
factors
* Suckling-Prolactin reduces the ovarian
sensitivity
Diagnosis
Rectal examination
* Small and smooth ovaries in
buffaloes - spindle like
* Should be confirmed by repeated
examinations at 10 days interval
ENDOMETRITIS
Endometritis is a localized inflammation of
the uterine lining, associated with chronic
postpartum infection of the uterus with
pathogenic bacteria Arcanobacterium
pyogenes (Bondurant, 1999). Diagnostic
criteria to identify cows that have imparied
reproductive performance associated with
clinical endometritis have been examined
(Le Blanc et aI., 2002). Treatment of
endometritis is the subject of considerable
------------------·IEaI~-----------------
IAMWARM ~fwt.
5'iainUUj 50.:iiJd VeWtitUVtialw 2009
Treatment
Improve nutrition
Extra feeding of a concentrate mixture or
grains like maize, cholam, kambu, etc., and
at least small amount of green fodder along
with other roughages.
Supplement minerals
* Specific patent preparations which
contain important minerals
* Standard mineral mixture
Improve managerial practice
* Eradication of internal and external
parasitism
* Proper housing
* Elimination of stressful factors
Specific
* GnRH 0.5 mg. may be repeated aft.
10days
* GnRH analogue Buserelin 0.02 mg.
* PMSG or FSH is not advisable as
they can cause superovulation
* Shor\ term progestogens- CIDR,
PRID or Ear implant induces heat
even in anoestrus animals
* Progesterone injection followed by
hCG or combination of progesterone
+ PMSG + estrogen
* Clomiphene citrate. 300 mg. daily for
5 days drenched as suspension after
drenching of CuS0 4 solution
controversy among veterinary practitioners,
particularly with respect to which therapy to
use, and to a lesser extent, which cows to
treat or whether to treat at all (Gilbert, 1992).
The general therapy of endometritis is to halt
and reverse inflammatory changes that
impair fertility practically, treatments aim to
reduce the load of pathogeniC bacteria and,
enhance the processes of uterine defense
and repair.
Causes
The causal organisms usually reach the
uterus from the vagina at coitus,
insemination, parturition or postpartum,
although it is possible in some circumstances
for infection to arrive by the circulation. The
great majority of cows suffer from bacterial
contamination of the uterus after calving, but
under normal circumstance this flora is
rapidly eliminated. In cows that develop
endometritis, the bacterial flora is not
eliminated from the uterus, causing the
endometrium to become inflamed. The
factors associated with the development of
endometritis are:
* Retained fetal membranes
* Abortion
* Induced calving
* Multiple births
* Dystocia
* Management factors -state of
nutrition, hypocalcaemia, season
* Return of ovarian cyclicity
* Bacterialloading
The endometritis is almost invariably a
sequel to invasion with A. pyogenes. There is
good evidence that there is synergism
between A. pyogenes and Fusobacterium
necrophorum, the latter organism producing
a leucocidal endotoxin which interferes with
the host's ability to eliminate A.pyogenes.
Similarly Bacteroides spp. also produces
substances that interfere with the
phagocytosis and killing of bacteria.
Clinical signs
Clinical signs of endometritis are
* The presence of a white or whitish-
yellow mucopurulent vaginal
discharge in the post partum cow.
* The volume of discharge is variable,
but frequently increases at the time of
estrus when the cervix dilates and
there is copious vaginal mucus.
* The cows rarely show any signs of
systemic illness, although in a few
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cases milk yield and appetite may be
slightly reduced.
* Rectal palpation frequently shows a
poorly involved uterus which has a
doughy feel.
Diagnostic methods
* Clinical signs
* Rectal examination
* Vaginoscopy
* White side test
* Uterine biopsy
* Bacterial culture
Rectal examination
The most common means of diagnosis
of endometritis
~ Transrectal palpation of the utems.
However, this method is subjective
and often fails to account for normal
events and variability in uterine
involution or to have any association
with reproductive performance.
~ By rectal examination cervical
diameter, location of the uterus,
symmetry of the uterine horns,
diameter of the uterine horns, texture
of the uterine wall, palpable uterine
lumen are noted.
Vaginoscopy
At examination, cows are first inspected
for the presence of fresh discharge on the
vulva, perineum, or tail. If discharge is not
visible externally cows are examined
vaginoscopically. The speculum is inserted
into the vagina up to the level of the external
os of the cervix. Inspection of the cervix and
vagina is performed with illumination from a
penlight. The nature of the discharge may be
clear mucus with flakes of pus,
mucopurulent, purulent but not foul smelling.
White side test
This test is used to detect sub-clinical
endometritis in repeat breeding cows.
Procedure
The uterine discharges (cervical mucus)
is collected aseptically with sterile sheath and
syringe and mixed with equal volume of 5%
NaoH in a test tube. The mixture is heated up
to the boiling point and the intensity of colour
changes is graded.
Colour Degree
1. Turbid (or) colour Normal
2. Light yellow colour Mild
3. Yellow colour Moderate
4. Dark yellow colour Severe
ENDOMETRIAL BIOPSY
>I< A relatively easy and safe procedure
for the practicing veterinarian to
perform.
II< Its use in conjunction with a detailed
history, rectal and vaginal
examinations and microbial cultures
can lead to a more accurate
prognosis of difficult breeders and
greater therapeutic efficiency.
>I< Repeated biopsies do not cause
adverse effects on cows reproductive
capacity.
>I< Biopsy lesions heal rapidly.
>I< Hemorrhages are of little or no clinical
significance and are quickly resorbed.
>I< Biopsy specimen should be of
sufficient size (4 x 6 mm).
. >I< Specimens should be taken from both
the horns and' the body of the uterus
due to variability of pathology in each
section.
Biopsy instrument
>I< Albuchin's uterine biopsy catheter is
used to obtain in vivo uterine
endometrial samples.
>I< It consists of a outer casing and piston
of length 57.5 cm and, diameter of 0.7
cm.
I!< Distal end of the catheter has a
rounded tip to prevent injury to the
reproductive tract and to facilitate the
easy entry of the tip through the
cervical canal.
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Biopsy technique
>I< Proper care, disinfection and
sterilization of the biopsy instrument
are necessary to prevent microbial
contamination.
I!< Before taking biopsy, thoroughly
scrub and clean the vulva and
surrounding perineal area.
I!< Evert the vulval lips and introduce the
biopsy instrument in closed position
through the vagina and cervix in to the
uterus.
>I< Gently push the piston to open the
cutting edge.
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the cavity of the cutting edge.
I!< Pull the piston caudually to close the
cutting edge so as to remove a piece
of the endometrium.
>I< Withdraw the instrument out of the
reproductive tract in closed position.
>I< Remove the endometrial tissue from
the instrument and immediately
transfer it into 10% neutral buffered
formalin solution at room temperature.
>I< Tissues are trimmed, dehydrated,
cleared and embedded in paraffin
sections and cut at a thickness of
5-6 I.l and stained with. H&E stain for
histological examination.
. Interpretation
>I< Bovine endometrium is evaluated
histologically for
+ periglandularfibrosis
+ cystic glandular changes
+ cellular infiltration of endometrial
stroma
>I< Cellular infiltration is the most striking
feature of acute endometritis.
>I< Moderate and severe cases of
endometritis are much easier to
diagnose on the basis of the
increased number of inflammatory
cells spread throughout the stratum
 compactum and spongiosum layers
compared with few cells seen in mild
endometritis.
Ii< Neutrophils mat be present in high
numbers during normal estrum -
erroneously suggesting acute
endometritis.
Ii< Neutrophils present during the luteal
phase - definitely indicative of an
acute endometritis.
Ii< Initial phases of endometritis: diffuse
and possibly the periglandular and
perivascular cellular infiltrations are
dominated by neutrophils and
lymphocytes.
Treatment
A wide range of antiseptics antimicrobial
agents and hormones have been used as
treatments for endometritis. Objective
studies of the effectiveness of these agents
have been difficult because of the
multifactorial nature of the disease and many
cases of endometritis are self-limiting and
resolve after the resumption of oestrous
cyclicity.
(a) Antibiotic therapy
(b) Hormones
(c) Antiseptics
(d) Immunomodulators
(a) Antibiotic therapy
Local vs systemic administration - For
antimicrobial treatment to be effective, an
effective, concentration of drug must be
achieved and maintained of the site of
infection for an adequate period. Several
antimicrobial agents are absorbed from the
uterus (sulfonamides, tetracylines,
streptomycin, penicillin, ampicillin, genta
-micin and chloromphenicol).The absorption
in the immediate postpartum period is
considerably less than that after complete
uterine involution. Uterine pathologic
changes (endometritis) result in further
decrease of absorption. Poor absorption
results in a high concentration of the drug in
the uterine cavity and on the endometrium on
the other hand, adequate concentrations
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frequently are not achieved in the
subendometrial tissues, vagina, cervix, or
ovaries and oviducts.
. Sys~emic. administration usually results
In uterine tissue and lumen antibiotic
concentrations equal to blood plasma
concentrations. The concentrations are the
same in the normal and the pathologic
uterus. The systemic administration gives a
better distribution in the tubular genital tract
and to the ovaries. Further more, fetal
membranes and abnormal exudate cannot
mechanically influence the distribution. Also,
systemic administration eliminates the risk
for damage to the endometrium. Repeated
treatment can be carried out relatively simple
and without introduction of new infections.
Because, there are reasons to assume that a
moderate to severe uterine infection seldom
is localized only to the superficial layer of the
endometrium, therapeutic strategies would
have to consider systemic treatment.
In the treatment of chronic endometritis
with antimicrobial substances, it is preferable
to administer the substance by the
intrauterine route provided an adequate dose
rate is used, this will result in effective
minimum inhibitory concentrations. (MICs)
reaching the endometrium and being
established in the intraluminal secretions.
The latter point is important for the effective
treatment of the disease, since sub
therapeutic dose rates are frequently used.
Several antibiotics are inappropriate for
the treatment of uterine infections
Nitrofurazone is. an irritant and has an
adverse effect on fertility. Aminoglycosides
are not effective in the predominantly
anaerobic environment of the infected
uterus. Sulphonamides are ineffective
because of the presence of para-
aminobenzoic acid metabolites in the lumen
of the infected uterus. Penicillins are
susceptible to degradation by the large
numbers of penicillinase producing bacteria
that are present.
A broad-spectrum antibiotic, such as
oxytetracycline, used at a dose rate of up to
22 mg/kg, will provide effective MICs in the
lumen and uterine tissues for intra uterine
treatment with oxytetracycline total doses of
0.5 to 5 g may be used. The lower dose (0.5 to
2 g) is unlikely to yield adequate
concentrations in the large postpartum cavity.
Systemic administration of penicillin results
in genital tract tissue and lumen
concentrations similar to blood plasma
concentrations in the cows. Other antibiotics
such as Penicillins, Metronidazole,
Ciprofloxacin and Cephalosporins are
administered systemically as well as
intrauterine for the treatment of uterine
infections.
(b) Hormones
When there is a palpable mature corpus
luteum on the ovary it is arguable that the
best-method of treating clinical endometritis
is with PGF2a or its synthetic analogues.
When a corpus luteum is present, PGF2a
causes luteolysis, thereby stimulating the
return to oestrus and reducing the high
progesterone concentrations.
(c) Antiseptics
Intrauterine infusions with various
antiseptics such as lugols' iodine and
povidone iodine are relatively common for
treatment of postpartum infections. Although
positive results occasionally have been
reported, few controlled evaluations have
been made. Because intrauterine use of
disinfectants may suppress the uterine
defense mechanisms ego phagocytosis, the
use of intrauterine infusions in the
postpartum cow is not recommended.
CYSTIC OVARIAN DEGENERATION (COD)
Ovarian cysts are defined as follicles like
structures that are clinically found to be of
atleast 2.5 cms in diameter that persist for
atleast 10 days usually in the absence of a
corpus luteum.
Various types of cysts found in cattle
i. Follicular cysts- are anovulatory
follicle (s) which may be single or
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(d) Immunomodulators
i. Lipopolysaccharides of Fcoli
- Serotype 026:B6
-Dissolve 100 ~g in 20 ml of PBS (pH 7.4)
- Administer on day 0 (oestrum) through
intra uterine route
ii. Oyster glycogen
PMN migration into the uterine lumen of
healthy cows is stimulated after intrauterine
administration of oyster glycogen, up to 90%
of all cells identified in uterine secretions
being neutrophils. Variable concentrations of
oyster glycogen between 0.1-10% all in 60 ml
of vehicle produced identical responses with
a peak PMN cencentration 12h after.
administration.
iii. Leukotriene B4
Leukotriene B4 (LTB4) is an effective
chemo-attractant, stimulating preferential
migration of PMNs into the lumen of the
bovine uterus. A single intrauterine treatment
of a 30 nmol/L solution increased the
intrauterine leucocyte count 5-1 0 times within
24h.
iv. Autologous plasma
Collect-300 ml of blood from oestrus
animal in JML blood bag. Keep in ice and
transport to the lab. Transfer in to 50 ml of
sterile centrifuge plastic vials; centrifuge at
3000 RPM for 15 min, separate the plasma
and stored at -20°C. Administer 50 ml of
plasma through intra uterine route on days 1,
2, and 3 (day 0 - oestrur(l).
multiple, on one or both ovaries and
are usually thin walled.
ii. Luteal cysts - are also anovulatory
follicles which are thicker walled due
to partial or incomplete luteinisation
and usually single in structure.
iii. Cystic corpora lutea - a corpus
luteum which has a fluid filled cavity.
V~
 It IS nOt pamologlcal ana aoes nOt
alter the length of the oestrous cycle.
Cystic condition may be caused by
i. Insensitivity of the hypothalamic-
pituitary axis to elevated levels of the
oestradiol
ii. Deficiency or release of GnRH
iii. Failure of the LH release mechanism
iv. Inadequate LH receptors in the
follicle
Predisposing causes
.:. High milk production
.:. Hereditary
•:. High protein diet
.:. Postpartum uterine infection
Clinical signs
Ii< The affected cows may exh'ibit
nymphomania or anoestrus symptom.
Follicular cyst
I) Anovulatory
2) Persists> 10 days
3) Diameter> 2.5 em
4) Multiple in both ovaries
5) Nymphomania - frequent,
irregular, prolonged or continuous
estrus, prolonged period accept
riding of another cow, frequent
attempts to mount on other cows -
sexually aggressive - "Bullers",
relaxation of the sacrosciatic
ligaments - upward displacement
of coccyx- "sterilityhump".
Diagnosis
Clinical signs
Rectal examination
Follicular cyst
Both the ovaries greatly enlarged
Multiple cysts in both ovaries
Follicle wall thin, fluctuate
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>1< uue to aggressive sexual behaviour
they are called BUller's. '
Ii< Relaxation of sacrosciatic ligaments
and upward displacement of the
coccygeal bones or elevation of the
tail head called as Sterility hump
develop in the long standing cases.
Ii< Cows with sterility hump are more
prone for hip dislocation and pelvic
fracture as well as endometritis.
>i< Other signs include tendency for
vaginal prolapse, pneumovagina,
hydrometra and mucometra. They
gain a steer-like appearance .
Microscopically the cystic dilatation of
the endometrial glands and hyperplasia of
the uterine mucosa take place and in the
follicle the thecal layer and/ or granulosa
layer may be affected.
Luteal cyst
Anovulatory
Prolonged period
Diameter >2.5 em
Often single
Anestrus - no sign of estrus, if
untreated for a prolonged period
some become virilized - develop
masculine conformation, attempt to
mount other cows, may not allow
to mount by others
Luteal cyst
One of the ovaries greatly
Single cyst in one of the ovaries
Cystic wall thickened, fluid filled,
 and fluid filled, fluctuate smooth surfa~
Readily rupture
Vagina, clitoris, vulva - Swollen
Cervix - Large and dilated
Uterus - Thickened, large, tonic,
oedematous
>I< Accurate diagnosis of cystic
conditions is possible with single
examination. If doubtful, repeCilt
examination after 10 days.
>I< Many times it is difficult to differentiate
luteal and follicular cysts.
>I< Size and the number of cysts: similCilr
in both nymphomaniac and anestro~s
cows.
>I< Prognosis is good in early cases and it
is poor in long standing cases where
severe cystic degeneration of the
endometrium and atrophy of the
uterine wall has taken place.
Treatment
If diagnosed as cystic irrespective of the
type anyone of the following line may be
attempted.
>I< LH - 2500-5000 IU IN - optimum and
economic (3000-4500 IU).
oI4 GnRH -100-250 I-'g 11M to luteinize.
.0.5t01.5mgforovulation.
'. Synthetic analogue - Buserelin - 0.02
mg 11M.
. Following U~ or GnRH treatment, the
cysts l,mdergo. lut~iniiat!on and most of the
cows re~establish ovarian cycle and exhit,it
oestrus ifl18-23 qays.
>1< Following LH or GnRH, PGF2a- ~5
mg may be administered after 9-12
days to cut short the cycle length.
>I< GnRH or PGF2a may be preferred f(x
REPEAT i3REEDING
Repeat breeding is one of the most important
problems faced by the field veterinarian. The
cows are apparently normal and give no clue
to the cause.
A repeat breeder cow is defined as one that,
----------------~~~--------------
IAMWARM ~fwt. gWWng. go.:Jiefd V~ 2009
and smooth surface
Difficult to rupture
No change
Closed
Flaccid
luteal cyst which is however difficult to
differentiate from follicular cyst, in
which PGF2a alone is ineffective.
>I< Progestogens -CIDR, PRID or Ear
implant are also effective.
>I< Progesterone 100mg intramuscular
for 14 days.
>I< Corticosteroids - Betamethasone -10-
40 mg or Dexamethasone -10-20 mg.
>I< Found to be as effective as LH or
GnRH. Repeated if necessary
(average 1.9 injections). Suppresses
the release of ACTH and also LH and
upon the release of exogenous
block, LH is released in bulk.
>I< Potassium iodide - 30 g - divided into
6 doses. Daily oral administration -
reported to be successful.
oI4 Other lines of treatment tried include
Clomiphene citrate, oxytocin,
• testosterone, estrogen, etc.
Reasons for reduced recovery rate in
cystic ovarian degeneration
>I< Inability of. the. cystic structures
to respond to GnRH .~ induced LH
. release .because of fibrosis,
degeneration' of the' theca and
.granulosa cells in the cyst
>I< • Insufficiency of the LH receptors
>I< Decreased sensitivity to LH
>1< Low pituitary responsiveness to
GnRH or low activity of the secreted.'
LH
>I< Has experienced three or more
unsuccessful services.
>I< Have normal oestrous cycles with
approximately 21 days intervals.
>I< Is free from palpable abnormalities.
 0}' Shows no abnormal vaginal
discharges.
>1< Has calved at least once before.
>1< Is less than 10 years old.
However, this definition is quite
restrictive and may not fit in all cases.
Etiology
All the major causes can be grouped into
two categories of those causing
>1< Fertilization failure
>1< Early embryonic death
Fertilization failure
Fertilization failure accounts for about '
15% of reproductive wastage in normal cows.
rn repeaUrreedercows the fernl\'z:dO'arT l"atlhr~
may be higher around 28-44%. Fertilization
failures may be due to:
>1< Abnormalities in ovulation such as
failure of ovulation and delayed
ovulation. Both conditions are due to
deficient LH release.
>I< Defects of the ovum like defective
ovum and ageing of ovum - ova are
viable for only few hours.
>I< Inability of the sperm to fertilize a
viable ovum due to fertility differences
in bull, high sperm abnormalities, low
individual motility, low sperm
concentration, inflammatory conditions
of genital tract and very early A.I. .01'
ageing of sperms. . Administration 'of hCG, during . the. luteal
'>1< Inability of gametes to reach one'
another bec~use of anatomical
defects of genital tract both congenital
and acquired, segmental aplasia,
various affections of oviduct leading
to obstruction and failure of ova pick-
up,
Early embryonic death
Embryo loss accounts for the major
portion (25%) of the reproductive wastage.
Time of embryo death
>I< Major portion of the embryo death
occurs gradually between days 8 and
19 after breeding.
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litMost embryo death occurs before the
critical stage of pregnancy
recognition i.e. the cow will return to
oestrus at within. normal 18 to 25
days.
Etiology
Cytogenetic abnormalities
Critical requirement for the embryo
survival is the presence of a normal
complement of chromosomes. Chromosomal
aberrations play some unquantified role in
early embryo loss.
Unfavourable uterine environment
Egg transfer experiments indicate that
best pregnancy rates are obtained if
synchronous transfer IS carrIed out. UterIne
environment enables the spermstozoa to
ascend, provides adequate nutrients for
different stages of embryonic development,
maintains an appropriate milieu and fulfils
immunologic requirements (both immuno-
suppressive and antibacterial requirement).
Uterine environment can be affected by,
hormonal imbalance, infections like
endometritis, nutrition and environmental
stress.
Hormonal imbalance
There are conflicting reports on this
cause. Some indicate that in repeat breeder
,cows the administration of progesterone
tends to increa'se' the pregnancy rate.
phase to induce steroidogenesis by the
corpus luteuh, is an alternative approach but
ha~ also given mixed response'.
Non-specific uterine infections
The presence of non-specific uterine
infection or endometritis around the time of
service is not an important cause of infertility
in the cows, which are free of clinically
detectable uterine disease. Only C.
pyogenes is consistently associated with
'endometrial lesions. Severity and their effect
on fertility are mainly determined by the
duration of the infection. The bacteria may
interfere with fertility by directly killing the
gametes or conceptus, changing the uterine
milk, causing endometritis (toxic products,
luteolysis) and producing chronic histologic
lesions.
Specific uterine infections
Organisms which cause early embryonic
death are Trichomonas fetus, Campylo-
bacter fetus, Brucella abortus and IBR -IPV.
Nutritional causes
Extremes of nutrition are detrimental to
the survival of embryo. Deficiencies of wide
range of specific nutrients have been
implicated in poor reproductive performance.
Particularly selenium and Vitamin E were
reported to cause early embryonic death. A
very high plane of nutrition also leads to
embryonic death. Extended period of feeding
estrogenic forages affects the embryo
survival.
Environmental stress
The temperature of the uterus during the
first week after AI has been shown to be
important. Sustained elevated temperature
due to persistent fever or high environmental
heat and humidity lead to early embryonic
death.
Immunologic factors
Following conception the cow comes into
contact with both sperms and embryol1ic
antigens and if the immunosuppressive
mechanisms are not functioning properly, the
antibodies produced may reduce the fertility.
Time of AI
When aged sperm or ova are involved in
fertilization process, the resultant zygote
often dies prematurely.
Diagnosis
Reproductive history and clinical
examination.
--------------------·IImII~------------------
IAMWARM ~1Wt
5winim; 50. fjidd, 2009
Treatment
Specific treatments for conditions like
delayed ovulation, endometritis may be
carried out. Since most of the cases do not
reveal any specific condition the following
guidelines may be adopted.
>I< Bring the animal into positive nutritive
balance.
>I< DoAI twice at each oestrus preferably
at 12 or 24 h interval.
>I< Check the semen quality - use only
high quality semen - (This is often
taken for granted and ignored).
>I< Clitorial stimulation for three seconds
atAI.
>I< Administration of 100 j..Jg of GnRH or
1000-1500 IU of LH at the time of AI.
>I< Administration of 500 mg of depot
progesterone on the 5th day of AI.
>I< Skipping of AI, administration of
PGF2 after 9-10 days and fixed time
AI twice at 72 and 96 h.
>I< Intrauterine infusion of 1 million units
of procaine penicillin diluted in saline
three times at the onset of oestrus, 8 h
after AI and 24 h later.
>I< Skipping of AI and intrauterine
infusion of 1 to 1.5 million units of
procaine penicillin in 20 ml of sterile
saline daily for 3-4 days.
>I< Skipping of AI and intrauterine
infusion of 2 ml of Lugol's solution
diluted in 8 ml of sterile saline.
>I< Flushing of the uterus with normal
saline - under moderate pressure as
being done in embryo transfer (to
remove cellular debris and also mild
block in the uterine tubes).
>I< Administration of different hormones
and antibiotics may preferably be
tried at separate oestrus.
V~

HANDLING AND MAINTENANCE OF
FROZEN SEMEN FOR BETTER CONCEPTION RATE IN THE FIELD
--------------------------------------------------------------------
The quality of frozen semen plays an
important role in deciding the conception rate
in bovines especially in the field. The quality
is affected due to mishandling of frozen
straws during transfer, storage and
insemination. There is also a possibility of
transmission of pathogenic bacteria, and
viruses through semen. Lack of appropriate
measures during handling and maintenance
of frozen semen may lower the quality of
semen and subsequent conception. Semen
therefore should be properly handled and
maintained once it has reached the
insemination center. There are chances of
deteriorating good quality semen without our
knowledge due to many lapses while
handling and using it. The frozen semen
collected at the semen production stations is
handled at different places before being used
for insemination. Strict quality control
measures are to be exercised at all levels for
obtaining maximum results. The quality of the
semen being distributed to the AI centers has
to be ensured. Maintenance of cold chain of
semen in liquid nitrogen will also have to be
assured.
The spermatozoa are affected by
cryoinjury during freezing and thawing. The
thawed spermatozoa are very fragile and if
exposed again to thermal shock during our
handling results in poor fertility. Sufficient
care should be taken during transfer of
semen straws from storage container to field
containers, during thawing, loading of the
insemination gun and while insemination.
While handling frozen semen the influence of
fluctuation of temperature should be
minimized. There should not be any
contamination lNith pathogenic bacteria and
the temperature shock should be avoided.
HANDLING OF FROZEN SEMEN
Thawing and insemination are the two
important phases to be handled by the
inseminator with utmost care. Theoretically
----------------41ED1~---------------
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Animal Genetics and Breeding
faster a sperm is frozen, the more rapidly it
should be thawed for optimal survival. The
most widely practiced temperature range
37°C for 30 seconds is suitable to get
optimum survival of spermatozoa.
THAWING OF FROZEN SEMEN
1. Identify the location of the semen
samples
2. Open the lid and remove the neck
plug
3. Lift the canister up to frost level
inside the neck of the container
4. Using a pre cooled forceps pick out
the straw in 5 to 10 seconds
5. Shake the straw once or twice to
remove the liquid nitrogen adhering
to the ends
6. Immediately place the straw in water
bath
7. Thawing should be done at 37°C for
a minimum of 30 seconds
8. Never return the straw once it was
removed from liquid nitrogen
POST THAW EVALUATION
1. Thaw the frozen semen in a water
bath at 37°C for 30 seconds
2. Remove the straw from the water
bath
3. Wipe the straw to remove the
moisture using a sterile towel
4. Cut both the ends using a sharp
scissor
5. Collect the semen in a sterile test
tube
6. Mix the semen and place a drop on a
clean grease free glass slide
 7. Evaluate for progressive motility
under phase contrast microscope in
high power
8. Samples having 50% post thaw
motility are selected for AI
programme
STORAGE OF FRQZEN SEMEN
1. The frozen semen straws must
always be kept submerged in liquid
nitrogen.
2. Frozen semen containers should be
periodically topped with liquid
nitrogen.
3. Straws must be stored in a plastic
goblet, which in turn is fitted into a
canister.
4. Always keep identification slip or
coloured plastic sticks in the goblet
to enable quick identification.
The goblets must be slightly shorter than
straws to enable quick removal of straws.
Frozen semen should never be touched with
fingers. Long stainless steel forceps may be
used for handling the frozen straws. To avoid
any rise in temperature, the forceps or any
object, which is to come in contact with frozen
semen, should be immersed in liquid nitrogen
before the frozen straw is handled.
TRANSFER OF FROZEN SEMEN TO
OTHER CONTAINERS
1. Transfer the frozen semen with
plastic goblets to a thermocole box
filled with liquid nitrogen from the
storage containers.
2. Keep a plastic goblet in the box filled
with liquid nitrogen.
3. Using gloved hand with in short time
transfer the straws to small plastic
goblet and then to field containers.
4. Take minimum time in transfer from
storage to thermocole box and from
there to field container.
5. Keep small number of straws in
plastic goblets and transfer to field
containers.
----------------~-IEII~-----------------
IAMWARM fRe{!t.eAwt. 5'tainU1fI 5o.:1ield VeWtit~ 2009
6. Do not put back the thawed straws
once again in liquid nitrogen.
7. Take minimum time in transferring
the semen straws from storage to
field containers.
PROCEDURE FOR LOADING THE A.1.
GUN
1. Identify the canister from which the
desired semen is to be taken.
2. Ascertain the colour of the straw by
reading of identification tag.
3. Remove the lid from the container.
4. Lift the proper canister up to the le~el
of the frost line. Never lift the canister
above the neck level.
5. With a pair of tweezers grasp an
individual straw and remove it, a·t the
same time lower the canister
immediately back into the container.
If it is not possible to take the straw
within 10 seconds, lower the canister
back to nitrogen, wait for some time
and make next attempt.
6. With wrist movement give one or two
jerks to the straw to expel liquid
nitrogen trapped at end of factory
seal.
7. Dip the straw into a clean water bath
at 37°- 40°C for 30 seconds. During
this period the entire straw must be
completely submerged in water
bath.
8. Remove the straw from water bath
and dry the straw with a clean tissue
paper or absorbable cotton.
9. Inspect the straw carefully and
discard straw with cracks or
defective seals. Semen must never
come in contact with water.
10. Place the straw in the chamber of
insemination gun in such a way that
the factory seal should go down.
11. To obtain perfect fit with mini straw, it
is essential that laboratory seal be
 removed by cutting at right angle
through the middle of the air space.
The air space could be brought to the
top by gentle tapping of straw.
12. Make sure that the clipped end of
straw has a straight clean cut with no
jagged edges. Straws cut at other
angles or cut too short will result in
back flow and wastage of semen at
the time of insemination.
13. Fit a sheath over the straw and
chamber of the insemination gun
and obtain a perfect fit between the
extremity of the straw and the cone
of the sheath.
14. Move the sheath about 1" up and
cnect.<. whetne( tne s.t(aw {allows tne
sheath, if it is not correctly fixed it will
not move upwards with the sheath.
15. Fix the sheath by locking the plastic
'0' ring at the flange of the gun with
rotating motion. Do not touch the
sheath in the tip or middle portion
and handle only the base portion.
16. Extrude a tiny drop of semen to
remove air bubble, to move the
factory seal and to ensure good
fitting of the sheath.
The post-thaw survival of spermatozoa is
poor after thawing. So, for maximum
reproductive efficiency, thawed semen
should be used immediately with in ten
minutes. Therefore, do not thaw more than
one straw simultaneously.
CRYOGENIC CONTAINERS AND THEIR
MAINTENANCE
The liquid nitrogen refrigerators are
constructed in such a way that the three
pathways of heat transfer, conduction,
convection and radiation, are minimised.
Creating a super vacuum prevents the
transfer of heat through conduction and
convection. Therefore the liquid nitrogen
refrigerator is a double walled container, the
space between the walls is evacuated of air.
Winding the inner vessel alternatively with
paper and foil prevents the radiation. The
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inner vessel is connected with the outer
vess~1 with glue it is not supported by a strong
welding. Hence, the neck is the weakest part
of the whole refrigerator and sudden tipping
on one side will cause damage to the neck.
Cryogenic agents
The cost of storing material at ultra low
temperatures increases as the storage
temperature decreases. In general, the lower
the storage temperature the longer the sperm
motility and fertility can be maintained.
Several cryogenic agents have been used for
freezing and preservation of bovine semen
viz. solid carbon dioxide (-79°C), liquid air (-
183°C) and liquid nitrogen (-196°C). Since
1964 liquid nitrogen has almost entirely
re91.a.ced solid CO,;: (dr'{ ice\ in the stnr8.C6e at
frozen semen. Liquid nitrogen is the 4th
coldest substance known. It has a boiling
point of -196°C at atmospheric pressure.
Being a liquid it comes into good contact with
the surface of the straws. Hence a constant
storage temperature is maintained
throughout the straw. Liquid nitrogen is odour
less, colour less and most inert substance
and hence it can safely be handled in
preserving biological materials. It is non-toxic
as such and does not produce toxic or
irritating vapour. Liquid nitrogen is
manufactured from atmospheric air.
Atmospheric air is the rich source of nitrogen
and contains 78 per cent nitrogen by volume.
In industrial manufacture of liquid oxygen,
liquid nitrogen arises as a by-product. It has
been reported that greater deterioration in
motility and metabolic activity of
spermatozoa occurs at -79°C storage than at
-196°C.
Safety aspects in handling cryogenic
agents
There are a number of general
precautions and safe practices, to be
observed because of two important
properties of cryogenic fluid; they are
extremely cold and very small amount of
liquid is converted into very large amount of
gas. When liquid nitrogen evaporates into
gaseous form, it occupies 700 times· Its
volume.
Safe handling of liquid nitrogen
)0- Liquid nitrogen should be handled
carefully as it can produce 'frost bite'
on the skin similar to burn, even if it is
in contact for a few seconds.
}.> The vapour of liquid nitrogen is also
cold and can produce cold burns.
Cold vapour can damage delicate
tissues such as eyes if exposed even
for a short period.
)0- One should not look into an open
liquid nitrogen container without eye
protection.
.. Boiling and splashing always occur
when filling up a warm container.
Always perform these operations
slowly to minimize boiling and
splashing and keep your eyes away
from the container.
}.> Always use stainless steel tongs with
long handles to remove any object
immersed in liquid nitrogen. Loose
fitting gloves made of woolen,
asbestos or leather can be used for
handling. Cold metal may stick to skin
and tear the flesh when attempts are
made to withdraw the cold object
from bare hands or fingers. Specially
made Cryo-gloves are available for
this purpose.
;;. Care should be taken to avoid spilling
of liquid nitrogen into shoes.
)0- Use containers specifically designed
to hold liquid nitrogen. All containers
have vent or safety device to allow
the escape of nitrogen vapour.
Inadequate venting or closing tightly
can result in excessive gas pressure,
which can damage or burst a
container. Use only the stopper
supplied by the firm; never plug the
containers tightly.
Ventilation
Always handle liquid nitrogen containers
in a well-ventilated area to prevent excessive
----------------~·IEBI~-----------------
IAMWARM ~fwr, 5'Ulining 50. fJ;dd V~ 2009
concentration of gas. Excessive amounts of
nitrogen reduce the concentration of oxygen
in the air. If the oxygen level goes below
20.5 per cent, it will cause asphyxiation. A
person can become unconscious, without
sensing any warning symptoms such as
dizziness.
Transferring of liquid nitrogen
Use a stainless steel or plastic funnel
while pouring liquid nitrogen into another
smaller container. The top of the funnel
should be partly covered to reduce splashing.
When it is not safe to tilt a container, use a
discharge tube to remove liquid nitrogen.
Specially designed transfer device is also
available for safe transfer of liquid nitrogen.
Care and maintenance of containers
The cryogenic containers are double
walled vessels, with annular space
evacuated and sealed. In addition, several
types of insulation viz., vacuum, expanded
foam, gas filled powder and fibrous material,
evacuated powder or evacuated super
insulation are used as thermal insulators. The
outer wall of cootainers is made of stainless
steel, carbon steel or aluminum alloys.
.. Extreme care should be exercised in
handling containers.
.. The cryogenic equipment is specific
and they are meant to store only the
particular liquid for which they are
made.
.. Welding or piercing the container wall
is dangerous.
);> Keep the container always in upright
position.
.. Protect the container against shock
and rough handling. During transport
support the container with soft
padding (rubber, thermocole,
wooden crates etc.).
);> Protect against direct sunlight and hot
blowing winds.
}.> Charging of warm container should be
slow.
 .,. Avoid frequent cooling and warming EVALUATION OF FROZEN SEMEN
of containers. Thermal stress may
The successful cryopreservation of
cause so much strain within it that the
spermatozoa of farm animals has· removed
inner wall of container may crack.
the barriers of time and distance and
Appearance of moisture on the outer
per~itted large-scale genetic improvement
wall of container is a sign of damaged
of livestock through artificial insemination
container. Do not dry the container
(AI~. Keepin~ strides with the developments
meant for regular use.
taking place In AI technology, India also opted
.,. Find out the evaporation rate for each for frozen semen technology and centralized
container, so that the periodicity of semen banks with strength up to 100
topping could be organized. breeding bulls are not uncommon scene. The
genetic change in AI is achieved by taking
:.. When the vacuum disappears, the
advantage of the ability of the breeding bull to
insulating capacity is lost. Repairing
produce spermatozoa in abundance, which
of damaged containers has to be
can be divided in to several units to breed
done by the manufacturer only.
hundreds of cows from single ejaculate. With
Hence, containers should be handled
the application of assisted reproductive
very gently particularly during
technology in livestock practice, screening·
transport in vehicles.
and monitoring of the fertility status of males
Assessment of liquid nitrogen level have assumed more importance. Further, the
ushering in of frozen semen resulted in
. The evaporation rate of liquid nitrogen
exploiting the sires potential to the maximum
vanes between containers (even among the
extent. Therefore, the success of AI primarilY-
same make and capacity), depending on
depends upon the intensity and accuracy of
temperature of the room in which it is stored
selection of superior semen samples. Hence
an~ number of times it is opened. Hence,
it is i~perative that such sires are genetically
p~nodlc ~hecking of the level of the liquid
superior as well as have high fertilizing
nitrogen IS essential. The minimum level of
capacity.
liquid nitrogen should keep the straws
completely submerged in liquid nitrogen. One of the most perplexing problems
corfronting the inseminator is evaluation and
To measure the level, take a 'dipstick'
identification of semen samples. The
(8lender stick made of wood or metal) and
~i.~espread use of AI in livestock breeding
gently lower it into the container and rest it at
initiated researchers to persistently develop
the bottom. Hollow tube should not be
many sensitive laboratory tests that would
used. After 5-10 seconds, take it out and
accurately predict the fertility of sires. When
wave in the air. The atmospheric air
choosing a male for breeding through AI, it is
condenses as a 'frost' on the dipstick to the
imperative to assess its fertility potential.
level of liquid nitrogen. Read the level, 1 em
Though there are several routine standard
below the end of frost line (giving allowance
semen analysis techniques available, no
for b?iling of liquid nitrogen when the dipstick
single test reliably predict the functional
was Inserted). By using the calibration chart,
competence of spermatozoa for fertility.
the volume of nitrogen can also be estimated.
However, frequent measuring leads to Assessment of frozen thawed semen
unnecessary evaporation of liquid nitrogen.
Spermatozoa are terminal cells, whose
Li.quid nitr?gen has a specific gravity of major role is ·to carry a genome package to
0.82. I.e., one litre weighs 0.82 kg (1 kg =1.22 the oocyte. For this task they are equipped
liters). Based on weight, the quantity of liquid with a setup of specialized structures that
nitrogen in litres could be calculated. For this ensures a particular interaction with female
purpose, the weight of the empty container reproductive tract and the oocyte. Their
should also be known. cellular viability decreases substantially

----------------41Ea1~---------------
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 within a short time after ejaculation.
Cryopreservation, which attempts to ensure
their survival, imposes however irreversible
damage to the sperm membranes that
causes either cell death or capacitation like
·1
changes hampering their ability to fertilize.
While it is obvious that freezing and thawing
causes sperm damage, it is less apparent
that some relatively minor damaging effects
may entirely abolish the fertility of individual
spermatozoa. In order to fertilize an egg, a
spermatozoon must retain the capacity to
reach and penetrate the oocyte and damage
to spermatozoa will render it unable to
fertilize the oocyte.
Many technical approaches to sperm
function testing have been developed over
the past 10 to 15 years and it is increasingly
possible to combine the techniques in order
to assess different aspects of functions
simultaneously particularly those evaluating
multiple functions of frozen thawed semen
and their relationship with fertility. The
combined outcome of a set of sperm
functional parameters after post thaw such
as sperm linear motility, total motile sperm
concentration, capacitation and acrosome
reaction of spermatozoa, degree of ability to
bind homologous zona pellucida and to
fertilize in vitro (IVF and zona free hamster
egg penetration bioassay) has been related
to the observed fertility of bulls after AI and
helpful in possible elimination of sub fertile
bulls before their entry in an AI programme.
Although many factors can account for AI
fertility, the fertilizing ability of the frozen
, thawed semen is probably, the most
important. Considering the aforementioned
factors, the need for evolving series of tests
for evaluation of frozen semen has become
mandatory. The methods used for evaluation
of frozen semen may be classified as given
below:
1. Evaluation of motility characteristics
! offrozen spermatozoa
a.
b.
Post-thaw motility estimation
Post-thaw incubation survival of
spermatozoa
-------------------IEII~-----------------
IAMWARM ~fwt, 5'taininf; 50. fJiJd. VeWtiJUJ.'lian6 2009
2. Assessment of sperm structural
integrity
a. Sperm morphology assessment
b. Post-thaw acrosomal integrity
examination
c. Plasma membrane integrity
evaluation
3. In-vitro sperm penetration assess
-ment
Cervical mucous penetration test
4. In-vitro fertility evaluation of
spermatozoa
Zona free hamster oocyte sperm
penetration bioassay
Sperm motility
The most important behaviour of
spermatozoa is its unrelenting motility.
Motility is an index of activity of spermatozoa.
Motility facilitates sperm transport and is
essential for fertilization in oviduct. The
evaluation of post thaw motility is widely used
for post thaw semen assessment and it is the
simplest form provides a rough guide to the
survival of spermatozoa. Evaluation of sperm
motility is done subjectively by visual
assessment on a microscope equipped with
phase contrast optics thus relying entirely on
the ability and experience of the operator.
This method is relatively simple, easy and
quick and remains the parameter of choice to
determine the degree of sperm damage
inflicted by cryopreservation. The fertility of
cryopreserved semen samples from AI bulls
is solely evaluated for their levels by post
thaw motility. Although there are reported
significant relationship between subjectively
assessed motility and field fertility, such
relationship is not strong revealing larger
ranges of variation ranged as low as 0.15 to
as high as 0.83.
The element of subjectivity, drawbacks of
human error and bias, when using this
conventional approach, thereby limiting its
reliability as fertility probe. Realizing this ,
disadvantage, attention has been given in \
recent years to objective methods of
evaluating sperm motility using computer
assisted semen analyser (CASA). However
in its more sophisticated applications, using
CAS A the interpretation of derived
measurements is highly dependent on the
existence of data from fertility trails. Although
extensive, this offers a fully automated rapid
and objective approach to evaluation of
motility characteristics.
Post thaw motility
The types of sperm motility are
Progressively forward, Circular, Oscillatory
and Reverse motility.
The progressively forward motility is
sperm moving in straight, forward direction
with head first covering distance. Sperms
with progressive moW,ty a(one are
considered for scoring as they have better
chances offertilisation.
Post-thaw incubation survival of
spermatozoa
Viability of spermatozoa in female
reproductive tract before it meets a ova is a
pre-requisite quality for successful
fertilisation. Post-thaw incubation of frozen
semen at 3rC is a good indicator of in-vitro
viability of spermatozoa. It is a simple test
that could be easily done under practical
conditions.
Samples showing higher percentage of
progressively motile spermatozoa for longer
periods of incubation at 3rC are considered
as better samples in terms of viability of
spermatozoa.
Sperm number
In order to increase the number of AI that
can be performed with a single ejaculate from
a proven sire, the semen stations have
steadily decreased the number of
spermatozoa per dose. A sperm
concentration of 10 million live sperms at the
time of insemination is nowadays a common
phenomenon. With freezing and thawing
affecting a large proportion of the
spermatozoa there is a threshold number of
viable sperm per AI dose for each bu!J that
ultimately expresses a certain fertility level.
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Below ~his threshold sperm number, the
fewer viable spermatozoa inseminated the
grea~er the risk fertility drops. A significant
relation has been sh?wn between sperm
number and actual fertility. For this reason. a
dose response ?urve for each sire where the
sper.m numb~~ In the AI dose is required for
maximum fertility.
Sperm morphology
. . Morphological evaluation of spermatozoa
IS Important as abnormal spermatozoa have
lesser chances of fertilization. Any
morphological deviation from the normal
structure of sperm is considered abnormal. .
Every ejaculate contains some abnormal
spermatozoa and sample with high
percentage of abnormal spermatozoa can be
expected to result in poor fertility.
The sperm abnormalities may be
classified by several methods viz. based on
location of abnormality like head, mid piece
and tail, based on source of abnormality like
primary and secondary and based on
specificity like specific or non-specific.
Some of the specific abnormalities are
knobbed acrosome defect, dag defect,
diadem defect, corkscrew defect, pseudo
droplet defect and decapitated sperm defect.
Semen should not be used if the samples
contain a total abnormality of more than 20%
and head and mid-piece abnormality (alone)
of7%.
Acrosomal integrity
Acrosome, a cap like structure on the
head of the spermatozoa covers 60 per cent
of the anterior portion of the nucleus. The
morphology of the acrosome should be
maintained for the sperm to undergo
capacitation and acrosome reaction in the
female reproductive tract for attaining the
fertilizing ability. Appreciable modifications to
the structure of plasma membrane and the
outer acrosome membrane follow after
capacitation has it run its course, in the form
of acrosome reaction. Acrosome reaction
consists of fusion lilt multiple points between
the two membranes and formation of vesicles
made up of fragments of the two membranes.
The sperm must be able to undergo these
changes in the female reproductive tract to
attain fertilizing ability by release of specific
enzymes. For this to happen the acrosome
should be intact. Maintenance of optimum
fertility depends on the acrosome being
structurally and bio- chemically intact.
Acrosome can be detached from sperm
under the influence of different physical and
chemical factors. Freezing and thawing can
also bring about damage to acrosome.
Hence, a test for acrosome integrity becomes
significant in frozen semen evaluation.
Plasma membrane integrity
The integrity of plasma membrane of
spermatozoa is a prerequisite for maintaining
fertility. The spermatozoa undergo important
events in the female reproductive tract like
capacitation and acrosome reaction to attain
fertilising ability. For these events to take
place the spermatozoa must maintain the
functional integrity of cell membrane. Further,
the process of fertilisation involves complex
biochemical and physiological events that
are not measured by the gross physical
indicators used in routine semen evaluation.
Hence, there is a need for a test, that is
inexpensive, technically simple and
reasonably accurate, that could be used as
an adjunct to the standard semen evaluation
methods.
Fluid transport occurs in an intact sperm
cell membrane under hypo-osmotic
conditions until equilibrium is reached
between inside and outside the cell. Due to
influx of fluid there will be bulging of plasma
membrane resulting in "ballooning". When
the plasma membrane balloons, curling or
bending of tail fibre occurs. This
phenomenon is known as "tail curling" or the
sperm with curled tail is known as "swollen"
sperm. Spermatozoa with chemically and
physically intact membrane will show tail
curling under hypo-osmotic conditions
whereas spermatozoa with bio chemically
inactive membrane will not. During
cryopreservation, spermatozoa are
subjected to stress that can alter membrane
------------------IE!I~----------------
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integrity and hypo osmotic swelling test
(HOST) is found to be useful as a measure of
plasma membrane integrity in the cryo-
survival of spermatozoa.
Various media are used to provide hypo-
osmotic conditions to spermatozoa to test the
functional integrity of cell membrane.
Distilled water can also be used as a hypo-
osmotic medium in HOST. Hypo-osmotic
swelling test can be performed by using
HaS medium prepared by mixing equal
volumes of sodium citrate and fructose of 75
mOsm tonicity. The results of the studies on
HOST and fertility of frozen semen in bulls
indicate that samples with higher HaS
spermatozoa give higher fertility rate. HaS
also has positive correlation with freezability
of semen.
Good semen sample may contain about
70% to 80% and 60% to 70% of hypo osmotic
reacted spermatozoa (Tail curled) in
undiluted and frozen thawed semen
respectively.
In-vitro penetration assessment of
spermatozoa
Evaluation of semen is traditionally
revolved around microscopic evaluation of
semen characteristics like sperm
concentration, sperm morphology, sperm
motility etc. However, these conventional
routine semen evaluation methods are poor
indicators of fertility. This limitation has
prompted the development of newer
techniques for more direct assessment of
sperm function, which may give fair
estimation of sperm fertility. One of the
methods is the assessment of interaction
between the sperm and cervical mucous in-
vitro. The viability and migration of fertile
spermatozoa in the female genital tract is
basically essential to ensure high percentage
of conception. The spermatozoa after
insemination has to be transported though
various luminal fluids of completely different
physiologic and biochemical characteristics.
The sperm has to pass through these barriers
in the female reproductive tract to reach the
site of fertilization for successful conception.
Therefore, in-vitro penetration assay of
V~
spermatozoa in cervical mucous gives a fairly
good idea about the penetration capabilities
of spermatozoa for evaluating the
cryopreserved semen. The stage of oestrus
is one of the factors, which influence the
composition of cervical mucous, thereby it
also alters the penetration of spermatozoa.
Further, storage of mucous also has
significant effect on the sperm penetration. To
overcome these variations several synthetic
or natural medium have been used as a
substitute for cervical mucous. Polyacrylamide
gel is one such synthetic medium used to
assess the in-vitro penetration of
spermatozoa.
Sperm penetration bioassay
The widespread use of A.1. in livestock
breeding initiated scientists to persistently
develop laboratory tests that would
accurately predict the fertility of sires. Male
fertility is complex and it depends upon a
heterogenous population of spermatozoa
interacting at various levels of the female
reproductive tract, the vestments of oocyte
and the oocyte itself. For this reason the
laboratory assessment of semen must
include the testing of most semen attributes
relevant for fertilization and embryo
development, not only in individual
spermatozoa but within large sperm
population as well. The commonly employed
semen evaluation tests have been effective
in controlling the quality of bovine frozen
semen used for A. I. but cannot relied upon to
accurately predict fertility. Hence, there is a
need for evolving some methods to assess
the fertility of spermatozoa in- vitro before it is
used for A.1. Zona-free hamster ova
penetration bioassay is a recently developed
technique that could be successfully
employed for in-vitro fertility assessment of
spermatozoa.
Zona free ova of most mammalian
species retain very strong or fairly strong
species specificity, rejecting entry of
spermatozoa of most other species. The
Golden hamster is exceptional and permits
sperm entry of wide variety of other species
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provided the sperm have completed
capacitation. Sperm penetration bioassay
(SPB) has been evolved as a reliable test to
assess the fertility of spermatozoa. Various
reports also indicate that there is a positive
correlation between this bioassay measures
and fertility. SPB could also be used in
screening and selection of donors with high
fertility for in-vitro fertilization and embryo
transfer studies.
The fertilizing ability of frozen
spermatozoa of different bulls are assessed
by fertilisation percentage (FP)
No. of oocytes penetrated
FP= - - - - - - - - - x 100
No. of oocytes inseminated
CONCLUSION
Finding a laboratory test reliable
enough to predict the potential fertility of the
frozen semen sample is still considered
utopian, as indicated by the modest
correlations between results obtained in vitro
and field fertility. The testing of a large
number of parameters should lead to
accuracy of the test employed because
fertilization is a multi factorial process and
moreover, the semen parameters might
change with age shadowing our ability to
make reliable predictors over time.
Hence, it is dangerous to conclude that
any single current test can predict fertility with
much accuracy. However it is probably
reasonable to remark that the use of such
tests in combination can help to identify sub
fertile bulls and can therefore be regarded as
useful for quality assurance. It is always safe
to include a combination of laboratory tests to
determine the semen quality and to give
prognosis on the potential fertility of a bull.
This appears to be an effective tool for
screening semen from young bulls and to
exclude those with a potential lower fertility,
with obvious economic savings.

CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION
Dr. T.R. Pugazhenthi and Dr. C. Naresh Kumar
Department of Dairy Science
Madras Veterinary College, Chennai-600 007
The term "clean milk" does not only mean
milk in which all visible dirt is absent or milk
from which it has been removed; rather it
denotes raw milk from healthy animals, that
has been produced and handled under
hygienic conditions; that contains only small
number of harmless bacteria and that
possesses a good keeping quality without
being treated by heat.
For hygienic milk production various
control measures have to be adopted to
avoid the contamination. Here, various
sources of contamination of milk and steps to
control them for clean milk production were
given in detail.
Contamination of milk may occur in
various sources viz.
a) Milch animals b) Milker c) Milking
process d) Utensils and e) Environment
MILCH ANIMALS
The animal by itself is one of the most
significant contributors of microorganism in
to milk. The bacteria in the udder usually
enter from the teat opening and get
distributed internally. In the normal healthy
udder, the types encountered in milk are most
predominantly Micrococci, followed by
Streptococci, Corynebacterium and others.
Most of the bacteria are excreted in fore milk
CONTROL
* Animals should be maintained in
clean dry environment free from dust
and dirt.
* Milk from the first few .strippings ie.
foremilk should be discarded.
* Milk from the infected udder should
be discarded and should be included
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after 72 hrs of withdrawal of the
treatment.
* Dairy animals should be periodically
vaccinated against susceptible
diseases.
* Residual milk should not be allowed
to stay in the teat. Complete milking
should be done. Dairy animals
should be cleaned before milking and
the udder and the teats should be
wiped with clean towel.
* After milking teats should be dipped in
antiseptiC solution.
MILKER
If the milker is unhealthy and carry some
infectious disease; it may contaminate the
milk with humin pathogens too. Activities like
sneezing, coughing, milking without proper
cleaning of hands.etc. increase the risk of
contamination.
CONTROL
* The hands of the milker should be
clean and clip the finger nails
regularly.
* Clean the hand properly before
milking.
* Precaution during coughing /
Sneezing.
* Periodical health check up of the
individual should be carried out.
* Milker should wear clean clothes and
cap.
MILKING PROCESS
* Give proper udder wash before
milking and wipe the udder with clean
towel.
 * Use full hand milking method
* Perform complete milking.
* Discard fore milk from all quarters.
Otherwise in increases the bacterial
load of subsequent milk.
* Proper handling of milk I covering
after milking.
MILKING UTENSILS I EQUIPMENTS
The improperly cleaned 'milk contact
surfaces' of milking equipments, including
bucket, pail, cans, bulk tanks etc. are the
major source of contamination in milk after it
leaves the udder. The most hazardous
situation arises when the milking utensils are
not thoroughly cleaned after use and the milk
solids with some moisture are left on the
surfaces. This allows growth of
microorganism and heavily inoculates the
fresh milk, which comes in contact with this
type of utensils.
CONTROL
* The milking utensils and equipments
should be cleaned and sanitized
before and after milking.
* The tanks used for bulk transport of
milk should be cleaned and sanitized
immediately after the unloading of
milk.
* Adequate clean water supply should
be made available and Milk transfer
vessels to be minimized
ENVIRONMENT
The accumulation of mud , animal urine
and faeces, the left out straw and feed in the
milking barn can directly or indirectly through
air can contaminate the milk Micrococci,
Corynebacterium and Bacillus spores are
likely to contaminate through this source.
However, it is shown that air derived bacterial
counts does not exceed 5 cfu Jml of milk.
CONTROL
* The environment in the milking bam
should be clean.
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* Sources of air borne contamination
should be prevented.
* Maintain the cattle shed always
clean.
* Proper disposal of manure.
* Prevent stagnation of water.
* Lime washing can be done to reduce
fly nuisance
Water used in the milk production and
collection areas and for cleaning equipments
should be of good bacteriological quality. If
not properly treated, this water adds
coliforms, faecal streptococci, Clostridia,
Pseuedomonas and less frequently
Coryneforms, Bacillus spores and lactic acid
bacteria to the milk.Water used for cleaning
should be free from faecal contamination and·
water may be chlorinated before use.
Prompt cooling: Since India being tropical
country, milk should be promptly cooled to 50
C during storage and transportation.
Otherwise it will favour multiplication of
bacteria and cause spoilage of milk and milk
products.
Clean milk production can be
encouraged by
* Education propaganda: like personal
advice, film shows, demonstrations,
which help the producers to know the
harmful effect of their carelessness
and unhygienic practices of milk
production on the health of the
consumers and quality of the
products.
* Incentive payment plan: low cost,
rapid, reliable quality assessment
test should be carried out and
incentives should be given according
to the quality of milk.
* Making the public quality conscious
through consumer education.
Thus the dairy farmer must be able to
combine the profitability with the
responsibility of protecting the health of the
consumers and satisfying the demands of
processors as well as customers.
 Dairy Science

QUAlITY CONTROL OF MILK AND MILK PlODUCT~

Dr. T.R. Pugazhenthi
Assistant Professor
Department of Dairy Science
Madras Veterinary College, Chennai-600 007
------------------------------------------------------ ---·····~r·-·~
, '.\

Quality control or quality assurance is an 4. Titrable acidity.

activity or procedure, method of programme
5. Sediment test
that will ensure the maintenance and
continuity of the specifications and standards 6. Alizarin alcohol test ""
, ,"
"---
of the product with in the prescribed
7. Ten minutes resazurin test
tolerances during all stages of handling,
processing, preparation, packaging, storage 8. Direct microscopic count.
anD Distribution. It also further ensures thc?lt all
MICROBIOLOGICAL QUALITY TESTS
the original and desirable characteristics are
sustained during these operations and will 1. Methylene blue reduction test
remain unaltered until consumed .. The terms
2. Resazurin reduction test
'quality control' and 'quality assurance' are
used, interchangeably. However, the quality: 3. Total plate count
assurance is now a more acceptable term
4. Coliform count
and is invariably used for all types offoods.
5. Thermoduric count
TESTS FOR QUALITY OF MILK
6. Thermophilic count
The quality of milk is tested before
acceptance at the dairy plant. These tests 7. Psychotropic count
check the suitability of milk for further
8. Spore count
processing and human consumption. The
milk is also graded on the basis of certain 9. Proteolytic count
tests. In some developed countries, the
system of certifying the herd is prevalent that 10. lipolytic count.
enforces strict hygienic standards and OTHERS
certifies various grades of milk.
The various routine tests employed for 1. Tests for Mastitis
, raw milk testing are as follows. 2. Test for Antibiotics, Pesticides and
PLATFORM TESTS Mycotoxin residues
1 . Smell and Organoleptic tests. Among the above tests, the dairies in our
country routinely use smelling the milk in can
2. Clot on boiling test.
and COB to decide the acceptability of the
3. pH milk.

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 i,
QUALITY CONTROL TESTS FOR MILK

S.No. Name of the test Purpose Remarks

To determine final acceptance Applied as such or in a
1, Acidity modified form as a platform
Irejection of milk
test
To determine the heat-stability of
2 Ethanol test Applied as a platform test
milk
Alcohol-alizarin To determine the heat-stability and
3 test salt balance of milk
Applied as a platform test
4 Clot on boiling To determine the heat-stability of
Applied as a platform test
test milk
Dye reduction To determine the extent of bacterial 2-min resazurin applied as
5
tests contamination and growth in milk a platform test
Direct
To identify the type of
6 microscopic Applied as laboratory test
microorganism present in milk
count
Standard plate To determine the extent of bacterial
7 --do--
count contamination and growth in milk
To detect adulteration of milk with
8 Lactometer Applied as platform test
water
9 Freezing point --do-- Applied as a laboratory test
10 Fat and/SNF To make payment for milk received --do--
To determine the faecal
11 Coliform count --do--
contamination
To determine the bacterial
Thermoduric
12 population which resists --do--
count
pasteurisation
To determine the number of
Thermophilic
13 bacteria that requires higher --do--
count
temperature for growth.
To assess the extent of air
14 Spore count --do--
contamination
Psychrotrophic To assess effect of cooling on milk
14 --do--
count quality
To assess the extent of protein
15 Proteolysis decomposition and flavour changes --do--
on storage
To ascertain the extent of fat
16 Lipolysis --do--
hydrolysis on storage

J .. --
I

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 Microbiological standards of various milk and milk products

Raw milk Direct microscopic count

--
Countlml Bacteriological quality
Less than 5 lakhs Good
5 lakhs one to 40 lakhs Fair
40 lakhs one to 2 crores Poor
More than 2 crores
f----
Very poor
Standard plate count
Less than 2 lakhs Very good
2 lakhs one to 10 lakhs Good
10 lakhs one to 50 lakhs Fair
More
1------
than 50 lakhs Poor
Thermoduric count
Less than 10 thousands Good
10 thousands to 30 thousands Fair
More than 30 thousands Poor
Coliforms
Absent in 0.001 ml Satisfactory
Leucoc~te count
Less than 5 lakhs Normal milk
More than 5 lakhs Mastitic or early or late lactation milk
Methylene blue reduction test
IMBRT (hours) Quality of milk
! 5 and above Very good
3 and 4 Good
1 and 2 Fair
Y2 and below Poor
10 minutes resazurin reduction test
6,5,4 Satisfactory
3.5 to 1 Doubtful
Y2 to 0 Unsatisfactory
Pasteurized milk SPC
CounUmi Quality
Less than 30 thousands Satisfactory
Coliforms
Absent
1-------
in 1: 10 dilution Satisfactory
Raw cream SPC
CounUml Quality
Less than 4 lakhs Very good
4 lakhs one to 20 lakhs Good
20
.. _
lakhs
..
one to 1 crore Fair
More than 1 crore Poor
Coliforms
Absent in 1: 100 dilution Satisfactory

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 MBRT
MBRT (hours) Quality
5 and above Very_ good
3 and 4 Good
1 and 2 Fair
~ and below Poor
Pasteurized cream SPC
Less than 60 thousands Good
60 thousands to 2 lakHs Fair
More than 2 lakhs Poor
Coliforms
Absent in 1: 10 dilution Satisfactory
Butter Coliforms
Not more than 10 Iml Satisfactory
Yeasts and molds
Less than 20 Good
21 to 50 Fair
51 to 100 Poor
More than 100 Very poor
Ice cream SPC
Less than 2 lakhs 50 thousands Satisfactory
More than 5 lakhs Un satisfactory
Coliforms
Should not exceed 90/gm
Dried milks
Total counts Not more than 50000/gm
Coliforms Not more than 90/gm
DMC 75000000 - 200000000/gm
Infant foods
Bacterial countlg 50000
Coliform countlg 10

NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL 2. Food and Agriculture Organization

AGENCIES ON MICROBIOLOGICAL (FAO) and World Health Organi
QUALITY CONTROL OF DAIRY -zation (WHO)
PRODUCTS
3. International Dairy Federation (IDF)
National agencies
4. American Public Health Association
1. Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (APHA)
(PFA)
5. International Commission on
2. Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)- Microbiological Specifications for
formerly lSI Foods (ICMSF)
3. AGMARK (Agriculture produce) 6. International Association of Milk,
Food and Environmental Sanitarians
International agencies
(IAMFES)
1. CodexAlimentarius

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 AnirpaJ Nutrition
t
LATEST CONCEPTS IN ANIMAL NUTRITION-I
1. ENZYMES IN POULTRY FEEDING - industry during the last decade. It is
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS estimated that current feed enzyme market
consists of mainly Non-starch polysaccharides
The rapid increase in using exogenous enzymes and phytase. Currently, both
enzymes in poultry feed can be considered powder and liquid forms are available for
as one of the greatest advancements in feed most feed enzymes.

Some enzymes that are used in the feed industry

Enzymes Substrate Function Benefits or use
r.,-glucanases Barley Viscosity reduction Enhanced digestion and
Oats utilization of nutrients
Xylanases Wheat, rye Viscosity reduction Enhanced digestion and
Triticale utilization of nutrients
Rice bran
Cellulase Rice bran, Hydrolysis of Enhanced digestion and
Wheat bran cellulose utilization of nutrients

P.,-galactosidases Grain legumes Viscosity reduction Enhanced digestion and

Lupins utilization of nutrients

Pectinase Rapeseed meal Viscosity reduction Enhanced digestion and

utilization of nutrients
.
Phytase~ Plant feedstuffs Release of Enhanced phosphate
phosphate from absorption
phytate-P
Proteases Proteins Hydrolysis of protein Increased digestion of proteins

Lipases Lipids Hydrolysis of fats Use in young animals

Amylases Starch Hydrolysis of starch Supplemental amylase for
young animals

Non starch polysaccharide degrading have been traditionally classified based on

enzymes
Feed enzymes are mainly used to
reduce the adverse effects of anti-nutritional
factors in various ingredients. Non starch
polysaccharide enzymes on the other hand,
have found their role in areas where legumes
and cereals such as wheat, barley, sorghum
and rye are used as main energy sources.
The term NSPs refers to a large group of
polysaccharides other than starch. NSPs
their solubility. The insoluble NSP consists
mainly of cellulose. The NSP enzymes are
designed to cleave some chemical bonds of
the NSPs polymers to reduce or eliminate
their anti-nutritive effects. The main
mechanism of the NSP enzymes is believed
to break down carbohydrate complex, reduce
the viscosity of gut content in birds, and
hence release the entrapped nutrients.

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Pl '1 tase
Dietary phytase is a term used to
describe a suite of enzymes that cleave
inorganic phosphorus (P) from organic forms
of P in grains (inositol phosphates, also
referred to as phytate) to increase grain P
availability to animals. Phytase-supplemented
diets commonly contain 15 to 25 percent less
total P than conventional diets. As a result
. manure P excretion from animals provided
phytase-supplemented diets is reduced 15 to
25 percent compared to manure from
animals provided conventional diets.
2. PROBIOTICS - A PERSPECTIVE
Probiotics are defined as live
microorganisms, including that may
beneficially affect the host upon ingestion by
improving the balance of the intestinal
microflora.
Probiotics have been primarily used to
establish normal intestinal flora to prevent or
minimize the disturbances caused by enteric
pathogens and secondarily to serve the
function of antibiotic feed additives in diet of
animal. Lactic acid bacteria or yeast are able
to inhibit the growth of bacteria like
Salmonella, Clostridia and E.coli. Probiotics
especially lactobacilli and Bacillus cereus are
also important in the development of
immunocompetence against enteric
infections. The probiotics are not substitutes
of antibiotics in birds with serious infections
but are useful in restoring the normal
bacterial population. The lactic acid bacteria
also consume potentially dangerous waste
products and suppress the aflatoxin effect.
The probiotics that are marketed as
nutritional supplements and in functional
foods, such as yogurts, are principally the
Bifidobacterium sp. Lactobacillus sp.
Lactococcus sp .. Probiotics are sometimes
called colonic foods. Most of the presently
available probiotics are bacteria.
Saccharomyces boulardii is an example of a
probiotic yeast.
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Dosage and administration
There are many probiotic products
available with combinations of probiotics and
prebiotics. Typical doses of probiotics range
from one to ten billion colony-forming units
(CFU) a few times a week. Probiotics need to
be consumed at least a few times a week to
maintain their effect on the intestinal
microecology.
3.CONCEPT AND USAGE OF
PREBIOTICS IN AUGMENTING THE GUT
HEALTH AND LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION-
AN OVERVIEW
Prebiotics is an indirect way improve the
intestinal micro flora and it is being
increasingly accepted that the colonic micro
biota may play an important role in the
maintenance of host health. The
consideration that many potentially health
promoting bacteria, such as Bifidobacteria
spp. and Lactobacillus spp. are already
reside in the colon has introduced the
concept of prebiotic. The concept of
prebiotics lies in the fact that the principal
substrates for bacterial growth are present in
the dietary sources and that these have to be
incorporated in the diet
Prebiotics is defined as a "non-digestible
food ingredient that beneficially affects the
host by selectively stimulating the growth
and/or activating one or a limited number of
bacteria in the colon".
Criteria for prebiotic
It is emphasized that in order to be called
Prebiotic, a compound should be.
a. dietary ingredient,
b. reaches the large intestine in an
intact form,
c. has a specific metabolism therein,
one directed towards beneficial
rather than harmful bacteria and
ultimately leads to a marked change
in the gut micro flora composition.
The food ingredient to be considered
as a prebiotic must be non-digestible
 by host enzymes, it must be
fermented in the lower gastro-
intestinal tract and it must possess
selectivity in stimulation of intestinal
flora.
Source of prebiotics
Non-digestible carbohydrates include
resistant starch, non-starch polysaccharides
(NSP) and non-digestible oligosaccharides
(NDO) examples of pre biotic.
Non-digestible oligosaccharides
The non-digestible oligosaccharidas are
resistant to endogenous digestive enzymes
because of their osidic bond. However, they
are fermented and metabolized by colonic
micro biota. Some pf the examples of
Non-digestible oligosaccharides are
Fructooligosaccharides (FOS), Galactooligo
saccharides (GOS), Mannanoligo
saccharides (MOS), Glucooligosaccharides,
Xylooligosaccharides. Copra meal also is a
good source of non-digestible oligo
saccharides. Other sources of pre biotic are
Saccharomyces cerevisia and Palm kernel
meal.
4. PRODUCTION OF DESIGNER EGGS
AND MEAT
Manipulation of nutrient composition
of popular and wholesome foods like egg and
meatto suit the needs of ailing and health
conscious human population is one of the
latest concepts in poultry.
IUPAC name Common name
9, 12, 15 - octadeca trienoic a - Linolenic
Eicosopentaenoic EPA
Docosahexaenoic DHA
Significance of omega-3 fatty acids in
human health
Omega-3 fatty acids play an important
role as structural membrane lipids,
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Designer egg
Eggs are high in cholesterol (200-300
mg) and poultry meat with more of saturated
fatty acids and cholesterol. Cholesterol
content of egg yolk may be altered by about
25% through manipulation of dietary
fat/energy and cholesterol. Another
approach is to let the hen lay eggs enriched
with omega-3 fatty acids due to the beneficial
effect of the polyunsaturated fatty acids on
human health. The dietary PUFA are readily
incorporated into eggs. The main sources of
PUFA are fish oil, linseed, millets and sea
algae. Anti oxidants should also be
incorporated when fish oil is present to
prevent oxidation
Designer meat
Lean meat production requires
feeding of broilers with less energy and high
fibre. Addition of 10% Lucerne meal or
berseem meal in broiler diet helps in
production of lean meat. Addition of garlic (2-
3% powder), essential oils, copper (60-180
mg/kg diet) as cupric citrate or cupric
sulphate in diet for last 21 days reduces
cholesterol concentration in broiler meat.
5. ROLE OF OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS IN
HUMAN HEALTH AND METHODS TO
ENRICH THEM IN FOOD
The omega-3 (-3) fatty acids are those
whose first double bond is located three
carbon atoms away from the methyl end of
the molecule. These are also called as n-3
fatty acids. The predominant omega-3 fatty
acids related to animal and human nutrition
are presented here.
Predominant omega-3 fatty acids related
to human/animal nutrition
Short hand notation
9,12,15-18:3
5,8,11,14,17 -20:5
4,7, 10, 13, 16, 19 - 22:6
particularly in nerve tissue and the retina and
are precursors to eicosanoids - highly
reactive substances such as prostaglandins
and leukotrienes that act locally to influence a
wide range offunctions in cells and tissues.
 Significance of Fish oil as rich source of
Omega-3 PUFA
Fatty acid composition of various fish oil
reveals that they are very good sources of n-3
fatty acids especially the EPA (6-17 per cent)
and DHA (6-10 per cent) and has got the
potential to be included in livestock ration for
production of nutritionally enriched products
viz., egg, meat and milk.
The PUFA are the most characteristic
feature of marine oils. The oils with five and
six double bonds originate in unicellular
phytoplankton and seaweeds, which form
part of the food chain of other marine species
including fish (Gunstone et ai., 1995).
Although the supply of n-3 fatty acids
from meats looks to have potential, it is clear
that fish and other foods of marine origin are
the almost exclusive sources of EPA and
DHA and there is a large variation in
composition amongst types offish.
Enhancement of omega-3 fatty acids in
the diet of ruminants
Necessity for Protection of Fat
The inclusion of more than 3-4 per cent
fat in the diet of ruminants reduces microbial
activity in the rumen and results in depressed
digestibility of cellulose, suppression of
methane formation (Czerkawski et a!., 1966)
and decrease in the ratio of acetate to
propionate in rumen fluid (Demeyer and
Henderickx, 1967). It appears that inhibitory
effects of unprotected dietary fats are related
to physio-chemical properties of the
constituent fatty acid and the ill effects can be
explained by the following four theories
(Devendra and Lewis, 1974).
(i) Physical coating of the fibre with fat
preventing microbial attack.
(ii) Modification of rumen microbial
population from possible toxic
effects of fat on certain micro-
organisms.
(iii) Inhibition of microbial activity from
surface - active effects of fatty acids
on cell membrane.
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(iv) Reduced cation availability from
formation of insoluble complexes
with long chain fatty acids.
The need to offset these inhibitory effects
became apparent and a variety of reasons
emerged to develop strategies that would
actually enable more fat to be included in the
diet of ruminants.
Non ruminants
In non ruminants there has been only
very limited success in enhancing EPA and
DHA in muscle by supplementing the diet
with feeds rich in omega-3 fatty acids and by
far the most effective approach has been
supplementing with fish oils.
Techniques used for protection of dietary
fat
a. Formaldehyde treated protein
encapsulated fat
b. Calcium soap of oil
c. Fatty acyl amide of oil
6. CONJUGATED LINOLEIC ACID AS A
RESIDUE FREE FEED ADDITIVE
Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) refers to a
family of eight geometric isomers of linoleic
acid, which is found preferentially in dairy
products and meat. CLA comes in two
isomers, the 9, 11 isomer which appears
responsible for improving muscle growth and
the 10, 12 isomer which primarily prevents
lipogenesis (storage of fat in adipose tissue).
Various antioxidant and antitumor properties
have been attributed to CLA, and studies on
mice and rats show promising results.
Dietary sources
Kangaroo meat may have the highest
concentration of CLA when compared with
other foods. Food products of grass-fed
ruminants (eg lamb, beef) are good sources,
and contain much more CLA than those from
grain-fed animals.
Benefits of CLA
Increases metabolic rate
Decreases abdominal fat
 Enhances muscle grawth
Lowers cholesterol and triglycerides
Lowers insulin resistance
Reduces food-induced allergic
reactions
Enhances immune system and ,",
possess anti-tumor/anti-cancer
properties,
7.ESSENTIAL OILS: A POTENT
ALTERNATIVE TO ANTIBIOTIC GROWTH
PROMOTERS IN POULTRY PRODUCTION
The current trend is to look for
alternatives to antibiotics for in-feed use
because of public concerns as to their
residues and subsequent occurrence of
antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Essential oils
are one of the pote'lt alternatives to antibiotic
growth promoters. Essential oils are already
marketed for use in animal production and
are claimed to be "digestive enhancers".
Definition for essential oils
An essential oil is a mixture of fragrant,
volatile compounds, named after the
aromatic characteristics of plant materials
from which they can be isolated (Oyen and
Dung, 1999), Essential oils are very complex
mixtures of compounds and their chemical
Scientific name Common name
Boronia megastima Nees ex Boronia
Barti.
Zea mays L. Corn
Cinnamomum verum J. Persi Cinnamon
Origanum vulgare spp. hirtum Oregano
(Link) (Ietsw.)
Syzygium aromaticum (L) Cloves
Merr. & Oerry
Thymus vulgaris L. Thyme
In vitro antioxidant effects of essential oils
Oregano extract was found to be most
effective in stabilizing lard, followed by
thyme, dittany, marjoram and lavender, It was
--------------------·IIZII~-------------------
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compositions and concentrations of
individual compounds are variable. For
example, the concentrations of two
predominant components of thyme essential
oils, i.e, thymol and carvacrol have been
reported to range from as low as 3% to as
high as 60% of total essential oils. Biological
. effects of essential oils
In vitro anti-microbial activities of
essential oils
Essential oils have long been recognized
because of their anti-microbial activity.
Cinnamaldehyde, derived from the cinnamon
essential oil, strongly inhibit Clostridium
perfringens and Bacteroides fragillis and
moderately inhibit Bifidobacterium longum
and Lactobacillus acidophillus isolated from
human feces. The selective inhibition by
cinnamaldehyde of pathogenic, intestinal
bacteria may have a pharmacological role in
balancing the intestinal microbiota. Wide
range of in vitro anti-microbial activities of
essential oils have derived from cinnamon,
thyme and oregano species.
Essential Oils and their main
components exhibiting antimicrobial
activities
Part Antimicrobial
components
Flower lonone
Leaf lonone
Bark Cinnamaldehyde
Shoot Carvacrol
Flower Eugenol
Plant Thymol
reported that cymene-2,3-diol and thymol
and carvamol which are found in thyme,
show strong antioxidant properties, It was
suggested that the high antioxidant activity of
V~
thymol is due to the presence of phenolic OH dipeptide or
groupS which act as hydrozen donors to the tripeptide,
peroxy radicals produced during the first step
in lipid oxidation, thus retarding the hydroxy Proteinate one metal ion
peroxide formation. bonded to a large
peptide or protein,
S.ENHANCING LIVESTOCK PRODUCTIVITY
Organic metal salt: one metal ion
THROUGH ORGANIC TRACE MINERALS
bonded to
Organic trace minerals are finding propionate or
increasing importance in the feed acetate anions.
supplement industry and even as
Inorganic trace minerals are ingested
supplements for humans in health food
stores. A wide range of "organic trace and solubilized by digestive fluids in the gut.
minerals" to cater to the needs of "optimal Only a small portion of inorganic mineral fed
mineral nutrition" has been developed. These to animals is actually absorbed. It is thought
highly bio-available trace nutrients mimic the that only 1-5% of dietary copper is absorbed
form in which minerals are found in forages from the ruminant digestion system due to
and grain. antagonistic factors.
Definitions An organic trace mineral is a feed
Organic trace minerals can be categorized ingredient that contains a metal bonded-to a
as, ligand. Organic trace minerals allow more
metal to be absorbed and increase metal
Complex one metal ion
status within the animal more than inorganic
bonded to a single
amino acid, trace minerals. This fact of the inorganic
mineral absorption process identifies four
Chelate one metal ion key requirements for building an effective
bonded to two or organic trace mineral. Organic trace minerals
three single amino
must 1) have high water solubility; 2) remain
acids,
stable through the digestion process;
Peptide one metal ion 3) enhance absorption; and 4) enhance the
bonded to a production of the animal.

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LATEST CONCEPTS IN ANIMAL NUTRITION-II
-------------------------------------------------------------------.
Feed cost amounts to more than 70
percent of the cost of any livestock
enterprise. Moreover shortage of feeds and
fodder has hampered productivity of
livestock. These facts have necessitated the
adoption of newer concepts in feeding of
livestock. Some of these concepts are
discussed below.
TOTAL MIXED RATION FOR DAIRY COWS
In total mixed ration (TMR) all forages,
concentrates, protein supplements, minerals
and vitamins are mixed together and offered
as a single feed .This also referred to as
complete ration system can save labor and
reduce overall feeding cost. Dis advantages
of this system is that Cows should be
grouped by production levels and grouping of
cows is not feasible in small herds (less than
50 cows). If not grouped according to
production, cows in late lactation are likely to
get too fat. Special equipment is needed. The
equipment must have the capability to
thoroughly blend the feed ingredients.
TRANSITION COW NUTRITION
Transition dairy cows are those in the last
three weeks of gestation. Feeding a cow
during the transition period is a challenge.
During the transition period, feed intake is
decreasing at a time when energy
requirements are increasing due to growth of
the conceptus. Consequently, preventing a
change in energy balance requires that
energy density of the diet be increased.
Increasing energy density may stimulate
papillae growth and increase acid absorption
from the rumen, adapt the microbial
population to higher starch diets, increase
blood insulin and decrease fatty acid
mobilization from adipose tissue, and
increase dry matter intake. Improving the
amino acid status of the prepartum cow may
beneficially alter endocrine physiology and
enhance lactation performance. Any
increase in protein feeding during the
transition period should be accommodated
by use of protein sources that are rich in
undegradable protein.
------------------I6DI~----------------
IAMWARM ~fwt_ gw.i.ninfj go.!ii.J.d VeleJiinaJtian.6 2009
Animal Nutrition
RUMEN UN DEGRADABLE PROTEIN (RUP)
Rumen undegradable protein (RUP) is
that portion of the crude protein that escapes
degradation by rumen microbes, thus
allowing the preformed amino acids in the
feed to pass from the rumen to the small
intestine for postruminal digestion and
absorption. Dairy cows in early lactation
producing large quantities of milk have a
tremendous need for amino acids and may
have the greatest need for RUP compared
with
other cows in the herd. In early lactation,
35 to 40 percent of the ration crude protein
should be provided as RUP.
ENZYMES AS FEED ADDITIVES
Enzymes can be used to improve the
feeding of monogastrics in the following
ways: By improving the efficiency of the
utilisation of the feed, by upgrading cereals
by-products or feed components that are
poorly digested and by providing additional
digestive enzymes to help poultry to
withstand stress condrtions ego Hot climates.
Some of the cereals contain polymers
which are not well digested by monogastrics
and this can be result in loss of energy by
adding microbial enzymes to the feed these
polymers can be degraded and their energy
value made available to the animal/bird.
Enzymes should fulfill the following criteria
for practical application:
1. The enzymes must be active at the
pH of the animal's digestive system
and capable of surviving transit
through the stomach.
2. They must be in a physical form in
which they can be safely and easily
mixed into all forms of animal feed.
3. The products should be or a high
standarised activity that will remain
stable both before and after
incorporation into the feed or pre-
mix.
 4. The enzymes must be capable of
surviving normal pelleting
conditions.
PROBIOTICS AS FEED ADDITIVES
Pro biotic is defined as a live microbial
feed supplement, which beneficially affects
the host animals by improving its intestional
microbial balance. The probiotic preparation
are generally composed of organisms of
lactobacilli and/or streptococci species, few
many contain yeast. They benefit the host by:
1. Having a direct antagonistic effect
against specific group of undesirable
or harmful organism through
production of antibacterial compounds,
elementary or minimising their
compe\)\)on o~ n'U\r\en\s.
2. Altering the pattern of microbial
metabolism in the gastro intentional
tract.
3. Stimulation of immunity.
4. Neutralisation of entrotoxins formed
by pathegenic organism.
Thus resulting in increased growth rate,
improved feed efficiency
ENRICHMENT OF CROP RESIDUES
The left over portion of the crop after the
main crop is harvested for human
consumption is called as crop residues. Crop
residues may be grouped under the following
headings.
IStraws-- -Stovers· - Aerial Others
I portion of
other
crops
Wheat Maize Soyabean Corn cobs
Paddy Sorghum Groundnut Bagasse
Oats Sunflower Peanut hull
Barley Rice hull
~illets
NUTRITIONAL QUALITY OF CROP RESIDUES
• Low crude protein, calcium, carotene
and available energy.
----------------~IEDI~---------------
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• High in cell wall constituents, lignin
and silica
• Reduced palatability - low voluntary
intake
• Low digestibility of dry matter and
bioavailability of energy
• Bulky in nature
PADDY STRAW
It has about 15 -20 % of dry matter,
an exceptionally high ash content which
consists mainly of silica. The lignin content of
this straw, is about 6-7% dry matter which is
however lower than that of other cereals
straws. In contrast to other straws, the stems
are more digestable than the leaves. The
poor nutritive values of paddy straw may be
att~il;:},Jte<!. to t~.e {cJ,\o'Nir.g {act~.
1) The digestibility of straw is limited
due to the formattion of strong
physical and/or chemical bonds
between lignin and the structural
polysaccharides (Hemi-cellulose).
Although cellulose by itself has a
highly ordered crystalline structure, it
has a very strong association with
lignin, with the result that even the
most potent cellulolytic enzymes
cannot have easy access to the
cellulose unless the bondage
between lignin and cellulose is
broken.
2) Crystalline structure of cellulose is
also responsible for low digestibility
of cellulose.
3) It is highly deficient in other nutrients
like minerals, vitamins, fatty acids
and proteins. The minimum crude
protein requirement for efficient
lignocellulose break down of
roughages fed as the sole diet is
claimed to be from 3.8 to 5.0%.
4) High silica content of straw is also
known to depress organic matter
digestibility.
 Processing methods to improve nutritive value of crop residues
Processing methods to improve nutritive value of crop residues may be classified as follows.
Physical Chemical Biological Combination

1. Soaking 1. Acid {1) SCP 1. Physico

2. Grinding treatment production chemical
3. Steam 2. Alkali (2) Use of methods
pressure treatment cellulolytic 2. Karnal process
4. Explosion 3. Use of other organisms
5. Irradiation chemicals- (3) Mushroom
6. Pelletting ozone,HzO z Growth
7. Suplementation

PhYSical treatment Retention time in the rumen increases and

Soaking - Chopped straw is soaked in
water overnight. Softens the straw leading to
increased intake. Disadvantage is mould
growth.
Chaffing - Decreasing particle size.
Increases surface area for action of rumen
microbes and hence increase digestibility.
Grinding - Particle size reduced still
further. (0.1 to 0.3 cm ). Disadvantage is that
it increases rumen flow rate, decreases
retention time in the rumen leading to
. decreased production of acetate causing a
condition of low milk fat syndrome.
Steam pressure - Straw treated with
Steam at pressure of 21.1 kg/cm2 for 10 to 30
seconds. Causes rupture of ligno celluosic
bonds to a certain extent and makes
cellulose available for microbial action.
Explosion - Chopped or ground straw is
treated with steam at pressure of 22.5
kg/cm2 for two minutes and pressure is
suddenly released. Causes rupture of ligno
the disadvantage of only grinding is
overcome.
Chemical treatment
Acid treatment - Straw is soaked in dilute
acids for a specified period of time, washed
with water drained and fed to the animals. Not
popular due to the corrosive action of acids.
Causes rupture of ligno celluosic bonds and
makes cellulose available for microbial
action.
Alkali treatment - Straw is treated with
any alkali such as NaOH, NH 4 0H, CaOH and
KOH. When straw is exposed to the alkali the
ester linkages between lignin and cellulose 1 ,
hemicellulose are hydrolysed causing the
cellulose / hemicellulose to be available for
digestion by microbes.
NaOH treatment
Beckman process: Straw is soaked for 1-
2 days in dilute solution of NaOH (15-30 g 1
litre), washed to remove excess alkali and fed
to the animals. I

celluosic bonds to a certain extent and makes

cellulose available for microbial action.
Irradiation - Straw is treated with y
irradiation. Causes rupture of ligno celluosic
bonds and makes cellulose available for
microbial action.
Pelleting - Particle size reduced to 0.1 to
0.3 cm and pelleted through 1-2 cm die.
Dry method: Straw is chopped and
sprayed with NaOH 300g1 litre (170 litre 1
tonne of straw)
Ammonia treatment
Anhydrous form or concentrated solution
used - 30 to 35 kgl tonne of straw. Straw is
stacked, ammonia solution is sprayed over
the straw, kept covered for 20 days and then

------------------IE9I~----------------
lAMWARM ~fwt_
g'tainitlfj go.:1idd VeWtituvtian<l 2009
fed to the animals. This method not only
increases the digestability of the straw it also
increases the nitrogen content of it.
Disadvantage - On opening the stack most of
the ammonia is lost by volatilization.
Sometimes there is formation of toxic
imidazoles from reactions between ammonia
and sugars leads to dementia (Bovine
bonkers)
Urea enriched paddy straw
Urea treatment is a modification of
ammonia treatment. Instead of using
anhydrous or concentrated solution of
ammonia urea an amide is used. Urea on
hydrolysis by urease releases ammonia.
When straw is exposed to ammonia the ester
linkages between lignin and cellulose /
hemicellulose are hydrolysed causing the
cellulose I hemicellulose to be available for
digestion by microbes.
Required Materials
1. Paddy straw 100 kg.
2. Urea 4kg.
3. Water (Clean) - 65 litres
4. Spinkler
Procedure
To enrich 100 kg of paddy straw
1. Dissolve 4 kg urea in 65 litres of
water
2. Spread a polythene sheeVGunny
bag on the floor. Initially spread 5 kg
of paddy straw in layers.
3. Using the sprinkler, sprinkle the
prepared urea solution over the
paddy straw ensuing that all the
paddy straw is wet by it.
4. Similarly spread another layer of
paddy straw over the first layer and
repeat the sprinkling of urea solution.
5. Repeat the spreading and sprinkling
for the entire 100 kg of paddy straw
and heap it and cover the straw with
------------------IIaI~----------------
JllllMm (()e1£I'Ullll'lJ @""elj£, @Jwullli-600 007
polythene sheets to prevent the
escape of ammonia libareted from
urea. This step faCilitates the
breakage of lignocellulose bond by
ammonia thereby releasing
cellulose from lingin bondage for
digestion and utilisation.
6. After 21 days the urea treated paddy
straw is ready for feeding available.
Advantages
1. TON increased from 45 to 60%
2. CP increased from 2% to 10%
3. Palatability increased therefore feed
intake increases.
Feeding urea treated paddy straw
1 . It is advisable to feed the urea
treated paddy straw for calves above
6 months of age
2. Adaptation period is required. The
same precautions adapted when
feeding NPN substances are to be
followed.
3. The urea enriched paddy straw may
be left in the open for 5 minutes prior
to feeding in order to remove the
pungent odour of urea.
Biological treatment
Anyone of the biological treatment
methods may be followed to enhance the
nutritive value of straw
1. Growing cellulolytic microorganisms
white rot fungi (Trichoderma viridae,
Trichoderma lignorum).
2. Growing mushrooms: Straw is steam
treated, packed in polythene bags,
inoculated with seed material of
mushroom, bag when filled with
mycelia slit open to allow fruiting,
after harvesting of mushrooms the
spent straw is used as feed.
3. Single cell protein production: Straw
is hydrolysed, steam treated, treated
with ammonia, inoculated with
candida utilis and incubated, after
 harvesting of SCP the spent straw is
used as feed.
4. Enzyme treatment- pretreatment of
straw with lignase or other fibrolytic
enzymes.
5. Preparation of silage - Straw
sprayed with water, additives such
as molasses added and ensiled ina
silo. Nitrogen content is increased by
adding urea or poultry manure.
The above treatments cause
biodegradation of lignin and increases the
digestibility of cellulose. They also increase
the protein content of the straw.
Karnal process: Technology developed
at NDRI, Karnal. Straw treated with 4% urea
at moisture level of 60%. Stacked in a silo pit
under cover for 30 days. A temporary loose.
brick structure constructed. Thin layer of urea
treated straw spread evenly in this structure.
A solution of the following composition is
prepared. 60g superphosphate, 60g calcium
oxide dissolved in 8 litre water. Sprinkled over
the urea treated straw. Inoculated with 3%
Coprinus fimeratius culture. Allowed to
remain for 5 days then used for feeding. Main
advantage of this process is that urea a NPN
compound is converted into microbial protein
and lignin degradation increases the
digestability of the straw.
Effect of various treatments
• Increases palatability
• Increases digestability
• Certain treatments increase nitrogen "
or protein content
• Improves animal performance
• Dis advantage
• Increase feed cost
• Technology or methodology involved
SILAGE
Silage is the material produced by
the controlled fermentation of a crop of high
moisture content. Ensilage is the name
given to the process and the container, if
used, is called the silo.
------------------·1631~-----------------
IAMWARM ~Iiex g'tainituj go. !}ield VeteWUVtku"" 2009
Advantages of silage making
1. Crops can be ensiled when the
weather does not permit curing them
into hay or dry fodder
2. The use of silage generally makes it
possible to keep more animals on a
certain area of land
3. Silage furnishes high quality
succulent feed for any season of the
year
4. Silage can be produced from weed
crops and certain crop residues
which would make poor hay
5. The ensiling process kills many kinds
of weeds and their seeds
6. Stemmy forage crops when
converted into silage become soft
and are better utilized by the
livestock.
Procedure involved in silage making
• Selection of crop
• Harvesting of crop (50% of the crop
must be in ear emergence stage)
• Wilting of the crop - to reduce
moisture percentage in order to
reduce effluent loss
• Chaffing of the crop - To facilitate
compression in silo and prevent the
development of air pockets thus
create complete anaerobic condition
in silo.
• Preperation of the silo
• Filling up of the silo
• Compaction of the filled material to
remove any air pockets
• Sealing of the silo to prevent the entry
of air orwater
Fermentation in silo
The process of fermentation can be
divided into four phases. Phase I :A e rob i c
phase, plant enzymes continue their action
utilising soluble carbohydrates and breaking
it down to CO 2 and H20. Phase II: Action of
Enterobactor species of bacteria on soluble
carbohydrates producing acetic acid.
Lowering the pH marginally. Phase III: Action
of lactic acid producing bacteria
(Lactobacillus and Streptococcus spp)
fermentation of soluble carbohydrates
present in the plant material to lactic acid,
resulting in a lowering of pH . Phase IV: Lactic
acid production' reaches a peak and
stabilises to within the region of 3.8 - 4.2. At
this pH the crop is preserved. Phase V: Due
to unfavourable conditions or if rain is
allowed to enter the silage (or) if lactic acid
concentration is inadequate, then a
secondary clostridial fermentation is likely to
occur. The lactate fermenting clostridia
cause a break down of the lactic acid with the
prod uction of butyric acid. Proteolytic
clostridia attack amino acids, with the
formation of ammonia, organic acids, amines
and CO 2 ,
Factors affecting the nutritive value of
silage chemical changes
Plant enzymes: The main changes are
caused by aerobic respiration, which will
continue, as long as oxygen is present, until
the plant sugars are depleted. If the herbage
is not well consolidated during and after filling
then air may peneatate into the mass and the
temperature will continue to rise. If the rise in
temperature is not checked, an over heated
product, usually dark brown or black in colour
will result. This will be of low feeding value
because of an excessive loss of soluble
carbohydrate and a lowering of the protein
digestability. Apart from carbohydrate break
down, proteolysis also occurs immediately
after the herbage is cut. Protein is rapidly
broken down to simpler substances mainly
amino acids.
Microorganisms: After aerobic
respiration has ceased, microbial changes
continue. Fresh herbage contains bacteria
on its surface, and these organisms multiply,
using the contents of a cell as medium. As a
result of this activity many chemical
components of the grass are broken down.
During ensilage about 60% of the proteins
----------------~I&iI~----------------
JIlm[,m r()elel'UWrtl fJrJ//eqe, @i1£luwi-6(}O 007
are broken down even in well preserved
material. Where a rapid lactic acid type of
fermentation occurs and a satisfactory
degree of acidity is produced, the end
products of protein break down are mainly
amino acids. This break down to amino acids
is not disadvantage as far as nutritive value is
concerned, but in bad preserved material the
amino acids are broken down further to
produce various amines such as tryptamine,
phenyl ethylamine and histamine, which are
decarboxilated derivatives of tryphan,
phenylalanine and histidine respectively.
Many of these nitrogenous compounded may
be toxic to animals if absorbed into the blood.
Apart from changes in carbohydrates and
tyict'e\r,s, t\"yc m;,'iYC~o\ ccm·iy\~Alr,'\!.s ?~'Cs'Cr,t, ;,'1',
herbage may be altered and potassium,
calcium, sodium and magnesium salts of
lactic acid, volatile acids may be formed.
Nature of crop: In order to obtain silage of
high nutritive value, grass should be cut
shortly after, the ear emergence stage of
growth as digestibility falls rapidly with
increasing herbage maturity.The physical
nature of the crop at the time of ensiling is
important factor in the fermentation process,
and it is known their chopping or brushing
tends to produce more favourable condition
for microorganism activity than leaving the
material long.
Losses of nutrients during ensilage
1. Field losses With crops cut and
ensiled the same day, nutrient losses
are negligible and even over a 24
hours wilting period losses of not
more than 1 or 2% dry matter can be
expected. Dry matter losses as high
as 6% after 5 days and 10% after 8
days wilting in the field have been
reported. The main nutrients
affected are the water soluble
carbohydrates and protein which are
hydrolysed to amino acids.
2. Oxidation losses These result from
the action of plant and microbial
enzymes on substrates such as
sugars in the presence of
 oxygen,leading to the formation of
Co2 and water.
3. Effluent losses In most silos, free
drainage occurs and the liquid (or)
effluent carries with it soluble
nutrients. The amount of effluent
produced depends largely upon the
initial moisture content of the crop,
but it will obviously be increased if
the silo is left uncovered so that rain
enters. Effluent contain sugars,
soluble nitrogenous compounds,
minerals and fermentation acids all
of which are of high nutritional value.
Crops ensiled with a dry matter
content of 15% may result in effluent
dry matter losses as higher 10%,
where as crops wilted to about 30%
dry matter produce little, if any,
effluent.
Silos: The container in which the silage
made is of greatest importance and will
determine to a large extent the nature and
quality of the final product. The size of the
container will generally depend upon the
number and kind of animals to be fed from it,
and its height on the length of the feeding
different types of silos have been designed.
Clamp silo: In silo, greater part of crop
remains above ground and the rest remains
in slightly excavated trench or pit. In addition
the clamp will be long and narrow, and low in
relative to length.
Pit silo: The pit silo is cylindrical or
rectangular and its shape is like that of clamp
silo, but extends below ground. The pit can
be excavated in any suitable soil, not
subjected to waterlogging. If silage is to be
made annually, it better to have a concrete
floor, making provision for effluent to escape.
The dimension of the pit varies with
circumstances and the number of livestock to
be fed. A pit of average width of 4m and with
silage settled to a depth of 2m will hold 1:h m
tonnes of silage for each 30 cm length.
Characteristics of silo pits
1) Its size should be decided on the
basis of the number and kind of
--------------------IIIII~------------------
IAMWARM ~fwt
gwinillf} g(J.:Jidd VeWt.in.wtiaIM 2009
animals to be fed daily, the length of
the feeding period, and the amount
offorage available for ensiling.
2) It should exclude air from the stored
material
3) Side walls should be straight and
smooth in order to prevent the
formation of air pockets which may
" retard the normal microbial
+.
fermentation.
s-
4) Adequate depth is needed for better
L packing and less surface area
t-~ exposed.
5) Adequate provision should be made
for the escape of surplus juices,
either by a drain or by a gravel
bottom.
6) It should be conveniently located and
accessible in all kinds of weather,
from the standpoint of both filling and
feeding.
7) Silo pits are to br always locatted
preferably at the highest spot on the
farm to avoid water seepage
Advanta·ges of pit silo
1. A pit silo is very economical to build
2. Owing to its depth and shape, the pit
silo has a large capacity for its size
3. Less power is required for filling
4. The smooth plastered walls allows
the silage to settle and retain the
juices
5. Pit silo if kept in good condition will
last indefinitely.
Disadvantage of pit silo
1. It is inconvenient to take out the feed
2. The pit silo occupies farm land which
is permenently inaccess for
cultivation, and requires lot of labour.
3. The main difficulty is to ensure
adequate compression, since depth
of the silage is always out of
proportion to the area cover in strong
contrast to the tower silo.
Trench silo
The difference between the pit and
the trench silo is merely one of size, the latter
usually having greater length in relation to
breadth. The process of ensiling is more or
less similarly to that for pit silo.
Advantages
1. Bullocks (or) tractors can be used to
pack the silage
2. Power required for filling the trench
silo is less
3. It is well adopted to the ensilage of
immature corn and emergency feeds
4. The major part of the material
conseNed wlll settle lnto the trench
below ground level, the chance of air
getting in is reduced to a minimum.
5. Unloading and carrying of silage are
much easier.
Disadvantages
1. Once constructed, it is not easy to
abandoned
2. More silage is spoilt
3. The trench silo must be trimmed
upon the edges and clean up if the
silage is to be kept best.
Tower silo It is round, cylindrical and is
placed above the ground the height varies
from 6 to 10m or more with a varying diameter
(6 to 10m). The erection of such a silo is
expensive. The material used include wood,
reinforced concrete or sheet metal. Use
wood is of much advantage is that it is not
affected by silage acids, on the other hand
wood tends to preserve it. For filling up the
silo a chopper blower is necessary. In this
types 3 types of silage are found
(a) in the bottom third it will be over
compressed sour and will give out
smell of butyric acid
(b) In the centre it will be good, not too
tightly packed and yet compressed
well enough to give well-preserved
material.
--------------~IIDI.--------------
JlI,u[,aJ tVelel'UWI'Ij @dlflje, @/wlIlui-600 ()07
(c) In the top third it is often dark and
over heated, near the surface it will
be of low value, perbaps with some
moulds. In the tower, silo, the
sealing is not much important as the
pit silo.
Advantages
1. Material can be well preserved, with
no wastage due to air leakage
2. Wilting of crop and the sealing of silo
are not as important as in pit silo,
because the mass itself applies
pressure and and acts as an air seal
to the lower layer.
3. The loss of dry matter is minimal
tilsaavan·tages
1. It is very expeenside to make
2. Chopper blower is needed for filling
up of the silo
3. Emptying is very laborious
4. In dry hot places the silage gets
dehydrated
Tube Silo The grass is filled in plastic
cyndrical tubes of varing capacity. These
silos do not occupy permanent location and
can be shifted to various location with ease.
However they require machinery to fill as
well as to evacuvate the silo.
Additives used in silage making In
order to regulate the microbial activity various
additives can be used during ensiling. They
may be grouped as Fermentation stimulants
- Culture of lactic acid producing bacteria,
soluble carbohydrate sources. Fermentation
inhibitors - Inorganic acids, sterilants
(antibiotics, Sodium metabisulphite,
Formaldehyde), and organic acids. Others-
urea, limestone, poultry manure etc.
Characteristics of a good silage
1. Very good silage It is clean, the taste
is acidic, and has no butyric acid, no
moulds, no sliminess and no
proteolysis. The pH is betwee~ 3.5
and 4.2. The amount of ammoniacal
 nitrogen should be less than 10 per
cent of the total nitrogen. Uniform in
moisture and green or brownish in
colour. Taste is pleasing, not bitter or
sharp.
2. Good silage The taste is acidic.
There may be traces of butyric acid.
The pH is between 4.2 and 4.5. The
amount of ammoniacal nitrogen is
10-15 per cent of the total nitrogen.
Other points same as of very good
silage.
3. Fair silage The silage is mixed with a
little amount of butyric acid. There
------------------~·IImII~-------------------
IAMWARM fRe{!t.e6fwt. 5ttaininIJ. 50. fJi£ld
•
may be slight proteolysis along with
some mould. The pH is between 4.5
and 4.8. ammoniacal nitrogen is 15-
20 per cent of the total nitrogen.
Colour of silage varies between
tobacco brown to dark brown.
4. Poor sifage It has a bad smell due to
high butyric acid and high
proteolysis. The silage may be
infested with moulds. Les acidity, pH
is above 4.8. The amount of
ammoniacal nitrogen is more than 20
per cent. Colour tends to be blackish
and shou Id not be fed.
~
2009

CULTIVATED CEREAL FODDERS
.---------------------------------_.------------------ -----~--------
MAIZE Zea mays Makka cholam
Maize fodder is extensively grown
throughout the country. Its origin is in Mexico
and introduced to India from America. It is
quick growing, high yielding and probably the
best emergency fodder and performs well
with irrigation. It can be grown in a wide
range of climatic conditions and can be safely
fed at any stage of its growth. The fodder is of
excellent quality, particularly when mixed
with cowpea or velvet bean. Green maiz.e is
eaten fully by all kinds of livestock if it is
chaffed. It also makes excellent silage.
Maximum yield and digestibility are obtained
when the crop is harvested at 50% flowering
to dough stage.
PEARL MILLET Pennisetum gJaucum
Cumbu I Fodder bajra / Bulrush / Indian
millet I Horse millet
Pearl millet is an erect and tall growing
(up to 3 m height), annual cereal cultivated for
grain and fodder in drier (arid and semi arid)
parts of India. As a rainy season fodder crop it
is grown on well-drained light soils. It is one
of the most drought resistant, quick growing,
heavy yielding fodder crops. It generally
succeeds where other crops fail. As it
responds to cutting, it is recommended to cut
it before the flowering stage so that two to
three cuttings may be taken. Though the
fodder yield is less than cholam or maize it
has high protein content than the other cereal
fodders. It is a useful fodder crop in areas
where irrigation facilities are inadequate.
Bajra can be cut and fed to livestock at any
growth stage and it is completely free from
toxic substances like HCN. It yields 40-45
ton per hectre of green fodder in about 45-S0
days (Le. early variety).
FORAGE GRASSES
As a bulk feed of the livestock, grasses
are the best and cheapest. The grasses are
------------------IEDI~----------------
jllLlLlnu 0ei£rilluI'1J @dl£g£, f!J1£I1IIui-6()(} 007
Animal Nutrition
the most widely distributed of all plants, hardy
and endure many stresses. There are more
than 10,000 species of grasses grouped into
620 genera. The grasses are herbaceous
plants, either annuals or perennials. Different
Kinds of native grasses such as Napier,
Bracharia, Anjan, hariyali, giant star, Marvel,
spear, etc. are found to grow themselves
under rainfed conditions in the natural
pastures and grazing areas of the country.
Grasses 1H<e N-B hybr·,ds, gU·lnea grass,
para grass and Deenanath grass are suitable
for cultivation under irrigated conditions. The
grass species like Anjan, Deenanath, Marvel
grass, Rhodes grass, blue panic, swan
grass, thin napier grass are suited for rain fed
conditions, both as cultivated fodder and as
pasture grass.
Brachiaria grass Brachiaria ramose
Arisipillu
It is a tall growing (80 cm) medium
duration small millet taking about 50-65 days
50% flowering. The green fodder yield under
ideal conditions may go upto 19 ton/ha. The
higher content of sugar and carbohydrates
and the resultant sweetness of the green
fodder of fodder type small millets results in
increased feed intake leading to higher
productivity. Further the free fodder and dry
matter productivity are also appreciably
higher. The crop can easily yield more than
20 tlha under irrigated conditions and more
than 1-3 tlha under rain fed conditions in 40-
4Sdays.
Guinea grass Panicum maximum
Guineapul
Guinea grass is a tall growing (2-3m),
vigorous, coarse, tufted perennial, spreading
slowly by short rootstocks to form large stools
and shows considerable variation in growth
habit. It is a native grass of tropical and
subtropical Africa, but has been introduced in
more humid tropics and subtropics
throughout the world. It is drought resistant,
but will not stand long periods of complete
desiccation. It comes of well as a rainfed
crop in areas with well distributed rains. It
grows well on a wide variety of well-drained
soils, but not on black cracking clays
(vertisol) i.e. heavy clay soils or in areas liable
to prolonged water-logging or flooding. It is
shade tolerant and grows well under trees;
hence more suited for growing in coconut
groves. Valuable grass for grazing, greens
soiling, hay and silage making. Nutritive
value of guinea grass is quite high when leafy
and young (10% crude protein), but nutritive
value falls rapidly with increasing maturity.
Para grass Brachiaria mutica
Mauritius grass/ California grass/ Giant
couch/ Water grass/ Buffalo grass
It is a coarse trailing perennial, rooting at
the nodes with ascending flowering stems
even upto 2.5 m high. Though it is a native of
tropical Africa and tropical South America
(Brazil), now it is widely distributed as fodder
grass in tropical and subtropical areas of the
world. It grows well on moist soils (a water
loving grass) and withstands prolonged
flooding or water logging, but makes little
growth during dry weather. More suited for
water - inundated conditions and sewage
farms. It can be used for green soiling, hay or
browse, and should be grazed rotationally as
it will not withstand heavy grazing.
Deenanath grass
Pennisetum pedicel/atum
It is a profusely tillering leafy annual
growing erect to a height of 1.5-2.5m. It is a
native of Northern tropical Africa and
introduced to India in 1950s. It grows well in
all types of soils during kharif / rainy season.
The seed can be sown, broad cast at 10 kg I
ha. It is a rain fed short duration grass
adapted to marginal waste-lands. It readily
responds to manuring and irrigation. Under
irrigated condition, two to three ratoon crops
can be taken. It can easily combine with
centro or stylo. Suited for soiling and
pasturage. The green fodder is harvested
----------------~-1111~-----------------
IAMWARM ~fwt, 5uUnUlfJ 50. fJidd VeteWUVti.an.<l2009
about 80 days after sowing and subsequently
at 60 days interval. The green fodder yield
varies from 50 - 75 tlha.
Anjan grass Cenchrus glaucous,
C. ciliaries and C. setigerus
Buffel grass/ African fox tail/ Rhodesian
fox tail/Indian sand burl Birdwood grass
Anjan is a tufted, tussock forming erect
annual/perennial growing to a height of 15 -
120 cm, sometimes may produce rhizomes.
Variable in habit; including spreading pasture
types, which will withstand fairly close
grazing. Also suited for green soiling and
haymaking. It is native of North tropical and
South Africa, India and Indonesia. It is a
promising green grass type, which grqws well
on a wide range of soils especially on the
lighter and sandier soils and in drier parts.
Excellent grazing grass for hot, dry areas in
tropics and sub-tropics.
It is a good soil binder and hence used in
soil conservation bunts as a cover crop. It
thrives exceedingly well in calcareous soil.
Fresh seeds show very poor germination, but
germination can be improved to 70 percent
by storing up to two years under dry condi-
tions. It combines well with Stylo, Centro and
other pasture legumes and grows well in
subabul alleys.
(i) Cenchrus glaucous
Blue buffel is popularly called as Neela
kollukattai in view of the bluish tinge on the
leaf surface. Co-1 Blue buffel is an improved
variety evolved as a selection from Vellakoil
local FS 391. It yields 47 tonlhalyear
registering 45% increase over the native
kolukattai grasses. It can be harvested in 70-
75 days after sowing and cattle can be
allowed to graze 4 to 6 times in a year. In the
dry pasture land, if any of the draught
resident legumes such as stylo,
Desmanthes, clitoria, dew gram, cluster
beans, etc. is introduced as a mixed crop in 3
grasses to one legume ratio, a well balanced
nutritious feed can easily be produced.
(ii) Cenchrus ciliaries
White kolukattai (Buffel grass or anjan
grass) is a native of North-tropical and South
Africa, India and Indonesia. It grows on a
wide range of soils. It is a good soil binder
and used in soil conservation bunts as a
cover crop. It thrives exceedingly well in
calcareous soils. It can withstand heavy
grazing and trampling by cattle.
(iii) Cenchrus setigerus
Bird wood grass (Black kolukattai) is also
a tufted perennial growing upto 120 cm in
height and producing short rhizomes. Hard
spiny bristles ell close spikelets. All other
characters are similar to C. ciliaris.
Rhodes grass Chloris gayana
It is a fine stemmed, leafy, turf forming
perennial grass, growing to 60-150 cm height
and spreading by stolons. Native of South
and East Africa and adapted to tropical and
subtropical summer rainfall areas, with
moderately long dry season. It is also
adapted to a wide range of soils from sands to
alkaline clays. It is a drought resident grass
grows best on fertile soils of medium texture.
Ahighly palatable, warm season pasture and
hay grass which withstands grazing and
trampling well. Easily established from seed
and forms a rapid cover and also established
by rooted slips.
Elephant grass - Napier grass/ Uganda
grass - Pennisetum purpureum
Napier grass is a tall growing (3.00 to
4.50 m), erect, stout, deep rooted (to 4.50 m),
perennial resembling sugarcane in habit and
ecological requirements. Spreads by short
stout rhizome to form large clumps or stools
upto 1 m across. Native of tropical Africa,
grows on deep, retentive soils of moderate to
fairly heavy texture. Remarkably drought
resistant. Propagated by stem cuttings
consisting of 3-4 nodes or by division of root
stocks. Established stands require heavy
fertilisation for high yields, respond well to
large dressing of nitrogen. Young leafy fodder
palatable and affair quality, but mature grass
has a large proportion of stem and becomes
rough.
------------------IGDI~----------------
Jltm[,aJ t()elmiwt'1J (!oIleqe, @JwIlLUi-600 007
Hariyali/ Bermuda grass/ Star grass -
Cynodon dactylon
Bermuda grass is a fine leafed perennial
spreading and forming a dense turf. The
flowering stems grow to a height of iOta 70
cm. It is distributed throughout the world in
tropics and sub-tropics. Adapted to wide
range of soils from sands to heavy clays but
grows best on well-drained medium to heavy
soils. Valuable for permanent pastures, very
resistant to grazing and trampling, gives
large yields of palatable fodder under good
management. Withstands long periods of
drought but produces title growth during dry
weather and is unproductive on poor dry
soils. Generally established by planting
cuttings or by transplanting pieces of turf.
SUGARCANE - Saccharum officianarum
Sugarcane tops are important sources
as fodder during harvesting season, which
may last for four to ten months in a year.
Sweetness makes it very palatable and they
are often fed hand chaffed green, which can
easily provide the animals maintenance
ration. i.e., it requires considerable
supplementation with concentrates for
producti'Je purposes. Contrary to other
grasses, sugarcane retains its nutritional
value over a long period. This ability is often
used by farmer to use the crop as an
emergency feed. Farmers use sugarcane
tops as a supplementary source of feed for
cattle during scarcity periods. In Maharastra,
cane tops were used as a fodder after sun
drying, but the farmers were unaware of the
loss of nutrients during sun drying. Even
sugarcane trash is fed to animals with tops
during scarcity periods.
Sugarcane plant components (% on dry
matter basis) is 55-60% cane, 15-20% tops
and 20-25% trash.
The cane top yield is 25-30 of total cane
yield. The total cane production in India is
about 240 million tons per year and the cane
top yield is 60-70 million tons per year. The
production of fresh cane tops is about 10-30
tlha. Voluntary consumption at cane tops is
2-2.5 kg OM per 100 kg weight in cattle.
Leaves of cane tops are lower in digestibility
than stalks and its rate of digestion is also
very low. This is mainly due to lower content
of cell solubles in leaves than stem and high
silica content in leaves. Protein and mineral
supplementation becomes more important
when cane tops are fed as the only roughage
source for animals. Cane tops are low in
nitrogen and phosphorous Supplementation
with urea helps to increase the OMD. Sulphur
is the limiting nutrient for rumen function.
Hence, supplementation of Sulphur source
is also beneficial. Nutritive value of cane tops
can be enhanced when the chopped cane
tops are mixed with legume and fed.
Sugarcane trash and tops (after drying)
can be ensiled with 2% urea, 10% molasses,
mineral mixture, 1% NaCI and 25g vitamin
mixture and fed to animals.
FORAGE LEGUMES
Forage legumes have immense value in
animal nutrition because of their higher
protein content, vitamins and specific
minerals such as P, Ca, etc. Even though
their yields are less compared to fodder
cereals or grasses, legumes are superior in
terms offodder quality. They are also referred
as nature's protein bank for the cattle. Non
leguminous fodders provide much of the
required energy for livestock while the
legumes improve the quality of fodder when
mixed with non leguminous fodder by virtue
of their high crude protein content. Legume
forages are near equal to concentrates and
are likely to be substitutes for the laUer.
Animal nutrition studies have revealed the
possibility of the total replacement of the
costlier concentrates, with calculated feeding
of green legumes for milch animals yielding
upto 10 kg milk per day.
Besides nutritive value, legumes in
admixture with non-leguminous fodder
increase the intake of fodder by animals by
way of improving feed palatability. In India a
number of legumes are grown as field crops
exclusively for forages. Among them, the
perennial species Lucerne, Desmanthes and
berseem are very important. The annuals
include cowpea, guar, horse gram, sunhemp,
----------------~-IEaI~-----------------
IAMWARM ~fwt, gminitUj go. fJiJd VeWUtUVtia#t6 2009
field bean, moth bean, rice bean,
Desmodium, Vigna marina, pillipesara,
clovers etc. Berseem, sweet clover, red
clover, birds foot trefoil and joint vetch are
more suited for hilly and humid subtropical
regions. In general legumes are somewhat
sensitive crops and do not tolerate extremes
of climate, water stagnation, drought and
nutrient deficiency in soil. The perennial
pasture legumes include clitoria, stylo,
siratro, glycine, centro, Neonotenia etc.,
which are comparatively drought tolerant.
The bhusa of leguminous crop are also
valued for their high nutritive value. They are
preserved with a lot more care and fed to
animals either alone or with other dry fodder
in many parts of the country.
Lucerne Medicago sativa
Alfalfa/ Kudiraimasal/ Purple medick/
Snail clover/ Chilean clover
Lucerne is a herbaceous, deep rooted,
perennial legume with trifoliate wedge
shaped leaves. Flowers are in clusters of 20-
30 and produce non shattering loosely coiled
pods with 2-6 oval or kidney shaped yellow or
yellowish green seeds. The plant is native of
Europe. Asia and Africa, but presently
distributed all over the world. It is considered
as the queen of forage crops and is grown
mostly under irrigated conditions in India.
Adapted to variety of soils from sandy loam to
clay soil with pH 6.5-7.2, well drained and
fertile and is quite intolerant to water-logging
and highly alkaline soils. Lucerne is a crop of
semi-arid tract and fairly resistant to
extremes of heat and cold, but does not thrive
well under high temperature in a moisture
climate.
Lucerne is highly nutritious and
palatable. Contains approximately 3 times
as much protein as sorghum fodder and high
in vitamin A content. It is especially useful for
feeding to horses, poultry and draught
animals. Milch animals fed exclusively on
lucerne suffer from bloat due to the content of
saponin gluco!':irip. and to avoid this, green
lucerne should be chaffed and mixed with
equal quantity of dry bhusa. Feeding lucerne
cut at flowering stage and dried for some time
reduce the harmful effect. Animals fed on
lucerne hay seldom suffer from bloat. It is
best to feed lucerne mixed with grass at 1:2
ratio and upto 10 kg of lucerne can be given to
animal in a day.
Desmanthes
Desmanthes virgatus Velimasal
Hedge lucerne is a recent introduction
from Thailand. Since the time of introduction
in the year 1976 in Tamil Nadu, intensive
research efforts were made and it was
identified as a valuable and highly nutritious
leguminous fodder. It is a perennial under-
shrub producing many upright branches
bearing bipinnate compound leaves made of
minute leaflets. It withstands repeated
cuttings and regenerates quickly. It is suitable
for cultivation in all types of soils and seasons
alike. It comes of well under irrigated
conditions but performs equally well under
non-irrgated conditions, endowed with
drought tolerance. It has no toxic principles
and can be cut and fed to animals at any
stage of its growth. Hedge lucerne called as
Velimasal in Tamil grows to a height of 2 m in
about 60 days after its establishment. It can
be cut at 1 m height and the lopping used for
feeding livestock. Suitable for hedge rows
and it is highly compatible with cereal and
grass fodder in mixed cropping.
Stylo Stylosanthes sp. Muyal masal,
Brazilian lucerne
Stylos are both annual and perennial
legumes, erect or prostrate, herbs or small
shrubs, becoming more prostrate under
grazing. Stems are coarse and hairy
becoming woody with age. Leaves are
trifoliate with long narrow leaflets, which vary
in size, colour and hairiness depending upon
species and cultivar. Flowers are borne in
clusters, yellow or orange in colour. Seeds
are yellowish brown. It is a native of South
America. Stylos are adapted to wide variety
of soils and to drier areas receiving a
minimum rainfall of 450-840 mm per annum.
There are drought resistant and more suited
for marginal lands and mixed cropping with
cereal or grass fodder.
StyJosanthes scabra is an erect growing
herb, produces hairy light green slightly
broader trifoliate leaves. It can be raised as
an inter crop with Cenchrus in the ration
of 3:1 under rainfed conditions.
Stylosanthes hamata (Verano stylo) is a trail-
ing smooth stemmed herbaceous plant. It
produces dark green smooth narrow trifoliate
leaves and is more drought tolerant.
Stylosanthes humilis (Townsville stylo) is a
low growing but erect annual with narrow
fibrous stems. Leaflets are narrow, pointed
and without hairs.

Azolla
Dr. V.M. Sankaran
Associate Professor and Head
Department of Agronomy
Madras Veterinary College, Chennai-600 007
Azalia is a type of floating fern that Relative Humidity 65 - 80%
resembles algae. It requires shallow water
column for multiplication and growth. Water column in
Generally it is grown in paddy fields for the tank 5 - 12 cm
manure purpose. Azolla mulitplies very pH 4 - 7.5
rapidly. The ideal climatic requirement for
Azolla growth is as follows NUTRIENT CONTENT
Temperature 20°C - 28°C Azolla is rich in proteins, essential amino
acids, vitamins (vitamin A, vitamin B'2 and
Light 50% full sunlight beta-Carotene), growth promoter

----------------~·IEaI~-----------------
jllad¥lLl roeJI'FiHUI'1J f)dl£ljl', f)j1J'UlULi-600 007
 intermediaries and minerals like calcium,
phosphorous, potassium, ferrous, copper,
magnesium.
Nutrient content on dry weight basis
Protein 25-35 %
Minerals 10-15%
Amino acids 7 -10%
It is easily digestible by livestock due to
low lignin content. Azolla can be given
directly to livestock or can be mixed with
concentrates.
HOW TO GROW AZOLLA?
" The soil in the area is first cleared of
weeds and leveled
" Bricks are lined horizontally in a
rectangular fashion.
" A UV stabilized silpauline sheet of
2mX2m size is uniformly spread over
the bricks in such a way as to cover
the margin of the rectangle made by
the bricks
" 10-15 kg of sieved soil is uniformly
spread over the silpauline pit
" Slurry made of 2 kg cow dung and 30
g of Superphosphate mixed in 10
liters of water, is poured onto the
sheet. More water is poured on to
raise the water level to about 10 cm
" About 0.5-1kg of pure mother azolla
culture seed material is spread
uniformly over the water, after mild
stirring of soH and water in the azolla
/ bed. Fresh water should be sprinkled
over the azolla immediately after
inoculation to make the azolla plants
upright
" In a week's time, the azolla spreads
all over the bed and develops a thick
mat like appearance.
" A mixture of 20 g of Superphosphate
and about 1 kg of cow dung should be
added once in 5 days in order to
maintain rapid multiplication of the
-------------------Im3I~-----------------
IAMWARM ~fwt,
gmini.nfJ go.!iie1.d VeWtituvtian,;, 2009
azolla and to maintain the daily yield
of500g
" A micronutrient mix containing
magnesium, iron, copper, sulphur
etc., can also be added at weekly
intervals to enhance the mineral
content of azolla
" About 5 kg of bed soil should be
replaced with fresh soil, once in 30
days, to avoid nitrogen build up and
prevent micro-nutrient deficiency
" 25 to 30 percent of the water also
needs to be replaced with fresh
water, once every 10 days, to prevent
nitrogen build up in the bed
" The bed should be cleaned, the water
and soil replaced and new azolla
inoculated once every six months
" A fresh bed has to be prepared and
inoculated with pure culture of azolla,
when contaminated by pest and
diseases
WHEN TO HARVEST?
Azolla will grow rapidly and the entire pit
will be covered within 10- 15 days. From then
on, 500 - 600 g of azolla can be harvested
daily. Harvesting can be done from 15th day
onwards with the help of a plastic sieve or tray
with holes at the bottom. The harvested
azolla should be washed in fresh water to get
rid of the cow dung smell.
Fresh biogas slurry may also be used as
a medium for growth. Waste water from
bathroom and cattle shed can also be used to
fill the pit.
PRECAUTIONS
The azalia biomass should be removed
daily to avoid over crowding
Washing in a net will be useful as it will
allow small plantlets to get out, and they can
be poured back in to the pond
Care should be taken to retain the
temperature below 25°C.
Shade nets c.::~ ~A used to cut the light
intensity
 Animal Nutrition

PREPARATION OF MINERAL MIXTURE

-----_.-------------------------------------------------------------
Formulating mineral mixture requires
knowledge on the following:
1. Specification of mineral mixture to
the respective physiological status
of animal.
2. Sources of minerals
3. Bioavailability of mineral sources
4. Cost of mineral sources
Once this information is available, the
appropriate mineral source needs to be
selected and formulated according to the
respective specification.
The very important aspect in preparation
of mineral mixture is mixing.
In mixing the various sources of
minerals, attention needs to be paid to mix
the trace minerals separately as "pre mixture
with diluents" followed by mixing with carriers
to make up the volume.
Achieving uniformity is of paramount
importance and there are several machines
available and readers are advised to consult
animal nutritionist in this regard.
However, suitable examples have been
included in the respective section for the
purpose of getting idea about equipments
used for mixing mineral sources.
In the process of mixing, it is advisable to
follow the recommended sequence of mixing
Thus mixed mineral mixture needs to be
properly packed, labelled and stored as per
recommendation.
There are several specifications
available across the globe like ARC, NRC
etc., and each country has their own
specification according to the kind and nature
of animals.
In our country we largely follow BIS (lSI)
spec'rfication wherever applicable.
In addition to BIS specification, the
respective breeder's recommendations also
should be taken note of wherever available.
This section is largely devoted to
guidelines drawn by BIS.

BIS recommended cattle mineral mixture

Minerals / Item Proportion in mineral

mixture (% by mass)
Moisture, max 5
Calcium, min 18
Phosphorus, min 9
Magnesium 5
Salt (chlorine as Nacl), min 22
Iron, min 0.4
rodine. min
~----. '
0.02
Copper, min 0.1
Manganese, min 0.1
Cobalt,
'----
min 0.009
Fluorine, max 0.05
Zinc, min 0.3
Sulphur, max 0.4
Acid insoluble ash, max 3.0

------------------~~---------------
 As variety of sources is available, the
selection of source should be based upon,
i) Bioavailability
ii) Percentage of particular element
present in the source.
The selected sources should be
incorporated as per BIS specifications.
Eg. Oi Calcium Phosphate (DCP) as
phosphorus source
Phosphorus content in DCP is 18%
Percentage of phosphorus in
mineral mixture 9
To arrive with 9% phosphorus, 50kg of
OCP has to be included to prepare 100kg of
mineral mixture.
As, OCP also possess calcium, the
contribution of OCP towards calcium has to
be considered.
50kg of DCP can supply about, 12.5kg Of
calcium (OCP contains 25% Ca).
Calcium Requirement in mineral mixture
is 18%
As 50 Kg of DCP has provided 12.5kg of
Calcium, remaining 5.5kg calcium has to be
met from Calcium source
Calcium carbonate contains 38% of
Calcium.
Therefore 14.47kg of Calcium carbonate
(100/38 x 5.5kg) should be added to get
5.5kg calcium.
Similarly, the mineral mixture has to be
formulated, for all the major and minor
ingredients, as per BIS.
The remaining portion- of hundred
kilograms (after including mineral sources)
has to be filled up by appropriate carrier
material.

Mineral mixture of BIS specification

Ingredients Level (kg)

DCP 50
Calcium carbonate 14.47
Magnesium phosphate 17,85
FClTOUS sulphate 1.3
Potassium iodide 0.025
Copper sulQ_hate 0.4
Manganese sulphate 0.44
Zinc chloride 1.3
/ Cobalt carbonate
-_. 0,018
1--~2.~ium ~.l!!Q!late 3
Sodium selenite 0,002 !

CalTiers like DORB 11.195 -

Total 100,00

------------------~IImII~-----------------¢

ANIMAL MANAGEMENT, HANDLING, HOUSING AND RECORD KEEPING
---------------------------------------------._---------------------
Livestock management involves
integrated application of the principles of
animal breeding, feeding, housing,
organization and disease control in a manner
suitable for a particular situation. Better
management includes economic feeding,
identification of better breeding stock,
maintenance of, their records and
implementation of mating plan and
monitoring the reproductive efficiency.
The basic requirements for the welfare of
livestock are
1. Provision of readily accessible fresh
water
2. Nutritionally adequate feed as
required
3. Provision of adequate temperature
and ventilation
4. Adequate freedom for movement
and to stretch their body
5. Sufficient light for satisfactory
inspection and also for feeding
6. Rapid diagnosis and treatment of
injuries and disease
7. Emergency provision in the event of
break down of essential mechanical
equipment
8. Flooring which neither harms nor
cause undue stress to the animal
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF YOUNG
STOCK
Immediately after birth the mucus around
the nostrils should be whipped out using dry
cloth or a hand full of straw can be used. The
mother should be allowed to lick the
newborn, if the dam fails to lick it can be
stimUlated by sprinkling small quantity of salt
or bran over the young one. Naval cord
should be ligated with clean sterile cotton
thread 1 inch from the body and tincture
iodine should be applied. With in 1 hour after
----------------41ED1~---------------
jfllUll'aJ l"()elel'ulUl'lj @.ol/tljl @JullIllli-60() 007
Livestock Production and Management
birth, the newborn will able to stand and it
should be allowed to drink adequate quantity
of colostrum (first milk) which will give
immunity to the newborn.
CARE OF PREGNANT ANIMALS
A dry animal means animal, which
completes their lactation and drying is
essential to give adequate rest to the udder of
the animal. Dry animals should be separated
from other milch animals. In case of cow, dry
cow can be treated for mastitis to prevent
mastitis in next lactation. Pregnant animals
should be provided with extra ration to meet
the requirement offast growing foetus as well
as store energy for future lactation. In
advance stage of pregnancy laxative diet
should be provided.
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SICK
ANIMALS
Isolation shed is the one where fick
animals are housed for treatment. 3ick
animals should be visited frequently
according to the nature of the illness.
Animals, which are unable to consume diet,
should be drenched with suitable diets.
Provision of separate waterer, feeder and
attendant is essential. Rectal temperature,
pulse rate and respiration rate should be
recorded periodically and frequently. Dead
animals should be removed at once and
disposed safely taking all sterile precautions.
DISINFECTION
Disinfection means destruction of
pathogenic micro organisms from a place so
that the place become free from infection.
Most of the commonly used disinfectants fall
into one of the major categories mentioned
below: Boric acid: 4-6% ; Sodium hydroxide
(1,2 and 5%) is available as lye for
disinfection of animal houses;Calcium
hydroxide (lime water, slaked lime) ;
Formaldehyde (5-10%) can be used for
washing floor of animal houses.
Glutaraldehyde 2% aqueous solution is
 Figure of 8 Knot

Handling of Calf

Rope Snare fiG. 11 . 14. c.sw:r,_....,"iIrJ'f .. _

S<'w':""'I,h ..... 'Ilfropt Jhd,...._.c k"'''\l)(.

--------------------~IImII~--------------------
IAMWARM ~fwt_ 5ttaining. 50.:JiJd VeWW~ 2009
useful for sterilization of instruments.
Detergents and Soap:Quarterinary
ammonium compounds;cetavlon; savlon.
Bleaching powder (calcium hypochlorite) are
commonly used disinfectants. Copper sulfate
(5mg/lit);Potassium permanganate (1-
2mg/lit);cresol(3-5%), Lysol (3-5%), thymol,
tar acids and hexachlorophene. Phenol 0.5 to
5% can be used in veterinary practice.
Sodium carbonate: 2.5-4% can be used for
farm building. Quick lime(calcium Oxide):
Fresh lime is a good disinfectant. It is used in
the burial pits to dispose the carcass and for
land application. Calcium hydroxide(slaked):
Commonly used in white washing of the
walls. It act as disinfectant also. While white
washing 5% phenol can also be add for more
effect.
Quarantine IS the segreganon oT
apparently healthy animals (especially
animals being brought into the herd for the
first time) which have been exposed to the
risk of infection from outside animals.
Normally newly purchased animals and
animals returned from show should be kept in
the quarantine shed. The shed should be
constructed at the entrance of the farm. The
pe riod of quarantine depends upon the
incubation period of the disease. Normally 30
days will cover all the disease except rabies,
which require quarantine period of 6 months.
Burial of carcasses A suitable site
should be selected. The burial place must be
distant from a well or water course and there
is a sufficiency of subsoil to allow a depth of 6
feet above the cascass. The carcass must be
buried in its skin, be covered with a sufficient
quantity of quicklime or other disinfectants.
The dead animals should be arranged upon
its back with feet upwards. The skin is
slashed inside the pit all cases except in the
case of anthrax. As the smell of carcass may
attract foxes and dogs the area of the burial
needs to be disinfect with coaltar which will
act as detergent for sufficient length of time.
GENERAL CONDITION FOR
TRANSPORT OF LIVESTOCK
Healthy animals should be transported
and a qualified veterinarian should certify it.
jlladraJ ri)e/Pl'illllNJ f!dltlJR, (:JJwUlai-600 007
Young animals should be separated from
pdult animals and advanced pregnant state
pnimals should be separated from other
pnimals. Fourteen days prior to transportation
necessary vaccination procedure should be
completed for the particular livestock. The
vehicle should be sprayed with disinfectant
polution. Animals during transport shouid not
be tied up at leg. Each consignment shall
bear a bold red labei showing the following
particulars: a) Number and kind of animals
loaded; b) Name and address and telephone
number of the consignor (sender) and
consignee (receiver); c) Quantity of ration to
be fed; d) Consignee should be informed
about the train or vehicle in which the
consignment of cattle is sent and its arrival
time in advance. In case of lourney for more
than 12 hours an attendant should be present
at all the time and should ensure the proper
conditions are maintained during transport.
Cattle, sheep and goat should be unloaded
by every 8 hours and should be watered. The
attendant should not permit the sheep and
goat to sit down during transit. By foot: For
every 20 km animals can be given rest and
provided with feeding and watering
arrangement; Cattle can be easily be driven
for about 30-35 km in a day; Transit during
hottest part of the day should be avoided.
By rails Goods wagon can be used for
transport of livestock and they are invariably
roofed and well ventilated. Cattle wagons
should be attached in the middle of the train
By road or truck The animals shall not be
tethered unless there is a risk of their jumping
out and their legs should not be tied.
Handling
Cattle To restrain a bull, pole or bull
leader may be used. Generally bulls should
be secured before approaching. Ropes may
also be used instead of pole. A halter may
also be applied. Sometimes a bull mask may
be used. A bUll mask may be useful in
preventing them from seeing straight. It is
made up of stout leather and a thin piece of
metal sheet. It rests on the front side of the
face, and is kept in the place by a nose band
and with the help of two straps bucked
around the horn.
Sheep Sheep are held above the hock
or placing the left hand underneath the jaw
and around the back. Horned sheep can be
held by the horns. When holding a sheep,
stand on its left side and place the left hand
under its jaw, the right hand should reach weJJ
under the belly. To turn up a sheep, the
attendant should stand against it left side
placing his left hand under its neck. Pass your
right hand over the right flank as far under the
belly as possible and take hold of the wool.
Raise the sheep's forelegs off the ground with
the left hand and with the right hand lift the
animal into a sitting position in front of the
shepherd legs and supported. In horned
breeds to avoid injury and to have better
control, the horns are held instead of the fore
limbs.
Pigs Care must be taken while
approaching boars and sows. A pig catcher
may be used to secure a large pig. It is made
up of a bar of iron (3 feet long) with a handle at
one end and a (4 inches) ring at the other end.
The ring will be slipped round the upper jaw,
behind the tusks. Pigs may also be caught by
hind legs seized above the hock or by the
ears. Large pigs can be secured by Barton's
method. It consists of a stout strap round the
girth of the pig and another around the neck.
Short straps join these stout straps between
the forelegs and on either side of the midline.
Dog Tape muzzle is used to prevent
them from biting. Dog catcher can be used to
secure a dog. Very small dogs may be held by
the scruff. The dog should be picked up by
both forelegs in one hand and both hind legs
in another or one hand may be placed under
the belly and another is used to grip the back
of the neck. Then the dog is rolled over gently
first on its side and then on to its back. The
hind legs are extended backwards and the
forelegs forwards, making them to fully
expose the chest and the abdomen. To
prevent a dog from biting, Elizabethan collar
may be applied.
Cat The cat is normally held by the scruff
of the neck and a ferret muzzle. It may also be
roiled in a piece of large towel. Cat box and
modified Elizabethan collar may be used to
secure cats. A method of holding the cat is to
seize the hind legs above the hock and the
fore legs just around the knee joint.

Feeding and Watering space requirement (cm)

Type of Feeding Watering Width Depth Inner height

animal space space
Cattle and
60 -75 6 -7.5 60 40 50
Buffalo
Calves 40 -50 4-5 40 50 20
Sheep and
40 -50 4-5 50 30 35
Goat
Lambs and
30 - 35 3 - 3.5 50 20 25
Kids
Adult Pig 60 -75 6 -7.5 50 20 25
Young Pig 25 - 35 2.5 - 3.5 50 15 20

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IAMWARM ~fwt,
gmi.ninfJ go. fjiJd VeWtituvtia#w 2009
 FLOOR SPACE REQUIREMENT FOR DIFFERENT LIVESTOCK

Floor space requirement in mL

Maximum number of Height
Type of Animal Covered Open animal housed per at eave (cm)
area area pen
~Je & Buffalo

Bulls 12.0 120 1 175

Cows 3.5 7.0 50
~Buffaloe 4.0 8.0 50
Calving pen 12.0 12.0 1
rvoung calf 1.0 1.0 30
i
rOld calf 2.0 2.0 30
rSheep & Goat
~Ewe or doe 1.0 0 60 300
lL8.i1lbs or kids 0.4 0 75
r Ram or Buck 3.4 0 1
Milch doe 1.4 0 1
i Pigs
Boar 9.0 9.0 1 200 - 250
r Farrowing sow 9.0 9.0 1
fWeaner or fattener 0.9 0.9 30
I Dry sow or gilt 1.8 1.8 3 - 10
L

RI::CORD KEEPING 3. Detecting abnormality If a cow is

From these records, the farmer can find
OLit whether he is making a profit or running a
loss on each individual cow in the herd.
Advantages of keeping records are
1. A guide to economical feeding
Cows cannot be fed intelligently when the
weight and milkfat contents of their milk are
unknown.
2. A check on milkers By examining
the milk sheet one can see whether the
mi,kers are doing their work properly or not. If
too much fluctuations in the milk yield are
noticed from milking to milking, incomplete
milking or improper handling of cows can
come to light.
Sick she shows it on the milk sheet before
other signs of sickness appear. Occurrence
of oestrus can also be detected from the milk
sheet.
4. As a guide to culling It helps in
irltelligently weed out unprofitable cows. The
persistent milker is a cow that never milks a
pail full, but keeps giving milk till just before
calving . The non persistent cow may fill the
pail for first 2 - 3 mo, then shrinks in her
production and becomes dry 3 - 4 mo prior
t() calving. The farmer should pick up the
persistent as his best as she produces more
nlilk in a year's time.

------------------IEDI~----------------
jlladFlLJ r(jelPl'ifla'lJ @oIlef#_, @Jw'lIUIi-600 007
 5. A guide to genetic improvement
The records help to provide information for
breeding and genetic improvement of the
animals
6. Other benefits The records provide
basis on which future planning of the
requirement of feed, fodder and labour can
bemade.
The following register is to be maintained:
Growth records, bull service register ,history
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IAMWARM 5'taininfj 5(1. ~fwt
2009
sheet, production record, Cattle yard report
book (Daily diary),valuation register,
agriculture records, business account,
annual inventory, feed records and income
register. Other details to be noted in a farm
are: The cost of purchase of animals during
the year, the value of the labour engaged
during the year, miscellaneous expenses like
medicine, veterinary fees, insurance taxes
etc.
[jidJ, VeWtUm~
 Animal Husbandry Economics

LIVESTOCK PROJECT PREPARATION

Dr. K.N. Selvakumar, Dr. M. Prabu and Dr. N. Meganathan
Department of Animal Husbandry Economics
Madras Veterinary College, Chennai-600 007
--------------------------------------------------------------------
INTRODUCTION
Generally in livestock projects, the
investments are made during different time
periods and the associated benefits are also
spread overtime. These investments and
returns are not comparable as such with out
adjusting for their time value. Thus the time
value of money has to be necessarily taken
into reckoning in the investment analysis of
\)'Ve~\oc'l<. 'Pm)ec\~. ,l\CCOH))'flg \0 'Nm\Q '2>'a'fl'l<.
estimates about 75 per cent of India's 940
million people are in 5.87 million villages,
cultivating over 145 million hectares of
cropland. Average farm size is about 1.66
hectares. Among 70 million rural households,
42 per cent operate upto 2 hectares and 37
per cent are landless households. These
landless and small farmers have in their
possession 53 per cent of the animals and
they don't have the required capital to start
livestock farms in a big manner. Most of the
time, they approach banks for financial
assistance. For obtaining bank loan, the
farmers should apply project report to the
nearest branch of a commercial or co-
operative Bank in their area in the prescribed
application form. The items of finance would
include capital asset items such as purchase
of animals, construction of sheds, purchase
of equipments etc. The feeding cost during
the initial period of one/two months is
capitalised and given as term loan. The
scheme should include information on land,
livestock markets, availability of water, feeds,
fodders, veterinary aid, breeding facilities,
marketing aspects, training facilities,
experience of the farmer and the type of
assistance available from State Government,
dairy society/union/federation. The scheme
should also include information on the
number of and types of animals to be
purchased, their breeds, production
performance, cost and other relevant input
and output costs with their description.
ASSUMPTIONS
Livestock projects are generally
prepared with certain basic assumptions,
such as type of breed, productivity, sale price,
market, labour requirement and their costs,
feed and fodder requirement along with their
C1)'B\, :fff5'ul'aTiCB plBlli:fuTfl B\C.,
FIXED INVESTMENT
The cost of buildings, cost of equipment,
investment on water and electricity
installations and the cost of animals were
grouped under fixed investment.
COST COMPONENTS
FIXED COST
It included interest on fixed capital,
depreciation on buildings, depreciation on
equipment and machinery and insurance
cost.
VARIABLE COST
Variable cost included cost of feed (green
fodder, dry fodder, and concentrate), labour
cost and cost of veterinary and medicine
charges (breeding, vaccination, deworming).
GROSS COST
Gross cost is calculated by adding all the
components offixed cost and variable cost.
Returns
The returns from livestock project include
sale of milch animal or birds, sale of livestock
products like milk, egg, chicken, mutton, sale
of manure, gunny bags etc.

----------------~1111~---------------
Jltat/fa.! roell'l'illUt'1J @plLf!ljI', @l1l'IUllli-600 007
COSTS AND BENEFITS OF THE PROJECT
The economic analysis of project is
done to compare costs with benefits and
determine which project has an acceptable
return among alternative projects. Project
analysis tries to identify and measure the
costs and benefits that will arise with the
project and to compare them with the
situation as it would be without the project.
The difference is the incremental net benefit
arising from the project investment.
PROJECT APPRAISAL
The project appraisal techniques are
broadly classified under two heads namely.,
• Undiscounted Measures
• Discounted Measures
UNDISCOUNTED MEASURES
They are the na',ve (simple) methods of
ranking agricultural projects. The
three important undiscounted
measures are
a. Pay back period
b. Proceeds per rupee of outlay
c. Average annual proceeds of rupee
outlay
a. Pay Back Period
Pay back period is a simple
technique of ranking projects based on the
actual period of time in which one can get
back total investment.
P =............. .
E a.
where, P is the pay back period
I is the total investment made in the
project and
E is the net cash revenues / net
revenues per annum.
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IAMWARM ~fwt
9"ruWIit'fJ 9"0- jie£d VeWtUuvmuw 2009
b. Proceeds per rupee of outlay
Proceeds per rupee of outlay =
Total Proceeds
Total investment
c. Average c:nnual proceeds of rupee
outlay
This method is another method of
choosing between the projects and
measured by the following formula
Average annual proceeds of rupee =
Total proceeds Ilife span of project
Total investment
The projects are estimated by the
magnitude of the estimate.
The major draw back of the
undiscounted measures is that for the same
data of the project, we will get different
rankings. Thus undiscounted measures are
inconsistent and incompatible in ranking.
DISCOUNTED MEASURES
•
Here the cash flows which are
accrued in the project are discounted with an
appropriate discount rate. Generally the
existing interest rate is taken as discount rate
for this purpose. The discount rate cash flows
are the best estimates to measure the worth
of the projects. The three important discount
rate measures are
a. Net Present Worth (NPW)
b. Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR)
c. Internal rate of Returns (IRR)
Net present worth
The net present worth which is also
called as Net Present Value (NPV) is nothing
but the present value/worth of the cash flow
stream in the project. The cash flow in the
project is the difference between cash inflow
and cash outflow. The investments made in
the projects are generally called costs or
cash outflows. The receipts that accrued
during different time periods are called as
cash inflows or gross returns. The cash flows
discounted with an appropriate discount rate
will give the net present worth of the project.
n n
NPW = L Btl (1 +r)t - L Ct/ (1 +r)t
t=1 t=1
Bt is cash flows in tth year, Ct is cash
outflows in tth year, t is 1 to 10 years that is life
span of the project.
The choice criterion using NPW is
that the project with positive NPW is
accepted for implementation and the project
with negative NPW is rejected. If the NPW is
zero, the entrepreneur is left in indifference. If
he is to choose among different projects, the
project with highestNPW has to be chosen.
b. Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR)
BCR is worked out by dividing the
present value of cash inflows by the present
value of cash outflows. If the BCR is more
than one, that project is accepted and if BCR
is less than one the project is rejected.
Among the different projects, the project with
righest BCR is to be selected.
n Bt/(1 +r)t
BCR = L The annual instalment is arrived at
t =1 Ct/(1 +r)t
c. Internal Rate of Returns (lRR)
It is the rate of return per rupee invested
in an agricultural project over its life span. For
example if the IRR is 30 per cent in a livestock
project, it means that this project gets an
average annual return of Rs. 301 per Rs. 100/
invested in the project over its life span. It is
the rate of return at which the present value of
total cash flows in a project is equal to zero. In
'Jther words, it is the discount rate at which
the NPW of the project is zero i.e.,
IRR=NPW=O or
n Pt
IRR = L constant and the share of interest
t=1 (1+r)t
------------------IEiI~---------------
For a project to be viable it should have
a BCR of one or greater than one at the
opportunity cost of capital and a NPW of
zero or greater than zero at the oPPortunit"
cost of capital and the discount rate for IRR
should be greater than the opportunity cost
of capital.
METHODS OF REPAYMENT OF LOANS
Four methods are commonly used
• Straight end repayment or lumpsum
repayment: The entire loan is
paid on the expiry of the term
but the interest on the loan is
each year.
• Partial repayment or variable
repayment: A part of the loan together
with a part of the interest on the loan
is paid up every year.
• Amortized even repayment: An equal
amount is repaid every year. This
includes a larger proportion of the
principal and a smaller amount of
interest in each succeeding
installment of payment. The method
of payment is suitable when income
is likely to flow at a constant rate
throughout the period.
through the formula given.
= B ---------------
1-(1+i)"
Where,
I :::: Annual instalment in Rs
B = Principal amount borrowed in Rs.
n = Loan period in year.
i =Annual interest rate in fraction.
• Amortized decreasing repayment: The
amount of the principal remains
declines with every installment of
repayment. Thus, the annual payment
becomes smaller every succeeding
year.
 Lower Difference

~~scount
Present worth of cash flow at lower ).
IRR = discount +
rate { rate ( Total of present worth of cash flow of both discount
rates

(Ignore the signs)

Present worth =Future value/(1 +r)t

------------------~~----------------
IAMWARM 5'1aining- 50. fJidd 9l~fwt
2009 VeWtit~
 Animal Husbandry Statistics and Computer Applications
BASICS Of COMPUTERS f()R fiELD VETERINARIANS
.-----.---------------------------~------------------- --------------
A computer is a general-purpose
electronic machine designed to help people
to get a job done. Computers do not come up
with original ideas but they are helpful to
human beings in calculating, record keeping,
trial and error experimenting, communicating,
information gathering and other managerial
tasks involved in translating an idea into
reality. The reason the computer can do
these things quickly is simply that it is an
electronic device.
It should be emphasized that computers
do not know anything, do not think, do not just
do things on their own unless we tell it to do
and there are no 'wrong keys' in a computer.
Computer is much more than a calculator that
it can perform some complicated activities
such as choosing, copying, moving,
comparing and performing non-arithmetic
operations also.
COMPUTER GENERATIONS
From the early 1950s, computers started
appearing in quick succession, each claiming
an improvement over the other in terms of
speed, memory capacity, input-output
devices and programming techniques with a
continuous reduction in size and cost.
Computers developed have been classified
into the following four generations:
First generation 1946-1955
Second generation 1956-1965
Third generation 1966-1975
Fourth generation 1976-1985
From 1946, each decade had
contributed a generation of computers. First
generation computers are those in which
vacuum tubes were used. Magnetic tape
drives and magnetic core memories were
developed during this period. First
generation computers had thecharacteristics
oHarge size and slow operating speed.
------------------IIDI~----------------
@J1i'/lIlui-600 007
jlladJf(LJ r()tul'iJlal'lj ()fI(/eqe,
The second-generation computers (for
e.g., IBM 1401) were marked by the use of a
solid-state device called the transistor
invented by Bell labs in USA, in the place of
vacuum tubes. These computers occupied
less space, required less power and
produced much less heat.
The research in the field of electronics
led to the innovation of the integrated circuits
now popularly knows as IC chips. The use of
IC chips in the place of transistors gave birth
to the third generation computers. These
computers were still more compact, faster
and less expensive.
Continued effort towards miniaturization
led to the development of large-scale
integration (LSI) technology. Intel
Corporation introduced LSI chips called
microprocessors for building computers.
The computers that used LSI chips had been
named as the fourth generation computers.
Invention of microprocessor in 1972 has
changed the computing scene dramatically.
A microprocessor when interfaced with
memory and input/output units became a
microcomputer. The first business
microcomputer called APPLE II was released
in USAin 1977.
Japan and many other countries are now
working on systems what are known as
expert systems, which would considerably
improve the man-machine interaction. This
generation of computers is termed as fifth
generation computers (thinking computers).
However it is not very clear what direction the
fifth generation would take.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Modern computers can be classified
depending upon their applications as special
purpose computers and general-purpose
computers. Special purpose computers are
tailor made to cater solely to the
requlremenrs or a particUlar [aSK or
application. On the other hand, general-
purpose computers are designed to meet the
needs of many different applications.
COMPUTER SYSTEM
A 'system' is a group of integrated parts
that have a common purpose of achieving a
certain objective. There are many computer
systems categorised on the basis of size and
performance. The most popular form of the
computer in use today is prolJably the PC or
the personal computer.
One type of PC that is rapidly growing in
popularity is the portable computer, which
can be easily carried around. The portable
PCs are also called as laptops or notebook
PCs or sub notebooks or personal digital
assistant (PDA). Sub notebooks are smaller
than notebooks and PDAs are much smaller
than sub notebooks.
BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS OF
COMPUTERS
Acomputer provides five basic benefits: I spacing etc., can all be performed through
Speed
Vast Storage
Accuracy
Diligence
Human beings get bored or tired of
repetitive works. But the monotony of
repeated works does not affect computers.
Versatility
Computers are very versatile that they
can perform activities ranging from simple
calculation to performing complex missile
launching.
FUNCTIONS OF A COMPUTER
A computer does mainly four
functions:
Receives input - accepts data from
outside through input devices like
keyboard, mouse etc.
Processes data - performs
arithmetic or logical operations on
the data
----------------------~~ ----------------------
IAMWARM ~fwt 5win.itUJ 5(1. :Jidd VeWtU~ 2009
... roauces OUtPUt - communicates'
information to the outside world
through output devices like monitor
printer, etc. '
Stores data and information _
stores the data and information in
storage devices like hard disk, floppy
disks, etc.
MAJOR APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER
SYSTEMS
Essentially there are five major areas
where the computer is now used:
1. Word processing
Word processing is concerned with
creation and manipulation of text (letters,
documents etc.), replacing all operations
normally associated with a typewriter. Word
processing allows storage of documents and
retrieval of them later for revision, edition or
printing. Insertion, deletion, moving of words
or even paragraphs from one place to
another, changing the margins and line
this tool.
2. Spreadsheets
Spreadsheet is called as an
electronic equivalent of the accountant's
ledger. Spreadsheets are suitable for any
problem that can be expressed in row and
column format. Necessary calculations can
be made instantly, accurately and
automatically.
3. Graphics
Graphics is an effective way of
communicating any information. This
application enables the user to quickly
convert tabular data to graph form without
having to rely on a draftsman or artist. Three
dimensional pie charts, barcharts, XY graphs
and other forms of sophisticated graphs can
be made available in stunning colours within
a few minutes and with just a few simple key
strokes.
4. Databast: ",g •. :Jgement
Database management is a system
..
that allows for creation, storage, retrieval and
manipulation of files or databases. This
allows us to maintain records electronically.
There is provision for addition of new records
as well as modification or deletion of existing
information. We can retrieve the data in any
order in which we like.
5. Communication
This application connects the computer
to the outside worl~. This enables us to talk
to someone in a faraway place, to access
information services such as share market
data, flight and hotel information or just about
anything else you can think of. We can now
shop or bank by computer, send and receive
electronic mail etc.
PHYSICAL COMPONENTS OF A PC
System (the hardware)
Parts ot a Computet
The major physical (HARDWARE)
components of a computer system are input
devices, processing devices and output
devices. They are as below:
1 . Main memory
2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
a. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
b. Control unit
3. Secondary memory
4. Input devices
5. Output devices
Main memory
Every computer comes with a certain
amount of physical memory. usually referred
------------------~·IImDI~-------------------
JllmlFfu (lJdfllliwl'IJ f:JrJilffjl!, @/ullIlUi-60() ()07
to as the main memory or the RAM (Random
Access Memory). The primary storage (also
called as main memory) is used for the
following four purposes:
1. To have input storage area for storing
data until processing.
2. To provide working storage space for
storing data being processed and
intermediate results.
3. To provide output storage area for
holding finished results.
4. To have program storage area for
holding processing instructions.
Nowadays, an essential component of
every computer is its memory. The main
memory is used to store a variety of critical
information required for processing by the
CPU, which include input data, application
programmes, system programmes,
intermediate results and final results of
computations.
A digital computer represents data and
information internally in a digitised nature.
Hence the choice of an appropriate number
system was important in the design of a
digital computer, decimal system with digits 0
to 9, or binary system with digits 0 and 1 and
so on. When the computers are designed to
use decimal numbers, the computer should
be able to distinguish between 10 levels of
voltage. However, it will be more effective and
reliable to design a computer using only 2
signals, the presence and absence of an
electrical pulse. This can be achieved by
designing computers to hold data based on
binary digits (bits), 0 and 1. The number 1
could be used to signify the presence of an
electrical pulse and the number 0 the
absence of it.
Data on a computer consists of a large
number of symbols or characters, namely
alphabets A to Z, mathematical signs such as
+, -, =, <, ~etc. and special characters like ",
*, $, £, @, arid so on. With 2 binary digits, we
can represent 4 (22) different characters
namely 00, 10, 01 and 11. With 3 digits, we
can represent 23 = 8 different characters,
namely, 000, 001 , 010, 100, 011, 101, 110
and 111 . With 6 digits, we can represent 64
different characters, which would be enough
to represent all characters noted above.
However, an extra digit is needed if we want
to include the lower case alphabets such as a
to z also. Keeping in mind the need to include
more characters in future , 8 binary digits
(Bits) are used to represent a character
inside a modern computer system. This
collection of 8 binary digits is called a byte.
There are two widely used 8-bit codes in use
today. These are 1. EBCDIC Extended
Binary Coded Decimal Interch ange Code
and 2. ASCII American Standard Code for
Information Interchange Code .
The amount of information a computer on third and fourth generation computers and
can store is measured in bytes . One byte is is to be measured in pico seconds (one
roughly equivalent to a single character. For 1000th of a nano second) in the fifth
eg oIt takes three bytes to store the word ' boy' generation computers .
and four bytes to store the word ' girl'. A
Secondary (auxiliary) storage devices
kilobyte often abbreviated , as K or KB is
about 1000 bytes. (1 kilobyte=210 bytes = Since the internal storage capacity (main
1024 bytes). A mega byte abbreviated as MB memory) of computers is usually limited , it
is about one million bytes . Agiga byte is about presents a limitation to the storage of
one billion bytes. In general one byte can voluminous data . Further, once the power
store one character, one KB can store one goes off, data ~tored in the internal storage
third of a page, one MB can store 333 pages would be lost. This means that every time
and one GB 3,33,333 pages . Today's you want to work on the PC, you have to input
computers come with storage capacities the data required. For permanent storage of
measured in GBs .
data , external storage media can be used
Central processing unit (CPU) with a PC. Secondary memory provides
economical storage of large volumes of data
The CPU is the most important hardware
of a computer system which has two major on magnetic media , thereby offering
components viz. ALU and control unit. ALU is permanent (non-volatile) storage. There are
responsible for all the arithmetical and logical two types of secondary memory viz 1. Serial
operations like manipulations of numerical access memory, which allows only sequential
data, comparison of relative magnitudes of access of data and 2. Random access
numericals. The control section maintains the memory, which allows random access of
order and directs the operation of the entire data. E.g . for serial access memory is
system by selecting, interpreting and magnetic tape. E.g . for RAM is floppy disk.
executing the program instructions. A CPU's There are 3 kinds of external storage media
processing power is measured in million commonly used. 1. Floppy disk, 2. Hard disk
instructions per second (MIPS) . The speed of and 3. Compact disc. Another important
the CPU was measured in milli seconds (One
medium used for external storage is the
1000th of a second) on first generation
computers, in micro seconds (one millionth of cartridge tape, suitable for large volumes of
a second) on second generation computers, data. Some seconuary devices are described
in nano seconds (one billionth of a second) below:

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IAMWARM ~Ii« 5Jtai.ning 50. fJreld VeWt.iIta!ti.a.tw 2009 •
Hard disk
Hard disk is a magnetic disk on which
we can store data. The term hard is used to
distinguish it from a soft, or floppy disk. Hard
disks hold more data and are faster than
floppy disks. A single hard disk usually
consists of several platters. Each platter
requires two read/ write heads, one for each
side. All the read/ write heads are attached to
a single access arm so that they cannot move
independently. Each platter has same
nu mber of tracks and a track location that
cuts across all platters is called a cylinder.
Floppydisk
Floppy disk is a soft magnetic disk. It
\'S 'CcA\ed ~o??'1l;)e'Cau'Se \\ ~O?'S \~ '1ou ~a\Se \t
Floppy disks are portable. 3.5" floppy disks
store 1.44 MB data. 5.25" disks are now
outdated.
Disk drives
A device specially designed to perform
the functions of writing on or rf'ading from
ROM i~ CD drive. It is important to
differentiate between the storage media and
storage devices. While the floppy disk and
the hard disk on which data are stored are the
storage media, the disk drives are the
storage devices , which do the storage on the
media.
INPUT DEVICES
Input devices are the machines designed
for data entry purposes and for human-
machine commun ication. Examples for input
devices are keyboard, mouse , input pen,
microphone etc.
Keyboard
C,'Vm?'d,'C~ "''C''yWa~~ ;,'S %'S'C'i'''~,a'h'y '.T,c:
same as a typewriter keyboard. Additional

keys however provide access to function s

that are available on a computer.
Mouse

A mouse is a palm-
sized device. On top of
the mouse there are
buttons for comm
-unicating with the
computer. Using mouse
is a very quick way to
move around on a
external storage media is called the disk screen. The mouse is
drive. Data are fed into the PC and written on designed to slide
the hard disk or the floppy disk by the disk around on the desktop.
drive. The disk drive also performs the Its motion sends a
fun ction of reading the data from the disk. A signal to the computer
simple analogy of how a disk drive works is that moves the mouse cursor. Mouse is a
the cassette tape recorder. A disk drive very common input device in today's
works in the same way as cassette player like computers.
read ing and writing whenever required. The
disk drive is contained within the system unit. Track Ball
T.he drive for a floppy disk is called a floppy
disk drive, while the drive for a hard disk is Track ball is the improvement over the
call ed the hard disk drive and the one fo r CD mouse . It looks like a mouse, but it lies on its

------------------~ImmI~------------------
jfuI.til'lLJ ("()eiR.l'liLUI'1J. @dLeqe, @Jteluwi-60() 007
back. Track balls are really popular with
users of portable computers. Track balls will
be very useful when there is no flat surface
available while travelling in a car or in a plane.

Joystick
A joystick is a lever that moves in all
directions and controls the movement of a
pointer or some other display symbols .
Joysticks are used mostly for computer
games.

Scanner
Scanner is indicates how densely the pixels are packed.
an input device Pixel is a short picture element and is a single
that can read point in a graphic image.
textor illustrations
Printer
printed on paper
and translate the Printers are available in a wide rage of
data into a form capabilities and prices. Some printers Work
that the com by printing a lot of little dots on paper to form
-puter can use . It works by digitizing an words and images, others work by striking a
image . formed character against an inked ribbon
Oust as typewriters do). Some print only text,
Light pen while others print almost any image . Some
It is a pen like device with a light on one make very good pictures, others very fuzzy
ones . The main types of computer printers
end and a wire connected to the computer on
are as below:
the other end . One can touch the screen with
the pen and the system recognises the light a. Dot matrix printers
pen's location . Thus the pen can be used for
As the name indicates, these printers
drawing on the screen . There are other input
work by placing dots of ink on a page. Dot
devices called tablet, digital camera, bar
code reader, touch screen , voice recognition
software etc.
OUTPUT DEVICES
Output devices are those that take
machine coded output results from the
processor and convert them into a form that
can be used by the people concerned (e.g.
printed or displayed reports).
matrix printers come in two widths, 82
Monitor columns and 132 columns.
Monitor is another term for visual b. Inkjet printers
display unit or screen . Monochrome monitors Ink jet printers spray tiny beads of ink at
display only two colours. Colour monitors can the paper. These printers cost less than the
display a no . of colours. Colour monitors are laser printer and the quality of output is better
sometimes ca\led as RGB (Red , Green and than that of dot matr"lx pr"lnter. They can
Blue) monitors. A typical size for small produce text in many fonts and graphics .
monitors is 14". The resolution of a monitor

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IAMWARM ~fwt. 5minUlff 50..!Ji.eM VeWWr.wU.a.n" 2009

c. Laser printers
Laser printers have all the good features
and operate at a speed twice as that of ink jet
printers. They provide text of most typefaces
and sizes and they print the sharpest of all
graphic images.
d. Colour printers
There are a few colour dot matrix printers
which can produce upto eight colours by
reprinting a line over and over with different
coloured ribbons. Colour ink jet and colour
laser printers are also available.
e. High speed printers (Line printers)
There are also high-speed printers
available which can print multiple lines at a
time.
f. Plotters
A plotter uses pens to draw very detailed
designs on paper. They are useful for blue
prints and engineering drawings.
Input devices, output devices and
secondary storage devices are sometimes
collectively called as peripheral devices or
simply peripherals .
COMPUTER SOFTWARE AND OPERATING
SYSTEM
A computer needs both hardware and
software for its proper functioning. Computer
software consists of sets ot programmed
instructions, which enable the hardware to
perform functions. Computer software can
be broadly classified into two categories:
application software and system software .
Application software is a set of programming
instructions for specific applications such as
pay roll accounting. System software
comprises of those programmes designed to
co-ordinate the operations of a computer
system. It is a set of instructions to interpret
and execute application software . This
includes operating systems, utility programs,
language processors (language translators),
interpreters and assemblers (which convert
instructions into machine language) and
utility software.

The following figure gives an overview of the software classification and different types:

SOFTWARE I
I Systems Software J-=- =-1
Applications Software J
File Image Word
Operating ~ ~
management processors processing
systems tools
Databases Spreadsheets
Assemblers " ~
Compilers

Debuggers
I
.I Utilities Games
I Jo, Communication I
software J

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Jlllldnu rveLel'illurlj @J;Jleg.e, @.Jwullli-600 007
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Operating Systems are the most
important programs that run on a computer.
Hardware cannot function without the
operating system. The operating system
provides an interface between the hardware
and the user. The operating system
integrates the various hardware components
like the monitor, CPU, floppy disk drives,
keyboard etc. into one system and makes it
available to the user. A more popular way of
referring to the operating system is DOS or
Disk Operating System. The most popular
disk operating system used is the MS DOS or
Micro Soft Disk Operating System, which is a
product of Microsoft Corporation of USA. The
other commonly used operating systems are
MS Windows, Unix, Linux, Xenix, MacOS,
OS/2, etc.
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
Application software are written in
programming languages. A program is a set
of instructions used to communicate with a
computer. These instructions are written
using symbols, characters and rules for
writing a program. A programming language
defines these symbols, characters and rules
for writing a program. Programming
languages are classified as below:
Machine language
Machine language is the machine
understandable language. Hence this is not
user friendly, because coding is done using
binary system, instead of commands.
Assembly language
Abbreviations are u,sed for programming
in this language instead of giving codes.
High-level language
High-level languages use English words
for programming, making programming user
friendly. The four commonest high-level
languages are probably FORTRAN
(FORmula TRANslation), ALGOL (ALGOrithmic
Language), BASIC (Beginner's All purpose
Symbolic Instruction Codes) and Pascal
(named after Blaise Pascal who invented the
first mechanical calculator).
--------------------~.~
---------------------
IAMWARM ~fte.t. 50miniuff 50.:lield V~ 2009
DISK OPERATING SYSTEM (DOS)
Since the hardware cannot function
without the operating system, to use the
computer system, the DOS software must'
always be present in the computer memory.
When the computer is switched on, the first
thing to be placed in memory is DOS. This is
also referred to as loading of DOS into the
computer's memory. The DOS software may
be available on a floppy or on the hard disk.
The process of transferring the DOS from
the hard disk or floppy disk to the main
memory is termed as booting. Any machine
has to be booted before it can perform any
job. A floppy disk or hard disk which contains
the operating system and can boot a machine
is called a bootable diskette. C> is the DOS
prompt which appears when DOS has been
loaded from the hard disk (or C drive) and A>
is the DOS prompt which appears if DOS has
been loaded from the floppy disk in the A
drive. Thus, the currently active disk drive
can be identified from the prompt C> or A>.
If the currently active drive is the C drive and
you wish to access the files on a floppy disk in
the A drive, you can change to the A drive by
specifying A: at the cursor position. Similarly,
change to the C drive can be indicated by C:.
DOS Commands
DOS contains two hidden files viz.
IO.SYS and MSDOS.SYS and the command
interpreter, COMMAND.COM. The hidden
files are used only by the system and are not
visible to the 01 R command. The
COMMAND.COM interprets the commands
entered by the user and executes them.
Whenever the system is switched on, the
three files are loaded into the internal
memory of the computer. This process of
loading the DOS is known as booting.
Booting is of two types, cold or normal
booting and warm booting. Normal booting
involves RAM check, drives check etc. also.
Warm booting is done by pressing <ctrl>,
<alt> and <del>keys simultaneously and it
does not involve RAM ckeck and other
processes. DOS commands are classified as
internal and external. Internal commands are
..
thOse which reside in the internal memory of DOS prompts the user to enter a command.
the computer and the DOS disk is not needed The user can enter any of the commands by
to execute them. External commands are typing the name of the command and
programs that reside on the disks as files. pressing the Enter key.

1. Date <Enter> Displays the current date

2. Time <Enter>
3. Dir <Enter>
4. Dir/w <Enter>
5. Dir/p <Enter>
6. Dir*.* <Enter>
7. Dir *.exe <Enter>
8. Dir a*.* <Enter>
9. Dir*. <Enter>
10. Mkdir mvc <Enter>
11. Rmdir mvc <Enter>
12. CLS <Enter>
13. Copy C:VETTXT A: <Enter>
14. Copy C:vet.txtA:phd.txt <Enter> Copies file vet.txt available in C toAas phd. txt
15. CopyA:*.* C: <Enter>
16. Ren veUxt phd.txt <Enter>
17. Del vet. txt <Enter>
18. Erase veUxt <Enter>
19. FormatA: <Enter>
20. Format A:/S <enter>
21. Chkdsk a: <Enter>
Displays the current time
Lists the files available on the disk with names, size
of files and the date and time when information last
modified, along with no. of total files, total area
occupied and available free space in bytes
Displays files across the width but not wit h f i I e
size
Displays files with pause (page by page)
Displays all the files and directories
Displays files with the extension name' exe'
Displays files which have' a' as first letter
Displays the files with no extension name
Creates a subdirectory by the name mvc
Removes the subdirectory mvc
Clears any display from monitor
Copies the file veUxt available in C drive toA drive
Copies all files available in A to C
Renames veUxt available in current drive as
phd.txt
Deletes the file vet. txt
Deletes the file vet. txt
Formats the floppy disk i.e. places an electronic
road map on the diskette. Formatting sets up
information tracks on a diskette which will store the
data checks the quality of the diskette and erases all
information previously stored
Formats the disk in drive A and makes the disk
bootable by copying the operating system files to the
new disk being formatted
Analyses the health of a disk and produces
a disk and memory status

--------------------~~-------------------
Computer file In a computer file, the particulars of each
object (in the above case, it is player) are
In a company, which stores its data arranged in single lines. Thus a computer file
manually, the data are stored in the form of a is more compact than a manual file. The
file. For e.g. Amanual player file has several particulars of each player contained in a
cards, each with the details of one player. The single line is called as a record. Each piece of
data to be used on a computer is also stored
data in a record is called as a field. A field has
on storage media in the form of a file.
two components: the field name and field
Manual file content. The field names are name, player
code, designation, department and age and
I field contents are Shewag, 1001, Batsman,
r Indian cricket and 24. A field comprises a
number of characters which may be
PEPSI CUP alphabets, numericals, symbols etc. To sum,
Name: Shewag a field comprises several characters, various
Plaver code: 1001 fields make up a record and many such
Designation: Batsman records form a file.
Department: Indian Cricket
Age: 24

Computer file
NAME OF PLAYER CODE DESIGNATION DEPARTMENT AGE
THE PLAYER
•
Shewag /001 Batsman Indian cricket 24
Flintoff E005 Allrounder England cricket 26
Lee A006 Bowler Australia cricket 23

File naming convention in DOS A primary name can have a maximum of

eight characters and the extension can have
There are certain conventions that are
a maximum of three characters. File name is
followed while naming computer files in DOS
valid even if it has no extension. The file name
based programmes. A file name has two
that we give must be meaningful. For ego if
parts namely 1.Primary name and
you .want to create a file containing salary
2.Extension name. The primary and the
details of the employees, the name given to
extension names are separated by a dot (.) ..
the file can be 'Emp.sal' or simply 'salary'.
The example below explains this convention
These names may indicate that these files
more clearly.
contain data relating to salaries of
Pepsi.cup employees. If we name this file as XYZ.124,

~
we are most likely to forget the name of the
/
primary name extension
file and besides; the name itself does not
convey to you what the file contains.
Similarly, if your file contains a report of the
file name financial status of company, a name like

--------------_.ImmI~-------------
IAMWARM ~fwt. 5'tCIininfJ 50. fJiJd VeWtitzwti.tuw 2009
nrance.RPT would make more sense than
say ABC. PQR.
WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM
What is Windows?
An Operating System is the software that
forms a bridge between the user and the
"ardware. It performs several routine tasKS,
~herebY making it easier for us to work on the
computer. There are many operating
systems available. MS-DOS, Unix, Linux,
052, MacOS are some examples. Windows,
a product of Microsoft.Co~poration, is also an
Q:Jerating system, which IS the most popular
one among PC users.
Advantages of using windows
Windows is a user-friendly operating
system designed with the following
advantages:
1. The biggest advantage of using
Windows is its Graphical User Interface
(GUI). Many other operating systems
(including MS-DOS) use Command Line
Interface. In this kind of interface, we have to
remember cryptic commands and type them
without mistakes. Some operating systems,
for e.g., UNIX, are also case - sensitive (Is is
nut the same as LS or Ls or IS). A simple
spelling mistake or missed space will result in
an error. But, Windows, with its GUI, displays
all the information on the screen and all we
have to do is to point and select the required
item using the mouse.
2. Windows also allows us to use several
utility programs like
(j Calculator - a program that allows us
to perform calculations,
(j Paint - a program that allows us to
draw and color pictures,
Ci Word Pad - a simple word processor
that allows us to enter! save text,
(j Internet Explorer - a program that
allows us to browse the Internet,
(j Clipart - a gallery of pictures that we
can use in our documents.
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JIlaLuaJ. r7Jtd£,illal'1J @dlelji?, 0wuwi-600 007
3. There are also a wide variety of other
software applications that can be used on
Windows. The most popular of these is
Microsoft Office, which includes ,Word (a
word processor), Excel (a spreadsheet
program), Access (a database management
system), PowerPoint (a presentation
software) and many more. Other applications
like Visual FoxPro, Netscape Navigator,
Adobe PageMaker etc. are some others that
Cem be used on Windows.
4. Windows allows us to run multiple
applications at the same time. It also allows
u$ to easily switch between them and transfer
d,3ta between them. For example, we can
write a report using MS Word, move to MS
Excel, draw a graph in Excel, return to Word
and paste the graph in the report, stop our
work to playa game of cards with Solitaire,
return to MS Word and continue our report.
5. The easy-to-use Help facility of
Windows is always available to guide us.
using H~lp, we can find information on a topic
based on category, index and search using
keywords or phrases. Windows Help also
includes an online version of the manual
"Getting Started". Windows has an excellent
Internet interface. With Windows, we can
easily access and browse through web
pages from anywhere on the computer.
Internet Explorer and Outlook Express,
which earlier had to be purchased and
installed separately, are now a part of
Windows.
Mouse
Windows uses GUI. That is, all
information are displayed on the screen. One
can use it by simply pointing to it and
selecting. To do this we use the mouse. The
mouse is an input device that we move on a
flat surface (usually a mouse pad). When we
move the mouse, a pointer moves on the
screen. This pOinter, called as the Mouse
pointer, is used to point to objects on the
screen. The mouse has either two or three
buttons on the top. The left button is most
often used. Described below are four mouse
actions that we need to know to use Windows
effectively.
 I. Move: Moving the mouse is simply
dragging the mouse on the mouse pad so
that the mouse pointer moves in the direction
we want, without touching the buttons. This
action allows us to point to the things on the
screen.
II. Click: Clicking is used to select
objects on the Windows screen. To click,
ensure that the mouse is pointing to what we
want and press the left button of the mouse
once and release the button immediately.
III. Double Click: Double - click is used
to start applications. To double - click, point to
what we want and press the left button of the
mouse twice in quick succession.
IV. Click and drag: This mouse action is
used to move an object from one place to
another, when we click and drag an object,
the object moves along with the mouse
pointer. To click and drag, hold the left button
of the mouse down and move the mouse.
Desktop
In Windows, the basic working platform is
the Desktop. Let us understand the desktop
with an example. When we study, we use a
table. Usually, we keep all the books and note
books that we may need, on the table in front
of us. We may also keep our pencil box,
colors, a dictionary and a few other things on
the table. When we want a particular thing,
we simply reach out to that and pick it up.
Window's desktop is very similar to the
tabletop. All the programs in the computer
can be made available on the desktop. Here,
instead of our hand, we use the mouse
pointer to point to the things and select them.
The desktop has several Icons. Icons are
small pictures/images representing
applications. Each icon has a label indicating
the name of the application it represents. My
computer, Recycle Bin and Internet Explorer
are some of the standard icons that we can
see on the Windows desktop. Each of these
icons represents an application that is
frequently used. For example, My computer
allows we to see the contents of our
computer. Apart from the standard icons
provided by Windows, we can also create
---------------------ImDDI~-------------------
IAMWARM ~Pwt, g'Ulinimj go. fJidd VeWtituvtiam 2009
icons for the applications that we use
frequently and place them on the desktop.
The desktop also contains the Taskbar.
The taskbar is usually a narrow strip present
at the bottom of the screen. On the left, it has
Start button. When we click on the start
button, we can start any application that we
want. Next to the Start button is the Quick
Launch Toolbar. One advantage of using
Windows is the easy access it provides to the
Internet. The quick launch toolbar contains
icons that allow us to select some commonly
used Internet-related applications. On the
:(
extreme right is the Systems Tray that
contains the Clock and icons for the utilities
like Volume and the task scheduler. The
empty space between the Quick Launch
Toolbar and the Systems Tray is used to
display buttons for the applications currently
being used.
Start menu
The start menu acts as a launch pad for
most of the things we want to do with
Windows. Using this menu, we can start
applications, change the settings of our
computer, find files, get help and do much
more. The Start menu appears when we click
on the start button on the taskbar. We can
select an option from this menu by using the
mouse. As we move the mouse painter over
the options, they get highlighted. Simply click
the mouse when the option you want is
highlight~~d. Some options on the menu have
a small arrow on the right. This arrow
indicates the presence of one or more levels
of submenu. To select an option on the
submenu, slide the mouse pointer sideways.
One option on the submenu will get
highlighted. Now, move the mouse pointer up
and down till the option that you want is
highlighted and click. Note that some of the
options in the submenu also have an arrow.
Selecting these options will display another
submenu.
Starting an application
Windows allows us to start an application
either by using icons on the desktop or by
using the Start menu. The easiest way to start
an application is to use its icon on the
desktop. When we want to start an
application, look for its icon on the desktop. If
you find the icon, double-click on it to start the
application. Though Windows gives us a few
icons on the desktop and allows us to create
our own icons for other frequently used
applications, it is not advisable to have icons
for all applications on the desktop. To start
applications, for which icons are not available
on the desktop, we can use the Start menu.
Click on the Start button on the taskbar and
select the option that we want from anyone of
the menus or submenus that appear.
WINDOW
When we are using a table to study, we
keep all the books that we may need on the
table. Each book occupies some space on
the table. Smaller books occupy less space
and bigger books take up more space. The
------------------IDmI~----------------
Jlilllll'llJ ({)ei£"Otal'1J @lJ.llege, 007
books may even overlap each other partially
or completely. We can use these books by
moving them around, closing some, opening
others and so on. By doing this, we can'
ensure that the book we want is easily
available to us. Windows allows us to work
with applications in the same way. When we
start an application, it occupies a rectangular
area on the desktop. This rectangular area on
the desktop that is used by an application is
called a Window. We can have several
windows on our desktop at the same time.
These windows may be big (as big as the
des~top) or small (as small as a button on the
taskbar), overlapping others or one beside
the other.
Parts of a window
For us to work efficiently with windows, it
is important to learn to manage them well.
Windows allows us to move them around,
change their size, and hide them from our
view and so on. Let us use the application
WordPad, a simple word processor to
understand how to manage windows well.
WordPad is one of the applications that come
as part of Windows. It is a word processor by
which we can enter and store text. To start
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WordPad, click on Start, Programs,
Accessories and WordPad. Windows is
designed in such a way that all windows are
similar. The methods used for sizing, moving
and closing these windows are also the
same. At the top of each window is the Title
Bar. As the name indicates, the title bar tells
us the name of the application. It also
@1wlIlai-6()()
 ~ COMPUTER TRAINING . Microsoft Word
contains three of the following four sizing
buttons.
Minimize button
The minimize button is used to reduce
the size of the window to a button on the
taskbar. Remember that minimizing a
window does not close a window. It simply
hides it from us. The contents of the window
remain in memory and we can get them back
(restore) whenever we want. To restore a
minimized window, click on its button on the
taskbar.
Maximize Button
Clicking on this button enlarges the
window to fill the entire desktop.
Restore Button
This button is used to restore the window
to its original size (that is, to the size before
we maximized it).
• B 1
Moving a window
Often, while working with multiple
windows, we need to move a window to a
different area of the desktop to see one of the
underlying windows. We can do so by clicking
and dragging the title bar of the window.
Changing the size of a window
Every window has a border that can be
used to change its size. Point to the window
border with the mouse. The mouse pointer
changes into a double-headed arrow. Click
and drag this arrow to increase or decrease
the size of the window.
Customizing windows
One of the most attractive features of
Windows is that it allows us to customize the
desktop. We can change the appearance of
the desktop by changing the background,
adding icons, moving icons, moving and
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Close Button
This button is used to close a window.
Remember that closing a window will remove
its contents from memory and screen.
Below the title bar is the Menu Bar. This
displays different menus available to us.
When we click on a menu option, say Edit, all
the sub-options appear as a drop-down
menu. We can select any of them by pointing
to it with the mouse pointer and clicking.
One or more toolbars appear below the
menu bar. Toolbars consist of icons
representing shortcuts for the most
frequently used commands. For example, to
save a file, we can click on the File menu and
select Save from the drop-down list. An
easier method would be to click on the Save
icon on the toolbar.
~~ H
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resizing the taskbar and so on. We can also
add screen savers that prevent damage to
our monitor during periods of inactivity.
Customizing the taskbar
The taskbar is usually at the bottom of the
desktop. But we can move it easily to any of
the four sides of the desktop. Point the mouse
pointer to any empty area on the taskbar.
Click and drag the taskbar to wherever you
want it to be. We can also change the size of
the taskbar. Point to the edge of the taskbar.
The mouse pointer will change into a double-
headed arrow. Click and drag the mouse to
increase or decrease the size of the taskbar.
Changing the wallpaper
Wallpaper is the background display that
appears on our desktop. We can choose from
several wallpapers that are available as part
of Windows. We can also use a picture that
V~
we have drawn, scanned or copied from
somewhere. Browse through the list of
wallpapers and click on the one you want. A
preview in the top half of the window shows
US how the wallpaper will look. Click on apply
and then on OK.
Shutting down windows
It is very important to shut down Windows
properly before switching off the computer. To
do so, click on the Start button and select
Shut Down from the Start menu. The Shut
Down dialog box appears on the screen. This
dialog box has four options. We can select an
option by clicking on the small white circle to
the left of the option. Click on the first option.
Stand by, when we want the computer to idle
for a short time without switching it off. In the
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considerably less electric power. But,
remember, while the computer is in this state,
the contents of the computer's memory are
not saved on the disk and we will loose them if
the power fails or is switched off. The second
option, Shut Down, is used when we have
finished working and want to switch off
computer. In this case, Windows saves any
setting that we have changed and the
contents of the memory. The third option,
Restart, shuts down the computer as in the
Shut down option but automatically restarts it
after a few seconds. The last option, Restart
in MS-DOS mode, shuts down the computer
but restarts it in the DOS mode instead of the
Windows mode.
INTERNET
Internet is the world's largest computer
network, the network of networks scattered
allover the world. Internet enables
computers of all kinds to share services and
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resources and communicate directly with
each other as if they are a part of one giant
global computing machine. Internet itself
does not contain any information, information
is found on anyone of the computers through
Internet. From a handful of computers and
users in 1960s, the Internet today has grown
to thousands of regional networks that can
connect millions of users. Any single
individual, company, or country does not own
this global network. A network of networks, or
"Internet", is a group of two or more networks
that are:
• Interconnected
• Capable of communicating and
sharing data with each other
• )1,6(e {o act togetner as aSlngfe
network
Machines on one network can
communicate with machines on other
networks, and send data, files, and
information back and forth. The networks and
machines that are part of the Internet speak
the same "language" when they
communicate or should use an "interpreter".
This "language" is a software that enables
different machines on separate networks to
communicate and exchange information.
To be used and to be understood by
different machines, the software must follow
a set of rules, or protocol. The Internet is the
network of networks, which either uses the
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol
Internet Protocol) protocol or interacts with
TCP/IP networks via gateways (the
interpreters). The Internet presents these
networks as one seamless network for its
users.
INTERNET MANAGEMENT
The Internet is merely based on an
agreement between different networks. As
such there is no central authority that governs
the Internet. However the ISOC (Internet
Society) and NSFnet playa significant role in
managing the Internet. The ISOC evolves
standards related to technical and
operational issues through discussion,
collaboration and consensus. The ISOC has
several subgroups and each subgroup d~als
with certain aspects:
• Internet Architecture Board -
oversees the production of standclrds
through a number of task forces such
as Internet Engineering Task Force,
Internet Research Task Force, etc·
• INTERNIC - provides information
about Internet as a whole.
WHAT'S SPECIAL ABOUT
INTERNET?
Internet is the cheapest and-fastest
meansto
• Get information
• Provide information
• Compile information
Getting information on the internet
The amount of information available
through the Internet is overwhelming. To
make all of them easily available to users,
programs such as the gopher were
developed to help to present material in some
logical fashion. The most recent and v~ry
successful attempt at presenting information
over the Internet is the World Wide Web
(WWW). You could get information aDout
people, products, organizations, research
data, electronic versions of the pri(lted
media, etc. from the Internet.
Providing information on the internet
It is the best and most inexpensive way to
, let people know who you are, what you are
doing/have done, and how. For an
organization or institution, setting up a home
page is a good way to let the world know what
its products and services are. In addition. ~he
other critical functions that relate to provision
of information are:
• Publishing articles, reports,
abstracts, computer programs,
etc.
• Reducing the delays associated with
the printed media.
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• Teaching through distance learning
and assistance to students.
Compiling information from the internet
This is obviously a special case of
"getting" information. The distinction is that it
is possible to get specialized information.
For instance, if you want to conduct a survey
to detect the response of a selected
community, the web provides you with the
ideal platform and opportunity. Using forms,
e-mail, etc., you can conduct surveys; get
opinion of people across the word.
INTERNET ACCESS
You can connect to the Internet in one of
the two basic ways, dialing into an Internet
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direct connection to an ISP. The difference
lies mainly in speed and cost. If you connect
to your ISP using a telephone line and
modem, it is called the as Dial-up connection,
while the other one is called as dedicated line
or lease line.
Dial-up connection
With a dial-~p account, you use your
modem to convert computer bits and bytes
into modulated (tonal) signals that the phone
lines can transmit. These signals are
received by a modem at your ISP and
demodulated into bits and bytes for their
computer. "Modem" is a short form for
"MOdulator- DEModulator". You usually
connect to a 10caiiSP and can surf or browse
the Internet. Dial-up access is either by way
of SLIP (Serial Une Internet Protocol) or PPP
(Point to Point Protocol).
To establish a dial-up connection to the
Internet, you will need the following:
• An account with an ISP (like VSNL,
The ERNET, NIC, Satyam Online,
Dishnet DSL, Mantra Online, BPL
Net, etc.) - Account can be either
TCP/IP or Shell;
• A telephone connection;
• A computer with serial port (for
External modems) or an expansion
slot (for Internal modems);
 • Amodem (External or Internal); For beginners, the best way to get
inducted into the cyber world is to start
• A communication (or terminal browsing. Web browsers are mainly.used to
emulation) software; SLiP/PPP access pages of the World Wide Web
(TCP/IP) account holders will require (WWW). By clicking on the hypertext links on
a browser software (Internet a page it is possible to jump from one Internet
Explorer, Netscape Navigator, etc.) site to another, regardless of its location.
and e-mail software (Microsoft Hypertext links are usually underlined or
Internet Mail, Netscape Messenger, highlighted or use different colored text,
Eudora, etc.). For Shell account images or icons. You can check for hyperte~t
holders the browser software (Lynx) links by moving the mouse over the area; If
and the E-mail software (Pine) are the mouse pointer changes its shape to that
usually available with the Internet of a hand, then it is a hypertext link. This
Access. jumping from one site to another using the
Direct connection hypertext links is called 'net surfing' or 'web
browsing'. But, the today's web browsers can
You can also get a direct connection to do much more than browsing. You can
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download files, play games, send and
ISP. Often the dedicated line is an ISDN receive mails and even chat with others. In
(Integrated Services Digital Ne~work) line, other words, the modern day web browsers
which is a higher-speed version of the are very versatile and they allow you to do
standard phone line, but actually requires two almost all the activities that are possible on
phone lines. If you have a dedicated line, you the Internet. Given below is a list of activities
do not use a modem to connect your that you could do with a web browser:
computer to the Internet, but instead a router.
If you have a network in the office and several • Visit web sites
people need to access the Internet • Send and receive electronic mail
simultaneously. Then, when a user does
something on the Internet, the router • Read and post articles in newsgroups
automatically handles the connection; even
• Download files to you PC
multiple tasks at the same time and you need
not have a modem or telephone line for each • Chat with other users on-line
computer and user.
• Play game with others on-line
INTERNET BASICS • Access on-line multimedia including
Once you know the information you want radio and video broadcasts
to find, how to find, where to find it and how to • Search the Internet for information
access it, the Internet becomes an extremely
powerful resource, irrespective of whe~her • Subscribe to electronic newsletters,
you are using it for work, educat~on, e-zines
entertainment or just for the fun of explonng.
• Join contests
Once you know how to send and receive
electronic mail, subscribe to mailing lists, join • Do on-line shopping
and participate in discussion groups and o Post your resume on the Internet
Internet chats, your power to communicate
with people increases dramatically. The o Create your own web site
beauty of Internet is that all these power and • Create an e-mail 10 and account for
resources are available at a very minimal you
cost. So Internet literacy is a must for every
individual who wants to succeed in this o Find a person's details
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 The above list is not a complete one.
There is a lot many you can do on the
Internet.
INTERNET ADDRESSING
In general, Internet addressing is a
systematic way to identify people, computers
and Internet resources. On the Internet, the
term "address" is used loosely. Address can
mean many different things from an
electronic mail address to a URL.
IP address
If you want to connect to another
computer, transfer files to or from another
computer, or send an e-mail message, you
first need to know the computer's
"address".
An IP (Internet Protocol) address is an
identifier for a particular machine on a
particular network. IP addresses are also
referred to as Internet addresses. An IP
address consists of four sections separated
by periods. Each section contains a number
ranging from 0 to 255. Example: 202.54.1.6.
These four sections represent both the
machine itself, or host, and the network that
the host is on. The network portion of the IP
address is allocated to ISPs by the InterNIC,
under authority of the Internet Assigned
Numbers Authority (lANA). ISPs then assign
the host portion of the IP address to the
machines on the networks that they
operate.
The IP addresses have the following
characteristics in common:
• IP addresses are unique and no two
machines can have the same
address;
• IP addresses are global and
standardized; and
• All machines connected to the
Internet agree to use the same
scheme for establishing an address.
Domain name
A domain name is a way to identify and
locate computers connected to the Internet.
No two organizations can have the same
domain name. A domain name always
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contains two or more components separatel
by periods, called "dots". Some examples 01
domain names are: microsoft.com, tn.gov.in
icar.or.in, annauniv.edu, reading.ac.uk'
nasa.gov, utexas.edu, etc. The last portion of
the domain name is the top-level domain
name and describes the type of organization
holding that name. The major categories for
top-level domain names are:
• com - commercial organisations
• edu - educational institutions
• net - organizations directly involved
in Internet operations
• org -organizations/non-profit groups/
professional ties
• gov -Govern nt entities
• Country (" es - A two-letter
abbreviatic or a particular country;
For exam , "in" for India, "uk" for
United K jom or "fr" for France,
etc.
Each domain name corresponds to a
numeric IP address. The Internet uses the
numeric IP address to send data. For
instance, you may be connecting to a World
Wide Web server with the domain name
.. www.microsoft.com... but as far as the
network is concerned, you are connecting to
the Web server with the IP address
associated with that domain name. The
Domain Name System (DNS) completes the
task of matching domain names to IP
addresses. Domain names, and their
corresponding IP addresses, will be unique.
The domain name system is a collection of
databases that contain information about
domain names and their corresponding IP
addresses. Domain system allows Internet
users to deal with the domain names, rather
than having to remember a series of
, numbers.
Uniform resource locator (URL)
A URL irl<>ntifies a particular Internet
resource; for example a Web page, a Gopher
server, a library catalog, an image, or a teyt
file. URLs represent a standardized
addressing scheme for Internet resources
and help the users to locate these resource~
by indicating exactly where they are. Every
resource available via the World Wide Web
has a unique URL. URLs consist of letters
numbers, and punctuation. The basi~
structure of a URL is hierarchical, an~
hierarchy moves from left to right:
Protocol:
I Iserver-name. domain-n ame. top-leveL
domain:portldirectory/filename
Example:
http://www.lnl.netJalexis/index.html. A URL is
read like a sentence. For e.g., the URL
,I;\Vp.;!/J~'W~~!m~ro.%\(t.c~w;>, ,i5' ,reao as ':I;\t.\~
colon slash slash www dot Microsoft dot
com'.
World wide web (www)
The WWW is the brainchild ofTim Berner
Lee a CERN (European Laboratory fOr
Particle Physics) engineer, who had the idei:!
of creating an electronic web for researctl
information. During 1980s, he developed i:!
programming language called Hypertext
Markup Language (HTML) on which the wet)
is based. Early web pages contained onl:y
text, but due to rapid advancements ill
technology, the web pages now contaill
pictures and other multimedia elements ill
addition to text.
For majority of the users, the WWW is
now the most exciting aspect of the Internet·
It has accelerated the growth of the Internet
by giving it an easy to use, point and click
graphical interface. Users are attracted t<;
the WWW because it is interactive, easy t<)
use, and combines graphics, text, sound, an<j
animation into a rich communicatiol1
medium. Its users use the WWW as a mark~t
place, art gallery, library, community cente~
school, publishing house, etc. The Worl<j
Wide Web, also referred to as the WWW or
W3 or simply "the Web," is the universe Of
information available via hypertext transfer
protocol (HTTP).
The World Wide Web is non-linear. Therb
is no top; there is no bottom. Non-linea;
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means you do not have to follow a
hierarchical path to information resources.
Thus
• You can jump from one link (resource)
to another
• '{ou can go directly to a resource if
you know the URL
• You can even jump to specific parts of
a document
SEARCHING THE WEB
Starting with a particular Web page, the
approach is to follow the links from page to
page, make guesses along the way, hoping to
arrive at the desired piece of information. A
number of new tools have been developed
that enable information published on the Web
to be searched and discovered more
effectively. Two tools are now available for
finding information on the Web: web indexes
and search engines.
Web index
A web index is designed to assist users in
locating information on the World Wide Web.
Web indices are also referred to as catalogs
or directories. A web index collects and
organizes resources available via the World
Wide Web. There is a number of web indices
available. Web indices use hypertext links to
present their lists of resources, which
facilitates browsing. Because web indices
list so many resources, they provide a search
facility to help users locate resources within
the index.
Some of the popular web indices are
• Yahoo! (http://www.yahoo.com)
• Magellan (http://mckinley.com)
• Apollo (http://www.appolo.co.uk)
• BizWeb (http://www.bizweb.com)
Search engines
A web search engine is an interactive tool
to help people locate information available
via the World Wide Web. - Web search
engines are actually databases that contain
references to thousands of resources. Users
interact with the database, submitting
questions that "ask" the database if it
contains resources that match a specific
criterion.
There are many search engines
available on the web. A web search engine
provides an interface between the user and
the underlying database. The web search
engine runs the search string against the
database, returns a list of resources the
match the criteria, and displays the resultsfor
the user. Many engines include instructions
and tips to search the database more
effectively. Because web search engines
can use hypertext, users are able to link
directly to resources listed in the display.
Some of the most popular search
engines are:
.. AltaVista
(http://www.altavista.digital.com)
• Google (http://www.google.com)
• Excite (hUp://www.excite.com)
• Alltheweb
(http://www.alltheweb.com)
.. Dogpile (http://www.dogpile.com)
• Britannica
(http://www.britannica.com)
• Excite (http://www.excite.com)
.. Web Crawler
(http://www.webcrawler.com )
• Lycos (http://www.lycos.com)
• Opentext (hUp://www.opentext.com)
.. infoseek (http://www.infoseek.com)
• Yahool (http://www.yahoo.com)
Tips and techniques for web
searching
Knowing the search functions and having
a number of search engines usually
guarantee the best results, provided we know
how to use them to make the most of their
power. Suppose that you want to learn more
about "pitch" in the study of music. Give a
search engine only the word, and it will
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deliver resources concerned with music, but
also with cricket pitches, sales pitches, etc.
Fortunately, most search engines provide
options to clarify your request. The most
common technique uses terms called
"Boolean operators", after its inventor, the
19th - century mathematician George Boole.
Boolean searching is a lot easier. Basically it
uses common connecting words like and, or,
and not to define the relationships between
parts of your queries. Some sites save you
. keystrokes by using symbols (such as "+" or
"_") instead of connecting words, but the
concept is the same.
For concentrating on musical pitch, you
might tell the search engine to seek "music
AND pitch" or "music* AND (pitch OR tone)."
The capitalized words tell how you want your
search restricted; the asterisk serves as a
wild card. Thus the second search asks,
"Bring me resources having to do with music,
musicians, or anything musical, and they
should also refer to 'pitch' or 'tone". You can
save time and frustration with these
advanced options, but unfortunately no two-
search tools use them in the same way.
General search tips
Which is the best search tool? It depends
on why you need the information. If you are
just browsing, start with Yahoo!, or one of the
other subject catalogs. If you are looking for
the best of web, use Magellan. If you are
doing "serious" research, start with AltaVista,
but be prepared to use the other good search
engines too, and follow these general rules of
thumb:
• Enter as many precise search terms
or phrases as possible in order to limit
the search.
• Enter singular terms. Most search
engines will return rivers for river. To
generalize a subject, use wildcards
where allowed (surg* for surgery,
surgeries, surgical).
• Do not use common, generic search
terms. 1 he It:rm "book" would be far
too generic unless it is a part of a
phrase like "book binding."
 • Enter multiple spellings where
appropriate: Khaddafi Quadafy
Kadafi Qadaffi ...
• Use Booleans (AND, OR, NOT, etc.)
operators to increase the relevancy
of your hits.
• Finally, be persistent and creative.
The search tools are wonderful but
far from complete. Be prepared to
supply the initiative to make the most
of their features.
Electronic mail
The essence of networking is to
communicate. Electronic Mail (E-mail) has
been the most used function of the Internet.
It's faster, easy to use and cheaper. Simply
put, e-ma'l) 'IS an e)ectron'lc message sent
from one computer to another through a
computer network.
You can send or receive messages with
file attachments. Each computer reads the e-
mail address and routes it to another
computer until it eventually reaches its
destination. It is then stored in an electronic
mailbox. With the Internet, this whole
process usually takes just a few minutes,
allowing you to communicate quickly and
easily anytime of the day. Yo u can
send e-mail to anyone with an e-mail
address, anywhere in the world. Until
recently, e-mail on the Internet was good only
for short notes. With the advent of MIME,
which stands for Multipurpose Internet Mail
Extension, and other types of encoding
schemes, like Uuencode, not only you can
send messages electronically, but you can
also send formatted documents, photos,
sound files, and video files as attachments.
Currently, there are about 100 million e-mail
users, but by the year 2005, the number may
go beyond 200 million.
Howe-mail works?
The first thing you have to do is to
type in your message, key-in the recipient's
e-mail address and press the send button of
your e-mail program. Once you have
addressed and sent the e-mail, it gets
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encoded by a modem and is sent down the
phone line as an analog signal. The e-mail
message arrives at your service provider's
servers. If it recognizes the e-mail address
as valid, the mail will be sent via the Internet.
It will be received by the recipient's provider
and is sent to the provider's mail server where
it will be delivered to the recipient's mailbox
and it will remain there until the recipient
connects to the Internet. Finally, the
recipient's modem and computer decode the
data, and he can read your e-mail message.
E-mail names and addresses
E-mail allows information to be sent
between computers and people on the
Internet. The basic structure of an e-mail
address is:
Username@host.subdomain.second-
level-domai n.first-level-domain
E.g.,
1. ahsca@vsnl.net
2. thiruarasu@tanuvas.ac.in
The e-mail address .. ahsca@vsnl.net.. is
read as ahsca at vsnl dot net, where "ahsca"
is the name of the person sending or
receiving the message (this is referred to as
the username), "vsnl" is a part of the domain
name of the organization and "net" is also a
part of the domain name and indicates that
"vsnl" is an organization directly involved in
Internet operations.
Many names are case sensitive; so take
time to type the name exactly. You can get
your own domain, either under one of the
commonly used organizational domains
such as 'yahoo.com' or under a geographic
identity (country specific) such as
'vsnl.net.in'.
How to open an account?
6 Invoke the home page of e-mail
service provider
6 Click on New User
6 Sign up - give your login 10 and
choose a password
6 Submit
 If your login id and password are .. a new mail to be sent. In the case of the
accepted, the sign up process will be
completed. Having opened an account with
an E-mail service provider, you are now all . mail address and subject automatically
set to send and receive e-mails and also
make use of the related facilities.
/ How to work with your e-mail account?
Go to the concerned Web site. Log in
using your login id and password. The screen
will display the mails in the inbox. Unopened
new mails will be shown highlighted. Open
the mail you would like to view by clicking on
that.
Components of an e-mail message
The line beginning with the 'From'
header contains the name and the E-mail
address of the sender. You can save the
address to your address book. 'To' lists the
e-mail addressofthereceiver(s).The.CC.
header lists the additional recipients of the
message. The 'Subject' header carries a
brief subject of the message supplied by the
sender of the message. 'Date' contains the
day, date and time the message was sent.
The message section of the screen contains
the text of the message. The received mail
can be forwarded to others by clicking on the
forward option. Options are there to delete a
message, to go to the previous or next
message, or close the message.
Sending an e-mail
There are two possible situations under
which you may be sending a mail. Either you
are replying to a received mail or composing
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former, click on the reply option and this takes
you to the message compose screen, with e-
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Subject: ,
loaded. In case you are composing a new
message, click on the compose option which
will take you to the compose screen. Type the
E-mail address to which the message is to be
sent. If the message has to be sent to more
than one recipient, type all the E-mail
addresses separated by a comma. Copies of
the message can be sent to other recipients
by using the CC and BCC facilities (The use
of BCC option will result in the recipients not
knowing the other recipients of the
message).
Type the message to be sent in the
message box. Once the message has been
composed, click on the send option and this
will deliver the message to the addressee
almost instantaneously. The sent message
can be saved by clicking the Save Outgoing
Message option, which will be stored in the
sent message folder. There is a facility to 'Add
Signature' also. Another important facility
offered is to attach files to your E-mail. You
can attach any file to your e-mail. To do this,
click on the 'Attachments' option, which will
take you to the appropriate screen. This
screen provides options to attach one or
more files to your E-mail.
When the address in an E-mail message
is incorrect, the message will bounce back to
the sender and the bounced message will
generally carry the reason for the bounce.
 Library Science

INTERNET RESOURCES fOR fiELD VETERINARIANS

Dr. G. Rathinasabapathy and Dr. C. Balachandran
Department of Library Science
Madras Veterinary College, Chennai-600 007
--------------------------------------------------------------------
INTRODUCTION
The Internet which is also known as
'Information Superhighway', 'Global
Information Infrastructure', 'Cyberspace',
'Hyperspace', is a huge, amazing, world-wide
system of voluntarily interconnected
networks with literally millions of documents,
resources, databases and a variety of
methods for communication. It connects
billions of computers in a web and makes
almost immediate communication possible,
irrespective of the location of its users. The
Internet provides huge resources that are
useful for veterinary and animal science
professionals and the amount of accessible
veterinary medicine information is increasing
rapidly and it provides a formidable
opportunity for field veterinarians to
exchange and process veterinary medicine
information with colleagues around the world
from their desktop. Though the Internet offers
virtually unlimited amount of information
related to veterinary medicine and provides
a number of tools to access, it is useful in at
least three aspects related to veterinary
medicine viz., communication, education and
research.
GLOBAL COMMUNICATION TOOL
As a communication tool the Internet
helps field veterinary practitioners in remote
locations to consult with specialists which will
help them to improve their skills. It can also
be used for various forms of digital meetings.
The following are some of the
services/facilities offered by the Internet for
effective communication of veterinary
medical knowledge.
Electronic mail (e-mail): Field
veterinary practitioners in remote locations
may use e-mail to consult with subject matter
specialists through which the general
practitioner can improve their skills.
Documents such as case histories could be
attached to the messages. This type of
communication known as 'telemedicine' in
the medical practice, which implies the
transmission of medical information at.a
distance, could be applied in veterinary
practice as well. There are hundreds of free
web-based e-mail service providers on the
Information Superhighway like Yahoo
( http://mail.yahoo .com). Rediffmail
( http://www.rediffmail.com ), G m ai I,
(http://www.gmail.com). etc., through which
Vets can create their own e-mail address to
join the Information superhighway.
Mailing lists
A mailing list is simply an electronic mail
address that redistributes its mail to other
addresses. It is a way to reach a few, a few
dozen, or a few thousand people who are
interested in a specific field/topic. People
who are interested in a particular
discipline/topic can 'subscribe' to a list(s)
deal(s) with that. Thus, mailing lists facilitate
communication among a group of people
with similar interest. Those who want to know
the mailing lists related to particular
subject/topic, can log on to www.lsofLcom
which provides a searchable database of
mailing lists available on the Internet.
Newsgroup A newsgroup is an online
discussion group, kind of like a bulletin board,
where we can post a comment, and someone
else posts a comment about 'our' comment,
and so on. The newsgroups give us contact
with millions of people around the world who
have common interest and passions. The

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Newsgroups related to Veterinary Clinical
Medicine can be searched using the search
engines.
THE INTERNET AN EDUCATIONAL TOOL
The Internet has, and is, changing higher
education. It started quietly enough with the
origins of the Internet in supporting research
and defense, but now has become much
more influential throughout academe.
It is exciting, stimulating and offers untold
opportunities for faculties and students.
Virtually all segments of the university
community are using the Internet, including
faculty, administrators, and students as it
offers educational material integrating text,
photos, sounds and video clips. Faculty roles
in higher education traditionally encompass
teaching, research, scholarship and service.
In all of these areas, the Internet has a
presence. Therefore, faculty members are
using the Internet to support a variety of
courses and teaching functions. Few faculty
members are offering even the entire course
via the Internet. (e. courses)
Further, a large number of newsgroups
provide a forum for discussion of issues
related to veterinary education where
veterinary medicine students and faculty
members have the opportunity to exchange
messages with their peers all over the world,
contribute useful discussion, and to publish
electronically by writing occasional articles or
newsletters. The newsgroups can be
identified by searching over any general
purpose search engines like Yahoo or
Google. Veterinary clinical medicine oriented
resources are appearing on the Internet at a
rate that may exceed few other categories.
The subjects and data available cover the full
range of veterinary medicine are available
abundantly through many Internet tools and
resources viz., Gateway sites, Virtual
Libraries, Online Encyclopedia, Online
Videos, Online Dictionaries, etc. Few
resources along with the 'Uniform Resource
Locator (URL)' are listed below for
information.
----------------~·IDEI~-----------------
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Gateway sites
Veterinary Information Network: VIN is
the first and largest online service for
veterinary professionals which provides most
comprehensive online resource for field
veterinarians. Databases, consultation with
boarded consultants, and a large selection of
accredited online continuing education
courses are the highlights of VIN. Some of
the services offered by VIN are fee based.
URL: www.vin.com
NetVet veterinary resources: It is
deSigned and maintained by Dr. Ken
Boschart, a Veterinarian and is alomost a
one-stop site for veterinary science
information on the Internet. URL:
http://netvet.wustl.edu
Largest collections of small animal
medicine and surgery related information can
be accessed using the Gateway sites like
Vetgate (http://vetgate.ac.uk). VetWeb
(http://www.vetweb.com/). Few selected
Gateway sites are furnished below.
The electronic zoo Species-wise
collection of Web Resources available on the
Internet were compiled and made available
on this site which is a part of Net Vet gateway
site. URL: http://netvet.wustJ.edu/e-
zoo.htm
Centre for veterinary medicine: The
web site of the CVM provides enormous
collection of information related to Adverse
Drug Reactions, Animal Feeds, Antimicrobial
Resistance, Biotechnology, BSE, Current
Good Manufacturing Practices (cGMP).
URL: www.fda.gov/cvm/default.html
Virtual libraries
It is the oldest catalog of the web, started
by Tim Berners-Lee, the creator of html and
the web itself. Unlike commercial catalogs, it
is run by a loose confederation of volunteers,
who compile pages of key links for particular
areas in which they are experts.
Even though it is not the biggest index of
the web, the Virtual Library pages are widely
recognised as being amongst the highest-
quality guides to particular sections of the
web. "The major virtual library useful for
veterinary professionals include Veterinary
Medicine Virtual Library {b1tp://netvet.wustl.
ecl_l,lj'l!_~Jm~(:Lhtrn}, Livestock Virtual Library
(W_ww. ansi .okstate. edu/li brary/), Pou Itry
science virtual library (http://posc.tamu.edu/
lit:>E'!!YLdother.bJml).
Online full-text documents
The Internet provides enormous
collection of web resources packed with
online encyclopedia, manuals, videos,
dictionaries and so on which are highly useful
for the students, faculties and researchers in
the field of Veterinary and Animal Sciences. A
few of them are highlighted subsequently.
Emergency medical manual
The Manual provides detailed
information related to cardiac arrest,
chemical burns, choking, electrocution/
electrical shock, external bleeding, fractures,
frostbite, heatstroke, hypothermia, ingested
toxins, internal bleeding, moving an injured
cat/dog, snakebite, shock and thermal (heat)
burns. The manual can be accessed at
tilltr//driarrypetvet.com/health manual.html
Farm Animal Encyclopedia: It is an
excellent encyclopedia with texts, images and
video clips related to farm animals. Availableat
www.depts.ttu.edu/liru afs/EFAB/default.asp
An Encyclopedia of Canine Veterinary
Medical Information is available at
http://www.vetinfo.com/dencyclopedia/deind
~Jltml
Veterinary abbreviations &acronyms
This site focuses on abbreviations and
acronyms commonly used in veterinary
practice and supplements the standard and
widely available reference sources such as
Gale's Acronyms, Initialisms & Abbreviations
Dictionary. It is intended for use by veterinary
students, researchers, practitioners, and
librarians. The site can be logged on at
www.library.uiuc.edu/vex/vetdocs/abbrevi
ation.htm
Another Veterinary Glossary which can
be very much useful for the Vets is available
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lossary.asp
Veterinary videos The site facilitates
access to 59 videos from this site on various
aspects of veterinary practice viz., Physical
~xamination, Blood Sample Collection,
Chest Tube Placement, Intramuscular
Ihjections, Subcutaneous Injections, Milking
and Mastitis Testing, etc. Access the videos
,'It www.vet.ohio-state.edu/1238.htm
Rreeware
Free software which are also known as
freeware are also available on the
Cyberspace for the use of Vets. The
'Canine/Feline Genetics Software' is an
t'!xampJe. This software can mode} the
genetics of some 30+ congenital defects
Where the mode of inheritance is known,
auch as PRA (both forms), PKD, flat
C:hestedness and many others and compute
the expressed color/pattern that will result
from a given genotype. For further
Cletails, please log on to http://www.
tenset.co.uk/catgenfindexus.html
[)ecision support systems
Field veterinarians may find a number of
very useful decision support systems online.
It is very important to know that most of the
clecision support systems are available free.
ihe following are a select such systems.
CONSULTANT is a 'Diagnostic Support
~ystem for Veterinary Medicine'. It is
~upported by a database consisting of
Clpproximately 500 signs/symptoms, about
',000 diagnoses/causes, and about 18,000
literature references including 3000 web
references. It suggests possible diagnoses
C)r causes for clinical signs and symptoms
clnd provides a brief synopsis of the
(jiagnosis/cause including (1) a general
(jescription, (2) species affected (3) the signs!
~ymptoms associated with it; and (4) a list of
r'ecent literature references. URL:
'Nww.vet.comell.edu/consultanticonsult.asp
In addition to Consultant, there are systems
like CaDDis, etc.
e-books
The Internet provides full-text free
electronic books i.e. e-books. Field
veterinarians can download the full-text of a
number of useful books related to veterinary
medicine from the Internet without paying
anything. Books like 'Canine and Feline
Geriatrics', 'Feline and Canine Infectious
Diseases', 'Cardiorespiratory diseases of the
Dog and Cat', 'Equine Cardiology', 'Clinical
Veterinary Toxicology', etc. The books can be
downloaded from http://www.provet.co.uk/
Animal disease information resources
The Internet provides enormous web
resources related to small animal diseases
whlcil are absolutely essent"lal tor pract"ldng
small animal field veterinarians. For example,
the Provet (.bJlp_jj_INww.R.rovet.co~J
provides daily 'Clinical Updates' for Vets and
'Pet Fact' topics for pet owners plus
searchable database of animal health
information. Disease specific web resources
are also available over the cyberspace. The
resources can be identified through the
scientific search engines viz., www.scirus.cQ!Il
or from Veterinary science gateway sites.
THE INTERNET: A RESEARCH TOOL
Field veterinarians can use the Internet
as a tool for their research work. As a
research tool, the Internet helps for
communication and collaboration. It makes
easy to exchange information, such as data
or to develop research programmes or to
collaborate with the authors of papers.
Immediate access to databases such as
MEDLINE/Genome Database and varioUS
Online I Electronic journals is helpful to
researchers. Few selected resources are
listed below for information.
Multimedia databases
A variety of databases which are useful
for Vets are available across the Internet viz.,
PUBMED, MEDLlNE, etc. In addition to
these databases, few more databases are
also available. The College of Veterinary
Medicine, Washington State University
provides an excellent Image database
------------------IamI~----------------
lAM WARM :Jle{4e;,ft.ert. flwinUUj flo. VeWtiJm'timw 2009
exclusively for Vets. The images in this data
base are for educational, non-commercial
use only. Many of these images are intended
for use by animal health care students and
professionals and show animals with
naturally occurring diseases. URL:
httQ1l.im~~gQ,'y_etmed.wsu.ec!_y
The Canine Inherited Disorders
Database provides useful information for
field veterinarians looking for current
information on both well-known and more
obscure genetic disorders, including
diagnostic and therapeutic information.
The database is available at bJ1Q_:L1
wWWJJP_Qi.ca/-cld9/intro.hJm
Scholarly communications
The Internet provides access to millions
of pages of scholarly communications
through which field veterinarians can enrich
their professional knowledge and skills. The
list includes e-journals, conference
proceedings, theses and dissertations, etc.
Electronic Journals (e-journals),
Conference proceedings and Theses are
publications that are distributed online rather
than in traditional formats like printed
journals. Publishing a printed magazine is an
expensive and laborious process, but e-
journals are inexpensive to create and
distribute. Therefore, most of the publishers
are started publishing e-journals and most
electronic journals are free. Here are some of
the important gateway sites which facilitate
access to free full-text journals, Conference
proceedings and E-Theses.
Directory of open access Journal
This service covers free, full text, quality
controlled scientific and scholarly journals.
We aim to cover all subjects and languages.
There are now 2098 journals in the directory.
Currently 567 journals are searchable at
article level. As of today 90710 articles are
included in the DOAJ service. The DOAJ
provides access to about 40 journals
concerned with animal science. URL:
http://www.doaj.org
[field
 High Wire Press: HighWire Press, a
division of the Stanford University Libraries,
hosts the largest repository of free, full-text,
peer-reviewed content, with 922 journals and
1,216,783 free, full-text articles online. With
their partner publishers they produce 73 of
the 200 most-frequently-cited journals. URL
http://highwire .stanford .edu
Free medical jqurnals The web site
offers full-text access to 1450 scholarly
Journals which includes Basic Sciences (99),
Biochemistry (7), Biology (21), Lab Medicine
(4), Pharmacology (25), Pharmacy (36),
Public Health (77), Toxicology (9), Trop
Medicine (6), and Veterinary Medicine (19).
URL: www.freemedicaljournals.com
Free e-Journals The site provides
access to over 100 Open Access journals
covering all areas of Biology and Medicine
URL:www.biomedcentral.com/browse/jo
urnals
Table of contents of veterinary journals
The site Produced by Jean-Paul Jette,
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Montreal
University, facilitates Vets to browse TOC of
individual titles by alphabetical order of the
Title and Content pages of around 600
Veterinary Journals published worldwide.
URL:www.medvet.umontreal.ca/biblio/ve
tjr.html
Conference proceedings database
The site facilitates Vets to access the Table
of contents, some abstracts, some fUll-text
articles of various national and international
conferences, Seminars & other important
events.URL:www.medvet.umontreal.ca/bib
lio/conf.htm
e-theses
Most of the universities in developed
countries publish the theses in electronic
format to facilitate global access. E-Theses
can be accessed and downloaded through a
number of web sites viz. http://www.ndltd.org
, http://www.ohiolink.edu/etd/,
http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertationsetc.
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Further, the Internet facilitates field
veterinarians to contact the Librarians of
Veterinary Libraries across the globe to cater
to their information requirements by
providing the contact details at
http://homepage.usask.ca/-kfl094/vet librar
ies.html
INTERNET RESOURCES: QUALITY
ISSUES
The information on the Internet is not
necessarily accurate, correct, complete or
reliable. The issue is especially critical for
both human and animal health information.
Therefore, the Vets should be very careful
while consulting the Internet to cater to their
professional information requirements. They
should always consider the following viz.,
Site ownership, Currency, Audience,
Perspective, Content and Authorship of
content. It is always better to make use of
evaluated web resources as the quality of
web sites is a problem in cyberspace. Most of
the professional bodies related to small
animal medicine and surgery have web sites
of their own which are packed with useful
technical information and links to other useful
web resources.
CONCLUSION
There is no doubt that the exponential
growth of the Internet offers field
veterinarians access to a vast amount of
information regarding animal health care, as
well as opportunities for networking,
education, publishing, and entrepreneurial
activity. Veterinary medicine professionals
will benefit from using a focused search
strategy, such as gateway sites or subject
indexed search sites, to find accurate
information that most closely addresses their
concern. Though the Internet provides a
huge collection of animal health care sites to
benefit field veterinarians, we have selected
and reviewed a key set of such sites. It is
needless to say that the Internet is moving
ahead at rapid speed and efforts to facilitate
access to reliable and high-quality
information about animal health care across
the globe. It is high time that field
veterinarians should come forward to make
use of the invaluable resources offered by the
Internet, the global information infrastructure
for updating their professional skills.
REFERENCES
Berners-Lee, T. (1991). Virtual Libraries.
Available at http://vlib.org Accessed on
26.0B.200B.
Boschart, K. (1994). NetVet Veterinary
Resources. Available at http://netvet.wustl.edu
Accessed on 25-08-2008.
Gerrard, B. (2006). The Internet: Friend
or Foe? In Practice 28: 419-421
McNeill, E. (2000). The Practice Web site
-ToolorToy? In Practice 22:156-157.
Rathinasabapathy, G. (2006). Database
Management and Internet Resources in
Veterinary Emergency Medicine. In: S.R.
Srinivasan et al. (Ed.). Training Manual for
National Training Programme on 'Emergency
and Critical Care in Farm and Pet Animal
Practices'. Chennai: CAS in VCM&EJ,
Madras Veterinary College, TANUVAS. pp.
188-199 .

...

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 Animal Husbandry Extension and Entrepreneurship

PERSONAL MANAGEMENT FOR FIELD VETERINARIANS

IN EFFICIENT LIVESTOCK DISEASE MANAGEMENT
Dr. P. Mathialagan
Professor and Head
Department of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry Extension and Entrepreneurship
Madras Veterinary College, Chennai-600 007
.-----------------------------------------------------------------
INTRODUCTION self lies in its experience not of nature but of
others. A man enters the lives of other men
It is difficult to answer concisely and
more directly than he can enter nature,
definitely the question what is personality? It
because he recognizes his own thoughts and
is a sum total of individual behavior in social
feelings in them; he learns to make theirs his
situations. Personality is an individual's
own, and to find in himself a deeper self that
characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and
has the features of all humanity. The
acting. In other words, it is the collection of
knowledge of nature teaches him to act, and
emotional thoughts and behavioural
makes him master of the creation. The
patterns unique to a person that is consistent
knowledge of self does not teach him to act
over time. "Personality is also defined as 'his
but to be; it steeps him in the human
system of reactions and reaction?
predicament and of predicament of line; it
possibilities in toto. It is the sum total and
makes him one with all the creatures.
behavioural trends manifested in his social
(Bronowski, 1971)
adjustments" (Dashiell, 1929).
PERSONALITY TYPES
Personality power is the development
and use of your best traits to influence others An individuals personality is often
.It is expressed through both physical and labelled in terms of type description by some
mental traits and all these traits are not psychologist. Some of the more common
inborn. If one has the burning desire, he can types & personality, are (1) Temperament
become a winning personality. Learn to use type, (2) Physical type, (3) Soma type , (4)
this power and use it on others to impress. Endocrine type (5) SOCiological type (6)
Freedom type (7) Introvert type, and (8)
PERSONALITY OUTLOOK
Extrovert and Ambivert type. But in modern
"People cannot be developed; they classification there are 'A' Type and 'B' type
can only develop themselves. For while it is personality. The following are the
possible for an outsider to build a man's characteristics of these personalities.
home, an outsider cannot give the man pride
and self confidence in himself as human Type A
being. Those things a man has to create in >1< They have a tendency to do many
himself by his own actions. He develops things in too little time.
himself by making his own decisions by
increasing his understanding of what he is >1< They have free floating hostility
doing, and why; by increasing his own
>1< They are irritated by trivial things
knowledge and ability, and by his own full
participation - as an equal in the life of the >1< They exhibit signs of struggle against
community he lives in" (Julius Nyerere) time.
Man is a machine by birth but a self by >1< They work longer hours and aim at
experience. And the special character of the perfection.

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 ~ They drive hard and strive to gain the STRONG ACTION
respect rather than appreciatioh of
Personality development is not such
others.
an adventure, which you can undertake
Type B successfully while resting in your 'Easy chair'
only. You will have to make determined
... Not driven by the clock
efforts to translate your good thoughts. Your
... Not preoccupied by sOCial cherished plans and goals in real
achievement achievement of your life. Many people
possess excellent knowledge of their positive
... Patient
and negative points, but they don't take any
... Able to take time to appreciate leisure worthwhile steps either to overcome their
and beauty weakness or using their strong points. Start
taking vigorous actions. Start today itself.
... Peace with themselves
Otherwise it will be never. Start vigorously
... Live in harmony with the environment and continue your strong action. Brick by
brick you will have to build up your future
... People - oriented leaders
career.
... Clear goals
First improve your physical health. Keep
... Cordial relationship with subordinates, your body in 'ship - shape' condition. If your
poor and superiors. body is weak and mind is strong, there will be
an imbalance between these two. To win the
... Peaceful atmosphere in home also
challenges and face any situations, your
... Believe in the growth potentiality of physical and mental personality should be
self and others. balanced.
... 'B' type is more suited to hold highest ESTABLISH NETWORK OF PEOPLE
positions
Develop friends, well wishers and
Alphabet for Action for personality supporters. Cultivate maximum number of
development contacts. Countless contacts established by
you, cultivated by you will add much to your
A - Affirm N - Negotiate
total personality. Friends are our priceless
B - Believe o - Overlook & possession. They are like diamonds in our
overcome life. They add new colour to your personality.
C - Commit P - Persevere KEEP SILENCE
-n -- Dare Q - Quit
Learn when to keep your mouth shut.
E - Educate R - Reorganize Many careers are destroyed. Many
F - Find S - Share promotions are lost. Many friendships are
G - Give T - Trade off broken. Many married lives are wrenched by
H - Hope U - Unlcok careless talk. So keep your mouth shut on
I-Imagine V - Visualize critical times. Learn to keep quiet and look
wise. In higher places; secrecy is golden.
J - Junk W-Work
K - Knock x - X-ray Positive attitude
L - Laugh Y - Yield Attitude is the way you view the world
M - Make it around you and the way you looked at
happen Z - Zip it up yourself. Positive attitude is everyone's
(RobertH.Schuller, 1!383) priceless possession. The most significant
and powerful characteristic in anyone's
personality inventory is the positive attitude.

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lAM WARM ~ftwt. 5't.C1ininfj 5(J. fJiJ.d VeWti.tUVtian6 2009
A positive vibrant attitude offers the
ingredient that highlights all other favourable
traits. People reach their potential when they
have a positive attitude. It releases the
enthusiasm which is existing within the
individuals. A positive attitude pays the first
step to build up your personality in acquiring
indepth knowledge, needed skills and
positive attitude.
GET OUT OF THE COMPARISON TRAP
Comparing yourself with others to
determine how you should conduct your own
life is an endemic disease in the world. The
strongest man in the world is he who stands
most alone. Give free play to your
individuality. Never follow the crowd. Design
your own life style and follow it with calm self
confidence and creative courage.
BE ENTHUSIASTIC
If you are enthusiastic - you will never
find time to feel sorry for your life. You will live
much quality life. People don't like grumblers
or cynic. Keep yourself in cheerful moods
and people will extend you warm welcome at
any time and any place.
Encourage courage
Sydney Smith said about courage. A
great deal of talent is lost in the world for want
of little courage. Self pity does no one any
good.
Be persistent
In the act of success there is no
substitute for persistence. The magic formula
of success is: Never let down! Never let up! If
you persist and follow up tirelessly you will
reach your goal, but often having for
exceeded your initial expectations.
Self confidence
Confidence in yourself and in your
abilities is an essential attribute. You can
develop self confidence through experience
and training just as you can learn how to use
your self assurance to 'sell yourself when
seeking to impress others.
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You can strengthen your confidence by
dwelling on what you do well. Do not
compare yourself unfavourably with others,
or suppose that others are forCing you
adversely. If you do feel inadequate in any
area, train to improve your skills. Take pride
in what you have done well, and approach
your tasks like a professional sports person;
train to improve strengths and eliminate
weaknesses, but recognize that doing as well
as you can, and constantly raising that level,
is the most that you (and others) can expect.
INFERIORITY COMPLEX
Inferiority complex is the strong feeling of
inadequacy and insecurity, a feeling of
unreality, a sense of inner rottenness,
oversensitivity to physical handicaps,
selfishness and lack of self discipline. The
following techniques can be practiced to
overcome the inferiority complex.
1. Have a conscious recognition of your
major limitation or deficiency.
2. Don't worry about having to impress
people.
3. Avoiding things you dislike only
deepens your feelings of inferiority.
4. If you want to feel big - think big.
5. Convince yourself that you get what
you give.
6. Decide realistically what you want
out of life. Go after it zealously.
7. Develop the will to achieve.
8. Heart satisfying outlets.
9. Avoid self-denunciation.
10. Don't build a wall around yourself.
11. Remember that everyone has a
feeling of inferiority.
12. In every situation try to be
constructive and creative.
SELF IMAGE
It is the own perception of yourself. It is
the foundation stone of everyone's
personality. All our actions and emotions are
consistent with our self image. You build up a
picture of your self which you believe is true.
The picture may be false. Your imagination is
so important because it can trigger off your
success mechanism, the great creative
mechanism within you which can implant
your success in life.
NEEDED SKILLS
Whatever stage you have reached in
your career, it is vital to keep learning. By
widening and applying your knowledge, you
can dramatically improve your performance.
You are never too old to learn, and the need
for learning increases, rather than
decreases, as your career advances and
jobs become more complex and important.
TimE' .fDr study .may bE' .harD tD finD, bllt .it
always pays off. There are more than 150
skills to suit global work place and to meet
the emerging needs. The most demanding
skills are communication, delegation,
decision making, tact, creativity, memory, self
image, time management and stress
management.
SELF ANALYSIS
The capacity for self-recognition,
although influenced by learning, is predicted
on a sense of identity. The unique feature of
mirror-image stimulation is that the identity of
the observer and his reflection in a mirror are
necessarily one and the same. The capacity
to correctly infer the identity of the reflection
must, therefore, presuppose an already
existent identity on the part of the organism
making this inference. Without an identity of
your own it would be impossible to recognize
yourself. (Gallup, 1977)
COMMUNICATION
Most of us spend about seven out of
every ten working hours communicating with
others. Three fourth of our communication is
done by speech. There are countless
situation in which we interact with staff and
farmers and strive to get their co-operation
and support. Interaction requires inter-
personnel communication in a variety of
ways. Moreover, in disease management,
------------------~.~~-------------------
IAMWARM ~fwt. 5'taining 50.:Jidd VeWtituvtiaM 2009
information should be communicated to your
own team and the farmers without any loss of
information. Hence, a veterinarian should
acquire the needed communication skills for
efficient disease management.
LEARN TO DELEGATE
Delegation is half of success. Be an
expert in your field. Select right people. Test
them well in your own way and trust them
absolutely.
MEMORY
A good memory is a great asset, and one
that can always be developed. Even'the
most amazing memory experts rely on
acquired techniques to perform their acts.
FoJJow sjmjJar approaches, and you wjJJ never
forget what you need to be remembered.
TACT AND TALENT
Tact is a very important trait of plus
personality. It is a sort of sixth sense. It
lubricates the entire mechanisms of living
and prevent friction. It is a subtle perception
of the suitable things to do or say and things
not to do or say. Talent is power and it knows
what to do. Tact is skill and it knows how to do
it. For ego A foolish man tells a women "Stop
talking", but a wise man tells her that "Your
mouth is extremely beautiful when your lips
are closed". The techniques to cultivate tact
are:
[< Realize the importance of little things
[< Cultivate the human understanding
[< Be a gentleman
[< Don't repeat your mistake
[< Admit your mistakes.
CREATIVITY
Most people think that creativity is best
left to a talented few. They are wrong.
Everybody has creative powers and can
learn to use them. By opening your mind and
changing your approach, you will discover
that ideas flow easily. It is a process by which
you can consciously create your own reality
and can create it the way you want. The well
springs of creative channels once found
should not be permitted to rest or they will
begin to rust. Here the main stress is on
discovering the hidden creativity and putting
it to the maximum use.
TIME MANAGEMENT
Time is your most valuable asset, and
how well you use it h.as a key bearing on how
you perform. By analyzing how you spend
your time, you can begin to make changes
that will ensure you get the most from your
working day.
Manage your time by analyzing use of
time, allocating time, delegating work and
filling in time. Having efficiently allocated
your time, you must ensure that you are being
as productive as possible with in those time
restraints. Find ways of measuring your
personnel performance, set higher targets
and improve processes to close the gap.
Effective time management involves
prioritizing. You cannot handle all the tasks
that come your way at the same time.
Working to a list of priorities is vital. It is also
important to give priority to developing your
expertise in a chosen area of speciality.
TENSION
Tension affects the personality in many
ways. It fosters a sense of inferiority. It
develops a negative mental attitude. It leads
to too much of drive and too great energy
drain. It inhibits concentration and develops
frustration.
Stress management
An adaptive response to a situation that
is perceived as challenging or threatening to
the person's well-being. Stress is a person's
physical and emotional response to change.
it is a state of pressure experienced by
individuals facing extraordinary demands,
constraints, or opportunities.
Stress is an irritating feeling. It would
cause physical and psychological damage
which reflect on our behaviour. It would spoil
the health of the person and also a major
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cause of absenteeism.
Han Selye first explored the concept of
stress in 1930's.His description of the general
adaptation syndrome (GAS) has influenced
our present-day notions about stress and its
effects on human. There are three stages in
stress which are alarm stage, resistant stage
and exhaustion stage.
The two types of stress (1) Eustress or
positive stress occurs when your level of
stress is high enough to motivate you to move
into action to get things accomplished. (2)
Distress or negative stress occurs when your
level of stress is either too high or too low and
your body and or mind begin to respond
negatively to the stressors.
Stress is the mind and body's response
or reaction to a real or imagined threat, event
or change. The threat, event or change are
commonly called stressors. Stressors can be
internal (thoughts, beliefs, attitudes or
external (loss, tragedy, change)
The causative factors includes
Psychological, Bio Ecological and
Physiological. The Psychological factor
includes depression, anxiousness,
passiveness, aggressiveness and lose of
self-esteem and self-confidence.
The physiological causes includes
cardiovascular diseases and conditions like
high blood pressure ,increased heart rate,
high blood sugar, high cholesterol etc.,
Consequences of stress are (1) All
illnesses from common cold to cancer are
triggered either due to direct or indirect
influences of negative stress. (2) The
deleterious effect on the immune system on
account of negative stress is one of the most
significant recent discoveries
Stress can be managed by adapting
positive strategies, having net asset of
friends, understanding stress and personal
make-up, prepare your own action plan for
coping with stress,
There is no short cut for the management
of negative stress. Hence executives must
identify their weaknesses requIring
corrections and prepare an action plan for
permanent relief The other managements
include breathing exercise, relaxation
technique, Meditation exercise and muscle
relaxation.
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Emotions are strong intense feelings that
are directed at someone or something. The
six universal emotions are surprise,
happiness, fear, sadness, anger, disgust.
The emotions can be positive as well as
negative. The positive emotions are
happiness or joy, love or affections. The
negative emotions are anger, guilt, shame
,disgust etc.,
Develop positive emotions. Try to be
trieno\y to all. When you are working for
others - when you are living for others when
you are full of positive thoughts, emotions
and actions. Chances of your becoming
unhappy or depressed are very much
reduced. If your positive energies flow into
your life. It shall be able to overcome any
difficulties or problems with tremendous
powers. Be blind to the faults of others. Do
your best to find out good points and plus
points of others. Encourage them to develop
them. Direct your emotions and efforts for
those creative works. You will destroy your
enemies and convert them into your friends.
Intelligence is typically focussed on
analytical reasoning, verbal skills, spatial
ability, attention, memory and judgement.
The intelligence can be of different types.
They may be multiple, cognitive, moral,
spiritual, emotional intelligence, behavioural
etc., Emotional intelligence is the ability to
understand the needs and feelings of oneself
and other people, Manage one's own feelings
and respond to others in appropriate ways.
It is the aggregate of abilities, competencies
and skills that represent a collection of
knowledge used to cope with life effectively.
Five components or abilities of emotional
intelligence are self awareness, self
management, self motivation whereas social
awareness / empathy and social competence
are inter personal.
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IAMWARM ~fwt,
5urin.Ulff 50. fjiJ.d 2009
Emotional intelligence enhances your
career and success potential. It improves
your personal productivity and increases Job
Satisfaction. It works easily with demanding
clients and team members. It improves
work/life balance so you can enjoy your
personal life. It gives mental Clarity, higher
productivity, magnetize talent, inspire people
and reduce chaos.
CONCLUSION
Person with poor personality will wait for
an opportunity. Person with a winning
personality will create an opportunity.
Veterinarians can enrich their attributes like
strong action, positive attitude, establish
network of people, keep silence, get out of
comparison trap, be enthusiastic, encourage
courage, and be persistent Th.e field
veterinarians should Improve needed
knowledge and skills like self analysis,
delegation, communication, tact and talent,
self confident, creativity and memory by
acquiring winning personality. Veterinarians
cannot ollly effiCiently manage livestock
disease but also develop their personality to
become a successful Veterinarians.
References
1. Dashiell, J.F.( 1929), Fundamentals
of objective psychology, Boston,
Houghton. P.551
2. Bronowski, 1971, J. The Identify of
Man. Garden City, N.Y.: American
Museum Science Books
3. Robert H. Schuller, 1983 Tough
Times Never Last, But Tough People
00-
4. Gallup, G.G. (1977) Self Recognition
in Primates, American Psychologist,
32,328-338.
5. Dale Carnegie,1982 How to win
Friends and Influence People
6. The Stephen, R. Covey, 2004, 8th
Habit RKS/NAARM/2005
VeWt.~
 WHY AND HOW TO EFFECTIVELY COMMUNICATE
Dr. N.K. Sudeepkumar
Associate Professor
Department of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry Extension and
Entrepreneurship
Madras Veterinary College, Chennai-600 007

--------------------------------------------------------------------
Communication appears to be a natural,
inborn, unchangeable behaviour. We seldom
try to improve our skills however inadequate
they may be. But communication is learned. It
is important that we communicate effectively
in all walks of life. Communication is effective
when it achieves its goal; it is appropriate
when it conforms to what is expected in a
situation. We create the perception that we
are competent communicators through
verbal messages and non-verbal behaviour
that accompany them.
Communication in its simplest form
consists of the transmission of information,
ideas and attitudes from one person to
another. A communicator sends message
through a channel to an audience, seeking
some effect. Communication thus involves
two aspects - a broad comprehension of the
mechanical means and the underlying
theories of communication and more
importantly an understanding of how we use
these tools in our daily round of informing,
influencing, inspiring, convincing, frightening
and entertaining one another.
Each of us communicate with another
person by directing a message to one or
more of the person's senses - sight, sound,
touch, taste or smell. This is known as
interpersonal communication in contrast with
intra-personal communication in which one
talks to oneself. When we smile, we
communicate a desire for friendliness, the
tone in which we say "good morning" can
indicate feelings from surliness to warm
pleasure and the words we choose in
speaking or writing convey a message we
want to "put across" to the other person. The
more effectively we select and deliver these
words the better our communication.
The goal of this lecture will be to make the
veterinarians understand and learn skills that
will increase the likelihood that others will
view them as competent. These factors
depend on once motivation level, knowledge
and skill. As motivation increases
competence increase. People are likely to·be
more motivated if they are confident and if
they see potential rewards.
The knowledge level of an individual
enhances his / her competence. We gain
knowledge about how to interact by
observing what others do, by asking others
how we should behave, by engaging in
formal study and by learning through trial and
error.
As communicators' skill increases,
communicator competence also increases.
Skills are goal - oriented actions or action
sequences that we can master and repeat in
appropriate situation. The more skills one
possess, the more likely they are able to
structure their messages to be effective and
appropriate.
Based on our competence to
communicate, not only do we judge our own
competence but our competence is also
judged by others.
COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Communication process includes
context, participants, messages, channels,
presence or absence of noise and feedback.
Context - It is the setting in which
communication occurs - they are physical,
social, historical, psychological and cultural.
Physical context: The physical context
of communication includes where it takes
place, the environmental conditions,

----------------~·IaEI~-----------------
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distance between communication, seating 7. We communicate to influence others
arrangements and time of day. - It is doubtful whether a day goes
without this function.
Social context - It includes nature of
relationships that exist between and among ETHICAL CONVERSATION
the participants. Eg. : Interaction with
Try to engage in ethical conversation.
parents, boss etc.,
According to Johannesen (1996) ethical
Historical context: It includes conversations are.
background provided by previous
1. Authenticity: It is the direct, honest,
communication episodes between the
straightforward communication of all
participants that influences understanding in
information and feelings.
the current encounter.
2. Empathy: Imagining an event or
Psychological context: It includes the
feeling from the other person's point
moods and feelings each person brings to the
of view without giving up your
communication.
position or sense of self.
Cultural context: It includes beliefs,
3. Confirmation: Expressing non -
values and norms that are shared by a large
possessive warmth for others that
group of people.
affirms them as unique person.
FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION
4. Presentness: It is demonstrating a
It serves several important functions in willingness to become fully involved
our lives with the other person by taking time,
avoiding distraction, being
1. We communicate to meet needs.
responsive etc.
2. We communicate to enhance and
5. Equality: Conversational partners
maintain our sense of self
are equals in effective conversations
3. Through our communication, we regardless of their status.
learn who we are, what we are good
6. Supportive climate: It encourages
at and how people react to how we
the other participants to
behave.
communicate by praising their
4. We communicate to fulfill social worthwhile efforts.
obligations: we ask people aroun? us
When we engage in ethical
- How are you? What is happenmg,
dialogue, we improve the odds that the
Hi, etc., We acknowledge a person
conversation will have, which will eventually
we recognize. By not speaking we
meet our needs and the needs of those with
risk being perceived as arrogant or
whom we interact.
insensitive.
Fig. 1 THE JOHARI WINDOW
5. We communicate to develop
relationships - we come to know Known to self Not known to self
about others and develop
relationship.
Known to Open Blind
6. We communicate to exchange
others
information - we get information
through observations, through Not known to Secret Unknown
reading, through television and a other:
great deal through direct
Joe Huft and Harry Ingha (1970)
communication with others.

---------------.IDmI._--------------
IAMWARM ~fwt !]wining!](J. fji.Jd VeWtiluvtUut.6 2009
 Open self: The area of the personality
that is known to self as well as known to
superiors, subordinates and peers.
Blind arena: The arena that is unknown
to self but known to others is called blind
arena. The people around are not willing to
give feedback.
Secret: This arena is known to self but
unknown to others. It remains private
because the person is unwilling to share or
disclose the information.
Unknown: The arena is not known to self
or others. This may be called the
subconscious or unconscious self. Most
people are not aware of this part of their
ge(sonalit~ and thls ma~ neve( came to thek
knowledge unless it is probed or forced to
mobilize ones hidden energies.
The shape of Johari window of a person
is affected by two processes
a. Feed back
b. Disclosure
The larger is the open self of the people,
especially the boss, the better will be the
understanding amongst the people and
better rapport will create stronger personal
relationships. As all the members of the team
are individual persons, a strong interpersonal
relationship will lead to better teamwork.
Fig. 2 Managing conflict and disagreement
Confidence
High
confidence
Middlin~
confidence
Low
confidence
-----------------ImBP-----------------
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Eventually this leads to better inter-team
furlctioning thus making the organization
effective.
Real communication can only happen
wtlen people listen actively to one another.
This statement is supported by the old saying
th,at "you get back what you give".
Cclmmunication is influenced by a feeling of
tn.Jst only then it gives a feeling of safety to
relax and talk.
C()NSCIOUS CONFIDENCE
There is no limit to what you can do,
as long as you believe in yourself. Self-
esteem is a combination of
Self-knowledge - "This is who I am"
Self-confidence - "This is what I can do"
Self-worth - "What I can do and
say are important"
Conscious means being aware of your
biilses, attitudes and language choices; do
not speak over the understanding level of the
audience nor underestimate your audience.
COMMUNICATION STYLES
"Go for it' - When you feel confident
bl)t unco-operative. Some people maintain
this style all the time. They crackle with
a~gression, believe in ready - fire - aim and
get into lots of arguments. This style even
make enemies.
High
confidence
Low
confidence
Cooperation
 "Run away'" : When you don't feel
confident or cooperative. People enter
into this style when someone is aggressive or
angry. Also this happens when we feel we are
not powerful to stand upto the other. This
leaves only avoiding the person or may be
avoiding the issues. This collects lots of bad
feelings.
"Yes, Boss" - When you feel co-
operative but unconfident. Many people
were brought up to be obedient, helpful and
co-operative to avoid upsetting others,
conceal negative feelings and try always to
look calm.
"Lets Trade" - When you feel partly co-
operative and confident. This style actively
seeks a practical compromise that both
parties can live with, so has some
advantages. They may not be fully open or
direct and they try to manipulate. This has
short - term gains and long - term severe
losses.
"Lets Both Win" - Mutual co-operation
and confidence. Here you concentrate on
resolving the issues instead of beating the
other person. The two work together to get
the best possible answer for both.
Interpersonal communication
Interpersonal communication involves
interacting with one other person or in a
small, informal aggregate of people. Talking
to a friend on campus, chatting on the phone
with a classmate, arguing the merits of a
movie with friends, discussing strategies for
accompanying task at work, interviewing for
a job and planning the future with a loved one
are all forms of interpersonal communication.
Interpersonal communication focuses on
listening and responding empathically,
sharing personal information, holding
effective conversations and developing,
maintaining or improving relationships.
Problem solving groups involve two or
more people communicating with one
another. in public or in private to solve a
problem or to arrive at a decision. This kind of
communication takes place in meetings.
------------------~IImJI~------------------
IAMWARM ~jfwt !J'l-ainUIff!J~ fJitJ,d Vete'liluvUan6 2009
Problem - solving group communication
focuses on group interaction, problem
solving, decision-making and leadership.
Group communication is not a separate,
unrelated activity, but one that builds on the
foundation of interpersonal communication
skills.
FUNCTIONS OF INTERPERSONAL
COMMUNICATION
Interpersonal communication is
important because of the function it achieves.
Whenever we engage in communication with
another person, we seek to gain information
about them we also give off information
through a wide variety of verbal and
nonverbal cues.
1. Gaining Information
One reason we engage in interpersonal
communication is that we can gain
knowledge ;: )OU' another individual.
Information at ,I oiljc;l> I-Jelps us to interact
with them m Ji' effectively. We can better
predict how they will think, feel and act if we
know who they are. Information can be
gained passively by observing them, actively
by having others engage them or
interactively, by engaging them ourselves.
2. Building a context of understanding
We also engage in interpersonal
communication to help us better understand
what someone says in a given context. The
words we say can mean very different things
depending on how they are said or in what
context.
3. Establishing identity
Another reason we engage in
interpersonal communication is to establish
an identity. The roles we play in our'
relationships help us establish identity, so too
the public self-image we present to others.
Both roles and face are constructed based on
how we interact with others. We need to
establtsh identity among livestock farmers.
Interpersonal needs
Finally we engage in interpersonal
communication because we need to express
and receive interpersonal needs. William settings and occasion to guide in selecting
Schuty has identified three such needs: content and tone. Make clear ideas that
create awareness to the audience in the
1. Inclusion - is the need to establish
central focus of the speech.
identity with others.
CONCLUSIONS
2. Control - is the need to exercise
leadership and prove ones abilities. Groups The need to communicate with our fellow
provide outlet for this need. Some individuals human beings is as fundamental as the
do not want to be a leader. For them, groups physical requirements of food and shelter.
provide the necessary control over aspects of This usage for communication is a primal one
their lives. and in our contemporary civilization, a
necessity for survival.
3. Affection - is the need to develop
relationships with people. Groups are an I assume that you already know a great
excellent way to make friends and establish deal and have a set of skills and experience,
relationships. which is uniquely yours. This lecture would
help you work out how to use the technique of
Interpersonal communication can be
effective communication. It is hard to
further improved if the following factors are
develop the practical skills unless the
considered
learning is made into an active and lively
1. Relationship development process. Try to invest your mind into it and
get good results. Make communication in a
2. Self - disclosure
co-operate way so that everyone is moved
3. Relational patterns and forward and minimize conflict. Have
empathy in your communication. Provide
4. Interpersonal conflict
strong public speech relevant to the situation.
PUBLIC SPEAKING Select effective words for better
communication and possess appropriate ski"
An effective speech plan is a product of
to communicate. Always understand the
six action steps.
needs and level of the audience to make
1. Selecting a topic from a subject area communication better and stronger.
2. Audience analysis
References
3. Writing the speech goal
4. Where to look for source of Geri, E.H. and McArdle, (2004). Delivery
information Effective Training Session Viva book Pvt. Ltd.
5. What information to look for Rudolph F. Verderber (1999).
6. Recording data and citing sources Communicate! 9
th
Edition. Wadsworth
Effective speaking requires high-quality Publishing Company.
information. Use statistics from only the
Sandy Mc Mi"an (1999). How to be a
most reliable sources and double-check any
better Communicator. Kogan Page India
statistics with another source. Use the
Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, p-128.

----------------~·IDiI~-----------------
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Jlladuu r{)eJl'l'liwl'fj ()fIIleljl',

DISEASE fORECASTING, SURVEILLANCE AND PREVENTION
--------------------------------------------------------------------
DISEASE FORECASTING
Discase forecasting is a quite useful
system that helps to forewarn the occurrence
of disease well in advance for evolving
strategic control measures. The weather
related disease-forecasting deals with
predicting the future based on the past
livestock disease outbreaks associated with
meteorological data. The disease
forecasting system gives information on
vector, control programmes and helps to
streamline prophylactic vaccination. This
along with disease monitoring and
surveillance programmes would result in
progressive control of animal diseases at
national level, thereby augmenting livestock
prod uction.
A Weather based disease forecasting
system functioned at Dept. of Veterinary
Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine,
Madras Veterinary College, studied the
various parameters favoring the occurrence
of diseases in Tamil Nadu. A few E.g. given
below:
Forecasting blue tongue
A range of temperature 26-28°C with
wind velocity 7 - 8 kmph, high relative
humidity ranging from 81-86% during post
monsoon period (Dec. to Feb) favored the
'multiplication of Culicoides sp. midges.
These help to forecast the outbreak of blue
tongue.
Forecasting leptospirosis
In Tamil Nadu, occurrence of outbreaks
of LeptospiroSiS has been related to heavy
rainfall esp.> 200 mm leading to water
logging, contamination of the water sources
by carrier Ireservoir animals and survival of
pathogenic Leptospira in warm (Temp 30 -
32°C) wet environment with pH around 7.
Based on these parameters, Leptospirosis
------------------IImI~----------------
IAMWARM ~fwt.
5winitlf} 50. giJ.d VeWtitUVticuM 2009
Veterinary Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine
can be predicted to occur after heavy rains
esp. from Oct. to Feb.
Forecasting hemorrhagic septicaemia
Outbreaks of HS is precipitated by the
following factors - Temperature of the region
> 300 C, continuous rainfall for 5 - 7 days, in
Districts with high irrigation facilities, disease
occurring during post monsoon periods.
SURVEILLANCE
Disease surveillance is a more intensive
system of data collection.
The data collected in surveillance are
analysed in orderto detect.
ill Significant development in existing
disease E.g. IBD, ND in poultry.
ill Introduction of new diseases E.g.
Avian influenza
ill Changes in the prevalence or
*incidence of new disease
'* Causes likely to jeopardize existing
control activities
'* E.g. Introduction of new strains,
Changes in managemental
practices, Importation of livestock &
their products, introducing new drug
treatment regimen
'* The origin of diseases outbreaks
'* Surveillance provides an upto date
information to disease control
authorities to formulate, plan and
implement disease control
programme. A comprehension and
readily accessible data base on
disease in livestock population is also
available for research and planning
purposes.
An Animal Disease Surveillance
Information System (ADS IS), launched by
Animal Husbandry Department, in co-
ordination with NICNET has been functioning
at the Collectorate in each district head
quarters to speed up the animal disease
reporting system.
PREVENTION OF DISEASES
LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY
Prevention means those measures
designed to exclude disease from an
unaffected population:
Quarantine
Quarantine means restraint placed upon
the movements of animals, which are
suspected of, being carriers of infections or
having been exposed to infection to prevent
the spread of disease. OlE specified the
following 16 diseases as notifiable: Foot and
Mouth Disease, Rinderpest, Contagious
Bovine Pleuro Pneumonia, Blue Tongue,
Sheep Pox, Swine Fever, Newcastle
disease, Vesicular Stomatitis, Swine
Vesicular disease, Peste Des Petits
Ruminants, Fowl Plague, African Swine
Fever, Lumpy Skin disease, Rift Valley Fever,
African Horse Sickness and Teschen
diseases.
In India livestock and birds are subjected
for Quarantine for 30 to 90 days.
Quarantining procedures done in Quarantine
station - Isolation, collection of materials and
preservation, testing in lab, disinfection,
chemo & immunoprophylaxis, destruction
and disposal of carcasses by incineration,
sterilization, maintenance of sentinel animals
and birds, certification.
Improvement in environment, husbandry
and feeding - help to prevent diseases like
tuberculosis, bovine mastitis, etc.
Disinfection
Disinfectants may be used to reduce the
risk of transmission of infectious agents.
------------------ImmI~----------------
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'lJef£I'iJIllI'I}-
Vaccination
Vaccination is routinely used to prevent
diseases E.g. Distemper vaccination in dogs,
Strategic vaccination is used in high-risk
OF situations. E.g. Dogs are compulsorily and
regularly vaccinated against rabies in
endemic areas. Ring vaccination is a type
of strategic vaccination in which animals in an
area surrounding infected regions are
vaccinated. E.g. Rinderpest vaCCination,
FMD vaccination.
VACCINATION SCHEDULE FOR ANIMALS
Preventive vaccination - General
Instructions
1 . Preventive inoculation should be so
timed that it is done 2 - 3 weeks
before the expected outbreaks.
2. Two separate kinds of vaccine
should not be given simultaneously
3. A minimum of 2 - 3 weeks in between
two vaccines should be given
4. Animals under nutritional, climatic
stress and with heavy worm burden
will not respond favorably to
vaccination.
5. In outbreaks, care should be taken to
vaccinate all incontact animals.
6. Potent vaccines usually develop
protective levels of immunity in 14-21
days
7. It is very important to maintain cold
chain especially for viral vaccines.
8. Vaccination is done during the cool
hours of the day.
9. Vaccines should be protected from
sunlight.
10. Recommended vaccination
schedule to be followed.
 Common disinfectants
S.No. Name Uses
1 Sodium carbonate 4% In FMD out breaks, Disinfection of
2. Sodium hydroxide 2-4% buildings esp. floors. Penetrates organic
matter, Effective against viruses.
3. Phenol 2%, Cresol 5%, Lysol 5% Active in the presence organic matter
4. lodot3hors 1 % In mastitis control programme - udder
washing, teat dipping
5. Formaldehyde (3.5 gms of KMn04 Fumigation of animal houses
in 53 ml of formalin per cubic
meter space (1 :1.5)
6. Bleaching Powder 3-12 ppm Used on drains, buildings, not used in
available chlorine dairies because taints milk
7 Calcium oxide (Quicklime) To cover carcasses and contaminated
----_ --- surroundings
8. Peracetic acid_{3%1 Effective anthrax sporicide

Vaccination schedule for cattle

Age Vaccine Immunity Dosage Storage Source Remarks

2 months Raksha 6 months 3 ml sIc 2 _8° C Indian
vac 2 years Immunolgoicals,
(FMDV) Hyderabad.
Booster
at 6
month
6 to 9 *Brucella Lasts for 2 S ml sIc 2-SoC IVPM, Ranipet Heifers
months abortus pregnancies only
S19 vaccinated

6 months Black 6 months 5 -10 ml at 4°C- IVPM, Ranipet Vaccinate

Quarter sIc 6 months, before
(Alum Room monsoon
ppt) Temp- 21
days
6 months Haemorrhagic 6 months 5 -10 ml at 4° C- IVPM, Ranipet Vaccinate
Septicaemia sIc 6 months, before
(Alum ppt) Room monsoon
Temp -21
days

6 months Anthrax 1 year 1 ml sIc at 4° C- IVPM, Ranipet In

Spore 6 months, endemicl
vaccine Room outbreak
Temp- 21 areas
days
N B. Depending upon the endemicity of diseases, vaccines, should be used .
• Brucella abortus (RB51 strain) killed vaccine is available and can be used in all age groups of animals

--------------------.~~-------------------
IAMWARM ~fwt 5'tainUlfJ 50. giJd VeteJtuuvtiatt6 2009
 Vaccination schedule for sheep and goats
Age Vaccine Immunity Dosage Storage Retnarks
2 to 4 weeks Tetanus toxoid -- 0.5 ml 4° C
before ilm
lambing
1 month Johne's vaccine 1 year 1 ml sIc 4° C To be
(Sigurdson/iceland imported
vaccine)
2 months Raksha a vac 9 months 1 ml sic 2- 8° C Indian
Oil 2 years Immunologicals
Adjuvant (FMDV)
3 months Enterotoxaemia 6 months 5 ml sIc 4° C IVPM,
Vaccines lamb 6 months, Ranipet
3 ml Room
temperature
I 21 days
N.B.: Sheep Pox Vaccine (in lambs> 3 months age) used at the time outbreaks.

Vaccinaticn SChedule for dogs

Age of Vaccine Immunity Dosage Storage
vaccination
6 ' to 8 week *DHLP Primary -- 1ml sic 2_8° C 1_year
8" week Corona vaccine 1 year 1 ml sic 2_8° C 1 year
10tn to 12tn week DHLP Booster 1, year 1 ml sic 2-8° C 1_year
1r
14 weeks Rabies vaccine 1 year 1 ml sIc or ilm 2_8° C 1 year
primary
1r
17 week Rabies vaccine 1 year 1 ml sic or ilm 2-8° C 1 year
booster
th th
·Pups from non immunized dams, vaccinate at 6 week, Pups from immunized dams, vaccinate at 8 week

Vaccination sChedule for layers

Age of Vaccine Dosage Storage Source

vaccination ----~~--~-----

r-~-'"
RDVF 0.5 miI/N, Freezer-2 months, IVPM, Ranipet.
ylhday 1/0, oral use reconstituted
vaccines in 2 hours
1r
14 day IBDV 0.5 miI/N, --- Commercial vaccines
1/0 available in the
market
I 3ra week IBV 0.5 miI/N, --- Commercial vaccines
I/O available in the

~
market
week RDV - La Sota 0.5 ml Freezer-2 months, IVPM, Ranipet
I
Drinking Use ieconstituted
i water vaccines in 2 hours
i J
-------------------~~-----------------
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 51r week IBDV 0.5 ml sIc --~ Commercial vaccines
available in the
market
th
6 week FPV 0.5 ml wing Freezer-2 months, IVPM, Ranipet
web Use reconstituted
puncture vaccines in 2 hours

1r
8 week RDVK 0.5 ml sIc Freezer-2 months, IVPM, Ranipet
Use reconstituted
vaccines in 2 hours

th
13 week IBV Booster 0.5 ml sIc --- Commercial vaccines
available in the
I
market
1r
16 week RDVK Booster 0.5 ml sIc Freezer-2 months, IVPM, Ranipet
Use reconstituted
vaccines in 2 hours

1r
16 week Oil adjuvant 0.5 ml sIc 2 - 8°C, do not freeze Commercial vaccines
killed vaccine available in the
RDV+IBD+IB market
m
35 week Oil adjuvant 0.5 ml sIc 2 - 8° C, do not freeze Commercial vaccines
killed vaccine available in the
RDV+IBD+IB market
* IBDV & IBV are given in endemic areas only.

----------------~-IIEI~-----------------
IAMWARM ~fwt 5ljainiuff 5(1.:lidd VeWtitla'tiaM 2009
 Veterinary Microbiology

COLLECTION OF SPECIMEN FOR SPECIFIC DISEASES

BACTERIAL DISEASES
S. No. Name of the Material to be Collected and Methods of examination
disease preservative if any
1. Anthrax Peripheral Blood smear Microscopical: Blood smear stained
Swabs from fluid exuded from by Leishman's method will reveal
natural orifices characteristic rod shaped
Ear piece or muzzle piece organisms with truncated ends.
possessing a distinct capsule and
arranged singly or in very short
chains. Biological test in mice and
guinea pig.
2. Actinomycosis Fresh portion of affected Microscopical: Pus granules
tissues or scrapings from crushed between slides, stained by
abscesses preserved in ice. Gram stain, Gram Positive filaments
arranged like mycelia with sulphur
granules.
3. Actinobacillosis Pus from the abscesses .. Microscopical: Pus Smears made
Portion of tongue preserved and crushed between slides,
in ice. Sterile Swabs from the Gram's stain; Gram negative bacilli
lesions surrounded by gram negative
I filamentous sulphur granules.
I
Strau's reaction: Inoculation into
male Guinea pig produces orchitis.
Cultural examination from affected
tissues and lymph nodes in serum
or blood agar
4. Black quarter Muscle impression smear. Microscopical
(B.O) Muscle piece-air dried Muscle impression smear stained
by Claudius method reveals rods
with sub terminal spores.
Biological
Intramuscular inoculation in Guinea
pig produces characteristic
gangrenous myositis and death.
Extensive haemorrhagic oedema
and emphysema with sIc
I, haemorrage is seen. Injection of a
- drop of 5% Calcium chloride before
inocu lation accelerates the reaction.
Clostridium chauvoei and
Clostridium septicum can be
, differentiated by cultural characters
i I and biological test
i I I
------------------ImEI~----------------
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 5. Brucellosis 1 Serum preserved in 5%
chloroform
2. Milk from affected quarter
3. Smears from vaginal
exudates and foetal stomach
contents
4. Swabs from vaginal
exudates or foetal stomach
contents, foetal cotyledons
and uterine discharge
;t_?
6. Caseous Swabs from abscesses
lymphadenitis
Microscopical:
Smears stained by Gram's staining
reveal Gram negative Cocco bacilli.
Cultural:
Tryptose agar, Dextrose agar, liver
infusion agar can be used.
Increased tension of Carbon dioxide
favours the growth of Br. abortus
Biological: Intraperitoneal
inoculation into a male guinea pig
produces orchitis - Straus' test.
Serological
(a) Rapid plate test for screening (b)
Tube agglutination test - for
confirmation (c) ABR test or MRT
test-to screen milk from affected
animals.
Isolation and identification of the
organism.

7. Calf dysentery Rectal swabs Cultural: Isolation and identification

or of Escherichia coli using selective
White scour
or media.
Colibaciliosis
8. Enterotoxaemia Intestinal contents or a loop Biological test - Mice i/v inoculation.
of intestine tied at both ends Result in few minutes. Actual toxin
and preserved in 0.5% can be determined by neutralization
II Chloroform. with specific antitoxins.

9. Glanders Pus from the lesions Mallein test in animals. Straus' test
positive.
Cultural examination: Isolation of the
organism in specific media.
10. Haemorrhagic • Auricular vein smear. Microscopial : Smears stained by
septicaemia
• Oedema fluid smear. Leishman's stain reveal bipolar
(H.S.) • Heart blood smear. organisms.
• Heart blood swabs. Cultural: Isolation and
• Swabs from internal
organs.
identification. Biological Test: In
mice and rabbit s; Haemorrhagic
• Long bone preserved
in charcoal in case of
tracheitis in rabbits.

extreme putrefaction
11. Johne's Rectal pinch smear and Smear stained by Ziehl Neelsen's
disease Rectal washings. method reveals acid fast bacteria.
(Paratuberculosis) Cultural examination in Dorset's
Egg or L.J. medium. Johnin or
Avian tuberculin test in animals.
i

------------------ImmI~----------------
IAMWARM ~~
5'Laini.nfj 50. fJidd, VeWUila'tiatw 2009
12. Leptospirosis Serum, urine Agglutination lysis test, capillary
tube, slide or plate agglutination,
serum haemolytic test, urine
haemolytic test, complement
fixation test.
13. Listeriosis Brain, nasal contents and Isolation and identification of the
heart contents. Heart organisms. Small pleomorphic
blood of the foetl)S Gram positive rod, motile, Beta
preserved over ice. haemolytic in blood agar; isolation,
augmented by prior chilling in ice.

14. Mastitis + Smears from milk Isolation and identification of rthe

sediment organisms.
+ Milk from su§pected
cases of ma§titis
15. Pullorum Cloacal swab from ailing Islolation and identification of the
disease & chicks. Serum from birds. organism. Agglutination test with
fowl typhoid Piece of intestine tied at Salmonella pullorum coloured
both ends, intestinal swab antigen (SPCA). Isolation and
identification of the organi"sm
16. Salmonellosis Depending upon the Isolation and identification of the
disease conditio(1S swab organism
should be collect~.
17. Swin + Lesions Isolab n and identification of the
ery.~:~~I'lC: + Serum organism
18. Tuberculosis Smear from lesions Microscopical examination:
Swabs from lesions Acid fast staining; Cultural
Lesion preserved in ice examination: Colonies develop in 4
to 8 weeks. Biological test in guinea
pigs, rabbits and fowl depending
upon the type. Disease is
reproduced in 4 to 8 weeks. In live
animals, allergic test-UTuberculin"
test
19. Psittacosis Impression smeClrs of Demonstration of Chlamydial
heart, lung, liver and elementary bodies by FA, Giemsa
kidney. Pieces of tissues and MZN stains. Isolation in Yolk
from the same o~s sac of fertile eggs
20. Contagious Nasal swabs, bronchoalveolar Isolation of the organism in specific
bovine washing, synovial fluid media (PPLO Agar) supplemented
pleuro (arthritis), lung lesionS, Iymh with horse/pig serum. "Fried egg
pneumonia nodes (bronchopulmonary tract] appearance colonies"
(CBPP) and pleural fluid on transport Agglutination with specific serum
Mycoplasma medium. Samples viable for
mycoides few days at 4°C, longer
subspecies period at frozen or below.
mycoides 25°C Freeze in protein-rich
transport medium if samples
are not processed on the
same day.

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 21. Contagious Nasal swabs, bronchoalveolar Isolation of the organism in specific
Caprine washing, synovial fluid media (PPLO Agar) supplemented
Pleuro (arthritis), lung lesions, Iymh with horse/pig serum. "Fried egg
Pneumonia nodes (bronchopulmonary tract) appearance colonies"
(CCPP) and pleural fluid on transport Agglutination with specific serum
Mycoplasma medium. Samples viable for
capricolum few days at 4°C, longer
subspecies period at frozen or below
caprine 25°C Freeze in protein-rich
pneumoniae transport medium if samples
(MCCP) are not processed on the
severe in same day.
goats-All -

I
ages and
I both sexes.

VIRAL DISEASES

S.No. Name of the Materials to be collected for Methods of examination

disease and diagnosis
aetiology
1. Foot and mouth Vesicles from tongue, gum Isolation of the virus in
disease (FMD) debris and heart in phosphate cell lines., CFT.,
Picorna Virus; buffered glycerin. 1g of tissue Biological test in guinea
(0, A, C, SAT1, from freshly ruptured vesicles. pig
SAT2, SAT3, Blood J oesophageal and
Asia1 ) pharyngeal fluid in
transport medium (Equal
amounts of glycerol and ,
0.04M phosphate buffer pH I
I

7.2-7.6), Myocardial tissue/

blood in fatal cases.
Affected parts including
intestine and heart in 10%
formalin.
2. Peste des petits Swabs - Conjunctival sac, Isolation of the virus in
ruminants (PPR) nasal secretion, blood, cell lines, AGID, PCR
Morbillivirus spleen and mesenteric lymph
Goat (highly nodes preserved over ice
susceptible) and
sheep
3. Shep pox and Scabs in 50% glycerin or Isolation of the virus in
goat pox preserved over ice. Sheep chicken embryos,
Capripox virus and goat: Skin or lung lesions AGID, PCR
minced and equal amount of
transport medium (Hank's BSS
or PBS)

----------------~-IemI~-----------------
IAMWARM ~fwt. :J.tainillf} 50.:JiJd VeWtiJuvtiaJt., 2009
 4J1il Blue tongue (BT) Spleen and heart blood in Isolation of the virus in
Reoviridae; Orbi OPG (Potassium oxalate 5g, chicken embryos, cell
virus phenol 5g, glycerin 500ml, lines, AGID, PCR
distilled water 500ml). Blood
in OPG or in anticoagulant -
heparin, EDTA or sodium
citrate in febrile stage
5. Rabies Impression smears from Demonstration of
Rhabdoviridae; hippocampus major of brain Negribodies
Lyssa virus fixed in methanol (10 seconds);
All warm blooded Brain - one half in formalin or
animals are affected. Zenker's solution, other half in
50% glycerol saline

6. Swine fever Heart blood, pieces of spleen, IFAT, IHA, PCR

Flav;v;ridae; Pesti lymph nodes, kidney, distal
virus ileum on ice and in 10%
formalin
7. Infectious bronchitis Swabs from trachea or lung Virus Isolation:
Corona virus tissues Embryonated hens egg
and tracheal organ culture,
haemagglutination test,
haemagglutination
inhibition test

8. Infectious bursal Bursae from affected birds Virus Isolation: Embryos

disease (CEF), cell lines, agar gel
Birnaviridae immunodiffusion test

9. Marek's disease Blood in anticoagulant, Solid Virus Isolation:Celi

Herpesviridae tumour, kidney, spleen or culture, chicken embryo
other tissues indirect FAT, agar gel
immunodiffusion test

10 Newcastle disease Tracheal swabs, faeces from Virus Isolation:

Paramyxo virus live birds, lung, brain, liver, Embryonated hens egg;
spleen, marrow from long Haemagglutination test,
bones, caecal tonsils and haemagglutination
intestinal contents from dead inhibition test
birds
11. Avian influenza Serum, tissues from lung, and AGID, HA, PCR, virus
Paramyxo virus spleen isolation in chicken
I embryos and cell culture
I 1

----------------~-IBDI~-----------------
j/iLull'lu r(}el£t<illanJ fJffilefjf', @1ulUwi-6()() 007

DISC-DIFFUSION TEST OF SENSITIVITY TO ANTIBIOTICS
--------------------------------------------------------------------
and not as a continuous film. Such
The disc-diffusion method provides a
simple and reliable test specially applicable
in routine clinical bacteriology. It consists of
impregnating small disks of a standard filter
paper with given amounts of a chosen range
of antibiotics. These are placed on plates of
culture medium previously spread uniformly
with an inoculum of the bacterial isolate to be
tested. After incubation, the degree of
sensitivity is determined by measuring the
easily visible areas of inhibition of growth
produced by the diffusion of the antibiotic
from the discs into the surrounding medium.
TEST PROCEDURE
Dry the culture plate in the incubator with
the lid ajar until its surface is free from visible
moisture. Inoculate the bacteria to be tested
by one of the procedures described below
and, if inoculation is by flooding, dry the plate
again for up to 30 min. Without further delay,
apply the chosen antibiotic disks at adequate
spacing (92 cm or more apart) to the surface
of the plate with sterile fine-pointed forceps
and press gently to ensure full contact with
the medium and moistening of the disc.
Transfer to the incubator and incubate for the
minimum time needed for normal growth,
usually for 18-24 h at 37°C.
INOCULUM
The method used for inoculation of the
bacteria to be tested should aim at producing
a uniform, nearly confluent lawn of growth
covering the whole surface of the plate on
which the disks are to be placed. The zones
of inhibition are smaller the greater the
number of bacteria inoculated and it is,
therefore, best to adjust the density of the
inoculum so that the growth appears as
numerous small, nearly confluent colonies
--------------~~~~---------------
IAMWARM 5U1inin1J 50.:1iJd 2009~fwt_
Veterinary Microbiology
adjustment is difficult in primary-culture tests
but can be done reasonably well in tests on
pure subcultures.
For test on primary cultures, rub a swab
welt soaked inputs over the whole or half of a
culture plate to give a heavy, uniform
inoculum; if only half the plate is thus seeded,
stroke out the inoculum on the other half to
yield separate colonies. Inoculate urine by
placing a 5 mm flat loopful of uncentrifuge.d,
well mixed urine on the plate and spread
evenly with a dry sterile swab. Place disks on
the uniformly seeded area of the plate,
spacing them so that their centers are at least
2cm apart.
For tests on pure subcultures, use one of
the following methods: Inoculation by
flooding. Suspend bacteria from the culture
to be tested in sterile isotonic saline solution
to a concentration of 105 - 106 bacteria per
ml. Do this by adding to 5 ml saline a smalt
loopful (about 0·01 ml) of an overnight broth
culture (about 109 bacteria/ml) or a
suspension of a few colonies in broth at a
similar density. With a sterile Pasteur pipette
transfer about 2 ml of the dilute suspension to
the plate, tip the plate in different directions to
wet the whole of its surface, remove all the
excess fluid with the pipette, dry the plate
inverted and with its lid ajar in the incubator
for up to 30 min or on the bench for one hour
and fmalty apply the disks.
Inoculation by spreading
Place on the plate a loopful of an
overnight broth culture or a broth suspension
of colonies at similar density and spread it
evenly over the whole plate or test area with a
sterile bent glass rod or a dry sterile cotton-
wool swab of the throat-swab type.
VeleJtilla~

MANAGEMENT OF PARASITIC DISEASES
IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS
--------------------------------------------------------------------
1. COLLECTION, AND TRANSPORT OF faeces and several samples should be
PARASITIC SPECIMENS
The laboratory techniques are subject to
continuous modificatio'ns and improvements.
Some of these are originated in the
department, whHe others have been modified
from methods designed elsewhere.
Few of these are explained here, while
the candidate is expected to note down the
rest of the features during lecture.
Helminths
Many of the techniques used in
helminthological work involve the separation
of parasites or their eggs or larvae from the
material with which they are mixed or in which
they are contained, e.g., from tissues,
faeces, herbage, etc.
Collection of faeces
Faeces intended for Parasitological
examination should be collected from the
rectum unless the animal is observed in the
act of defaecation when the sample may be
collected from the ground. Suitable
. containers for the despatch of samples to the
laboratory are 30 ml wide mouthed screw
capped bottles of glass or preferably of
plastic, which should be filled to the top if
! possible so as to exclude air as much as
possible and so diminish the rate of
development and hatching of the eggs.
Samples should be collected from several
animals in an affected herd, some of which
should be from the most seriously affected
animals and a few from the less seriously
diseased in order to observe the contrast in
the counts. Faecal samples collected from
the ground in a field in which the animals
have been running are less useful for
diagnostic purposes, but where rectal
samples cannot be obtained, these should be
examined. Such samples should be
selected from the most recently dropped
------------------ImEI~----------------
JtladuLJ ({)eUI'UW'1J @.oIlt:q£, @iwutai-600 007
Veterinary Parasitology
collected.
Collection of pasture samples for
estimating the larval burden
An assessment of the concentration of
infective nematode larvae in pasture gives an
indication of the infection to which grazing
animals are exposed. Methods of making
such counts can therefore of value in
investigational work. The method described
is suitable for infective larvae of the gastro-
intestinal nematodes of the cattle, sheep,
goats and horses and for larvae of
Dictyocaulus filaria and D. viviparus.
Technique for the rapid recovery of larvae
from herbage
Herbage samples are usually collected
along 'W' shaped transects. However, under
field conditions where only one worker is
involved it has been found more convenient
to sample the pasture using 'N' shaped
transects (at right angles to each other) so
that the worker begins and finishes at the
same point. There is no apparent difference
between results obtained by either method of
sampling. The samples should be
transported to the lab immediately.
Despatch of coccidial specimens for
examination
1. Chickens and turkeys: The entire
gut, fresh, enclosed in polythene
bags.
2. Duck, goose, pheasant and other
birds: Fresh tissue as for chickens,
but in addition small pieces of
infected tissue fixed as fresh as
possible in 10 per cent buffered
formalin.
3. Mammals: Faeces, either fresh or 2
per cent potassium dichromate
should always be included (a rectal
 sample may be obtained from pot-
mortem cases). The entire gut of the
small mammals may be sent fresh,
but small pieces from the infected
areas should be fixed in 10 per cent
buffered formalin. Both fresh and
fixed tissue from large mammals
should be submitted.
Insects and arachnids
Veterinary entomology deals with a very
wide range of parasitic insects and arachnids
and entails the knowledge of a wide variety of
techniques. The parasites concerned are of
significance either because they are
themselves directly harmful (for example,
ectoparasites such as mange mites, or
endoparasites such as warble fly larvae) or
because they transmit other disease agents
of helminths.
A. Insects
The collection of small ectoparasites
(lice, fleas, etc.,) is largely a matter of
convenience. Where large hosts are
involved, fine forceps or an inverted glass
collecting tube is commonly used.
Certain ectoparasites in the fleece of
sheep (keds and various types of lice) may be
collected in large numbers from an infested
flock in the field, for laboratory testing for
example, by shearing a quantity of wool from
some severely affected animals and
examining this, as soon as possible.
Keds (Melophagus) and to some extent
lice, can be collected from sheep by covering
the fleece with a cloth.
nd to some extent lice, can be collected from
sheep by covering the fleece with a cloth.
--------------------.~~-------------------
IAMWARM ~fk¥~ g~
go. giJd VeWtiltwtianJ 2009
B. Ticks
Feeding or engorged ticks of all three
stages (larva, nymph, adult) can be collected
by carefully removing them from the host. It
is important to do this without causing
damage, especially to the mouth parts of the
tick, which will be firmly embedded in the
host's skin. A useful method is to grip the
'head' firmly, but lightly, by means of forceps,
turn the tick over on to its back and then pull
out sharply, perpendicularly away from the
skin. On sheep or cattle, the ticks are most
readily found in the axillary and inguinal
regions and on the neck or brisket.
C. Mites
Where parasitic (mange) mites are
concerned, a skin scraping has to be taken
and careful attention has to be given to the
way in which it is done.
Material submitted to the laboratory for
examination is often unsuitable and may
have been taken from areas on an infested
animal which are devoid of parasites.
Different Illites have different sites of
predilection, often varying with the hosts.
Visual examination of such areas may reveal
lesions and with acute sight larger individual
mites (e.g. Psoroptes) may be seen. Lice,
fleas, keds and ticks will also be seen during
the examination.
In animals suspected of sarcoptic mange
or notoedric (burrowing) mange the hair
should again be clipped away. These mites
are found deep in the skin, so deep scrapings
should be made. Shaving with the scalpel
must be continued until the blood oozes
freely. In suspected ear mange (canker) of
dogs, cats and rabbits it is sufficient to detach
the scabby material from the meatus with a
pledget of cotton held in forceps.

DIAGNOSIS OF PARASITIC DISEASES
--------------------------------------------------------------------
FAECAL EXAMINATION
QUALITATIVE EXAMINATION
Direct smear examination
This method can often be used as a
preliminary method of faecal examination
under field conditions. By this method one
can arrive at a conclusion for presence of
various species of helminths in the given
samples. As the sample is fresh, many of the
protozoan trophozoites and oocysts can be
demonstrated. This method does not give the
cOlTec\ 'P)c\uTe on \ne 'S\a\u'S o~ \ne ne\min'lnic
load in the given sample.
Method
* Place a drop of normal saline (0.9%)
on microscopic slide
* Add a small quantity of fresh faecal
sample
* Gently mix and place a cover slip over
it . (Sp.gr-1.30)
* Examine under low (1 OX) and high
power (45X) of light microscope
Concentration methods
As most of the helminthic infections
usually occur as subclinical infection, it is
always advisable to use anyone of the
concentration methods for arriving at a
diagnosis.
1. Floatation method
This is a method normally employed in
ve.terinary practice to diagnose the presenGe
of lighter eggs of helminths under field
condition as it does not involve any
equipment.
Method
* Place a pea sized faecal sample in a
aluminum cup or a bowl
* Add small quantity of saturated
floatation solution, mix thoroughly
------------------~~----------------
WlelJe, JHHtil'lU ,(Jefl'l'lJtal'lj
Veterinary Parasitology
* Place it in a small test tube and add
the satu rated floatation solution till
you get a bulging meniscus at the
brim of the test tube
* Fix the test tube in plasticine or china
clay and leave undisturbed in vertical
position for 15 minutes
* Place a coverslip over the meniscus
and carefully place it in a slide
,. Add a drop of Lugol's iodine for better
\vi,~'uol,i . l ..:o.+li{Q'i', '0~ +l'i'fC ~~~ o~
examine under microscope
The commonly used floatation solutions are
'* Saturated sodium chloride
(Sp.gr-1.18)
'* Saturated sodium nitrate
(Sp.gr-1.30)
* Saturated zinc sulfate
* Saturated sugar solution
(Sp.gr-1.20)
* Sheather's sugar solution
(Sp.gr-1.30)
2. Centrifugal sedimentation technique
This is one of the most efficient method of
recovery of helminthic eggs from the faecal
samples. As a large quantity of faecal sample
is being used, most of the eggs that are
present in the given samples are recovered.
The only disadvantage of this method is
presence of debris which may pose a
problem while doing the examination.
Procedure
'* In a centrifuge tube, mix a small
amount of feces (about 1 tsp.) with
just enough water to soften and mix it
well.
'* Centrifuge at 2000 rpm for 3-5
minutes.
@1wuwi-6()() ()()7
 * Discard the supernatant, take a droP Estimation of faecal egg counts using
of sediment on microscopic slide and cuvettes
place a coverslip over it. Materials
* Examine under low (10x) and high
Polyallomer centrifuge tubes
power (45x) of light microscope
'* Remove the coverslip, place it Saturated sodium chloride solution
on a glass slide and examine Artery forceps
microscopically.
4 ml polystyrene disposable cuvettes
QUANTITATIVE EXAMINATION
Compound microscope with mechanical
It is used to obtain accurate information
stage
on the severity of helminthic infections. Egg
counting methods have been devised in Procedure
order to determine the number of eggs per + Rectal faecal samples between 1 to 5
gram offaeces (EPG). g were taken into pre-labelled
Stoll's dilution method polythene bags.
'l!< \I;\~"yc ~~o.ffi9:, \)~ ~o.'Cc'C9:, \9:, ,«'C\~I;\'C<;!. \'I\\.r:1 + Add 1.12 roJ. of t.ar;llNater. tn the wei.Q,b.e.d
a test-tube graduated to 45 ml. faecal sample (between 1 and 10
grams). Knead thoroughly
* The tube is then filled to the 45 rnl mechanically or by using a
mark with decinormal caustic soda stomacher and filter.
solution and 10 or 12 glass beads are
added. + Transfer the filtrate into the
polyallomer centrifuge tube and
• The tube is then closed with a rubber centrifuge at 1000 rpm for 2 min.
stopper and is shaken to give a
homogeneous suspension of the
+ Remove supernatant leaving 1 ml
containing faecal debris and eggs.
faecal material.
Resuspend the sediment in 15ml of
• After shaking, 0.15 ml of the well saturated sodium chloride solution
mixed suspension is drawn off with a and mix thoroughly.
pipette graduated to show this + Using an artery forceps, the
amount and placed on a slide. polyallomer tube is clamped off just
• The total number of eggs in the 0.15 below the meniscus and the contents
ml sample is then counted and this above the clamped area (1.5 ml)
number, multiplied by 100 gives the poured into a Cuvette.
number of eggs in one gram of + Saturated sodium chloride solution
faeces. was further added till the cuvette was
For field work, a heavy flask graduated at completely filled and then seal.ed
56 and 60 ml may be used. The flask is filled with a cap.
to the 56 ml mark with decinormal caustic + Invert the cuvette to resuspend eggs
soda solution and faeces are added until the uniformly and seal with a cuvette
fluid reaches the 60 ml mark. Then, 0.15 ml is cap. Place the cuvette horizontally
withdrawn and the number of eggs in it is on a flat surface to allow the eggs to
multiplied by 100 to give the number of eggs float.
per gram of faeces. This method giveS + Cuvette containing the eggs is then
reliable counts of trematode as well @S examined thoroughly and the total
nematode eggs. number of eggs counted is multiplied

------------------.a!l~----------------
lAMWARM ~1i£Jt. flwinitlff 50. fJ"tJ,d VeWtit~ 2009
 by 10 to arrive at the number of eggs
per gram offaecal sample.
Diagnosing clinical illness
High egg counts (e.g., more than 5,000
eggs per gram of faeces for sheep and goats
or more than 500 eggs per gram of faeces for
cattle) are easy to interpret. They indicate
that these animals are infected with many
PROCESSING, IDENTIFICATION OF ARACHNIDS OF LIVESTOCK
Processing of ticks
Ticks collected can be identified to
species level by
• Boiling the ticks in 10% NaOH or 10%
KOH for 5 to 10 minutes to render the
scutum transparent.
• Wash the excess of NaOH in water
• Dehydrate in ascending grades of
alcohol (70%,90% and absolute)
• Clear in carbolic acid (5 min)
• Mount in canada balsam - mount with
the ventral side up to enable
identification of the ticks
Processing of mites
Mites are ectoparasites included in class
Arachnida. They are closely related to ticks.
The most obvious non-technical difference
between them is size, mites being smaller.
EXAMINATION OF SKIN SCRAPING
Selection of site for skin scraping
Different mites have different sites of
predilect;on, often varying with the hosts. By
visual examination of lesion individual mites
like Psoroptes can be seen. In addition other
ectoparasites like lice, fleas, kids and ticks
are also encountered.
Host reaction to manipulation should be
noted - site of maximum mite reactivity when
rubbed or scratched results in response from
animal - in large animals lips twitch, host may
nibble the operator or in smaller animals
intense scratching may be elicited.
----------------41D11~---------------
JIladnu f!d1flj£, @/u'lllai-600 007
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reproductively active parasites. However,
high counts do not necessarily indicate that
the host is suffering from clinical parasitic
disease because healthy, well-nourished
hosts can often support and compensate for
very impressive populations of parasites.
Negative egg counts indicate that the host
either is uninfected or is infected with non-
reproductive worms. (e.g., developing or
arrested larvae, infertile adults).
While studying mange mites one must
consider skin ailments in general. Skin
diseases are baffling many times to both
veterinarians and physicians. Parasitic
Dermatitis may have number of causes
including both ecto and endoparasites.
Schistosomes, hookworms and filarids
cause dermatitis as also ecto parasites fleas,
lice, mites and chiggers.
Parasitic dermatitis can be differentiated
from non-parasitic forms by finding the
evidence of the organism in the lesion.
Consequently, this determination is basic and
fundamental in handling dermatitis cases.
Hence wherever parasitic mites are
concerned, a skin scraping has to be taken.
Careful attention has to be given to the way it
is done. Free living mites may often be found
on animal hair sent for diagnosis.
Prolonged laboratory examination will not
be useful unless scrapings have been
properly taken
~ Adequate samples necessary - mites
may be absent in small scrapings
from only one area of skin.
~ Especially so when treatment has
reduced lesions.
~ Mange mites are rarely seen when
hairy - so clip hair over affected areas.
~ Scraping should be from moist part of
the lesion especially edge of lesion.
 >I< Live mites are usually not found in ~
thickened dried serous exudates. ,!j
>I< In sarcoptic mange scraping is best
taken from the edge of hairless area
where small pimples occur in
otherwise healthy skin.
>I< If lesion is dry, encrusted it is useful to
moisten skin with liquid paraffin -
helps complete scraping smoothly
and the scraping adheres to the
scalpel and is not blown away.
>I< Since both burrowing and non-
burrowing mites cause parasitic
dermatitis it is better to take deep
scrapings till blood oozes out.
>I< The material scraped should be
securely placed in a small closed tube
or vial, preventing escape by mites.
>I< Paper envelopes are unsuitable
containers for mites since escape of
mites is possible.
BLOOD SMEAR EXAMINATION
EXAMINATION OF BLOOD PARASITES
The blood and other associated fluids
viz. lymph and plasma are common media for
various stages of blood parasites. The fluids
may be infected with pathogenic and
nonpathogenic parasites. They may include
the presence of larval stages of nematodes
like microfilariae.
Examination of blood smear
Examination of blood film may be carried
out by 3 techniques viz. Wet film, thick film
and thin film examination.
Wet film examination
A drop of blood from the peripheral ear
vein at the height of temperature is taken on a
clean slide. One or two drops of warm
physiological saline is added to the blood.
After uniform mixing, clean cover glass is
applied. Examination under microscope
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lAMWARM 9l~he-t 5'tainiJlff 50-:Jidd VeWtituvtiaIM 2009
-l!1 Preparation of material
>I< In case there is very little material or
absence of mite in material then mix a
drop of 10% caustic potash, warm,
.f apply light pressure with needle allow
clearing of specimen for 5-10 min
observe under low power of
microscope.
.\;
>I< Larger quantities are placed in a
boiling tube with around 5-10 ml
NaOH or KOH (10%) heat, allow to
boil- crusts, hair are digested. Allow
liquid to cool.
>I< Centrifuge at 2000 rpm for 2 min
(continued spinning for smaller
species).
>I< Prolonged boiling in caustic to be
avoided as mites will eventually
disintegrate.
>I< Supernatant is quickly decanted and
deposits pi petted off for examination
on microscopic slides.
may reveal living moving Trypanosomes if
infections are heavy.
Thick film examination
Clean two slides by rinsing them in 95%
alcohol and wiping with a clean cloth. Place a
medium sized drop of blood; mix with a
toothpick or the corner of another slide so as
to form circular shape of 2cm diameter. It
should not too thick or too thin. Allow it to dry
inair.
Thin film examination
The smear is of one cell thickness. (i.e Y
erythrocytes are flat on surface. Examined
mostly for intracellular parasites in RBC and
WBC's. More clearly seen at the fringed
edge of the smear, where the cells are
singled out.
Clean two slides by rinsing them in 95%
alcohol and wiping with a clean cloth. Place a
small drop of fresh blood at the end of one
slide, place the other slide or spreader which
is having smooth edge at an angle 300 to the
first one, touch the drop of blood with the end
of the spreader slide so that the blood flows
into the space behind and beneath it. Draw
the spreader slide rather quickly over the
length of first one. The blood should be
pulled behind the slide not pushed a head of
it. A thin even film of blood should result. It
should be fixed it'! absolute methanol for 1-2
min if it is to be stored for more than a day
before staining.
Staining techniques
A) Leishman's staining
Air dried film is placed on the staining
rack flooded with Leishman's stain. Allow it to
act for 112 - 1 min for fixation. The stain is
diluted nearly twice its volume with distilled
water, (or) buffer. pH of buffer for mammalian
blood is 7-7.2 avian blood is 6.B. Blow the
solution until it forms an uniform mixture.
Allow it to act for 20 min. Wash carefully with
tap water, dry it and examine first under low
power and then under oil immersion
especially at the fringed edge border.
B. Giemsa's staining
Fix the smear by immersing the slide in
methanol for 30 seconds. Prepare 1:20
DEWORMING SCHEDULE
Ruminants: Deworming of calves for
ascariasis at 2-4 weeks of age is necessary.
The animals must be dewormed against
gastro intestinal nematodes once in three
months i.e. four times in a year. The
deworming regimen must include treatment
before the onset of m'onsoon and after
monsoon. For trematodes in endemic areas
the first treatment is given at the end of rainy
ANTHELMINTICS
TREMATODES
Fasciolosis
Triclabendazole 10 mg/kg
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C1ilution of stock giemsa's stain with PBS or
Clistilled water with pH of 7.2 for mammalian
blood, 6.8 for avian blood. Pour the prepared
Cliluted stain over the smear. Allow it to for 30
min. Wash carefully in tap water. Air dry and
Eixamine under microscope x 100.
Identification of the blood parasites
The stained smears are screened under
low power (x10), high power (45 x), and oil
immersion (x1 00) objectives respectively. A
knowledge of the commonly occurring
Parasites in blood cells of the domestic
iinimals and their morphology is most
Eissential to enable one to know what to look
for.
tympft node aspirate examination
The swollen lymph node is cleaned with
cllcohol, usually prescapular, parotid and
~)recrural. The node is held in between the
ihdex finger and thumb firmly and the
~terilised 16 to 18 gauge needle is slowly
~Iipped in. 0.2 ml of fluid is withdrawn and
~pread on clean slide. The fluid is air dried
cmd stained with one of the Romanowsky's
~;tain. Trypanosomosis (extra cellular
~)arasites) and theileriosis (Koch's blue
bodies) can be identified by this examination.
1>eason. The second treatment should be
1)lanned for the end of dry season i.e before
r'ainy season. The treatment for cestodes
rnust be done at times of infection.
Oogs : Dogs must be treated for Toxocarosis
<3t 2 weeks of age and treatment to be
~epeated at two weeks interval upto 3 months
c)f age.
b.wt. orally
 Oxyclozanide 10-15 mg/kg
Closantel 10-15 mg/kg
Rafoxanide 7.5mg/kg
Nitroxynil 10mg/kg ('
sIc
Amphistomosis
Oxyclozanide 15 mg/kg b. wt. single or two doses orally
Niclosamide 100 mg/kg b. wt. orally
Niclofolan 6mg/kg b.wt. orally
Resorantel 65mg/kg
Schistosomosis
Anthiomaline 20 ml followed by 10 ml for 3 consecutive days i/m
Praziquantel 60 mg/kg b.wt. orally or 20 mg/kg b.wt. 3 doses of 4 hours,:
apart orally.
CESTODES
Ruminants
Niclosamide 100 mg/kg b.wt. orally
Praziquantel 10-15 mg/kg b. wt. orally
Dogs
Praziquantel 5 mg/kg b.wt. orally
Niclosamide 100-150 mg/kg b. wt..orally
Taenil (Herbal) 4-6 gms orally
Poultry
Fenbendazole 60 mg/kg b.wt. for 3 consecutive days orally
Albendazole 20mg/kg
Niclosamide 100 mg/kg b.wt. single doses orally
Praziquantel 10mg/kg
NEMATODES
Ascariasis
Cattle
Piperazine
compounds 220 mg/kg b.wt. orally at 2-4 weeks of age.
Benzimidazoles are also effective. .
Dogs
Piperazine

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IAMWARM ~fra 5~ 50. fJield V~ 2009
 compounds 100-200 mg/kg b.wt. orally
Pyrantel pamoate 5 mg/kg b.wt orally
Mebendazole 10 mg/kg b .wt twice a day for 2 days.
Fenbendazole 100 mg I kg b. wt. for 3 days
25 mg I kg b.wt. from 40th day of pregnancy
to 2 days after whelping for somatic ascarids.
Poultry
Piperazine
compounds - 300-440 mg/kg in feed (or) 440 mg/litre of water for 24 hours.
Levamisole and Mebendazole are also effective.
BROAD SPECTRUM ANTHELMINTICS
Ruminants
Levamisole 7.5 mg/kg b. wt. orally
Tetramisole 15 mg/kg b.wt. orally
Mebendazole 15 mg/kg b.wt. orally
Albendazole 5 - 7.5 mg/kg b.wt. orally
Fenbendazole 7.5 mg/kg b.wt. orally (cattle)
5 mg/kg b. wt. orally (sheep and goat)
Oxfendazole 4.5 mg/kg b.wt
Pyrantel Pamoate - 25 mg/kg b.wl. orally
Morantel tartarate 10 mg/kg b.wt. orally
Closantel 10-15 mg/kg b. wt. orally
Febantel 5-7.5 mg/kg b. wt. orally
Ivermectin 200 ? g/kg b. wt. sIc
Doramectin 300? g/kg b.wt. sic
Dogs· Ancylostomosis
Pyrantel pamoate 5 mg/kg b.wt. orally
Ivermectin 200 ug I kg b.wt
Mebendazole 10 mg/kg b.wt. -5 doses
Fenbendazole 100 mg/kg b. wt. - 3 days
Febantel 10 mg/kg for 3 days.

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ANTHELMINTIC RESISTANCE
---------------------------------~-------------------- --------------
Helminths of livestock cause serious
economic losses in particular in areas where
extensive grazing is practiced. Worms cause
economically important diseases in livestock
especially sheep and goats. Of these, the
blood sucking nematode, Haemonchus
contortus is highly prevalent among sheep.
These worms are eradicated with the
help of anthelmintics. The availability of safe,
broad spectrum anthelmintic has helped to
reduce the incidence of a great number of
worm diseases. Modern anthelmintics are
highly effective against immature and mature
stages 01 Gas\TO )n\es\)na\ nema\ooes as we\\
as extra intestinal worms. To maintain
production benefits from our livestock
especially sheep and goats, the efficacy of
available compounds must be maintained so
that worm control measures remain effective.
The use of anthelmintics in our country is
purely tactical, i.e., the animals are treated
when found positive on faecal examination.
Of late, it is observed that these worms are
found to exist in animals despite anthelmintic
medication causing mortalities in young and
adult animals and weight loss. This is now
explained by the phenomenon of
anthelmintic resistance. The development of
resistance to anthelmintic is attributed to the
following.
i'( Prolonged use of single anthelmintic
in animals.
I'
. 1'< Under dosing of animals.
* Improper means of assessment of
'J: body weight of animals leading to
under (or) excess dosing.
-tr Use of anthelmintics without knowing
the type of worms present.
-tr Unnecessary drenching of animals
without assessing worm burden.
This has resulted indiscriminate use of
broad-spectrum anthelmintics in ruminants
------------------.aml~----------------
IAMWARM 5-urinit"l5o. gidd 2009~fwt
Veterinary Parasitology
with marginal (or) ineffective dose application
leading to resistance.
Anthelmintic resistance is defined as a
heritable change in the ability of individual
parasites to survive the recommended
therapeutic dose of an anthelmintic drug.
Anthelmintic resistance in other parts of
world is well documented. In India, there are
few reports of emergence of resistant
parasitic strains especially Haemonchus
contortus in small ruminants. In Tamil Nadu,
preliminary trials in and around Chengalpet,
Thiruvallur and Salem districts showed
emergence of resistance to the most
commonly used anthelmintics viz.
Fenbendazole (Benzimidazole) and
Tetramisole. The scenario will be awesome if
this is investigated in detail in other parts of
Tamil Nadu because these two anthelmintic
groups have been in use since atleast two
decades. The main reasons attributed to the
cause of development of resistance are
extensive usage and improper dosage due to
faulty drenching and inaccurate assessment
of body weight of animals.
Methods to detect resistance
Anthelmintic resistance is usually
suspected when a farmer reports (or) we
detect a poor clinical response after
anthelmintic treatment. Anthelmintic
resistance should be measured in terms of an
impairment in the reduction of either faecal
egg out put (or) worm numbers during post
mortem rather than on non-specific clinical
signs such as diarrhoea, reduced body
weight, anaemia and death. The existence of
anthelmintic resistance in animals can be
understood by the fact that the animals suffer
from worm burden despite correct usage of
anthelmintic medication. Methods for
detecting anthelmintic resistance can be
divided into in-vivo and in-vitro techniques.
The in-vivo technique such as Faecal Egg
V~
count Reduction Test (FECRT) is suitable for
all types of anthelmintics. In-vitro techniques
offer rapid, sensitive and more economic
methods of screening.
The in vivo test, FECRT can be
conducted at field levels by comparing the
egg output prior to anthelmintic medication
and 3, 7, 10 and 14 days after treatment.
(Test Procedure)
FECRT Test Procedure
'1 Use young animals 3-6 months
-~ The animals should not have been
dewormed 8-12 weeks prior to test
-t( Minimum 15 animals required for
treatment and control groups.
'-1 Collect 5 g (10-15 pellets) of faeces
from the rectum of animals.
,-'c Samples should be sealed· and
brought to lab for egg counts.
,A( Never store samples in refrigerator
.~ Samples collected on 0, 3, 7, 10, 14
days after treatment
-t( Drug to be used in the prescribed
dose.
'-1 Weigh 3 g of faeces- add to 42 ml of
water-soak for 1 hour.
)~( Homogenise and filter it.
-~ Centrifuge at 2000 rpm for 2 min.
,1 Collect the sediment and take 0.15 ml
f three drops approximately in a glass
slide and count the eggs.
-t( Egg count is best done with Mc
Master slide.
Interpretation : RESO programme will
be demonstrated during lecture
It is advised to ascertain the existence of
resistance in flocks of sheep and goats
before actually drenching the animals so that
they can fully derive the benefit of
anthelmintic medication.
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JIladFlLl 0ei£I'i.lwl'lJ@dieljf1 @Jl£I'lIwi-600 007
How to avoid development of resi~tance
Development of resistance is probably
an inevitable consequence of the use of
anthelmintics. But the following measures
are recommended to delay or slow the
development of resistance to broad-
spectrum anthelmintics.
1. Ensure that the animal receives the
full therapeutic dose. This is
achievable by maintenance of
drenching equipment, full
compliance with manufacturer's
recommendation and correct
estimation of body weight.
2. Monitor resistance and use a drug
that has been effective.
3. Rotate between chemical groups
atleast once a year.
4. Monitor parasite population and treat
when numbers reach a threshold.
The threshold levels vary with
different class of helminths. e.g. few
trematode parasites and haema
-tophagus helminths can be more
dangerous than thousands of
cestodes and large round worms.
5. Use combination of drugs with
different modes of action against
which there is no resistance.
6. Most of the anthelmintic formulations
available in the market are for oral
administration. It must be ensured
that correct toxic concentration of
drug reaches the absorptive surface
of gastro intestinal tract while
passing through rumen. Generally
largest quantity of green fodder in
feed prior to administration of
anthelmintics reduces the systemic
availability of drugs.
7. Use of drugs may be minimized to
the extent possible by adopting
suitable measures to remove the
factors responsible for existence of
parasites
 Veterinary Pathology

NECROPSY EXAMINATION
Dr. C. Balachandran, Dr. Ganne Venkata Sudhakar Rao, Dr. S. Hemalatha,
Dr. S.M. Sakthivelan, Dr. N. Pazhanivel, Dr. N. Jayanthi and Dr. K. Krithiga
Department of Veterinary Pathology
Madras Veterinary College, Chennai-600 007

Post-mortem (PM) Examination (PME)
of carcass is conducted by Veterinarian or a
Veterinary Pathologist to ascertain the cause
and nature of disease in fatal cases of
diseases. The term autopsy is preferred in
I'luman medicine for PME and necropsy in
Veterinary Medicine.
Autopsy means seeing with ones own
eyes.
Necropsy means seeing a carcass.
Autopsist is one who conducts the PM
examination.

TYPES OF NECROPSY

a. Where no necropsy is conducted

If the blood smear from ear vein (cattle, sheep and goats) or smear from oedematous fluid
from throat or abdominal region (pigs, horse) reveals anthrax bacilli no necropsy should be
conducted on the carcass since the organisms are aerobic spore formers. The spores survive
as long as 18 years.

S.No. Particulars Anthrax bacilli Anthracoids

1. Organism Bacillus anthracis Other than
B. anthracis
2. Capsule Predominantly pink stained Less
predominant
3. Spores Absent Present
4. Length of Short-usually 2 to 3 organisms Long chains
chain
5. End of bacilli Truncated Rounded

b. Partial necropsy d. Cosmetic nepropsy

In case of rabies only the brain of the
'carcass' is examined for diagnosis. Here
only a part of the body (head) is opened for
the purpose. Other parts of the body are not
opened.
Examination of the carcass is done with
very less mutilation. Cuttings and incisions
are sewed together and the body is washed
to appear as nearly intact as possible. It is
done in case of pet and wild animals.

c. Complete necropsy Necropsy as a factor in diagnosis

All parts of the body are thoroughly Necropsy actually accomplishes to bring
examined to arrive at an aetiological into open previously unseen or merely
diagnosis. surmised lesions and even certain etiological

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IAMWARM
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g'taininfJ go. fJiJ.d VeWUtr.wUan,., 2009
~fwt
agents not observable from the animal's
exterior. Quite frequently, the necropsy may
be compared with opening and reading a
book, the title of which conveys a certain
meaning; but it is the text that really portrays
the plot, the sequence of events and the
conclusions. The necropsy like the text book
may reveal items of a surprising or
unexpected nature thus explaining
previously unknown or baffling events.
Clinical diagnosis would be more
accurate if the clinician follows the animal
which failed to respond to therapy to the
necropsy.
The veterinarian holds a distinct
advantage over the physician in the matter of
Post-mortem diagnosis since he/she may
employ euthanasia in order to hasten the
process of diagnosis.
Time of necropsy
The post-mortem examination (PME)
should be conducted as soon as possible
after the death of the animal. If delayed,
various PM changes including autolysis and
putrefaction may set in which sometimes
may confuse with morbid lesions and distort
the diagnosis. However, even if PM changes
have advanced considerably, still from a
stand point of gross pathology the
deterioration is not as serious as many
believed. If the disease was one that could
have been diagnosed originally by the gross
pathological changes it probably can still be
diagnosed by distinguishing PM changes
from morbid lesions.
Place of necropsy and site for disposal
The veterinary practitioner needs but
little space for the conduct of necropsies. For
small animals, a well ventilated room of the
hospital may be set aside for euthanasia and
for necropsies. In large animals, the
veterinarian should choose an outdoor large
area least likely to allow contamination to
spread.
Sanitary conditions and intended
disposition of the carcass are factors which
outweigh convenience in deciding where to
~----------------IDmI~----------------
Jll£ulnu ({}e1eruw'lJ eo/lege, @1wmai-600 007
perform the necropsy. If there is any
possibility that the animal may have died of a
contagious disease, it is imperative to avoid
contamination of ground accessible to
susceptible livestock or their food.
If the necropsy has to be performed near
farm building or on ground from which
livestock is not excluded, it may be feasible to
have an extremely deep bed of straw
prepared on which to place the carcass. The
straw absorbs the fluids and can be burned or
buried afterwards.
More frequently, it will be decided to
transport the carcass to some distant field not
used for livestock atleast during the current
year. If the animal is to be buried, a deep
grave layered with lime can be dug where the
carcass can be easily rolled into, to be
followed by the contaminated layer of the
earth.
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Small and large scissors with either
pointed or round ends, chisel and hammer,
curved scissors, small and large knives,
scalpel and blades, bone cutters and saw
(small and large), small and large forceps,
toothed forceps, hand lens, rubber or latex
hand gloves, masks, Bunsen burner or spirit
lamp or stoves, spatula, syringe and needles
(Tuberculin syringe), sterilizer, autoclave,
spirit or alcohol, cotton and cotton swabs
sterilized, sterilized vials, Petri dishes and
test tubes, Pasteur pipettes and rubber
bulbs, tissue fixatives 10% formalin, formal
saline, buffered neutral formalin, small or
large stainless steel trays, monocular/binocular
microscope.
Clean glass slides and cover slips,
normal saline and glycerine-saline, different
staining solutions Ziehl Neelsen, Giemsa,
Wright's and Leishman stains, match boxes,
rubber apron, disinfectants including dettol, .
savlon, phenyl, iodophore etc. fly repellants,
coldwater, water container; small screw-top
vials, water-tight jars, blotting paper, staining
rack, sticker labels, marking pen, glass
marking pencil, slide tray, monopan balance,
physical balance / jeweller's balance, kitchen
balance max. 5 kg with weight, measuring
tape cm/inches, aluminum foil, adhesive
tapes, towel soaps, measuring cylinder,
centrifuge, record, ice box/flask, transport
media for bacteria, transport media for virus,
antibiotic solutions (penicillin, streptomycin,
gentamicin and mycostatin), polypropylene
bags, mask-disposable, thread, gum boots,
camera with film, Postmortem stainless steel
top table, rexinJrubber sheets, vials with
anticoagulants.
Disinfectants
Although not effective as steam / heat
sterilization, chemical disinfectants are
usually employed for necropsy instruments,
boots and gloves as well as the tables and
premises connected with necropsy. To be
effective any such disinfection must be
preceded by thorough mechanical cleaning.
The commonly used chemicals are Iysol,
cresol, chlorine, quaternary ammonium
compounds, mercury in the form of bin-iodide
combined with potassium iodide,
iodophores, phenol etc. Quick lime is the
choice of disinfectant to be used for the
tnstructions
disposal of carcass where the cause of death
suspected to be infectious and contagious
(Anthrax).
Precautions
i. Obtain written permission from the
owner before post mortem
examination.
ii. Request from local police is a must in
vetero-Iegal cases
iii. Conduct postmortem as early as
possible to avoid putrefaction.
iv. Examine the smear from peripheral
blood to rule out anthrax. Besides
~4.----------------IDEI~------------~--
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anthrax bacilli, examination of blood
smear may reveal blood parasites,
other bacterial and/or postmortem
invaders.
v. Postmortem examination should be
done in day time to appreciate the
accurate changes in the colour of
tissues. This is not possible with
artificial light.
vi. Conduct postmortem far away from
animal houses and farm premises
and preferably in a government land
to avoid litigation.
vii. Obtain history, symptoms and
treatment done etc.
viii. Wear gloves, mask, aprons and gum
boots to avoid contact with zoonotic
agents.
ix. Record the postmortem findings
immediately.
x. Bury the carcass in deep ditches
layered with lime. Carcass can be
burnt to ashes if incinerator is
available.
i. Wear protective clothing, rubber
gloves/shoes
ii. Do not wear watch, ring, bangles etc.
in your hands while conducting a
necropsy.
iii. Hands may be washed frequently
during necropsy.
iv. All accidents including minor cuts
during the necropsy should be given
medical attention.
v. After completing the procedures, the
gloves and instruments should be
cleaned in the disinfectant provided.
 Veterinary Pathology

NECROPSY TECHNIQUE AND OBSERVATIONS

Dr. C. Balachandran, Dr. Ganne Venkata Sudhakar Rao, Dr. S. Hemalatha,
Dr. S.M. Sakthivelan, Dr. N. Pazhanivel, Dr. N. Jayanthi and Dr. K. Krithiga
Department of Veterinary Pathology
Madras Veterinary College, Chennai-600 007
-------------------------------~---------------------- --------------
NECROPSY PROCEDURE
i. Record the kind of animal and to xv. Divide the kidney symmetrically by
whom it belongs longitudinal incision. Remove the
capsule, examine the cortex,
ii. Write the precis of the case medulla and pelvis
iii. Carry out the external examination
xvi. Open the mouth to examine the
of the carcass. Then proceed to
gum, teeth, tongu~ and buccal
'm\erna\ exam·ma't"lon.
cavity. Then open and examine
iv. Secure the carcass on its back esophagus
v. Make incision in the midventralline xvii. Open the nasal cavity and
from chin to anus going round examine. Examine the pharynx,
about the external genitalia in male larynx, trachea and bronchi
and udder in female and incision is
xviii. Open the stomachslforestomachs
also made on the medial aspect of
and abomasum (ruminants) and
all legs and flay the skin
examine the nature of contents
vi. Examine the subcutaneous tissue and the wall
vii. Open the cavities of the body. Look xix. Open the intestine. Examine the
forexudates, transudate etc. contents and the wall
viii. Examine the position of the organs xx. Open and examine the urinary
bladder for the nature of content
ix. Separate lungs from heart and
and the wall
palpate for any abnormalities.
Incise and examine the lungs. xxi. Examine the generative organs
x. Examine the pericardial sac. Open xxii. Open the skull and vertebral
the pericardium, examine the column to examine the brain and
nature of contents spinal cord
xi. Cut through heart and the vessels. xxiii. Examine the skeleton and
Examine the wall and chambers for musculature
the nature of content, valves and
xxiv. R e cor d the fin din gsa n d
the lumen of vessels
summarize the appearances found
xii. Examine the diaphragm
xxv. Collect suitable materials for
xiii. Examine the abdominal visceral microbiological, histopathological,
organs-liver, spleen, kidneys, parasitological and chemical
adrenals, pancreas before and examination as required
after incising the organs
xxvi. Arrive at an etiological diagnosis
xiv. Open the bile duct and gall bladder based on the PM findings and the
and examine results of the materials examined II

-------------------ImmI~-----------------
 NECROPSY OBSERVATIONS
While describing the gross lesions,
weight, colour, size, shape, consistency and
appearance of cut surface are to be included.
Nature of exudates may be serous, mucous,
fibrinous, purulent, haemorrhagic, serofi
-brinous, mucopurulent or fibrinopurulent.
Record the kind of animal and who had
sent the carcass (owner of the animals/local
police in vetero-Iegal cases)
Examine the peripheral blood smear and
also the smear from oedematous fluid (pigs,
horse) to rule out anthrax since no PM is
conducted in the case of anthrax. Besides,
blood parasites, other bacteria, anaemic
changes and PM invaders can be detected.
A. Precis of the case
This includes date of admission, ward,
case number if treated in a Veterinary
Hospital or admission as carcass with case
number, date and time to death reported,
date and time of making PM, history with
symptoms, treatment details and clinical
diagnosis.
. B. External examination of the carcass
Record the class of animal as bovine,
equine, porcine, ovine, caprine, canine,
feline etc., (Remember the kind of diseases
affecting different species of animals) sex
(reproductive organ affections), age - if not
known, assess based on teeth or ossification
of bones (diseases commonly prevalent in
young-ICH, parvo viral infection in dogs and
older age-Neoplasms, infectious coryza in
chicken), specify the breed or record as non-
descript. Descriptive marks - natural colour
and markings (whorls) and artificial marking-
tattoo number, brand marks, tag number,
wing band or leg band number etc., In vetero-
legal cases, measure the distance between
horns at the level of base, midlevel and tips,
and the length and direction of horns.
Record the condition of body as fair (well-
fed), obese, poor, emaciated/cachectic (hide
and bone condition).
Record rigor mortis as present, partially
----------------~~----------------
IAMWARM ~fwt 9''I4itUng. 9'(1. VeWW~ 2009
present or absent (important in vetero-Iegal
cases in arriving probable time of death)
Natural orifices-nature of discharge-in
anthrax tarry coloured blood oozes from
natural orifices and blood fails to clot,
abortion or metritis-discharge from genital
orifice.
Visible mucous membrane-Pink
(normal), pale or blanched (anaemia), icteric!
jaundice (babesiosis, leptospirosis),
congested, haemorrhagic, cyanotic (local or
systemic disturbances). Skin and coat-hair
loss (patchy or complete); look for the
presence of wounds, incisions (sharp
objects), abrasions, lacerations (rough road
surfaces in accidents, injury from barbed wire
fencing), perforations (bullet wound),
swelling, abscess and tumours. Check
umbilicus for omphalitis, mammary gland
and external genitalia for any change.
Snake bite-Fang marks with swelling,
haemorrhage or necrosis; Foot and mouth
disease-vesicles, maggot wounds in the
interdigital spaces; blue tongue: coronet
region congestion and haemorrhage; swine
erysipelas: diamond-like lesion; swine fever;
erythema or purplish discoloration of skin;
canine distemper: pustules on the ventral
side of the abdomen; Pox: pock lesion on the
udder and teats in cattle and face and also
underneath the tail in sheep; Orf-raised
multiple nodules at the commissures, around "
the lips.
Examine the skin-look for dermato
-mycosis (ring worm) and scabies or mange
and look for ectoparasites-ticks, lice, fleas
etc., Examine the superficial lymph nodes -
prescapular, precrural, popliteal etc.,
swollen-theileriosis in cattle; Iymphoma~
purulent inflammation (Glanders, strangles),
ehrlichiosis in dogs.
C. Internal examination of the carcass
Subcutaneous tissue: normally fair
and moist but may be dry (dehydration),
congested, haemorrhagic (contusions),
icteric, oedematous, arboriform
congestion(lightning) and haemorrhages
(electrocution ).
fjiJd
 Abdominal and thoracic cavities-record
the nature of exudates, examine the organs
in situ to appreciate any dislocation
(abomasal displacement, intussusception,
torsion, hernia etc.) adhesion of serous
membranes etc.
Pericardial sac-moist, record the nature
of content-cattle-traumatic peridcarditis with
fibrinopurulent exudates and foreign body
may be seen. cardiac tamponade-blood clot
covering the heart-rupture of aorta
(spirocercosis), coronary vessels and heart
Heart and blood vessels-epicardial and
endocardial haemorrhage (septicaemia,
toxaemia, enterotoxaemia, 'impaction,
pyometra); purulent pericarditis in
~~~mQr;\~~~Q~~~, ~~Q~~r;\QIJ.~ ~~~~~~~c;!.~\\~
colisepticaemia, gout in chicken, tigroid
appearances, i.e. pale streaks in
myocardium in foot and mouth disease in
calves and pigs; Ventricular chamber
diameter-narrowed in hypertrophy and
increased in dilatation(Filip-over disease in
broilers); Chambers may contain-unclotted
blood, partially clotted blood, clotted blood
"current jelly" and "chicken fat" clot.
Vegetative endocarditis affect valves (swine
erysipelas, streptococcal and coryne
bacterial infections etc.), ulcerative
endocarditis-uraemia; Heart worm in
canines; Blue tongue-haemorrhages at the
base of the pulmonary artery and aorta;Aortic
atherosclerosis /aneurysm (weakening and
dilatation-Onchocercosis in cattle,
spirocercosis in dogs, aneurysm-Strongylus
vulgaris infection in horses involving anterior
mesenteric artery.
Larynx, trachea, bronchi-mucosa may be
congested; trachea and bronchi contain
frothy fluid (Death due to asphyxia) in
pulmonary edema, aspirated substances,
submucosal tracheal congestion and
haemorrhages in HS, caseous and
haemorrhagic exudates with haemorrhagic
mucosa (ILT); Lungs: pink and spongy
normally, areas of emphysema (raised pale
areas), collapse (depressed dark bluish red),
congestion, subpleural/parenchymatous
haemorrhages, infare;ts, red or grey
------------------~~----------------
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hepatisation, granulomatous nodules may be
caseous, calcified or uncalcified in
tuberculosis, marbling (contagious) bovine
pleuropneumonia), black spots (anthracosiSo),
brown induration (chronic cardiac failure);
pleura-shaggy appearance in serofibrinous
inflammation. Air sac-cloudy (E.co/i) and
accumulation of cheesy material (CRD).
Spleen-enlargement (babesiosis and
ehrlichiosis), infarction (swine fever),
abscesses, tumour (lymphoid).
Kidney-Capsule should peel off easily:
but is adherent to cortical surface of kidney in.
inflammation: kidney-enlarged, shrunken
and hard (chronic nephritis), cystic,
hydronephrosis, congested, petechial
\r;\ 1;l;Y>J.Y:l,Qr,~I;l~~ t;'tJJr.~R.'J ~ ~.;ar.:Y,1.G.e<i' i1.1,
swine fever), miliary abscesses (pyaemic),
pale areas (infarcts or lymphoid cell
collection-theileriosis), leptospirosis,
tumours; Lesions may involve medulla and
pelvis; Pelvis-surface smooth, eroded,
congested, calculi.
Ureter-distended (obstruction-calculus!
calculi), indurated; Gout in chicken-tortuous
and distended with urates and uric acid
accumulation (Hypovitaminosis A, infectious
bronchitis, dehydration).
Urinary bladder-may be empty or
distended with urine, examine nature of
contents [urine straw coloured to colourless
normally, deep yellow (icterus)], reddish to
coffee coloured!brownish (haematuria and
haemoglobinuria); Mucosa-congested,
haemorrhagic, bladder-thickened (chronic
cystitis, bovine hill haematuria). Look for
calculi (may be few to many); Urethra
particularly in the region of sigmoid flexure-
calculi in bovines; Prepuce (pigs)-ulcers due
to bacterial infection.
Adrenals-enlargement, tumour, thinning
or widening of cortex (stress).
Mouth: Look for vesicles and ulcers on
the gums, dental pad, tongue etc., in foot and
mouth disease, bran-like deposits on the
gums and tongue in rinderpest in cattle/PPR
in goats, cyanotic tongue/bilateral ulcers in
blue tongue, wooden tongue in actinobacillosis,
ulcers in uraemia, swelling of jaw bones-
actinomycosis, condition of teeth: worn out,
sharp teeth etc., and tumours; Canine
leptospirosis-purulent necrotic laryngitis.
Oesophagus: Check patency (stenosis
and dilatation or diverticulum) and for foreign
bodies (choke), spirocerca nodules (distal
end of oesophagus) in dogs, pustule-like
lesion in vitaminAdeficiency in chicken
Crop: Thrush-turkish towel appearance,
Ranikhet disease-proventricular
haemorrhages around glandular papillae;
IBD-haemorrhage in the proven
triculus-gizzard junction.
F orestom achs (ru m in ants): bloat,
examine nature of content-solid, semisolid,
liquid/watery, impacted, exudates etc.,
nature of exudates, worms-amphistomes,
trichobezoars, phytobezoars and foreign
bodies. Examine mucosa and submucosa for
erosions, ulceration, congestion, haemorrhage,
perforation etc., Rumen-vesicles in FMD,
congestion/peels off in acidosis, mycotic
ruminitis following acidosis; abomasum-
punched out ulcers in theileriosis, ragged
ulcers in haemonchosis with brownish watery
contents; ulcers in uraemia, habronema
nodules in horses.
Intestine: Coccidiosis-ballooning up of
intestine with red and white spots seen
through serosa with blood mixed porridge-
like content present in lumen. Look for nature
of contents/worms. Duodenum-congestion
and haemorrhage-HS, fowl cholera,
immature amphistomes; Rinderpest-
serofibrinous foul smelling contents, streaks
of haemorrhages (linear) in the rectum
(Zebra marking); Johne's disease-ileum and
caecum-thickened (two to twenty times)
-corrugated mucosa; Swine fever-button-like
ulcers in the caecum and colon, RD-button
ulcers, enterotoxaemia-congestion; Strongyle
worms-bunostomes, ancylostomes;
Nodules-E.coli infection, lymphoid leucosis,
TB, oesophagostomiasis (greenish pimple or
nodule); gangrenous inflammation
(intussusception, volvulus, torsion), calculi.
-------------------ImmI~-----------------
IAMWARM ~fwt
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Mesentery: vessels for congestion, surface
for deposits (Traumatic peritonitis, egg
peritonitis) and tumours; Anus-laceration or
prolapse.
Liver; pale, yellowish (icterus, fatty
changes) normal sharp borders become
rounded (swelling), soft and friable (fatty
changes) cooked up appearance, hard in
consistency in cirrhosis/chronic hepatitis,
nutmeg appearance (chronic venous
congestion), surface may show congestion,
necrotic foci (grayish-white)-fowl cholera in
poultry, telangiectasis, haemorrhages, cysts,
abscesses, tumours which may extend into
parenchyma, liver flukes in bile ducts with
clay-pipe cirrhosis/biliary cirrhosis,
colisepticaemia-fibrinous exudate cover the
surface; Histomonosis-Iarge slightly
depressed circular necrotic foci (green
colour-some times) with red margins.
Gall bladder-thickened wall, nature of
content (bile)-thin, thick, greenish, yellowish
green etc., calculi.
Generative organs: testicles-cryptorchid,
swelling, balanoposthitis; Accessory glands-
Prostate-enlargement; Ovaries
enlargement, cystic (single to multiple in both
ovaries-follicular cyst, large and single-luteal
. cyst) and tumours; Uterus-tear, torsion,
congestion, haemorrhage, nature of content,
mummified (dry brown leathery) or
macerated fetus (bones), pyometra
(common in dogs); IBRIIPVV-vagina and
vulva-pustules.
Skeleton:Actinomycosis-granuloma of
mandibular bones, fractures, osteoporOSis,
osteopetrosis, osteodystrophy, rickety. rosary
(vitamin D deficiency), Bone marrow -for
hyperplastic or hypoplastic activity.
Musculature: degeneration, necrosis,
BQ-gangrene (foul smelling gaseous
exudate-Smear organisms), pale streaks
(Vitamin E and selenium deficiency, white
muscle disease) and abscesses; paint brush
haemorrhages in pectoral and thigh musles
(IBD in birds). Brain, spinal cord and
VeWUt~
meninges for congestion, haemorrhage
(heat stroke), cyst-coenurus,
encephalomalaci.a (Vitamin E deficiency).
Nature of cerebrospinal fluid-clear, cloudy
etc.
Examine all lymph nodes in general,
particularly regional lymph nodes if any
changes, are detected in the organs or
tissues. Lymph nodes-enlarged,
oedematous, congested, haemorrhagic,
granulomatous (TB, JD), purulent (strangles,
glanders) and tumours (lymphosarcoma).
Examine bursa of Fabricius in birds IBD-
enlarged, haemorrhagic, contain creamy,
caseous or haemorrhagic exudates (3-4
days) and shrunken (8 days).

COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF MATERIALS

FOR HISTOPATHOLOGICAL EXAMINATION

Histopathology is the microscopical Formal saline

study of tissues for pathological alterations.
Thin pieces of 3 to 5 mm, thickness are 40% formaldehyde 100 mL
collected from tissues showing gross morbid
changes along with normal tissue. Sodium chloride 9g
FIXATION Tap/distilled water 900 mL
Keeping the tissues in a fixative for 24-48
hours at room temperature (a) serves to Neutral buffered formalin
harden the tissues by coagulating the cell
protein, (b) prevents autolysis, (c) preserves' 40% formaldehyde 100 mL
the structure of the tissue, and (d) prevents
shrinkage. The volume of the fixative added Distilled water 900 mL
is 10 times the volume of the tissues.
Sodium dihydrogen
COMMON FIXATIVES phosphate
10% formalin monohydrate 4g

40% formaldehyde 100 mL Disodium hydrogen

Distilled or tap water 900 mL phosphate anhydrous 6.5 g

DIAGNOSIS OF RABIES

5. Dissect the brain into two halves

Preparation of impression smear from 6. Remove the hippocampus major by
brain dissection. Smears from cerebellum
1. Flay the skin over the fore head are preferred in ruminants.
region 7. Divide the hippocampus major
2, Remove the muscles to expose the transversely and hold it with the help
skull of a pair of forceps
3. Break open the skull with the help of 8. Blot out the cut surface to remove the
a chisel and hammer or heavy stroke blood, which may interfere with the
by hardy strong knife examination
4. Meninges are cut opened with a pair 9. Make impression smears in a clear
of scissors to expose the brain dry glass slide by gently touching the

----------------_.~~----------------
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 cut surface.
10. Fix the smear by dipping the slide in
methanol in a Coplin jar (The
process also kills the organisms).
Staining the impression smear
(William's modification of van Gieson's
stain)
Stock solution
Solution 1 Saturated methanolic solution
of basic fuchsin
Solution 2 Saturated methanolic solution
of methylene blue
Working solution
This should be prepared freshly.
To about 1Oml of water in a test tube add
Solution 1 - 3 drops
Solution 2 - 7 drops
Mix well
(Increase or decrease the quantity of
!" stain depending on the result)
Staining procedure:
• Pour the stain over the impression
smear
• Gently heat the slide from under till
steam emanates
• Allow it for a minute or two
• Wash the slide with water
• Blot
Examination of the smear
; + Screen the slide under low power to
identify the areas free from erythrocytes
and for groups of ganglion cells
------------------------~·IIIIJI ..-----------------------··(-
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+ Place a drop of immersion oil on the
smear
+ Examine under oil immersion
Result
• The nuclei of nerve cells are stained
blue in colour with nucleoli taking
dark blue stain.
• Glial nuclei are stained in dark blue
colour and nucleoli are not
appreciable.
• The Negri bodies are round or oval in
shape located near the nuclei of
nerve cells and are magenta red in
colour.
• Erythrocytes are coppery red In
colour.
Interpretation
The presence of Negri bodies is a definite
evidence of rabies while, the absence of
Negri bodies does not rule out rabies.
FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE
USing the suspected hippocampus
major impression smears, fluorescent
pntibody technique can be applied to
demonstrate the presence of antigen in the
tissues. The microscopic examination
occaSionally fails, generally on account of
badly preserved or insufficient material sent,
so that the animal test must be resorted to. If
the latter is to be successful, a portion of the
fresh brain of the animal must be removed
from the skull immediately after death, put at
once into 50 per cent sterile glycerine or 5%
carbol saline and dispatched to Pasteur
Institute, Coonoor.
 Clinical Pathology

CLINICAL PATHOLOGY LABORATORY FOR PRACTISING VETERINARIANS

Dr. C. Balachandran
Professor and Head
Department of Veterinary Pathology
Madras Veterinary College, Chennai-600 007

In modern veterinary practice laboratory specimens collected by the clinician.

tests yield useful information and may
provide definite evidence regarding the
alteration in a disease process. Hence,
laboratory test becomes an integral part of
clinical diagnosis. Judicious blending of
results of appropriately chosen tests,
physical examination and anamnesis lead to
correct evaluation of pathophysiological
status of an animal. Nowadays, the clinical
pathology laboratory has been expanded as
Centralised Clinical Laboratory encompassing
clinical haematology, parasitology,
biochemistry, microbiology, urinalysis,
biopsy, cytology, organ function tests and so
on.
Clinical pathology - Definitions
Pathology applied to the solution of
clinical problems especially the use of
laboratory methods in diagnosis.
The branch of pathology in which
diagnosis is made at the patient's bedside.
Types of clinical pathology laboratory
... Basic clinical pathology or
practitioner's laboratory
c Complete clinical pathology
laboratory
Basic clinical pathology or practitioner's
laboratory
This is a small self-contained laboratory
aiding in the diagnosis of certain diseases in
a clinic. Some of the tests could be easily and
quickly performed in a small laboratory
attached to a clinic. Basic clinical laboratory
is dealing with routine screening of
Generally, examination of wet films of blood,
blood sr.;8ars, faecal samples, urine, skin
scrapings, nasal washing and cytological
preparations are carried out in such a
laboratory.
Haematology
Anaemia can be confirmed by estimation
of haemoglobin and PCV. Techniques for
these estimations are quite simple. With the
advent of digital haemoglobinometers,
haemoglobin estimation could be carried out
from a stain prick with in minutes. Similarly, by
using a microhaematocrit centrifuge, PCV
can be measured within 5 minutes.
Enumeration of leucocytes is a must with
differential leucocyte count. Erythrocyte and
platelet counts and estimation of ESR are
time consuming and beyond the scope of a
practitioner's laboratory. Microscopic
examination of stained blood smear is also
well within the realms of a practitioner's
laboratory and could be of help in diagnosing
protozoan diseases, pasteurellosis and
anaemia .
Urinalysis
This body fluid is easily obtained and the
tests should be carried out immediately after
collection. Conventional techniques require
number of reagents and their preparation.
However, the 'dipsticks' which are freely
available for all the pathological constituents,
made urine analysis simple and well within
the reach of small laboratory. Albuminuria,
glucosuria, ketonuria, haematuria,
haemoglobinuria, biluribinuria etc. can be
detected early by simple urine analysis.

-------------------ImmI~-----------------
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Parasitological examination
The presence of egg or larvae of
helminths and the ectoparasites liKe
sarcoptes, psoroptes, demodex and fungi
can be easily demonstrated immediately I:)y
direct examination or examining centrifuged
nasal washing, faecal samples and skin
scrapings. Sedimentation technique takes
about 10 minutes. Faecal examination
requires centrifugation after mixing with
water, saline etc. and digestion of skin
scrapings/nasal washing in 10 ml of 10 per
cent KOH or NaOH.
Bacteriology
Smears prepared from pus, milk, sputum
and cutaneous lesions or rectal pinch can I:)e
sta'lned for'ldentWy"lng Gram posn'lve or Gram
negative bacteria, acid-fast bacilli ar1d
Malassezia organisms.
Cytology
Smears prepared from vagina, ~ymph
nodes or biopsy materials can be stained with
Wright's or Giemsa stains for finding stage of
estrus cycle in dogs, Koch's blue bodies in
theileriosis, and degenerative, necrotic,
inflammatory or neoplastic changes.
Usefulness
Performance of above tests boosts the
image of the practitioner since it saves time
by aiding in immediate and specific
diagnosis, rationale treatment and rapid
recovery. Hence, it is imperative that every
practitioner should have a small laboratory
where in common and easy tests could De
carried out. This could be easily managed by
the practitioner himself or with the help of
trained technician. Hence, the veterinary
practitioner should brush away the often-
made complaint of "I do not have the time or
inclination to undertake laboratory tests
myself!"
Basic needs
Establishing such a basic clinical
laboratory approximately costs around
RS.36000/- for equipment and consumables.
The laboratory should be provided with
------------------~.~~-------------------
IAMWARM ~fwt:J'tainimj get fJ;J.d VeWtituvtiatw 2009
sufficient ventilation, but not strong current of
air, light and water supply. The workbenches
should be of 2Y:! feet height for examination
while sitting and 3 feet height to work while
standing.
Laboratory requirements
Equipment Approximate Cost
in Rupees
Microscope 10000
Microhaematocrit
Centrifuge 10000
Std. Clinical Centrifuge
(up to 15ml) 3000
Haemoglobinometer 600
'Haemocy~ome~er YODD
Differential Cell Counter 750
Hand Tally 50
Glassware: Vials (for blood, urine, serum),
Glass slides, Microhaematocrit tubes, Cover
slips, RBC pipette, Glass rods, WBC pipette,
Cotton (absorbent and non-absorbent), Test
tubes, Filter paper, Vacutainers and Wintrobe
tubes with stands. Chemicals: Dipsticks,
Potassium oxalate, Anticoagulants, HCI,
Potassium fluoride, NaOH, Immersion oil,
KOH, Xylol, Acetone, Formalin, pH Paper (2-
10.5), NH40H, HN03,Ammonium sulphate,
Benedicts reagent, Sodium carbonate, Spirit,
Sodium nitroprusside, Methanol, Benzidine,
Leishman powder, Glacial acetic acid,
Giemsa Powder, H202, K-EDTA, Sulphur
powder, Ammonium oxalate, Trichloro acetic
acid, Paradimethylaminobenzaldehyde,
Ferric chloride. Miscellaneous items:
Registers, Needles, Files, Tray, Wintrobe
tubes stand, Soap, Test tube holders,
Disinfectants, Cups, Syringes, Strainers.
COLLECTION, PREPARATION AND
PRESERVATION OF CLINICAL SAMPLES
The reliability of the result obtained will
depend largely on the care taken in
collecting, preserving and sending the
specimens before deterioration and
contamination.
General guidelines
() Each sample must be labeled and easily
identifiable
(.~ It should contain all information like
a) Owners name and address
b) Details of the animal- species, breed,
colour, age, sex
c) History
d) Tentative diagnosis
e) Name of the clinician referred"
f) Type of sample sent
o The clinician must request clearly the
exact estimation required
o The sample must be as fresh as possible
and preserved in the correct manner
Samples sent should reach the
laboratory at the earliest. Otherwise, exact
preservative should be added. Samples sent
to the laboratory should be placed in a
watertight glass or plastic container. The
containers should be well packed to prevent
breakage during transport with sawdust,
paper, cotton wool etc. Whenever
refrigeration is advisable, samples can be
sent over ice (or) dry ice (solid C02). Dry ice
should never be packed in an air tight box.
Otherwise, C02 volatilization during transit
may result in an explosion.
Blood samples
Method of collection
'.' Blood is collected in large animals
(cattle, horses sheep, goat) from
jugular vein, in small animals (dogs,
cats) from saphenous vein and in lab
animals (rat) from intraorbital sinus
(or) by cardiac puncture
o The puncture site is cleaned
thoroughly with alcohol
o Needle and syringes should be sterile
o All glassware should be dry and free
from moisture to prevent haemolysis
j/ladl'lu rvel£l'iHal'lj (!.oIlffjl', @1uwwi-60(j 007
o Use of one needle to different animals.
should be avoided
o 2 to 3 ml of whole blood is required
o Anticoagulants preferred are Heller
and Paul and EDTA; use adequate
quantity
o Once blood is collected in vials or
tubes, it should be mixed properly
Blood smear
o For parasitic examination and
differential count, smear should be
taken from the peripheral vein and
not from the major vein, taking all
aseptic precautions
o Smear should not be prepared from
anticoagulant added blood since
anticoagulants alter cell morphology
Urine samples
o Collected directly as the animal voids
or by catheterisation
o Collected in clean plastic container
o Midstream urine is preferable
o For cultural examination all aseptic
precautions should be carried out
o Sent for examination at the earliest
o Preservatives used:Thymol or
toluene
o Quantity required: At least 50 mi.
Other body fluids (CSF, peritoneal fluid,
pleural effusion, synovial fluid etc.)
o Exact procedure should be followed
for collection
o Should be sent to the laboratory
immediately
(.') No preservative is required
o If the sample is rich in protein content,
add anticoagulant to prevent
coagulation
(.') For glucose estimation, sodium
fluoride can be used
Faecal samples
o Collect directly from the rectum or from
the floor
o Should be free of urine and other
extraneous materials
(.~ Examine at the earliest
o Preservatives to be used
a) 10 per cent formalin
b) 0.85 NaCI for cysts
c) buffered glycerol saline for
culture of enteric organism
d) no preservatives for tOldcol
-ogical examination
(.~ Quantity required - Minimum of pigeon's
egg size
Skin scrapings
o Scrape the skin using sharp scalpel or
blade till bleeding occurs
() Scrape from active lesions both from
the centre and periphery
() Several sites should be selected
'.' All debris collected are transferred to
a clean dry container without
preservative
Milk samples
() Collect about 25 ml directly from the
mammary gland
() Collect in a clean water tight glass or
plastic containers
o Follow aseptic precautions for
bacteriological examination
() Send to the laboratory at the earliest;
otherwise, refrigerate it
------------------·IUaI~-----------------
IAMWARM ~(iex
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BIOchemical samples
o Serum is preferable for majority of
biochemical estimations
o Collect blood samples preferably in
the morning hours before feeding
o Use sodium fluoride as anticoagulant
for estimation of blood glucose
o Avoid using ammonia compounds for
estimation of BUN
Sputum or nasal washing (for bacteriological
examination and identification of parasitic
eggs)
o Collected direct\-y tTom the nasa\ c'
cavity using swabs or spatula
o Collected in sterile glass container
o No preservative is required
Serological samples
o 2 ml of serum is required in a clean
sterile screw capped vials
o Collect paired samples, one during
the onset of disease and the other
21 days later
(.~ Serological tests are used as
confirmatory tests rather than
diagnostic aid
o No preservative is added
Biopsy
.
() Obtained either by surgical or
aspiration needle biopsy techniques
o Collected in a wide mouthed bottle
with 10 per cent formalin
 Wildlife Science
WILDLIFE DISEASES AND MEDICINE
Dr. M.G. Jayathangaraj
Professor and Head
Department of Wildlife Science
Madras Veterinary College, Chennai-600 007

, Wildlife diseases and medicine gain more momentum recently ~ue to the in.cr~~sing
awareness on conservation of various species of wild animals. In t~IS .chapte:, .slgnlflcant
diseases encountered in wild animals are dealt along with concepts on wildlife medlcme.

WILDLIFE DISEASES
Bacterial diseases
Tuberculosis
This is documented in a variety of wild
animals and particularly in non-human
primates. The non~human primates have
extreme susceptibility to tuberculosis, The
disease in them is usually miliary. The arrest
and calcification are unusual. Species like
macaques and apes are most susceptible,
while the new world species like marmosets,
owl monkeys, capuchins, squirrel monkeys
etc. are resistant. In addition to the three
major species of Mycobacteria - Mavium,
Mbovis and Mtuberculosis, the atypical
Mycobacteria like M.scrofulaceum and
Mkansasii have been documehted in non-
human primates.
Leptospirosis
This disease is an unique one causing
problem not only in domestic animals but also
in wild animals of different species. Variety of
leptospiral serovars have been identified. In
India or other countries, rodents get involved
with this disease. Animal handlers at various
zoos need to take an extra caution whenever
they handle any species of wild animals like
tiger, elephant, lion, sambar deer, blackbuck,
chinkara, swamp deer etc. with symptom of
nephritis, pyrexia etc.
Anthrax
Anthrax affected carcasses whether it is
a domestic animal or wild animal may cause
skin infections among handlers of the hide for
multiple purposes. Anthrax itself is a well-
known zoonotic disease with a great public
importance. However one has to look for the
variable signs in some wild animal species.
For example, in case of elephants, sub-
cutaneous oedema may be found along with
bursting of few swellings on body. However,
bloody discharge from natural orifices is a
commonly found symptom in case of wild
bovids, cervids, antelopes etc. This disease
has been documented in fefids, canids,
perissodactylids, primates, wild suids etc.
Pasteurellosis
This disease is encountered frequently in
gaurs and elephants, in addition to the
cervids etc. Stress factors form the major
preCipitating cause for the occurrence of this
disease condition among different species of
wild animals. Fluoroquinolone compounds
like enrofJoxacin or ciprofloxacin help a lot in
tackling this disease condition, during the
treatment.
Brucellosis
This has marked public health
significance and the reports on the
documentation of this dangerous disease
among wild stock are many. However, due to
so many reasons, still this disease-related
investigations need to be strengthened in
country like India. However, this disease has
been documented exclusively in case of
chital, blackbuck etc.

---------------.JDEI._--------------
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Others
Klebsiella and other vector borne gram
negative bacteria (pseudomonas) are
primary opportunists affecting non-human
primates. Klebsiella is present in stagnant
water, dirty drinking receptacles and soil and
as flora of alimentary tract.
Campylobacteriosis has been recentlY
re-classified as a separate group.
Campylobacter jejuni causes entero-colitis in
a variety of mammals and birds including
man. This is frequently reported in non-
human primates.
Viral diseases
Rabies
Huma(1. (abies cases due to eK~OSU(e tQ
rabid wild animals are still to be
systematically documented. Even or@1
infection has been documented in foxes and
skunks by experimental means, following the
ingestion of mouse carcasses infected bY
rabies virus. It is noteworthy to mention tMt
the exposure to rabies virus in peripherBI
nerves could potentially occur when a person
with wounds on the hands does not wear anY
protective covering or gloves while s1<inning a
rabies suspected captive wild animal.
This situation may occur in any zoo
regardless of the species of wild animBI
reared under captive conditions.
Herpes virus and pox virus infections
Herpes virus infeCtions are
documented in non-human primate"
elephant calves etc. Rhesus macaques and
cyanomolgus are considered as the primal)'
natural hosts. Lesions in non-human
primates are mostly confined to the mucosa
of buccal cavity. Ulcers or vesicles do occl)r
around the lips and external nares and the
most common site is the tongue. Monkey
bites and laboratory accidents lead to the
most human infections. The practition@r
needs to explain all these to the owners or
stake holders, clearly. Face masks and
gloves are to be used whenever non-human
primates are handled either by animBI
keepers or the veterinarians.
------------------~~----------------
IAMWARM ~fwt.1'taini.ng.
go. fJield VeWtituvtia.ttd 2009
Pox virus infections often are classified
into four types in non-human primates. All
these four diseases are infectious to man but
it is to be remembered that the monkey pox is
the most frequent one.
Foot and mouth disease (FMD)
This disease is noticed among
herbivores like deer, antelopes, elephants
etc. Suids also get affected by this disease
condition. Vesicles appear on foot region in
addition to oral region.
Measles (Rubeola), Viral hepatitis,
Kyasanur forest disease (KFD) and
others
Measles is one of the most frequently
reported viral diseases of non human
primates and upon ',nlectlon, fhe v',rus ',s s'hed
and can re-infect man. This is a highly
infectious exanthematous viral disease of
children. This has been documented in
marmosets, tamarins, owl monkeys etc. and
is fatal to them.
Several outbreaks of viral hepatitis
have been documented in primate handlers
and primate practitioners. The virus causing
human infectious hepatitis (hepatitis A) can
infect chimpanzees, patas, wooley monkey,
gorilla, tamarins, cebus etc. KFD has been
reported in non human primates and is of
zoonotic importance.
Avian influenza caused by Influenza
virus type 'A' affects many aviary species and
aquatic birds particularly the ducks, herons
etc. Signs include the respiratory distress,
emaciation, nervous disorders etc. Due to
severe pathogenesis in man, this disease
has assumed more significance in the current
periods. Migratory aviary species need to be
taken care of in this regard. This is one of the
zoonotic disease to be taken care of always.
Parasitic diseases
Toxocarosis
Toxocara cati and Toxascaris leonina are
the most commonly encountered parasitic
problem in case of lions, tigers, panthers,
jungle cats etc. in various zoos. The
nematode, Toxocara canis occurs in small
intestine of wild canids like wild dogs, jackals,
foxes etc. and is comparatively a larger one
than the Toxascaris leonina. Transplacental
and transmammary route of infection occurs
in case of canids. Shortly after the whelping,
the evidences of parasitism are noticed in the
fecal samples offemale canids.
The eggs of Toxocara canis are
extremely resistant to the environmental
changes and may survive for years. If the
substrate of the confinement place is not
disposed properly during the change of
substrate, the persons handling such
substrate will have the greatest risk of
acquiring zoonotic visceral and ocular larva
migrans.
Strongyloidosis
This parasitic problem is another one
having zoonotic importance in case of wild
animals like macaques, langurs and apes.
This parasitic condition is encountered
mainly in non -human primates like bonnet
macaques in south India and rhesus
NAME OF PARASITE FINAL HOST
Wild canids
Echinococcus granulosus
granulosus
Red foxes
Echinococcus granulosus
equinus
Scabies in can ids and felids
This causes pruritic transmissible
infestation of the skin of canids and felids.
Sarcoptes spp. mites are involved in this
problem.
Toxoplasmosis
This is another significant zoonotic
disease encountered and the Toxoplasma
gondii is an intestinal coccidium affecting the
family felidae but has unusually a wide range
of intermediate hosts. Felids alone can serve
------------------IDiI~----------------
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macaques that are found in north India.
Catarrhal enteritis with impairment of
digestion. and absorption of nutrients occur
due to this problem. Strongyloides stercoraJis
has been encountered in these primates.
Hymenolepsis
Though many cestodes are important,
the only cestode that is considered to have
the potential zoonotic significance from
species belonging to the non-human
primates is Hymenolepsis nana. This
tapeworm causes catarrhal enteritis with
abscess of the mesenteric lymph nodes.
Hydatidosis
The larval stages of Echinococcus
species (hydatid "cysts) develop in many
intermediate hosts, including man. In man,
when hydatid cysts are present in the
pulmonary or hepatic sites or heart some
times, it assumes a pathologic significance,
Hydatid cysts have been documented in
squirrels, elephants, non-human primates,
giraffe etc.
INTERMEDIATE HOST
Wild ruminants like gaurs, deers,
antelopes etc.
Equids like wild asses, wild
horses, zebras etc.
as both intermediate and definite hosts for
this parasite. Ophthalmic signs occur more
commonly in chronic infections with feline
toxoplasmosis.
Giardosis
This disease caused by pear shaped
protozoa possessing eight flagella is unique
in having two nuclei with flat ventral surface
which assists the attachment of the parasite
to the epithelial cells of the intestinal mucosa
of the host. Often seen in non-human
primates and other species. Due to zoonotic
nature, this disease may be encountered in
animal keepers or veterinarians of zoological
gardens or veterinary practitioners handling
the pet wild in their routine practice.
Amoebosis
This is another frequently observed
protozoal problem having zoonotic
importance from non-human primates like
macaques, langurs and apes.
Malaria
Wild mammals are also susceptible to
infection by Plasmodium falciparum that
causes human malaria. Plasmodium species
has been documented in Presbytis en tel/us in
Assam state and South India.
WILDLIFE MEDICINE
Wildlife Medicine is one of the
specialized branch due to the special
features of wild animals belonging to various
taxonomic groups and this field is one of one
of the rapidly developing field in India and
other countries. Information on wildlife
science are totally lacking earlier in many
parts of India. However, the research findings
in the field of wildlife veterinary science now a
days indicate the existence and occurrence
of diseases in wild animal just like that of
domestic animals
Currently, there seems to be a
compelling requirement to apply clinical
medicine in wild animals of various species
available in captive wild animal places like
zoological parks, zoos, trusts, non-
governmental organizations, zoological
gardens etc. Further, if the zoo veterinarian is
efficient in the application of principles of
wildlife medicine in various wild animals
belonging to the different taxonomic groups,
the success rate in the therapy of the cases
----------------~IUDI~----------------
IAMWARM ~fwt, 5'U1inituj 5(1. [jiJd Vel.e!tituvtian6 2009
Trypanosomosis
This disease is commonly encountered
among felids like lions, panthers, tigers and
also in camelids. Other species like wild
dogs, hyaena etc. are also susceptible to this
protozoa in which signs pertaining to anemia
are characteristic. Quinapyramine sulphate
and chloride help in tackling this problem.
Fungal diseases
Particularly, the non-human primiates
get affected by ring worm caused by
Trichophyton mentagrophytes causing skin
lesions. Similarly, the fungal infections of
mucous membranes caused by Candida
albicans (Candidiasis) is another disease
having zoonotic potential with severe pruritus
as symptom in addition to hair loss and
patchy distributions of lesions on skin. Many
species including the carnivores also get
affected by various fungal diseases.
will be highly increased.
The one that is required during the
application of the wildlife medicine at zoo or
captive wild animal place is the mindset for
the concerned veterinarian attending the
captive wild animals to interact with the right
persons about the treatment regimen to be
adapted in the concerned wild animal
species.
The approach to wildlife veterinary
science may be classified into two types,
in general
i) Approach to captive wild animal-It::
field.
ii) Approach to free- ranging wild
animal-field.
Disease causing pathogens are
identified in case of captive wild animals. But,
in case of the free ranging wild animals
inhabiting the forest regions like wildlife
sanctuary, national park, reserve forests etc.,
\
\
\
still many pathogens have to be identified in
details.
PROBLEMS IN APPLICATIOIN OF
WILDLIFE MEDICINE IN CASE OF
CAPTIVE WILD ANIMALS
* Symptoms get masked in most of the
occasions due to multiple reasons.
* Need of mindset to apply diagnostic
equipments for the proper diagnosis
of the clinical condition without
causing delay.
* Need of interactions with the
concerned speCialists about the
clinical problems encountered in a
frank manner.
* Excitability nature of the wild animal
species.
* Biological features of wild animal
species are different in each species.
* Need of strengthening of research
aspects in clinical science related
features pertaining to the various wild
animal species. Often more big sized
wild animal species are given
attention due to many reasons.
PROBLEMS IN APPLICATIOIN OF
WILDLIFE MEDICINE WITH FREE
RANGING WILD ANIMALS
i) There is absence of random
sampling in case of wild animals of
forests.
ii) The free- ranging wild animal
species might not be available fully to
the veterinarian due to scavenging
by wild animals of different spices
iii) Due to many practical reasons,
sampling may not be conducted in
the proper manner.
iv) Absence of timely reports on death of
wild animal species, which are not
----------------.IDiI~---------------
Jlllldl'lLJ r()ei£niwl'lj @fJileqe, @Jl£luwi-600 007
much significant ones, unlike
elephant.
v) Less number of research woks are
being carried out in the field of wildlife
health and diseases in free-ranging
areas due to want of funds· at
research institutions.
vi) Treatment of a population is with own
difficulties and depends on the value
of the concerned wild animal species
and the decisions by management
autorities
PRACTICES ASSOCIATED TOWARDS
APPLJCATJON OF WJLD ANJMAL
MEDICINE
The field practices in wildlife medicine
involve the application of many useful
diagnostic gadgets in case of wild animals
belonging to multiple species.
Captive wild animals
* Application of diagnostic aids like
usage of amplified stethoscope for
diagnosis of abnormalities in the
heartbeats.
* Application of electronic gadgets to
diagnose the variations in both
systolic and diastolic blood pressure.
* Usage of dual beam spectrophotometer
for estimation of biochemical
parameters and RIA (Radio-Immuno
Assay ) to determine the levels of
hormones especially the stress-
related hormone like cortisol,
reproductive hormones like
progesterones, oestradiol etc.
* Application of PCR techniques using
the primers of appropriate disease
causing pathogen like diagnosis of
organisms causing tuberculosis
* Application of molecular diagnostic
techniques like PCR as in case of T8
diagnosis and techniques like ELISA
as in case of determination of
antibody titre in canine distemper like
disease and the adaptation of
 suitable therapy, subsequently.
* Application of Pulse oximetry in wild
animals subjected to chemical
immobilization to find out the
saturated pressure level of oxygen in
the concerned wild animal species.
* Usage of non-contact, infrared
thermometer to estimate the body
temperature without causing stress
factors to the concerned wild animal
species.
* Usage of ultrasound scanner to
diagnose the abnormal growths etc in
the selected organs of the body.
* Usage of endoscopes like gastro-
intestinal fibroscope for ruling out the
oesophagitis, gastric ulcers, foreign
bodies in the stomach region,
duodenal ulcers etc.
Management of specific condition like
colic in case of elephant involves the
following systematic methods of
treatment:
+ Usage of motility modifiers (eg.
Cisapride or metaclopromide @
2mg/Kg body wt, p.o.)
+ Usage of H2 receptor antagonists like
ranitidine, omeprazole etc.
+ Usage of liquid paraffin
+ Usage of fecal softeners like lactulose
+ Fluid therapy (Ringers lactate,
Dextrose saline etc.)
+ Calcium therapy by parenteral route,
in a careful manner
+ Anthelmintic therapy as,the case may
be
+ Antibiotic depending on the severity
of the case
+ Usage of ant-inflammatory drugs like
flunixin meglumine or meloxicam
+ Usage of steroids esp. in shock
conditions (depo may be chosen to
avoid daily injection)
+ Parenteral B complex injections
------------------IaEI~----------------
IAMWARM ~fwrt, 5'tainU1f} 5(1.:field VeWtinaUanJ 2009
+ Enema administration, application of 1.
racking and restriction of feed and
water
~i
+ Intellectual application of special
hooks for removal of dung from rectal
passage
+ Injection of Neostigmine by
parenteral route (However, the
obstruction by foreign body needs to
be ruled out, earlier)
+ Need of exercising due care
pertaining to Wildlife Protection Act
existing, currently in India.
For each clinical problem" specialized
therapy is more essential to bring out the
remedy. For excample, Ophthalmitis and
corneal opacity is often encountered in case
of felids or elephants reared in captive
conditions. In such cases,. fluroroqinolones
or chloramphenicol associated ophthalmic
preparations may be used in general. One
has to take more care during the usage of
f1uoroquinolones in case of captive felids,
due to the associated retinal problems that
can be caused by these drugs. In case of
corneElJ opacity, subsequent to the restraint,
dexamethasone or prednisolone may be
administered by sub-conjunctival route.
However, vitamin A and B 1 (Thiamine) needs
to be administered as supportive therapy in
such cases.
The practicing veterinarians related to
wild animals need to understand that unless
biology of the wild animals of various species
including the commonly anticipated disease
related information are well understood,
the success in treatment becomes
somewhat difficult in these wild animal
species and the cliniCian should also have
adequate knowledge on the restraint of
multiple wild animal species.
Free ranging wild animals
To achieve the utilization of trends in
modern wildlife veterinary science related
with wildlife medicine in free ranging wild
animal species, a population approach is to
be maintained as done in case of valuable
wild animals. For example, bio bullets have
been used in case of free ranging wild
animals against specific diseases. In
general, the treatment of the free ranging wild
animals is difficult due to the practical
reasons known to many.
REQUISITES IN APPLICATION OF
WILDLIFE MEDICINE
In nut-shell, it can be stated that in
country like India the requisites pertaining to
the application of wildlife medicine in captive
wild animals or wild animals of other sectors,
involves the followings:
i) Development of modem communi
-cation facilities like INTERNET and
digital camera with documenting
facility from the microscope.
ii) Frequent meeting between forest
department and veterinary research
institution on the specific clinical
issues identified by veterinarians of
the captive wild animal places and
discussion with the concerned
veterinary specialists ...
iii) Monitoring the outcomes of such
discussions and effective follow-ups
in this regard.
iv) Comparing the outcomes with
similar situation prevailing with any
other region of this world and by
proper dissemination of the clinical
findings in a systematic manner.
v) Supply of suitable advanced clinical
diagnostic aids to the zoo
------------------IImI~----------------
JIl£ul"u @.oIleqe, @iwuwi-60() 007
rveiJ!I'Utal'1J
veterinarians and side by side
offering suitable training programmes
to the usage of such diagnostiC
equipments.
vi) Monitoring the usage of diagnostiC
equipments in case of wild animals
of multiple species available in
various zoos, zoological parks and
zoological gardens.
vii) Development of treatment protocol
for various commonly encountered
disease conditions in case of captive
wild animals.
References
+ Arora, B.M. (2003). Indian Wildlife
Diseases and disorders. Association
of Indian Zoo and Wildlife
Veterinarians, Bareilly.
+ Fowler, M.E. (1986). Zoo and Wild
animal Medicine, W.B.Saunders
Company, Philadelphia
+ Soulsby. E.J.S (1982). Helminths,
Arthropods and Protozoa of domestic
th
animals. 5 ed. Baillarie Tindall,
London
+ Wallach, J. D., and Boever, w.J.
(1983). Diseases of Exotic Animals -
Medical and Surgical Management.
W.B.SaundersCompany, Philadelphia.
+ Wobeser and Gary, A. (1994).
Investigation and Management of
Disease in Wild Animals. Plenum
Press, New York.
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 FOOT ABNORMALITIES IN ELEPHANTS

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 Azolla Fodder cholam·Co 27

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Sarcoptes scablel Psoroptes O1Ils Demodex canis