Biology As Scheme of Work PDF

Scheme of work – Cambridge International AS and A Level Biology (9700) from 2016
Scheme of work
Cambridge International AS and A Level
Biology
9700
For examination from 2016
Contents
Overview ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Key concepts ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Practical work .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
Suggested teaching order............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 5
Teacher support........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Unit 1: Biological molecules ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 11
Unit 2: Cells as the basic units of life .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 27
Unit 3: DNA and the mitotic cell cycle ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 40
Unit 4: Transport and gas exchange............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 48
Unit 5: Disease and protection against disease ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 66
Unit 6: The diversity of life .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 79
Unit 7: Genetics, population genetics and evolutionary processes ................................................................................................................................................................ 92
Unit 8: Molecular biology and gene technology ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 111
Unit 9: Respiration ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 129
Unit 10: Mammalian physiology, control and coordination ........................................................................................................................................................................... 140
Unit 11: Plant physiology and biochemistry .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 156
v2.1 5Y02 Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology (9700) – from 2016 2
Overview
This staged teaching scheme of work provides ideas about how to construct and deliver a two-year course of study with all of the AS Level syllabus taught in Year 1
and the remainder of the A Level syllabus taught in Year 2. The syllabus has been broken down into teaching units, which incorporate one or more of the syllabus units,
with suggested teaching activities and learning resources to use in the classroom.
Recommended prior knowledge

Learners should have attained at least a grade C in IGCSE or O Level Biology, or the equivalent in another award such as Co-ordinated Science.
Outline
Whole class (W), group work (G), pair (P) and individual activities (I) are indicated, where appropriate, within this scheme of work. Suggestions for homework (H) and
formative assessment (F) are also included. The activities in the scheme of work are only suggestions and there are many other useful activities to be found in the
materials referred to in the learning resource list.
Opportunities for differentiation are indicated as basic and challenging; there is the potential for differentiation by resource, length, grouping, expected level of
outcome, and degree of support by the teacher, throughout the scheme of work. Length of time allocated to a task is another possible area for differentiation.
Where a learning objectives has been divided so that part of that learning objective content is taught at a different time to the rest of the learning objective, these are
identified by (i) or (ii), etc., and the specific part of the learning objective is in bold.
Key concepts
The key concepts on which the syllabus is built are set out below. These key concepts can help teachers think about how to approach each topic in order to encourage
learners to make links between topics and develop a deep overall understanding of the subject. As a teacher, you will refer to these concepts again and again to help
unify the subject and make sense of it. If mastered, learners can use the concepts to solve problems or to understand unfamiliar subject-related material.
 Cells as the units of life
A cell is the basic unit of life and all organisms are composed of one or more cells. There are two fundamental types of cell: prokaryotic and eukaryotic.
 Biochemical processes
Cells are dynamic: biochemistry and molecular biology help to explain how and why cells function as they do.
 DNA, the molecule of heredity
Cells contain the molecule of heredity, DNA. Heredity is based on the inheritance of genes.
 Natural selection
Natural selection is the major mechanism to explain the theory of evolution.
 Organisms in their environment
All organisms interact with their biotic and abiotic environment.
 Observation and experiment
The different fields of biology are intertwined and cannot be studied in isolation: observation and enquiry, experimentation and fieldwork are fundamental to
biology.
Some of the ideas in this syllabus can take time to be fully understood. By linking them together through the key concepts, learners will have more opportunity for
those ideas to make sense to them and how they connect to other areas of the syllabus. The key concepts themselves will not be directly assessed; rather they are
themes that learners will be able to use to order their thoughts, themes and knowledge to express answers in examinations and interviews for work or the next stage of
their study.

As learners progress through the course, it is important that they do not regard the different topics as being totally self-contained and unconnected, studied in complete
isolation from one another. By keeping the key concepts to the fore at all stages of your teaching, you can strongly encourage learners to regard the subject as a set of
interconnected themes.
Learners should be aware that an ability to see how different strands of the syllabus can be pulled together within one key concept is a high-level transferable skill.
Linking different areas of their knowledge through a common thread of ideas, or ways of understanding and explaining, is enhancing their higher-order thinking skills.
These skills are the building blocks of deeper and broader learning, those that universities look for in their students and which allow learners to answer examination
questions fully and with links from more than one part of the syllabus.
Teachers can introduce key concepts as an integral part of their teaching approach and consolidate them when appropriate. This will help their learners to appreciate
that some themes and theories are revisited and built upon during the course and that, by bringing together very different areas of the syllabus, these themes are
fundamental to our understanding of the subject.
Focussing on these concepts will improve learners’ self-confidence in their ability to progress, as well as enabling them to revise more effectively; learners could make
mind maps across the syllabus on each of the key concepts as a way of revising. By visualising the subject as being formulated from these basic ideas, they will
become better prepared for interviews and future study at university, or be more adaptable to themes currently under research and development in industrial and
academic institutions.
There is also merit in showing learners how, during the course, they will be biologists studying in a number of inter-related fields that can be drawn together by the key
concepts. Examples of these fields - cell biology, biochemistry, physiology, genetics, evolutionary biology, microbiology, epidemiology, immunology, biotechnology,
ecology, population biology and conservation biology - can be discussed and linked to the different areas of the syllabus.
The key concepts are listed under the relevant learning objectives, those in bold are where the coverage of the learning objective makes a significant contribution to the
key concept.
Practical work
Practical work is an essential part of science. Scientists use evidence gained from prior observations and experiments to build models and theories. Their predictions
are tested with practical work to check that they are consistent with the behaviour of the real world. Learners who are well trained and experienced in practical skills will
be more confident in their own abilities. The skills developed through practical work provide a good foundation for those wishing to pursue science further, as well as for
those entering employment or a non-science career.
Twelve Practical Booklets have been developed for this syllabus, six for Paper 3 and six for Paper 5, and are available on Teacher Support at http://teachers.cie.org.uk
and are referenced within this scheme of work.
The Teaching A Level Science Practical Skills booklet is also available on Teacher Support at http://teachers.cie.org.uk which contains useful information and
suggestions for teaching A Level practical skills.
Suggested teaching order

The learning objectives and activities in this scheme of work are arranged in a suggested teaching order rather than the order that they appear in the syllabus. It has
been written for the staged route, with Units 1 to 5 covering the learning objectives to be studied by all learners in the first year, and which can be assessed by the AS
Level qualification. This is followed by Units 6 to 11 which cover all learning objectives that will be assessed by the full A Level qualification at the end of the second
year of the course.
For classes taking the linear route, where all learners take the full A Level, this allows for the integrated teaching of AS and A Level learning objectives across both
years of the A Level course. The linear route is not covered in this scheme of work.
The units within this scheme of work are:
Suggested time allocation (%)

AS Level A Level
Unit 1. Biological molecules
Water 2.3.d
Carbohydrates 2.2.b, 2.2.a, 2.2.c, 2.1.a(i), 2.1.b, 2.2.d, 2.2.e
Lipids 2.2.f, 2.2.g, 2.1.a(ii)
10
Proteins 2.1.a(iii), 2.3.a, 2.3.b, 2.3.c
Biochemical tests 2.1.a
Nucleic acids 6.1.a, 6.1.b
Enzymes 3.1.a, 3.1.b, 3.1.c, 3.1.d, 3.2.a, 3.2.b, 3.2.c, 3.2.d
Unit 2. Cells as the basic units of life
Cells and microscopy 1.1.d, 1.1.a, 1.1.c
Size and magnification calculations 1.1.b, 1.1.e
9
Plant and animal cells 1.2.b, 1.2.c, 1.2.a
Bacteria 1.2.d
Prokaryotic versus eukaryotic cell structure 1.2.e
Viruses 1.2.f
Cell membrane structure and function 4.1.a, 4.1.b, 4.1.c
Transport across membranes 4.2.a(v), 4.2.c, 4.2.a(i), 4.2.d, 4.2.b, 4.2.a(ii), 4.2.a(iii), 4.2.f,
4.2.e, 4.2.a(iv)
Unit 3. DNA and the mitotic cell cycle
Chromosome structure 5.1.a
The mitotic cell cycle - overview 5.1.c
7
The mitotic cell cycle – DNA replication 6.1.c, 5.1.d
The mitotic cell cycle – mitosis and cytokinesis 5.1.b, 5.1.e, 5.2.a, 5.2.b
Protein synthesis, introduction to genes and mutation 6.2.a, 6.2.b, 6.2.c, 6.2.d
Unit 4. Transport and gas exchange
Plant anatomy and histology 7.1.a, 7.1.b, 7.1.c
Transport of water and mineral ions 7.2.a, 7.2.c, 7.2.b, 7.2.d, 7.2.e, 7.2.f
Transport of assimilates 7.2.g, 7.2.h, 7.2.i
Structure to function: plants 7.1.d 14
The mammalian circulatory system 8.1.a, 8.1.b, 8.1.c, 8.1.d, 8.1.e
The mammalian heart 8.2.a, 8.2.b, 8.2.c, 8.2.d
The human gas exchange system 9.1.a, 9.1.b, 9.1.c, 9.1.d
Carriage of respiratory gases 8.1.f, 8.1.g, 8.1.h
Unit 5. Disease and protection against disease
Disease and smoking 10.1.a, 9.2.a, 9.2.b
Infectious disease 10.1.b, 10.1.c, 10.1.d, 10.1.e
Antibiotics 10.2.a, 10.2.b, 10.2.c 10
The immune response 11.1.d, 11.1.a, 11.1.b, 11.1.e, 11.1.c, 11.1.f
Antibodies 11.2.a, 11.2.b, 11.2.c
Vaccination 11.2.d, 11.2.e
Unit 6. The diversity of life
Definitions 18.1.a
Classification 18.2.a, 18.2.b, 18.2.c, 18.2.d
6
Biodiversity 18.1.b
Fieldwork 18.1.c, 18.1.d, 18.1.e, 18.1.f
Conservation, population control and maintaining 18.3.a, 17.3.e, 18.3.b, 18.3.g, 18.3.c, 18.3.d, 18.3.e, 18.3.f,
biodiversity 18.3.h
Unit 7. Genetics, population genetics and evolutionary processes
Understanding terms 16.1.a, 16.1.b, 16.2.a(i)
Meiotic cell division and heredity 16.1.c, 16.1.d, 16.1.e
Genetic crosses 16.2.a(ii), 16.2.b, 16.2.c, 16.2.d
10
Biological variation 17.1.a, 17.1.c, 17.1.b, 16.2.e, 16.2.f, 16.2.g
Natural selection and population genetics 17.1.d, 17.2.a, 17.2.b, 17.2.c, 17.2.d
Evolution and speciation 17.3.a, 17.3.b, 17.3.c, 17.3.d
Artificial selection 17.2.e, 17.2.f
Unit 8. Molecular biology and gene technology
The control of gene expression 16.3.b, 16.3.a, 16.3.c, 19.1.i
Recombinant DNA technology 19.1.a, 19.1.b, 19.1.h, 19.1.e, 19.1.f, 19.1.g, 19.2.c, 19.3.a,
19.3.b, 19.3.c 9
Molecular biology techniques 19.1.c, 19.1.d, 19.2.g
Bioinformatics 19.2.a, 19.2.b
Prevention and treatment of inherited conditions. 19.2.d, 19.2.e, 19.2.f
Unit 9. Respiration
Energy and ATP 12.1.a, 12.1.b
Aerobic respiration and ATP synthesis 12.2.a, 12.2.b, 12.2.c, 12.2.d, 12.2.e, 12.1.c, 12.2.g, 12.2.f,
12.1.e(i), 12.1.d, 12.2.i
7
Anaerobic respiration 12.2.k, 12.2.l
Comparing anaerobic and aerobic respiration 12.2.j
Yeast practical 12.2.h
Respiratory substrates, RQs and respirometers 12.1.f, 12.1.g, 12.2.m, 12.1.h
Unit 10. Mammalian physiology, control and coordination
Communication systems 15.1.a
The nervous system 15.1.b, 15.1.c, 15.1.d, 15.1.e, 15.1.f, 15.1.g, 15.1.h
Muscle contraction 15.1.i, 15.1.j, 15.1.k
10
Homeostasis 14.1.a, 14.1.b, 14.1.c
Excretion of nitrogenous waste and osmoregulation 14.1.d, 14.1.e, 14.1.f, 14.1.g
Control of blood glucose concentration 14.1.h, 14.1.i, 14.1.j
Detection of biological molecules in blood and urine 14.1.k, 14.1.l
Hormones of the menstrual cycle 15.1.l, 15.1.m
Unit 11. Plant physiology and biochemistry
Photosynthesis overview 13.1.b
The light dependent stage 13.1.c, 13.1.d, 13.1.e, 13.1.f
The light dependent stage - chemiosmosis 12.1.e(ii)
8
The light independent stage 13.1.a, 13.1.g, 13.1.h
The chloroplast 13.3.a
Factors affecting photosynthesis. 13.2.a, 13.2.b, 13.2.c, 13.2.d, 13.2.e, 13.3.b
Control and coordination in plants. 15.2.a, 14.2.a, 14.2.b, 14.2.c, 15.2.b, 15.2.c, 15.2.d, 16.3.d
Suggested teaching order
AS Level
Unit 1, Biological molecules, could be studied either before or after Unit 2, Cells as the basic units of life. Learners with a good chemistry background will cope well with
Unit 1, others will probably find the subject matter in Unit 2 to be more approachable. If Unit 2 is covered first, then learners will need a reminder of previous knowledge
of biological molecules learned in earlier studies or a brief introduction to lipids and proteins. Knowledge and understanding from both of these will be used and applied
in the rest of the course. The role of DNA in the mitotic cell cycle, Unit 3, follows on quite logically from the work done in Units 1 and 2. Unit 5, Disease and protection
against disease is best taught after Unit 4, Transport and gas exchange, as there is a link between mammalian transport and gas exchange in mammals in Unit 4 and
non-infectious disease and cells of the immune system in Unit 5. There is much work that can be done in improving data extraction and data analysis skills in Unit 5,
where there are fewer opportunities to carry out practical work. As this unit is taught at the end of the AS Level course, teachers may wish to allocate some time to
consolidate practical skills gained earlier in the course and prepare learners fully for Paper 3.
A Level
Having studied eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell structure in Unit 2 (AS Level), Unit 6, The diversity of life, is a straightforward introduction to the A Level syllabus. This
covers knowledge and understanding that is useful for Unit 7, Genetics, population genetics and evolutionary processes. Unit 8, Molecular biology and gene
technology, allows learners to use some of the concepts covered in Unit 7. Unit 11 can be taught at any time throughout the course if carrying out practical work is
dependent on seasonal timing: if taught before Units 9 and 10, the idea of control and coordination and chemiosmosis should be covered. Units 9 and 11 are best
taught with a gap in between to avoid confusion for learners when studying the biochemical processes of respiration and photosynthesis.
Teacher support
Teacher Support (http://teachers.cie.org.uk) is a secure online resource bank and community forum for Cambridge teachers, where you can download specimen and
past question papers, mark schemes and other resources. We also offer online and face-to-face training; details of forthcoming training opportunities are posted online.
This scheme of work is available as PDF and an editable version in Microsoft Word format; both are available on Teacher Support at http://teachers.cie.org.uk. If you
are unable to use Microsoft Word you can download Open Office free of charge from www.openoffice.org.
Resources
The resources for this syllabus, including textbooks endorsed by Cambridge, can be found at www.cie.org.uk and Teacher Support http://teachers.cie.org.uk.
Endorsed textbooks have been written to be closely aligned to the syllabus they support, and have been through a detailed quality assurance process. As such, all
textbooks endorsed by Cambridge for this syllabus are the ideal resource to be used alongside this scheme of work as they cover each learning objective.
Where other textbooks have shown to be useful for some learning objectives they are referred to by the first author. These include:
King T, Reiss M, Roberts M. Practical Advanced Biology. Nelson Thornes, 2nd Edition 2001. ISBN: 9780174483083
Siddiqui S. Comprehensive Practical Biology for A Level. Ferozsons, 1999. ISBN 9690015729
Bio Factsheets. Curriculum Press www.curriculum-press.co.uk
These cover a wide range of topics and are also useful for revision and extension work. Individual factsheets can be obtained, as can a complete CD-ROM.
Biological Nomenclature, published by the Society of Biology (formerly the Institute of Biology).
This publication can be ordered by emailing the Education Department at the Society of Biology https://www.societyofbiology.org. The symbols, signs and
abbreviations used in examination papers follow these recommendations.
CD-ROM
Bioscope. Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 9781845650261
A simulation of a real microscope that includes a large number of botanical and zoological microscope slides at a range of magnifications, accompanied by paper-
based tasks. It can be used for whole class teaching via a whiteboard or data projector, or by individual students on PCs.
Websites:
This scheme of work includes website links providing direct access to internet resources. Cambridge International Examinations is not responsible for the accuracy or
content of information contained in these sites. The inclusion of a link to an external website should not be understood to be an endorsement of that website or the
site's owners (or their products/services).
The particular website pages in the learning resource column of this scheme of work were selected when the scheme of work was produced. Other aspects of the sites
were not checked and only the particular resources are recommended.
Websites in this scheme of work, and some other useful websites, include:
http://www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk/ The National Centre for Biotechnology Education: protocols and useful information
http://www.saps.org.uk/ Science and Plants for Schools: protocols
http://www.biology4all.com/resources_library/index.asp Biology 4all: wide range of resources and links to other useful sites
http://www.s-cool.co.uk/alevel/biology.html S-cool: revision website
http://www2.estrellamountain.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookTOC.html The Online Biology Book, hosted by Estrella Mountain Community College
http://www.rothamsted.ac.uk/notebook/index.php?area=&page= The Molecular Biology Notebook
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/ Kimball’s Biology Pages (especially useful for teacher reference)
http://www.cellsalive.com/ Cells Alive: covers a range of topics with straightforward animations
http://www.worldofteaching.com/A-ZBiologypowerpoints.html PowerPoint presentations donated by teachers
http://www.ase.org.uk/resources/ Association for Science Education: educational resources
http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-biology Practical Biology: ideas and lesson plans
http://www.nationalstemcentre.org.uk/sciencepracticals The National Stem Centre provides many resources including ideas for practical work
http://www.biology-resources.com For learners to revisit IGCSE topics
http://www.biologyjunction.com/ap_biology_animations.htm Links to websites with animations - many different topics
http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teachers/Resources/cfb/index.htm Royal Society of chemistry: Chemistry for biologists
https://www.societyofbiology.org/ The Society of biology
Unit 1: Biological molecules

Learners will need some background knowledge in chemistry before embarking on this unit. They should understand the terms atom, molecule, electron and ion. They
should also have a basic understanding of covalent and ionic bonding, and of molecular and structural formulae. They should be able to write and understand simple
chemical equations. Some knowledge of energy changes (potential energy and bond energy) would be helpful.
http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teachers/Resources/cfb/basicchemistry.htm is a good starting point for learners to revise their knowledge of chemistry.
http://www.biology.arizona.edu/biochemistry/tutorials/chemistry/page1.html this also covers basic chemistry for biologists.
Context
This unit provides essential reference material for learners when studying all future units in their Cambridge International AS and A Level course. Knowledge of how the
structure and properties of biological molecules are related to their functions in cells and in organisms is fundamental to an understanding of many areas of biology.
The molecule of heredity, DNA, is a key concept. Cells can be visualised as structural units requiring biological molecules and as dynamic units carrying out
biochemical processes. Cells carry out biochemical processes, a key concept, and enzymes catalyse biological reactions. A thorough understanding of enzyme
function can be applied to studying processes such as:
 DNA replication and protein synthesis in Unit 3, The role of DNA in the mitotic cell cycle;
 the carriage of carbon dioxide in Unit 4, Transport and gas exchange;
 gene technology in Unit 8, Molecular biology and gene technology;
 respiration in Unit 9, Respiration;
 photosynthesis in Unit 11, Plant physiology and biochemistry.
As part of biotechnology, enzymes are used commercially in a range of applications, with many of these using immobilised enzymes for a more efficient process.
Outline
This unit introduces learners to the biological molecules that are required by cells for both structural purposes and physiological processes. The main groups of organic
biochemicals, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids, are studied. For carbohydrates, lipids and proteins, there is an emphasis on the relationship between
molecular structure, properties and functions in living organisms. Learners study the structure of nucleic acids and discuss DNA as the ideal molecule of inheritance in
preparation for Unit 3, The role of DNA in the mitotic cell cycle. Learning objective 2.3.d introduces the concepts of hydrogen bonding and solubility and considers the
roles of water in living organisms. This unit builds on knowledge of protein structure in describing and explaining enzyme activity. The mode of action of enzymes and
factors that affect enzyme action, including inhibitors, is covered. Learners are introduced to some basic enzyme kinetics. There are many opportunities to carry out
practical work, where learning can be reinforced and individual and class results can be analysed. The last section of the unit considers the differences between
enzymes free in solution and immobilised enzymes.
Teaching time
It is recommended that this unit should take approximately 10% of the complete A Level course.
Learning objectives Suggested teaching activities Learning resources
2.3.d  Discussion / brainstorm: the importance of water to the life of a cell, including Online
explain how hydrogen bonding occurs hydrogen bonding and as a solvent in biological systems (e.g. blood, phloem sap, http://faculty.fmcc.edu/mcdarby/majors
between water molecules and relate cytosol/cytoplasm). (I) (Basic). 101book/chapter_03-chemistry/03-
the properties of water to its roles in  Learners make notes, including the following: Water_Properties.htm
living organisms (limited to solvent o Draw and describe hydrogen bonding between water molecules. (I) (Basic) http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teachers
action, specific heat capacity and o Make links between hydrogen bonding and the cohesive nature of water /Resources/cfb/water.htm
latent heat of vapourisation) molecules. (I) (Basic) http://www.worldofmolecules.com/solv
o Explain the link between hydrogen bonding and ents/water.htm
Key concepts  the high specific heat capacity of water
Cells as the units of life,  the high latent heat of vapourisation of water. (I) (Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
Biochemical processes, o Research examples to show the relationship between the properties of water Bio Factsheet 30: The biological
Organisms in their environment and its roles in organisms. (I) (Challenging) importance of water.
 Discuss the concept of polar / non-polar and the solubility or otherwise of the Bio Factsheet 78: Chemical bonding in
biological molecules in this unit. (W) (Basic) biological molecules
Note
 Ensure learners can use the following terms (see Unit 2):
hydrophilic hydrophobic
polar non-polar
charged / ionic uncharged / non-ionic
water soluble water-insoluble
lipid insoluble lipid soluble
2.2.b  Learners write definitions for macromolecule, monomer and polymer and Online
define the terms monomer, polymer, consolidate. (W) (Basic) http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teachers
macromolecule, monosaccharide, o Match the terms with relevant examples (include an introduction of DNA and /Resources/cfb/carbohydrates.htm
disaccharide and polysaccharide RNA nucleotides).
o Discuss why lipids do not have monomers. Textbooks/Publications
Key concepts o Construct a simple table (complete bond names later). Bio Factsheet 78: Chemical bonding in
Biochemical processes, type of organic monomer polymer name of bond biological molecules
DNA, the molecule of heredity macromolecule
carbohydrate monosaccharide polysaccharide
protein amino acid polypeptide
nucleic acid DNA nucleotide polynucleotide
RNA nucleotide
lipid - -
 Further discussion (W) (Basic)

o The macromolecules are based on a skeleton of carbon atoms (‘life is based on
carbon'), which can form strong bonds with other atoms.
o Of the wide range of organic compounds formed, some provide energy for the
cell.
 Introduce the terms condensation and hydrolysis by discussing the synthesis and
breakdown of polymers. (W) (Basic)
 Brainstorm some carbohydrates and agree whether monosaccharide, disaccharide
or polysaccharide (W) (Basic)
o Learners make notes on: monosaccharides, using the terms triose, pentose and
hexose (glucose, galactose and fructose as e.g. of hexoses); disaccharides
(lactose, maltose, sucrose and cellobiose), giving their constituent
monosaccharides). (I) (Basic)
Note
 Useful terms for later:
o pentose - nucleotide and nucleic acid structure in this unit,
o hexose for respiration (Unit 9 ) and photosynthesis (Unit 11).
2.2.a  Provide details of the molecular structure of glucose (see 2.2.b) which, in solution, is Online
describe the ring forms of -glucose mainly in ring form (W) (Basic) http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-
and glucose o Show learners how to use a logical sequence to build up the ring form of the online/e17/17.htm
glucose molecule and number the carbon atoms. Learners practise then draw http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teachers
Key concepts the molecule from memory. (I) (Challenging) /Resources/cfb/carbohydrates.htm#2
Biochemical processes o Learners complete a range of incomplete diagrams prepared by you, e.g. by
adding the -OH and -H groups. (F) Past Papers
o Progress learners to be able to identify and draw a glucose molecule. (I) Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q4 (a)
(Basic)
 Learners make molecular models of  and  forms of glucose using plastic sphere /
bond models or drinking straw models. (P) (Challenging)
 Explain that knowledge of the  and  forms of glucose will help understanding of
disaccharide and polysaccharide structures and properties. (W) (Basic)
2.2.c  Outline how a glycosidic bond is formed to produce a disaccharide by a Past Papers
describe the formation of a glycosidic condensation reaction (no details yet of molecular structure). (W) (Basic) Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q4 (b)
bond by condensation, with reference  Learners draw the formation of an , 1-4 glycosidic bond and add the name of the
both to polysaccharides and to bond to their table from 2.2.b. (I) (Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
disaccharides, including sucrose  Work through the formation of a , 1-4 glycosidic bond (to form cellobiose). (W) Bio Factsheet 78: Chemical bonding in
(Challenging) biological molecules
Key concepts  Tell learners that the glucose monomer of sucrose is -glucose and ask them to use
Biochemical processes a molecular diagram of a sucrose molecule to work out the structure of a fructose
molecule (no need to memorise this). (W) (Challenging)
 Learners use the -glucose models previously constructed to form a glycosidic
bond. (P) (I) (Basic)
o Produce a section of a polysaccharide, e.g. from an amylose or cellulose
molecule. (G) (P) (I) (Challenging)
Note
 Maltose is formed in nature from degradation reactions (i.e. breakdown) of starch, so
focus the activity on the concept of a condensation reaction to build up a
macromolecule and the formation of a glycosidic bond. The ‘formation’ of maltose
illustrates the principle of glycosidic bond formation by a condensation reaction.
2.1.a (i) Only the first part of this learning objective is included here: carry out tests for reducing Practical booklet 2
carry out tests for reducing sugars sugars and non-reducing sugars, and the iodine in potassium iodide solution test for
and non-reducing sugars, the iodine starch to identify the contents of solutions Online
in potassium iodide solution test for  Discuss the tests and explain they are useful to identify biochemicals in a range of http://www.mrothery.co.uk/bio_web_pr
starch, the emulsion test for lipids and plant and animal material. (W) (Basic) ac/practicals/2Food%20Tests.doc
the biuret test for proteins to identify o Learners should describe the biochemical tests (‘food tests’ is a less helpful http://www.mrothery.co.uk/module1/Mo
the contents of solutions term) and the results obtained, giving conclusions. (W) (Basic) d%201%20techniques.htm
 Practical work: carrying out the Benedict's test for reducing sugars. http://www.biotopics.co.uk/nutrition/foot
Key concepts o Explain that a negative test does not mean an absence of carbohydrate. (I) es.html
Biochemical processes, (Basic)
Observation and experiment o Learners test substances that will give positive results (e.g. glucose/fructose/ Textbooks/Publications
maltose/lactose solution) and negative results (e.g. sucrose solution, water, King p.19-22
protein/starch suspension, vegetable oil). (I) (Basic) Siddiqui p.56-60
o Learners test natural liquefied biological materials (e.g. fruits, tubers) and Bio Factsheet 173: How to identify
liquefied foods from the diet. (I) (Basic) (Challenging) foods: Food Tests and
o Learners test a thin section of fruit placed on a microscope slide (add a few Chromatography
drops of Benedict’s and heat over a spirit burner – use forceps): use a
microscope to observe colour changes. (P) (I) (Challenging)
 Discuss the negative result for reducing sugar with sucrose and explain that hot acid
is used to hydrolyse sucrose, but neutralisation is required before adding Benedict’s.
(W) (Basic)
 Practical work carrying out the test for a non-reducing sugar, where learners use
fresh samples of each of the substances that gave ‘negative’ results for the reducing
sugar test. (I) (Basic)
 Practical work to consolidate reducing sugars and non-reducing sugar tests.
o Learners identify which unmarked solution is: glucose; sucrose; a mixture of both
glucose and sucrose. (I) (Basic)
o Extend this (excess of Benedict’s solution) to filtering the precipitates for
comparison and using a colorimeter (if available) to compare filtrates. (P) (I)
(Challenging)
 Practical work to test for starch in a range of different types of starch (suspensions)
and food substances using iodine in potassium iodide solution. Learners see a range
of blue-black colours obtained (owing to the differing proportions of amylose to
amylopectin). (I) (Basic)
 Practical booklet 2 can be carried out after this stage. See the Teacher’s practical
notes regarding the development of certain skills for Paper 3.
Note
 Remind learners to control variables.
 AR (analytical reagent) sucrose is preferred to LR (laboratory reagent) sucrose
(preferred to cane sugar) for the non-reducing sugar test (if cane sugar is used,
explain that it will contain impurities and may give a slight positive Benedict’s test
results).
2.1.b  Practical work: learners practise, and get a visual impression of, diluting a coloured Practical booklet 2
carry out a semi-quantitative liquid, using water, to set concentrations. (I) (Basic)
Benedict’s test on a reducing sugar  Practical work: learners prepare glucose solutions of known concentration and then Online
using dilution, standardising the test carry out the Benedict's test, recording the time taken for the first indication of colour http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
and using the results (colour standards change and to obtain colour standards. (I) (Basic) hing-resources/103-estimating-
or time to first colour change) to o Follow-up with a semi-quantitative analysis, comparing time taken and glucose-concentration-in-solution
estimate the concentration colour/colour depth to determine the approximate concentration of an unknown
solution. (I) (Challenging)
Key concepts o Evaluate the test with learners and ask for ideas of other semi-quantitative tests
Biochemical processes, (e.g. allow precipitate to settle, dry and weigh). (W) (Challenging)
Observation and experiment  Practical booklet 2 can be carried out after this stage. See the Teacher’s practical
notes regarding the development of certain skills for Paper 3.
2.2.d  Explain how a glycosidic bond can be broken by hydrolysis, referring to monomers Online
describe the breakage of glycosidic and monosaccharides. (W) (Basic) http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teachers
bonds in polysaccharides and  Learners draw diagrams of the breakage of glycosidic bonds (by hydrolysis) of /Resources/cfb/carbohydrates.htm#2
disaccharides by hydrolysis, with maltose and sucrose. (I) (Challenging)
reference to the non-reducing sugar o Add annotations to explain the ideas behind the non-reducing sugar test. (I)
test (Basic)
o Use the models of disaccharides previously constructed to demonstrate the
Key concepts breakage of a glycosidic bond. (P) (I) (Basic)
Biochemical processes, o Extension activity: using molecular diagrams of galactose, lactose and
Observation and experiment cellobiose, learners draw diagrams or construct models to show the breakdown
of lactose and cellobiose. (P) (I) (Challenging)
Note
 Learners should describe the breakage of the glycosidic bond in sucrose when
explaining non-reducing sugar test results (see 2.1.a)
2.2.e  Use the molecular models to show short sections of amylose and amylopectin (or Online
describe the molecular structure of strings of beads on wire) and discuss glycogen structure. (G) (Basic) http://www.rpi.edu/dept/bcbp/molbioch
polysaccharides including starch  Learners describe the difference between the structures (include bonds formed) and em/MBWeb/mb1/part2/sugar.htm
(amylose and amylopectin), glycogen highlight the idea of ‘structure to function ‘. http://www.calfnotes.com/pdffiles/CN1
and cellulose and relate these o More compact structures for storage linked to the coiling effect (amylose) and 02.pdf
structures to their functions in living branching (amylopectin).
organisms o Branching of amylopectin and glycogen provides large number of ‘ends’ to Textbooks/Publications
attach /detach glucose units. (I) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 39: Carbohydrates:
Key concepts  Demonstrate (molecular model / animation) how a straight chain is produced when revision summary
Cells as the units of life, forming polysaccharides with alternate -glucose residues that rotate by 180°.(W) Bio Factsheet 174: The structure and
Biochemical processes (Basic) function of polysaccharides
 Emphasise the structure to function of cellulose is different to that of the cell wall.
(W) (Basic) Past Papers
 Discuss the role of cellulose, then learners produce explanatory notes with diagrams Paper 21, June 2011, Q5
of how straight parallel chains are useful for structural purposes and how hydrogen Paper 22, Nov 2012, Q1 (d)
bonding (2.3.d) allows parallel cellulose molecules to form fibrils (links to cell wall
structure in Unit 2). (I) (Challenging)
 Learners complete a gap-filling worksheet prepared by you to serve as a summary
of the main learning points for carbohydrates. (F)
2.2.f  Draw the general formula for a fatty acid. Online
describe the molecular structure of a o Explain that it is a carboxylic acid and outline -COOH as the carboxyl group. http://www.biotopics.co.uk/as/lipidcond
triglyceride with reference to the o Explain R is a hydrocarbon chain, and extend this to explain saturated or ensation.html
formation of ester bonds and relate the unsaturated fatty acids. (W) (Basic) http://www.chemguide.co.uk/organicpr
structure of triglycerides to their  Draw the molecular structure of glycerol and state that a triglyceride is produced with ops/esters/background.html
functions in living organisms the attachment of three fatty acids in condensation reactions. (W) (Basic)
o With prompting, learners work out how ester bonds form and add the name of Textbooks/Publications
Key concepts the bond to their table of 2.2.b. (I) (Challenging) Bio Factsheet 42: The structure and
Cells as the units of life,  Learners make simple paper cut-out models of triglycerides to illustrate the absence function of lipids.
Biochemical processes of polar groups and show the non-polar exposed fatty acids (so not soluble when in Bio Factsheet 74: The structure and
contact with watery liquids). (W) (Basic) biological functions of lipids.
 Learners describe evidence that makes triglycerides good energy stores (many C-C Bio Factsheet 78: Chemical bonding in
bonds; highly reduced so energy can be released by oxidation; insoluble in water so biological molecules
can be localised in the organism). (G) (P) (I) (Challenging)
Past Papers
Paper 21, June 2011, Q5
Paper 22, June 2011, Q5 (a)(b)(i)
Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q4 (b)
2.2.g  Learners label a printed diagram showing the structure of a phospholipid molecule Textbooks/Publications
describe the structure of a and discuss how the presence of polar groups relates to phospholipid behaviour Bio Factsheet 152: Phospholipids
phospholipid and relate the structure of when in contact with watery liquids. (W) (Basic)
phospholipids to their functions in living  Discuss the function of phospholipids in forming the bulk of structure of cell Past Papers
organisms membranes, forming bilayers (link to Unit 2). (W) (Basic) Paper 21, June 2011, Q5
 Learners do research to find out that: there are many different fatty acids and Paper 22, June 2011, Q5 (a)(b)(i)(ii)
Key concepts phospholipids; some phospholipids have a nitrogen-containing (choline) portion. (H) (c)(d)
Cells as the units of life, (Basic) (Challenging) Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q4 (b)
Biochemical processes
2.1.a (ii) Only the second part of this learning objective is included here: carry out tests Practical booklet 2
carry out tests for reducing sugars emulsion test for lipids to identify the contents of solutions
and non-reducing sugars, the iodine in  Practical work, testing for lipids using the (ethanol) emulsion test. Online
potassium iodide solution test for o Test vegetable oil and yellow-dyed water. (I) (Basic) http://www.mrothery.co.uk/bio_web_pr
starch, the emulsion test for lipids o Test crushed fruits and seeds. (I) (Basic) ac/practicals/2Food%20Tests.doc
and the biuret test for proteins to  Practical booklet 2 is designed to be carried out after learners have used the http://www.mrothery.co.uk/module1/Mo
identify the contents of solutions emulsion test as described above. d%201%20techniques.htm
http://www.biotopics.co.uk/nutrition/foot
Key concepts Note es.html
 Ensure learners understand that lipids include triglycerides (fats and oils).
Biochemical processes,
Observation and experiment Textbooks/Publications
King p.19-22
Siddiqui p.56-60
Bio Factsheet 173: How to identify
foods: Food Tests and
Chromatography
2.1.a (iii) Only the third part of this learning objective is included here: carry out tests biuret test Practical booklet 2
carry out tests for reducing sugars for proteins to identify the contents of solutions.
and non-reducing sugars, the iodine in  Practical work, testing for proteins using the biuret test on a solution of egg white, Online
potassium iodide solution test for skimmed milk, chicken or tofu and water. (I) (Basic) http://www.mrothery.co.uk/bio_web_pr
starch, the emulsion test for lipids and  Extension practical using a semi-quantitative biuret test: learners prepare a set of ac/practicals/2Food%20Tests.doc
the biuret test for proteins to standard solutions and compare the intensity of colour obtained of an unknown with http://www.mrothery.co.uk/module1/Mo
identify the contents of solutions the standards (control variables). (P) (I) (Challenging) d%201%20techniques.htm
 Practical booklet 2 is designed to be carried out after learners have used the biuret http://www.biotopics.co.uk/nutrition/foot
Key concepts test as described above. es.html
King p.19-22
Siddiqui p.56-60
Chromatography
2.3.a  Familiarise learners with the names of the 20 amino acids (encoded by the genetic Online
describe the structure of an amino acid code – see Unit 3) and their three-letter shortened version from labelled diagrams. http://www.biotopics.co.uk/as/aa.html
and the formation and breakage of a  Learners write out the general formula of an amino acid, and on the diagrams use a http://www.worldofmolecules.com/life/
peptide bond colour code to identify the: R group; part common to them all; amine group;
carboxylic acid group. (W) (I) (Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
Key concepts o Learners make notes to show understanding that the ‘side-chain’ or R (residual) Bio Factsheet 78: Chemical bonding in
Biochemical processes group can take different forms and that the amino acids can be grouped biological molecules
according to the properties of their R-group. (I) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 80: Structure and
 Learners draw simple diagrams of: peptide bond formation (choose two amino acids biological functions of proteins
from their diagram sheet) by condensation (add the name of the bond to their table
of 2.3.b); hydrolysis of the dipeptide. (I) (Challenging) Past Papers
 Discuss how a series of condensation reactions leads to the formation of a Paper 21, June 2011, Q5
polypeptide. (W) (Basic) Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q4 (b)

Note
 The names and structures of the amino acids are not required learning.
 Learners could be introduced to the one-letter abbreviations (useful for Unit 8).
2.3.b  Learners write down their own polypeptide, 25 amino acids long (choose from the Online
explain the meaning of the terms sheet of 2.3.a) using encircled three-letter abbreviations and share with the rest of http://www.pdb.org/pdb/home/home.do
primary structure, secondary structure, the group to highlight how an enormous number of different polypeptides can be http://www.biology.arizona.edu/bioche
tertiary structure and quaternary obtained. Discuss the term primary structure. (W) (I) (Basic) mistry/tutorials/chemistry/page2.html
structure of proteins and describe the  Make links forward to Unit 2 to the roles of cell structures in protein synthesis to fold
types of bonding (hydrogen, ionic, / further modify the polypeptide chain. (W) (Basic) Past Papers
disulfide and hydrophobic interactions)  Expand knowledge of hydrogen bonding (from 2.3.d) and 2.2.e) with an explanation Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q3 (a)
that hold these molecules in shape of secondary structure. (W) (Basic)
 Learners suggest what will hold the chain in place to form a specific 3-D structure
Key concepts before discussing tertiary structure. (W) (Basic) (Challenging)
Biochemical processes o Include interactions between R groups and the different types of bonding. (W)
(Basic)
o Give a simple definition of quaternary structure. (W) (Basic)
o Discuss how the loss of tertiary (and quaternary where it exists) results in the
loss of function of the protein. (W) (Basic)
o Learners make notes on levels of organisation to highlight the relationship
between the structures and role of bonding in determining shape /stability. (I)
(Challenging)
Note
 For quaternary structure learners should know that this is a protein composed of
more than one polypeptide chain – details of the association between chains is not
required.
 Do not allow learners to think that proteins with quaternary structure must be
composed of four polypeptides.
2.3.c  Show diagrams/images of globular and fibrous proteins to learners for them to Online
describe the molecular structure of describe, and then discuss their features (include solubility) and overall roles (e.g. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemoglobin
haemoglobin as an example of a mainly metabolically active versus mainly structural). Discuss the fact that many http://www.pdb.org/pdb/101/motm.do?
globular protein, and of collagen as an fibrous proteins show little or no tertiary structure. (W) (G) (P) (I) (Basic) momID=4&evtc=Suggest&evta=Mole
example of a fibrous protein and relate (Challenging) culeof%20the%20Month&evtl=TopBa
these structures to their functions (The  Display a diagram / image of haemoglobin for learners to identify the features of a r
importance of iron in the haemoglobin globular protein and consolidate knowledge of levels of protein structure. (W)
molecule should be emphasised. A (Basic) (Challenging)
haemoglobin molecule is composed of o Give details of haem and explain the idea of a prosthetic group. (W) (Basic). Textbooks/Publications
two alpha () chains and two beta () o Notes made or construct a spider diagram / concept map relating haemoglobin Bio Factsheet 175: Haemoglobin:
chains, although when describing the structure to function. (I) (Challenging) structure & function
chains the terms -globin and -globin  With textbook/internet research, learners make bullet-pointed notes on collagen
may be used. There should be a structure (include the difference between a molecule and a fibre), linking to its Past Papers
distinction between collagen molecules function (including role in blood vessel structure – link to Unit 4). (W) (I) (Basic) Paper 22, June 2011, Q3 (c)
and collagen fibres)  Learners construct a comparison table showing the similarities and differences Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q3 (c)
between haemoglobin and collagen. (F)
Key concepts  Compile a set of multiple choice questions from past papers for learners to
Cells as the units of life, complete. (F)
Note
 Mention that haemoglobin has a role in the carriage of carbon dioxide (for Unit 4).
2.1.a  Practical investigation, without using instructions, to analyse the biochemicals in a Practical booklet 2
carry out tests for reducing sugars and range of unknown solutions or liquefied solid foods. (F)
non-reducing sugars, the iodine in  Practical booklet 2 is a suitable protocol (designed to develop skills for Paper 3). Online
potassium iodide solution test for http://www.mrothery.co.uk/bio_web_pr
starch, the emulsion test for lipids and ac/practicals/2Food%20Tests.doc
the biuret test for proteins to identify http://www.mrothery.co.uk/module1/Mo
the contents of solutions d%201%20techniques.htm
http://www.biotopics.co.uk/nutrition/foot
Key concepts es.html
King p.19-22
Siddiqui p.56-60,
Chromatography
6.1.a  Draw a labelled diagram of a nucleotide to show the three components: phosphate, Online
describe the structure of nucleotides, pentose sugar and nitrogenous organic base (e.g. using a circle, pentagon and http://hyperphysics.phy-
including the phosphorylated rectangle) for learners to reproduce without help. (W) (I) (Basic) astr.gsu.edu/hbase/biology/atp.html
nucleotide ATP (structural formulae  Give out images of the structural formulae of the four RNA and four DNA http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/V
are not required) nucleotides, ensuring learners know the names of the bases and explaining carbon L/GG/basePair1.php
atom numbering. (W) (Basic)

Key concepts o In a small group, learners interpret how the diagram of a nucleotide has been Textbooks/Publications
Biochemical processes, derived and identify similarities and differences between the DNA and RNA Bio Factsheet 129: ATP – what it is,
DNA, the molecule of heredity nucleotides. (G) (Basic) (Challenging) what it does.
o Learners draw a labelled generalised RNA and a DNA nucleotide, naming the
different pentose sugars and indicating the four different bases for each. (I) Past Papers
(Basic) Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q5 (a)
 Discuss briefly an image of the structural formula of ATP and agree it is a
phosphorylated nucleotide before learners draw a simple diagrammatic, annotated
version. Include the concept that on removal of a phosphate, energy is released
(links with 1.2.c and idea of activated nucleotides for 6.1.c and 6.2.d). (W) (I) (Basic)
 Introduce DNA base-pairing for 6.1.b by showing learners structural /skeletal
formulae and diagrammatic forms. (W) (Basic)
o Allow learners to volunteer that in the diagrams: A and G are the same ‘length’
and are ‘longer’ than T and C (also the same length) as they are double ring
structures; the end where the pairs meet shows a complementary nature (e.g. A
pointed, T ‘V’ shaped; G convex, C concave).
o Introduce the concept of complementary base pairing and hydrogen bonding
between base pairs (mention also RNA/DNA base-pairing).
Note
 Base names must be spelt correctly, e.g. thymine not thiamine, and learners must
be clear about the difference between adenine and adenosine.
 Emphasise that the structural/skeletal formulae of the bases is not required.
6.1.b  Discuss phosphodiester bond (strong, covalent) formation by condensation reactions Online
describe the structure of RNA and to produce a polynucleotide (learners add the bond name to their table of 2.2.b). (I) http://www.dnaftb.org
DNA and explain the importance of (Basic) http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/dna/
base pairing and the different  Learners prepare cut-out nucleotides and, with verbal prompts, build up a short index.html
hydrogen bonding between bases polynucleotide strand, learning about the sugar-phosphate backbone and noting the http://accessexcellence.org/AB/GG/
(include reference to adenine and variation in sequences among the class (different ‘information’). (P) (I) (H) (Basic) http://www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk/ncbe/P
guanine as purines and to cytosine,  Explain the concept of ‘direction’ of the strand (5′ to 3′) before learners build up the ROTOCOLS/DNA/extracting.html
thymine and uracil as pyrimidines. anti-parallel complementary strand (see final activity 6.1.a). (P) (I) (Challenging) http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/l
Structural formulae for bases are not o Point out how base pairing allows the strands to be parallel and the strength of abs/extraction/
required but the recognition that having many hydrogen bonds (from single weak H bonds). (W) (Basic) http://www.nature.com/nature/dna50/ar
purines have a double ring structure  Groups of learners can join together their sections to give the idea of a (short!) gene chive.html
and pyrimidines have a single ring and the class can see each gene carries different information to code for different
structure should be included) proteins. (W) (G) (Basic) Past Papers
 Learners fully label and annotate pre-existing diagrams of DNA. (I) (Basic) Paper 21, June 2011, Q3
Key concepts  Extension activity (see website recommended): learners read about the discovery of Paper 21, June 2012, Q6 (a)
Biochemical processes, DNA. (I) (Challenging)
DNA, the molecule of heredity  Progress to RNA structure, giving an outline of the three types of RNA before
learners make notes, including diagrams. (W) (I) (Basic)
 Learners construct a summary table of the similarities and differences between DNA
and RNA. (F)
 Summary discussions (small group and class) about requirements of the ideal
molecule of inheritance, resulting in a large poster. (W) (G) (Basic) (Challenging)
o Carrying information to allow proteins to be synthesised (sequence of
nucleotides).
o Expression to obtain the proteins (transcription and translation, learned later).
o Stability (strong sugar-phosphate backbone, many H bonds).
o Faithful replication to pass on information to daughter cells (complementary
nature of the strands).
o Ability to provide variation (mutations, learned later).
Note
 Save the nucleotides for DNA replication in Unit 3.
3.1.a  Brainstorm or provide multiple choice questions to gauge learner knowledge, Online
explain that enzymes are globular including understanding of the terms globular, metabolic and catalyst. Emphasise http://highered.mcgraw-
proteins that catalyse metabolic that previous studies will be extended and name some enzymes they will learn about hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_vi
reactions e.g. DNA polymerase and carbonic anhydrase. (W) (Basic) ew0/chapter2/animation__how_enzy
 State that most enzyme names end with ‘ase’ and discuss the role of enzymes, e.g. mes_work.html
Key concepts synthesising macromolecules; transferring groups such as phosphates; rearranging http://www.sumanasinc.com/webconte
Cells as the units of life, molecules to form different ones. (W) (Basic). nt/animations/content/enzymes/enzy
Biochemical processes mes.html
Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 163: Answering
Questions: enzyme activity.
Past Papers
Paper 23, Nov 2013, Q6 (c)
3.1.b  Explain that enzymes are produced within cells. Learners volunteer the meanings of Textbooks/Publications
state that enzymes function inside cells ‘intra-‘ and ‘extra- ‘and discuss these with respect to enzymes that remain to function Bio Factsheet 24: Human digestion.
(intracellular enzymes) and outside intracellularly and others that are released to act extracellularly (e.g. digestive
cells (extracellular enzymes) enzymes) (this links later to role of the Golgi body). (W) (Basic)
Note
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,  Learners will benefit if they know the meaning of prefixes e.g. intra, extra, poly, milli,
Biochemical processes mono. Explain that some have the same meaning but Latin or Greek origins (e.g. uni
versus mono).
3.1.c  Learners make notes on the mode of action of enzymes (remind them of protein Online
explain the mode of action of enzymes structure), highlighting structure to function. (I) (Challenging) http://highered.mcgraw-
in terms of an active site, o Describe and explain enzyme structure, including the active site. hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_vi
enzyme/substrate complex, lowering of o Include a set of annotated diagrams of the lock and key and induced fit ew0/chapter2/animation__how_enzy
activation energy and enzyme mechanisms (noting the role of the R groups of amino acids at the active site in mes_work.html
specificity (the lock and key hypothesis binding with the substrate). http://www.sumanasinc.com/webconte
and the induced fit hypothesis should o Explain that many/most reactions can be catalysed in both directions. nt/animations/content/enzymes/enzy
be included)  Learners use paper cut-out models to show how enzymes can break up substrates mes.html
into smaller molecules or can build up larger molecules from smaller ones. (P) (I) http://www.learnerstv.com/animation/a
Key concepts (Basic) nimation.php?ani=161&cat=Biology
Biochemical processes  Discuss the concept of lowering activation energy. (W) (Challenging)
o Learners annotate a ‘boulder analogy’ graph to highlight that, although the Past Papers
energy content of substrate and products is not changed, the reaction pathway Paper 23, Nov 2013, Q6 (c)
follows a lower energy course. (H) (Basic)
o Learners summarise a discussion about the different ways activation energy can
be lowered by adding notes to their diagrams or the graph. (I) (Challenging)
Note
 Use the term ‘complementary’ to describe how the substrate fits into, and binds at,
the active site. ‘Matches’ is incorrect.
 Check understanding of the term substrate - some may have used the term reactant.
3.1.d  Explain that the course of an enzyme-catalysed reaction can be shown by substrate Practical booklets 4, 5
investigate the progress of an enzyme- disappearance or product formation over time. (W) (Basic)
catalysed reaction by measuring rates  Emphasise that a rate measurement is given per unit time and that there will be a Online
of formation of products (for example, change in the rate during the course of the reaction. (W) (Basic) http://www.practicalbiology.org/areas/a
using catalase) or rates of  Learners carry out practical work using catalase (e.g. from yeast, potato, celery, dvanced/bio-molecules/factors-
disappearance of substrate (for lettuce) to investigate the rate of release of oxygen (product) from hydrogen affecting-enzyme-
example, using amylase) peroxide (substrate). (W) (G) (P) (I) (H) (Basic) (Challenging) activity/investigating-an-enzyme-
o A graph should be constructed of volume produced (or mass lost if using an controlled-reaction-catalase-and-
Key concepts electronic balance) over time intervals. hydrogen-peroxide-

Biochemical processes, o Use the graph to calculate initial rate and explain the initial steep release of concentration,47,EXP.html
Observation and experiment product, which then flattens out. www.csub.edu/~kszick_miranda/Enzy
 Practical booklet 5. Learners carry out practical work using amylase to time how mes%20part2.doc
long it breaks down starch. Remind learners that using iodine (in potassium iodide) http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
solution on samples shows the loss of starch from the reaction mixture over time. hing-resources/293-learner-sheet-24-
This practical is designed to develop practical skills (itemised in the Teacher’s microscale-investigations-with-
practical notes) assessed in Paper 3. (W) (G) (P) (I) (H) (Basic) catalase
 Extend practical using amylase if a colorimeter is available to get quantitative
results. Trials are required to ensure that the colour of resulting solutions is not too Textbooks/Publications
intense for the colorimeter for a graph. (P) (I) (Challenging) Bio Factsheet 130: Investigating
 Practical booklet 4 (carry out after Practical booklet 5) is a modification of the catalase
method described above using catalase.
Past Papers
Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q2 (a)
3.2.a  With prompting, learners explain why measuring the time taken for complete Practical booklet 5
investigate and explain the effects of removal of substrate is unsuitable if trying to measure the effect of substrate
the following factors on the rate of concentration (with more substrate the rate of reaction is faster, but it takes longer Online
enzyme-catalysed reactions: for it all to disappear). (W) (I) (Challenging) http://www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk/NCBE/
 Temperature  Discuss with learners why, ideally, initial rates should be calculated when comparing PROTOCOLS/menu.html
 pH (using buffer solutions) enzyme activity under different conditions. (W) (Challenging) http://www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk/NCBE/
 enzyme concentration  Develop planning skills: learners design an investigation in which several variables PROTOCOLS/juice.html
 substrate concentration need to be controlled and carry this out (ensure that a range of plans is covered). http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
 inhibitor concentration (W) (I) (Basic) (Challenging) hing-resources/95-investigating-the-
 Learners carry out practical activities on factors affecting the rate of an enzyme- effect-of-competitive-and-non-
Key concepts catalysed reaction (examples below). (P) (I) (Basic) (Challenging) competitive-inhibitors-on-the-enzyme-
Organisms in their environment o Effect of temperature: the catalase experiment in 3.1.d. ss-galactosidase
o Effect of pH: use trypsin to digest protein in a suspension of milk powder. http://www.southernbiological.com/
o Effect of enzyme concentration or substrate concentration: use amylase or http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
diastase to digest a starch suspension. hing-resources/261-the-inhibition-of-
Then learners present their results and contribute to whole class discussion, catechol-oxidase-by-lead
following up with a written explanation. Construct and annotate graphs showing: http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
o the impact of rate of collisions (temperature, substrate concentration, enzyme hing-resources/106-the-effect-of-end-
concentration). product-phosphate-on-the-enzyme-
o the effect on hydrogen bonding, tertiary structure, shape of active site and phosphatase
complementary fit of substrate (temperature, pH, inhibitors).
(W) (I) (Basic) (Challenging) King p.64-68

 Possibly demonstrate a practical that uses inhibitors considered to be hazardous to Siddiqui p.69-75.
the environment (minimises the volumes used). Check your local authority Bio Factsheet 43: Factors affecting
regulations concerning safe disposal. enzyme activity
Note Past Papers
 Ensure learners can interpret correctly graphs with the same shaped curve, e.g. Paper 21, June 2011, Q4
course of an enzyme-catalysed reaction / the effect of increasing substrate Paper 32, June 2013, Q1
concentration on the rate of a reaction.
 For inhibitor concentration, 3.2.b should be covered first or incorporate this part of
3.2.a with 3.2.b.
 To show that an inhibitor is competitive is difficult as separate reaction mixtures with
different concentrations of the substrate need to be made up.
3.2.b  Explain Vmax and Km (great detail not required) before learners make notes. (W) (I) Online
explain that the maximum rate of (Basic) http://www.worthington-
reaction (Vmax) is used to derive the o Show learners how to obtain Vmax and Km from a graph. biochem.com/introbiochem/substrate
Michaelis-Menten constant (Km) which o Learners arrive at the idea that the enzyme is saturated with substrate at the Conc.html
is used to compare the affinity of maximum rate of reaction, Vmax.
different enzymes for their substrates o Show learners how to obtain Km from a graph, the concentration of substrate that
enables the enzyme to achieve half the maximum rate of reaction, or half Vmax
Key concepts  Learners obtain (Vmax) and (Km) using one of the graphs constructed from their
Biochemical processes, practical work. (I) (Basic)
Observation and experiment  Extend learner understanding of Km by discussion or a worksheet providing some
information accompanied by questions. (W) (I) (Challenging)
o Explain that (Km) is the affinity of enzyme for its substrate.
o Allow learners to suggest that an enzyme with a low Km
 has a high affinity for its substrate
 needs a lower concentration of substrate to reach Vmax than an enzyme with
a high Km.
o Explain that an enzyme with a low Km is more likely to be saturated with
substrate in the normal conditions of substrate within a cell, so variations in
substrate will have less effect on the rate of formation of product.
o Ask learners to explain why an enzyme with a high Km is likely to vary its activity
more (i.e. the concentration of substrate becomes more important).
 Learners sketch out two graphs to show the differences between an enzyme with a
high Km and an enzyme with a low Km
o Annotate graphs with explanations. (I) (Challenging)
3.2.c  Following class discussion, learners use resources to make notes and annotated Online
explain the effects of reversible diagrams about enzyme inhibition. (I) (Challenging) http://www.wiley.com/college/boyer/04
inhibitors, both competitive and non- o Draw graphs of increasing substrate concentration with and without inhibitors. 70003790/animations/enzyme_inhibiti
competitive, on the rate of enzyme  Learners construct a summary table showing the differences between competitive on/enzyme_inhibition.htm
activity and non-competitive inhibition (include the different graphs). (I) (Challenging)
 Extension activity: learners investigate and discuss the use of inhibitors as medicinal Textbooks/Publications
Key concepts drugs, including the different uses of competitive versus non-competitive inhibitors. Bio Factsheet 31: Enzyme control of
Biochemical processes (G) (P) (I) (Challenging) metabolic pathways.
Note Past Papers
 Irreversible inhibition and allosteric regulation could be worth mentioning briefly Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q2 (b)
when covering 3.2.c.
3.2.d  Practical: ‘Better milk for cats’ or similar protocol using a different enzyme. Online
investigate and explain the effect of o Discuss how immobilised enzymes are used in everyday applications. (W) http://www.rpi.edu/dept/chem-
immobilising an enzyme in alginate on (Basic) eng/Biotech-
its activity as compared with its activity o Introduce the use of dipsticks containing glucose oxidase (useful for 14.1.k). (W) Environ/IMMOB/Immob.htm
when free in solution (Basic) http://www.scienceinschool.org/reposit
 Demonstrate the same enzymatic reaction using the enzyme free in solution. ory/docs/issue10_catmilk.pdf
Key concepts Learners suggest the advantages of immobilising the enzyme rather than using it http://www1.lsbu.ac.uk/water/enztech/i
Observation and experiment free (not immobilised) and summarise with a comparison table. (W) (Challenging) meconom.html
 Extension practical: learners use immobilised yeast cells to investigate the
effectiveness of their sucrase or catalase enzymes. (P) (I) (Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
 Learners complete a worksheet prepared by you to interpret and compare graphical King p.69-73
and tabulated data for immobilised enzymes with free enzymes. Siddiqui p.72-73
o Data extraction to compare both for the following factors: temperature; pH; Bio Factsheet 148: Industrial uses of
substrate concentration; inhibitor presence. enzymes.
o Learners consider explanations of the differences between free and immobilised
enzymes, e.g. protective and stabilising effect of the alginate matrix; degradation Past Papers
over time; active sites of immobilised enzymes may not all be available; time Paper 32, June 2012, Q1 (b)
taken for diffusion to occur; possibility of slightly altered active site shape when Paper 43, June 2011, Q2
immobilised, amongst others. (I) (Challenging) Paper 43, Nov 2011, Q2 (b)
Note
 Experiment and observation, a key concept, has increasingly been used to develop
biotechnological applications – here learners can appreciate how biological systems
can be used to benefit humans in the everyday world.
 Learners should know the method to prepare alginate beads.
Unit 2: Cells as the basic units of life

Little prior knowledge is required but a basic knowledge of cell structure and practical knowledge of the light microscope would be helpful. The ability to carry out simple
mathematical calculations is required. Learners should understand kinetic theory (http://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/kt/basic.html is a good basic introduction). If
Unit 1, Biological molecules, is taught after this unit, some knowledge of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates is useful.
Context
Unit 1, Biological molecules, leads on to an understanding of the structure of cells and the functions of cell structures, including biological membranes. This unit deals
with topics that are fundamental to almost every area of study covered in the AS and A Level course. Cell structure, and the functions of the various organelles, will
reappear in numerous contexts. Learners should appreciate the key concept that cells are the basic unit of life and that all living organisms are composed of one or
more cells. Learners will need to be reminded, or taught, how to use a light microscope. An understanding of how substances are transported across membranes is
essential reference material for other topics in this syllabus, especially those covering plant and animal physiology.
Outline
Early on, learners are introduced to the use of the microscope in cell studies, including use of the graticule and micrometer to measure cells. Calculations of
magnification and actual sizes are included in this unit. This unit covers the two fundamental types of cell, eukaryotic and prokaryotic. Details of cell structure are
studied, including the functions of organelles. The fluid mosaic model of membrane structure highlights how membranes can fulfil their roles. The role of the membrane
in cell signalling is introduced. The unit also covers the different mechanisms that enable the movement of substances into and out of cells.
Teaching time
1.1.d  Show images of both microscope types and agree more detail can be obtained Online
explain and distinguish between about cells / cell structure using microscopes. (W) (Basic) http://www.biology4all.com/resources_l
resolution and magnification, with  Agree the meaning of magnification – learners write a worded version and link this ibrary/details.asp?ResourceID=10
reference to light microscopy and later to the formula used in 1.1.c. Explain how the overall magnification is obtained http://www.vcbio.science.ru.nl/en/virtua
electron microscopy (eyepiece x objective lens). (W) (Basic) llessons/#fesemsimulatie
 Introduce resolution, explaining why the resolution of electron microscopes is much http://www.biology.arizona.edu/cell_bio
Key concepts higher than that of light microscopes (only enough detail of the workings of each to /tutorials/cells/cells2.html
Observation and experiment help understanding of resolution). (W) (Basic) (Challenging) http://zeiss-
o Explain that detail smaller than 200nm (approximately half the wavelength of campus.magnet.fsu.edu/articles/basic
light) cannot be resolved by the light microscope. (W) (Challenging) s/index.html
 Explain that increasing magnification is only desirable up to the limit of resolution,
e.g. up to approx. x 1000 for the light microscope (electron microscopes vary Textbooks/Publications
considerably). King p.39-41
 Compare the TEM and SEM (no details of working required) and the micrographs Bio Factsheet 75: Microscopes and
produced, so learners see the difference between, and usefulness of, both. their uses in Biology
 Learners suggest advantages and disadvantages of the two types of microscope.
(G) (Basic) Past Papers
 Learners observe a range of photomicrographs and electron micrographs and Paper 21, June 2012, Q2 (a)
explain which type of microscope was used to produce the image. If these have a Paper 22, June 2013, Q2 (b)
mixture of magnifications and scale bars on them, they can be used in 1.1.e. (G) (P) Paper 22, Nov 2012, Q1 (a)
(Basic)
1.1.a  Practical: learning how to use the light microscope. (I) (Basic) (Challenging) Online
compare the structure of typical animal  Brainstorm knowledge of the plant cell structure and animal cell structure and http://www.biology4all.com/resources_l
and plant cells by making temporary discuss cells as the units of life. (W) (Basic) ibrary/details.asp?ResourceID=10
preparations of live material and using  Learners construct a comparison table, generalised animal cell v generalised plant
photomicrographs cell, the first row containing simple labelled diagrams. (I) (Basic) (Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
 Practical: learners make a temporary preparation, check and give comments on Siddiqui p.28-29
Key concepts technique and slides made of peers. (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
Cells as the units of life,  Discuss the slides and compare with the constructed table (links to the ideas in
Observation and experiment 1.1.d). (W) (Basic)
Note
 This may be combined with 1.1.c and 1.1.e.
 Diagram-drawing skills may be introduced here.
1.1.c  Revise the units of length commonly used during the course (see 1.1.c) with the Practical booklet 1
use an eyepiece graticule and stage metre (meter US) as the SI unit of length. CD-ROM
micrometer scale to measure cells and o Learners to perform conversions between nm, m, mm and m. (W) (Basic) Bioscope – teaching and learning tool
be familiar with units (millimetre,  Explain how to use a stage micrometer to calibrate an eyepiece graticule. (W) for the skills required to use a
micrometre, nanometre) used in cell (Challenging) graticule and stage micrometer
studies o Practical booklet 1 is designed to develop the skills required by learners (see successfully.
Teacher’s practical notes) when measuring using an eyepiece graticule and a
Key concepts stage micrometer. Online
Cells as the units of life, o If learners always use the same microscope, then they can calibrate once only http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/c
Observation and experiment for each objective lens, and keep a record of it. (I) (Challenging) ells/scale/
o Learners use the Bioscope to learn the principles of use. (I) (Challenging) http://www.biology4all.com/resources_l
 Learners use their calibrated eyepieces to measure a range of microscopic ibrary/details.asp?ResourceID=10
specimens, choosing one specimen to draw (see 1.1.a). (I) (Basic) (Challenging) http://www.vcbio.science.ru.nl/en/virtua
o Learners measure the actual length of a part of a specimen on the slide and by llessons/#fesemsimulatie
measuring the length drawn on their diagram, they can calculate the linear http://www.biology.arizona.edu/cell_bio
magnification of their drawing. (I) (Basic) /tutorials/cells/cells2.html
http://zeiss-
Note campus.magnet.fsu.edu/articles/basic
 Discourage measuring in cm as many forget to multiply by 10 to convert to mm s/index.html
before converting to m.
 The eyepiece graticules can be fitted permanently into the eyepiece of the Textbooks/Publications
microscope. King p.20-22
 Inexpensive stage micrometer scale kits and eyepiece graticules can be obtained Siddiqui p.42-43
from the Cambridge publications catalogue www.cie.org.uk/cambridge-
for/teachers/order-publications Past Papers
Paper 31, Nov 2012, Q2 (b)(c)
Paper 33, Nov 2012, Q2 (b)
Paper 35, Nov 2012, Q2 (b)
Paper 12, Nov 2011, Q5
1.1.b  Hold up an apple, then drawings of the apple: at the same size = magnification x 1; Past Papers
calculate the linear magnifications of double the size = x 2; half the size = x 0.5. Discuss the mental calculation learners Paper 22, June 2011, Q4 (b)
drawings, photomicrographs and have made to get the right answer. Paper 21, June 2011, Q1 (a)
electron micrographs o magnification = image size / actual size. (Group) (Basic) Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q1 (a)
 Explain how to use scale bars to calculate magnification, emphasising that learners Paper 31, June 2011, Q2 (c)
Key concepts should measure the scale bar length and not the image. (W) (Challenging)
Observation and experiment  Learners complete a worksheet prepared by you with images of varying stated
length (nm to mm) and with scale bars only. Use copyright-free images to prepare
the worksheet (e.g. Wikipedia). (P) (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
1.1.e  Discuss how the actual sizes can be calculated using the rearranged formula to Online
calculate actual sizes of specimens calculate magnifications. (W) (Basic) http://www.cellsalive.com/howbig.htm
from drawings, photomicrographs and o Explain also how to use scale bars to calculate actual sizes. (W) (Basic)
electron micrographs o Learners calculate actual sizes from diagrams and the photomicrographs and Past Papers
electron micrographs from 1.1.d using the given scale bar or magnification. (P) Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q5 (a)
Key concepts (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
Observation and experiment  Learners tackle worksheets prepared by you with exam-style (differentiated)
questions to calculate actual sizes and magnifications (use past papers). (I) (H) (F)
(Basic) (Challenging)
1.2.b  Interactive session using diagrams and electron micrographs: agree descriptions of Online
recognise the following cell structures the cell structures and discuss their functions. http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-
and outline their functions: o With reference to plant and animal cells, introduce the terms eukaryote and online/library/falk/CellStructure/cellStr
 cell surface membrane eukaryotic, explaining the meaning of ‘true nucleus’. (W) (Basic) ucture.htm
 nucleus, nuclear envelope and  Provide an overview of how different cell structures are linked, e.g. outline sequence http://publications.nigms.nih.gov/inside
nucleolus of events in protein production and secretion. (W) (Basic) thecell/chapter1.html
 rough endoplasmic reticulum  Learners identify particular cell structures and state their function using electron http://www.cellsalive.com/cells/cell_mo
 smooth endoplasmic reticulum micrographs and photomicrographs, at various magnifications. Include examples of del.htm
 Golgi body (Golgi apparatus or both plant and animal cells (names of cell types not required). (G) (P) (I) (Basic) http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/c
Golgi complex) (Challenging) ells/insideacell/
 mitochondria (including small  Learners label the cell structures on diagrams drawn from electron micrographs of http://www.bscb.org/?url=softcell/index
circular DNA) both plant cell and animal cells, and annotate each with a function. (F) http://cellpics.cimr.cam.ac.uk/
 ribosomes (80S in the cytoplasm http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/HI
Note STHTML/EM/EM006.html
and 70S in chloroplasts and  Learners should understand (no definition required) that an organelle is a structure
mitochondria) http://www.rothamsted.bbsrc.ac.uk/not
within a cell that has a function. ebook/index.html
 lysosomes  Discuss the idea of the advantages of cellular compartments.
 centrioles and microtubules  For mitochondria and chloroplasts see also 1.2.c. Textbooks/Publications
 chloroplasts (including small circular Bio Factsheet 4: Structure to function
DNA) in eukaryotic cells.
 cell wall
 plasmodesmata Past Papers
 large permanent vacuole and Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q6 (a)
tonoplast of plant cells Paper 21, June 2012, Q2 (b)(c)(e)
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life,

DNA, the molecule of heredity
1.2.c  Extend 1.2.b so learners know that ATP is produced: in chloroplasts as a result of Online
state that ATP is produced in the absorption of light; in mitochondria in aerobic respiration. (W) (Basic) http://www.biologyinmotion.com/atp/ind
mitochondria and chloroplasts and  Discuss why a cell needs energy and the need for energy transfers within a cell. (W) ex.html
outline the role of ATP in cells (Basic)
o Explain that ATP is the molecule used for these transfers and is described as the Textbooks/Publications
Key concepts universal energy currency of the cell. Bio Factsheet 129: ATP–what it is,
Biochemical processes o Stress that ATP is not a form of energy but that energy is released when ATP is what it does.
hydrolysed and this energy can be used by the cell.
Note
 This sets the scene for other learning objectives, e.g. 4.2.a, 12.1.a, 12.1.b, 13.1.f,
13.1.h and 15.1e, so do not be tempted to give too many details at this stage.
1.2.a  Emphasise that although cells are the basic unit of life, they can have different Online
describe and interpret electron structures depending on their function. (W) (Basic) http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/tec
micrographs and drawings of typical  State that membranes range from approximately 5-9 nm thick and allow learners to hniques/contrast.html
animal and plant cells as seen with the explain that the boundary of the cell /nucleus is only seen with the light microscope http://www.uni-
electron microscope because of the contrast (membranes are not visible). (W) (Challenging) mainz.de/FB/Medizin/Anatomie/works
o Learners volunteer that detail such as membranes are visible using the electron hop/EM/EMAtlas.html
Key concepts microscope. (W) (Basic) http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/c
Cells as the units of life  From electron micrographs of different cell types, learners can identify: ells/insideacell/
o whether plant or animal, stating the features that enabled the choice,
o all the cell structures seen, adding labels and annotations. Past Papers
(P) (I) (H) (F) (Basic) (Challenging) Paper 21, June 2012, Q2
 Extension activity: learners compare electron micrograph images and drawings with Paper 22, Nov 2012, Q1 (b)
those obtained with the light microscope. (P) (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
o Learners construct a descriptive list of the additional features seen. (G) (P)
(Basic)
1.2.d  Short answer test to revise plant and animal cell structural details. (F) Online
outline key structural features of typical  Linking to the key concept of cells as the units of life, explain to learners that there http://www.cellsalive.com/cells/bactcell
prokaryotic cells as seen in a typical are two fundamental types of cell: eukaryotic and prokaryotic. .htm
bacterium (including: unicellular, 1- o Explain how the term ‘prokaryotic’ arose. http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/bacteria
/bacteria.html
5m diameter, peptidoglycan cell o Discuss how the single cell comprising a unicellular organism will exhibit all the
walls, lack of organelles surrounded by characteristics that define life. (W) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
double membranes, naked circular  Build up a typical bacterial cell (example of a prokaryote) by introducing each key Bio Factsheet 73: The prokaryotic cell
DNA, 70S ribosomes) structural feature in turn (e.g. overhead transparency overlays/PowerPoint slides).
Key concept  From 1.2.b, learners suggest functions of prokaryotic structures. (I) (Challenging) Paper 22, June 2011, Q4
Cells as the units of life  Learners label a diagram, or draw a labelled diagram, of a typical bacterium / Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q1
prokaryote. (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
 Annotate the diagram with an outline function. (H) (Basic)
Note
 Reference could be made to the bacteria responsible for cholera and TB (see Unit
5).
 Archaea as prokaryotes are covered in Unit 7.
 You could mention (to prepare for Unit 7), the kingdom Prokaryotae and the four
eukaryotic kingdoms, Fungi, Protoctista, Plantae and Animalia.
1.2.e  Learners examine photomicrographs, electron micrographs and diagrams of typical Online
compare and contrast the structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. (G) (Basic) http://www.biology4all.com/resources_l
typical prokaryotic cells with typical o Learners discuss the major differences between the two cell types. (G) (Basic) ibrary/details.asp?ResourceID=52
eukaryotic cells (reference to o Learners give a bullet-point list of similarities and construct a table of differences.
mesosomes should not be included) (I) (Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 107: Answering exam
Key concepts Note questions – cells
Cells as the units of life  Mention to learners that mesosomes (in many textbooks) are now considered to be
artefacts from preparation for electron microscopy. Past Papers
Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q1 (b)
1.2.f  Outlining the key features of viruses for learners to produce annotated diagrams. Past Papers
outline the key features of viruses as (W) (I) (Basic) Paper 21, June 2012, Q6 (c)
non-cellular structures (limited to  Learners investigate a range of viruses. (H)
protein coat and DNA/RNA) o A follow-up discussion/debate about viruses as complex entities that do not fit
the cell theory of life (also applies understanding of the key concept of cells as
Key concepts the units of life – are viruses living organisms?). (W) (Challenging)
Biochemical processes, Note
DNA, the molecule of heredity  Mention that some viruses have an additional outer envelope similar in nature to a
cell surface membrane (preparation for HIV in Unit 5).
4.1.a  Learners make protein, cholesterol and phospholipid (mix of fatty acid tails – both, Online
describe and explain the fluid mosaic saturated and unsaturated or one of each) cut-outs from templates provided by you. http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
model of membrane structure, (H) (Basic) hing-resources/754-using-beetroot-in-
including an outline of the roles of  Learners complete a short test to recall knowledge of phospholipids, proteins and the-lab
phospholipids, cholesterol, glycolipids, carbohydrates. Go through this and make links to membrane structure. (F) www.ultranet.com/~jkimball/BiologyPa
proteins and glycoproteins (Challenging) ges/C/CellMembranes.html
o For a phospholipid, use a symbolised or molecular model to point out the http://www.wisc-
Key concepts hydrophilic phosphate ‘head’ portion and the two hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails online.com/objects/ViewObject.aspx?
Cells as the units of life, (fatty acid residues). ID=ap1101
Biochemical processes o Relate protein structure to the main membrane protein types e.g. enzymes http://www.stolaf.edu/people/giannini/fl
(globular); channel (lining of amino acids with hydrophilic R groups), etc. ashanimat/lipids/membrane%20fluidit
o Describe carbohydrate portions of glycolipids and glycoproteins as chains of y.swf
sugar molecules.
 Discuss the basic model to describe the structure of membranes, explaining that the Textbooks/Publications
physical boundary is based on phospholipids. (W) (Challenging) Bio Factsheet 8: The cell surface
o Draw a line indicating a water/air boundary and a diagram of a symbolised membrane.
phospholipid. Learners suggest how phospholipids would behave if they were
spread as monolayer (tails in the air, heads in water). Past Papers
o Discuss the behaviour of phospholipids immersed in water (spheres, heads out, Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q1 (a)
tails to centre, natural self-assembly). Paper 22, Nov 2012, Q2 (a)
o Highlight the idea of a ‘fluid’ phospholipid bilayer forming a compartment (e.g.
cell/membranous organelle) and discuss which substances could cross the
hydrophobic core.
o Discuss the scattered (hence ‘mosaic’) proteins and their various overall roles,
e.g. enzymes, receptors for binding ligands, and the transport of polar molecules
and ions.
o Mention interspersed cholesterol molecules (lipids).
 Learners use their cut-outs to build a section of a membrane, noting the larger gaps
when phospholipids with unsaturated fatty acid tails occur within the bilayer. (P) (I)
(Basic)
 Discuss and explain factors affecting membrane fluidity, including: the role of
unsaturated and saturated fatty acids; how cholesterol acts to regulate; temperature.
(W) (Challenging)
 Learners label the different membrane components on a range of different diagrams
(prepared by you) of the fluid-mosaic model. (I) (Basic).
 Learners make notes to explain why the fluid mosaic model is an appropriate term to
use. (I) (Basic)
 Link the presence of glycolipids and glycoproteins to the cell surface membrane and
outline their roles. (W) (Basic)
 Learners practise drawing a labelled diagram of a section of a membrane that can
be completed under exam conditions in 3-4 minutes. (I) (F) (Challenging)
o Learners can annotate with the roles of the components. (F)
Note
 Learners should know the terms given in the notes in 2.3.d (Unit 1) to explain
transport of substances across the phospholipid bilayer or using membrane proteins.
4.1.b  Learners suggest and list the desired features of cell surface membranes. Explain Online
outline the roles of cell surface that there are some specialised cells that can engulf e.g. bacteria to introduce http://www.biologymad.com/cells/cellm
membranes including references to phagocytosis / endocytosis. (W) (I) (Basic) embrane.htm
carrier proteins, channel proteins, cell  Brainstorm a list of materials/substances entering and leaving cells. (W) (Basic) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NB
surface receptors and cell surface  Learners give a written explanation of the role of phospholipids and proteins in K9847/
antigens controlling the passage of substances across the cell surface membrane, making
reference to its partially permeable nature. (I) (Challenging) Past papers
Key concepts  Learners research and note the differences between carrier and channel proteins Paper 22, June 2013, Q4 (c)
Cells as the units of life, (how they act to transport solutes across the membrane), and explain how
Biochemical processes aquaporins increase the membrane permeability to water. (I) (Basic)
 Question and answer session revising protein structure, discussing cell surface
receptors for learners to make notes. (W) (Basic)
o Learners suggest / research examples of ligands, e.g. hormones,
neurotransmitters. (I) (Basic)
 Outline how glycoproteins and glycolipids can act as antigens (also in Unit 5). (W)
(Basic)
 Learners write out a summary of this learning objective. (F)
4.1.c  A reminder of cell receptors introduces the idea of cell signalling. (W) (Basic) Online
outline the process of cell signalling  Learners draw one or more annotated diagrams to show the general sequence of http://www.open.edu/openlearn/scienc
involving the release of chemicals that events occurring in cell signalling. (I) (Challenging) e-maths-technology/cell-
combine with cell surface receptors on  Extension work: learners apply knowledge to specific examples. (I) (Challenging) signalling/content-section-0#
target cells, leading to specific
responses
Key concepts
4.2.a (v) Only the fifth part of this learning objective is included here: describe and explain the Online
describe and explain the processes processes of endocytosis and exocytosis http://highered.mcgraw-
of diffusion, facilitated diffusion,  Learners refer to the list of substances that enter/leave cells (4.1.b) hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_vi
osmosis, active transport, endocytosis o State that there is also ‘unwanted’ entry of, e.g. bacteria. ew0/chapter2/
and exocytosis (no calculations o Discuss how the nature of the substance and its size will direct which http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/f
involving water potential will be set) mechanism of transport across the membrane is used. arabee/BIOBK/BioBooktransp.html
describe and explain the processes of o Learners place each item on the list into the correct group: through the
diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, phospholipid bilayer; through membrane proteins; neither (too large/bulk Textbooks/Publications
active transport, endocytosis and transport). (W) (I) (Challenging) Biological Nomenclature. Explains the
exocytosis (no calculations involving  Learners recall membrane fluidity and read about bulk transport across membranes. terminology that should be used
water potential will be set) (I) (Challenging) when teaching osmosis.
o Explain pinocytosis and phagocytosis (see 11.1.a in Unit 5) as forms of Bio Factsheet 54: Water potential
Key concepts endocytosis. Bio Factsheet 116: Transport
Cells as the units of life, o Learners draw diagrams showing the sequence of events involved in Mechanisms in cells
Biochemical processes endocytosis and exocytosis (revise Golgi vesicle formation).
o Point out that endocytosis and exocytosis are active (energy-requiring) Past Papers
mechanisms of movement of substances across membranes. Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q1 (b)
4.2.c  Learners use cubes to build 'organisms' of the same shape, with different numbers Textbooks/Publications
calculate surface areas and volumes of of blocks, and calculate surface area to volume ratios. (I) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 165: Surface Area and
simple shapes (e.g. cubes) to illustrate o Discuss the discovery that SA:V decreases as size of organism (same shape) Volume.
the principle that surface area to increases.
volume ratios decrease with increasing o Highlight the relative distances from the outside to the inside.
size
Note
Key concepts  This serves as an introductory exercise before considering diffusion (4.2.a (i)).
Observation and experiment
4.2.a (i) Only the first part of this learning objective is included here: describe and explain the Online
describe and explain the processes processes of diffusion http://highered.mcgraw-
of diffusion, facilitated diffusion,  Explain that diffusion is a passive (thermodynamic) method of movement across hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_vi
osmosis, active transport, endocytosis membranes. (W) (Basic) ew0/chapter2/
and exocytosis (no calculations  Learners write a definition, make bullet-pointed notes to expand and draw simple http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/f
involving water potential will be set) diagrams. (I) (Basic) arabee/BIOBK/BioBooktransp.html
describe and explain the processes of

diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, Textbooks/Publications
active transport, endocytosis and Bio Factsheet 116: Transport
exocytosis (no calculations involving Mechanisms in cells
water potential will be set)
Key concepts
4.2.d  Practical: to represent ‘cubic’ organisms, learners cut different-sized agar (technical Online
investigate the effect of changing agar better) or gelatine blocks, coloured using a pH indicator (e.g. cresol red or http://teachers.net/lessons/posts/2518.
surface area to volume ratio on phenolphthalein), then lower them carefully into dilute hydrochloric acid. Learners html
diffusion using agar blocks of different time how long it takes for the cube to change colour to measure the effect of surface http://www.neiljohan.com/projects/biolo
sizes area to volume ratio on diffusion. (P) (Basic) gy/sa-vol.htm
 Learners note the implications of a changing SA:V on the needs of multicellular
Key concepts plants and animals (size too great; distances too far; diffusion too slow) and the
Observation and experiment need for transport systems. (I) (Basic)
 Discuss shapes that give a large surface area for the same volume (e.g. cube,
flattened to give a leaf lamina, with branching to give a plant shape). (W) (Basic)
o Explain how this means that in plants diffusion alone is sufficient for gases, so
no transport system is required (presence of stomata and lenticels mentioned).
(W) (Challenging)
4.2.b  Practical: learners add glucose solution and/or starch suspension to lengths of Past Papers
investigate simple diffusion using plant Visking tubing tied at one end, tie at the other end and place in water (and vice Paper 35, Nov 2011, Q1
tissue and non-living materials, such versa) for a set time. The appearance of the tubing and the results of biochemical
as glucose solutions, Visking tubing tests on the internal and external solutions is recorded and results explained. (P) (I)
and agar (Basic) (Challenging)
 Practical: in agar (in Petri dishes) containing starch, learners cut out a central well,
Key concepts add amylase solution (or use a soaked filter paper disc) and after incubation observe
Cells as the units of life the changes that occur when iodine (in potassium iodide) solution is added. (I)
(Basic)
4.2.a (ii) Only the second part of this learning objective is included here: describe and explain Online
describe and explain the processes the processes of facilitated diffusion http://highered.mcgraw-
of diffusion, facilitated diffusion,  Emphasise that facilitated diffusion is also a passive method of movement across hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_vi
osmosis, active transport, endocytosis membranes and that it is diffusion through a channel or carrier protein. Learners ew0/chapter2/
and exocytosis (no calculations make notes and use textbooks/internet. (W) (Challenging) http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/f
involving water potential will be set) arabee/BIOBK/BioBooktransp.html
describe and explain the processes of
diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, Textbooks/Publications
active transport, endocytosis and Bio Factsheet 54: Water potential.
exocytosis (no calculations involving Bio Factsheet 116: Transport
water potential will be set) Mechanisms in cells
Key concepts Past Papers

Cells as the units of life, Paper 22, June 2012, Q1
4.2.a (iii) Only the third part of this learning objective is included here: describe and explain the Online
describe and explain the processes processes of osmosis (no calculations involving water potential will be set) http://highered.mcgraw-
of diffusion, facilitated diffusion,  Remind learners that movement of water molecules by crossing the bilayer or via hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_vi
osmosis, active transport, endocytosis aquaporins is passive. (W) (Basic) ew0/chapter2/
and exocytosis (no calculations  Explain water potential. (W) (Challenging) http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/f
involving water potential will be set)  Learners define osmosis, make bullet-point notes and draw simple diagrams. (I) arabee/BIOBK/BioBooktransp.html
describe and explain the processes of (Basic)
diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis,  Learners write a paragraph stating the similarities and differences between osmosis Textbooks/Publications
active transport, endocytosis and and (passive) diffusion. (F) Biological Nomenclature. Explains the
exocytosis (no calculations involving terminology that should be used
water potential will be set) Note when teaching osmosis.
 Terminology to use: partially permeable; water potential; solute potential; pressure Bio Factsheet 54: Water potential.
Key concepts potential. Learners should ignore other terms that they come across such as Bio Factsheet 116: Transport
Cells as the units of life, hypotonic and hypertonic, osmotic potential, etc. Mechanisms in cells
Past Papers
4.2.f  Recall the different permeabilities of the cell surface membrane, partially permeable Practical booklet 3
explain the movement of water and cell wall, (freely- or fully-) permeable. (W) (Basic)
between cells and solutions with  Discuss the terms that can be used to describe cells: plasmolysis / plasmolysed, Online
different water potentials and explain flaccid, turgid / turgidity and lysis / haemolysis. http://www.kscience.co.uk/animations/
the different effects on plant and  Learners describe what happens when animal and plant cells are placed into plasmolysis.htm
animal cells different external solutions at the same, lower and higher water potential than that of http://www.biotopics.co.uk/life/osmdia.
the cells. Diagrams drawn and explanation given in terms of osmosis and water html
Key concepts potential. http://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-
Cells as the units of life,  Learners complete a worksheet (prepared by you) with the cellular environment and level/biology/cells-and-
Observation and experiment the external solutions identified only with values of water potential. (I) (Basic) organelles/revise-it/movement
(Challenging) http://www.neosci.com/demos/10-
 Practical: learners use water and different concentrations of salt solutions to observe 1041_cell%20processes/Presentation
onion cells and make high power drawings. (I) (Challenging) .html
 Extension practical: as above, learners observe changes in red blood cells (use a http://www.biologymad.com/resources/
safe, acceptable source). Making estimates of cell numbers makes this a semi- ch%202%20-
quantitative investigation. (I) (Challenging) %20getting%20in%20and%20out%2
0of%20cells.pdf
Past papers
4.2.e  Learners immerse pieces of root or stem (e.g. potato tuber tissue) in sucrose Practical booklet 3
investigate the effects of immersing solutions of different concentrations. The water potential of the solution in which
plant tissues in solutions of different there is no change in length or mass is the estimate of water potential of the tissue. Online
water potential, using the results to (I) (Basic) http://www.biotopics.co.uk/life/carrot.ht
estimate the water potential of the  Practical booklet 3 develops skills for Paper 3 (see Teacher’s practical notes), ml#top
tissues followed up by Q1 in Paper 52, June 2011 (data interpretation). http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
hing-resources/286-measuring-the-
Key concepts water-potential-of-a-potato-cell
King p.60-63
Siddiqui p.38, 40-43.
Past papers
4.2.a (iv) Only the fourth part of this learning objective is included here: describe and explain the Online
describe and explain the processes processes of active transport http://highered.mcgraw-
of diffusion, facilitated diffusion,  Discuss examples of active transport to show why it is necessary to transport hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_vi
osmosis, active transport, substances against the concentration gradient. (W) (Basic) ew0/chapter2/
endocytosis and exocytosis (no  Learners make notes on active transport, including the role of membrane (carrier) http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/f
calculations involving water potential proteins. (I) (Basic) arabee/BIOBK/BioBooktransp.html
will be set) describe and explain the  Learners write a paragraph stating the similarities and differences between
processes of diffusion, facilitated facilitated diffusion and active transport. (I) (Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
diffusion, osmosis, active transport,  Learners construct a summary chart with main points (see below), and then add Bio Factsheet 116: Transport
endocytosis and exocytosis (no details. (H) (F) (Challenging) Mechanisms in cells
calculations involving water potential 
will be set) Past Papers
transport mechanism
Key concepts
passive active
passive facilitated bulk active
diffusion diffusion transport transport
endocytosis exocytosis
phagocytosis pinocytosis
Unit 3: DNA and the mitotic cell cycle

Learners should have covered cell structure in Unit 2. Building on the key concept of cells as the basic unit of life, they should be familiar with the terms unicellular and
multicellular and know the definition of a tissue. Knowledge of the cell structures involved in protein synthesis and in mitotic cell division is essential so that learners
understand where and when the biological processes described in this unit occur. The role of enzymes in biological processes should be appreciated.
Context
This unit brings together important ideas from Units 1 and 2. Eukaryotic cells can divide by mitosis and meiosis. Cells arising as a result of mitosis are genetically
identical to each other and their parent cell, owing to faithful DNA replication during the cell cycle. DNA transcription and translation occurs during the cell cycle and
results in protein synthesis. Learners will have studied the structure of nucleic acids and proteins and will know the cell structures involved in protein synthesis. DNA as
the molecule of heredity, a key concept, contains coded information for the synthesis of proteins. The central dogma describes the flow of genetic information in a cell
and is a concept that works at a molecular level to help explain the more general statement that “the nucleus controls the cell’s activities”. Mitotic division by stem cells
allows multicellular organisms to develop and to maintain their programmed structure and organisation. Malfunctioning of cells may cause uncontrolled growth and
division and lead to tumours, or could cause the early death of cells. An understanding of the processes involved in the cell cycle will underpin later studies of genetic
control and detailed knowledge of mitotic division will facilitate understanding of the events occurring in meiotic division, studied later in the scheme of work.
Outline
This unit covers the mitotic cell cycle and begins with detail of the structure of chromosomes. After gaining an overview of the cell cycle, DNA replication by the semi-
conservative mechanism is tackled as part of late interphase of the cell cycle and then consideration is given to the importance of mitosis to unicellular and multicellular
organisms. Stem cells are introduced and an explanation of how uncontrolled division can lead to tumours is given. To aid understanding of the events occurring during
mitosis, especially of chromosome behaviour, learners also have the opportunity to study cells in stages of mitosis in prepared or temporary slides. The unit finishes
with a molecular definition of a gene and a gene mutation, and provides detail of DNA transcription and translation, which gives learners further insight into processes
occurring during interphase of the mitotic cell cycle.
Teaching time
5.1.a  State that the structure of chromatin alters during the cell cycle and explain that in a Online
describe the structure of a non-dividing cell, chromatin is in its least condensed state. (W) (Basic) http://www.dnalc.org/resources/3d/07-
chromosome, limited to DNA, histone o Learners describe a chromosome in a non-dividing cell or a cell in interphase as how-dna-is-packaged-basic.html
proteins, chromatids, centromere and a molecule of DNA complexed with histone protein. http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/basics
telomeres o Remind/explain that the length of DNA in a chromosome is organised into /chromosome
functional units, genes.
Key concepts  Learners draw and annotate a chromosome at prophase/metaphase to include two
Biochemical processes, sister chromatids, the centromere and telomeres
DNA, the molecule of heredity o Learners write a paragraph to explain that an identical sister chromatid is formed
before cell division. (W) (I) (Basic)
 Extension: learners find out more about euchromatin and heterochromatin. (I)
(Challenging)
5.1.c  Explain that only some cells carry out mitotic cell division (most remain in the Online
outline the cell cycle, including interphase state) and one mitotic cell cycle results in two cells, following a nuclear http://www.cellsalive.com/cell_cycle.ht
interphase (growth and DNA division (mitosis) and a cell division. (W) (Basic) m
replication), mitosis and cytokinesis  Learners research and produce an outline, annotated diagram of a cell cycle. (I)
(Challenging) Past Papers
Key concepts o Include the two main phases, interphase and a mitotic phase and note that the Paper 22, June 2011, Q1
Cells as the units of life, timing of cell division is controlled by a number of genes. Paper 23, June 2011, Q1 (c)
DNA, the molecule of heredity o Indicate that DNA replication takes place in late interphase and that protein
synthesis occurs throughout interphase.
o Indicate that cell growth occurs in interphase.
o Include for the mitotic phase (mitosis) the main stages: prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, telophase and also indicate cytokinesis following telophase.
 Add background information, e.g. cytokinesis only takes place if new cells are to be
formed (without cytokinesis a multinucleate cell is formed); notes on the G1, S and
G2 phases (use a key to indicate background information only).
 Learners label incomplete diagrams (prepared by you). (F)
 Introduce and give a general outline of stem cells (for 5.1.e), explaining that they
divide to become more stem cells and cells that differentiate.
o Discuss the location of stem cells in the bone marrow and within epithelial tissue
(describe this as lining or surface tissue).
o For plants, use the terms ‘meristem’, ‘meristematic’ and ‘cambium’ and discuss
locations within plants where this tissue occurs. (W) (Basic)
6.1.c  Revise 5.1.a and 5.1.c so learners understand the need for interphase Online
describe the semi-conservative chromosomes (and hence DNA) to replicate before mitosis occurs. (W) (Basic) http://www.wiley.com/college/pratt/047
replication of DNA during interphase  Learners match events/descriptions (printed on strips of card) to unlabelled 1393878/student/animations/dna_repl
diagrams of semi-conservative replication to correctly describe the sequence of ication/index.html
Key concepts events that occur in the process (you’ll need to prepare this in advance). (P) (I) http://highered.mcgraw-
Biochemical processes, (Challenging) hill.com/sites/dl/free/0072437316/120
DNA, the molecule of heredity o Ensure learners are clear about the role of DNA polymerase and DNA ligase and 076/bio23.swf
the concept of activated nucleotides. http://www.accessexcellence.org/AB/G
o Include a description pointing out that replication occurs in opposite directions for G/dna_replicating.html
each strand.
 Learners explain what is meant by (define) semi-conservative replication. (I) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
 Learners use their cut-outs of DNA nucleotides to simulate DNA replication. Bio Factsheet 207: How science
o Use very short sections of double strands, separate them to show the template works: Meselson and Stahl’s classic
strands and build up the two complementary strands. (P) (I) (Basic) experiment.
o Extension: simulate as it occurs – one strand built-up in one direction as a
continuous process and the other in Okazaki fragments (not required Past Papers
knowledge). (P) (I) (Challenging) Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q4 (c)(d)
 Discuss how this process allows for faithful replication to produce identical DNA Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q5 (b)
molecules and hence genetically identical sister chromatids, ready for mitotic cell
division. (W) (Basic)
Note
 The Meselsohn and Stahl investigation is not required learning but learners could be
given the information to test application of knowledge and understanding.
 The poster (from Unit 1, DNA as the ideal molecule of inheritance) should remain
visible as this unit is covered.
5.1.d  Explain that DNA replication results in loss of a short section of the ends of the Online
outline the significance of telomeres in chromosome and that telomeres are made from repeating sequences of nucleotides. http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/c
permitting continued replication and (W) (Basic) hromosomes/telomeres/
preventing the loss of genes  Learners suggest how telomeres are useful, with a follow-up outline of their role
discussed and notes made: (W) (I) (Challenging)
Key concepts o Telomeres serve to prevent the ends of chromosomes from being degraded.
DNA, the molecule of heredity o Without telomeres the ends would appear damaged to the cell’s repair
machinery so they prevent the ends from being joined to the ends of other
chromosomes.
o Telomeres protect genes and the integrity of the genetic material and allow
continued replication.
 Extension: learners investigate the shortening of telomeres with age and the role of
telomerase. (I) (Challenging)
5.1.b  Ensure that learners know the definition of a tissue. (W) (Basic) Online
explain the importance of mitosis in the  Discuss with learners how their own growth occurs and how damaged tissue is http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpa
production of genetically identical cells, repaired. Remind them that replacement of cells can occur when cells are old/die ge/replication-and-distribution-of-dna-
growth, cell replacement, repair of thorough programmed cell death. during-mitosis-6524841
tissues and asexual reproduction  Refer to the poster (DNA as the ideal molecule of inheritance) and agree that it is http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article
essential that each daughter cell contains the same complete set of instructions and s/PMC256985/pdf/03-10-
Key concepts the same number of chromosomes as the parent (i.e. genetically identical). (W) 043_p214.pdf
Cells as the units of life, (Basic) http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/cs/c
DNA, the molecule of heredity  Discuss how cells could be rejected (attack by the immune system) if the daughter ollection/
cells were genetically different and not recognised as ‘self’ (link to antigens in Unit 2
and see Unit 5). (W) (Challenging) Past Papers
 Learners investigate simple examples where mitosis is involved in reproduction e.g. Paper 23, June 2011, Q1 (b)
Hydra, or a plant that reproduces asexually. (H) (Basic)
 Discuss briefly the terms clone and vegetative propagation. (W) (Basic)
 Learners make brief notes summarising the discussions. (H) (F)
5.1.e  Learners research examples, e.g. the repair of damage to intestinal epithelial cells, Online
outline the significance of mitosis in replacement of old cells in the gas exchange system. (I) (Basic) http://stemcells.nih.gov/info/basics/pag
cell replacement and tissue repair by o Extend learning to discuss how cells that are structurally and functionally the es/basics4.aspx
stem cells and state that uncontrolled same need to be genetically identical. (W) (Basic) http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/info
cell division can result in the formation o Remind learners that all cells in the body have the same set of instructions and /stem_cell/
of a tumour explain that control of cell function is by the organised ‘switching on’ of relevant http://science.education.nih.gov/supple
genes. (W) (Challenging) ments/nih1/cancer/guide/guide_toc.ht
Key concepts  Explain (see 5.1.c) that the timing of cell division is under genetic control; an m
Cells as the units of life, alteration in a gene could lead to the cell dividing uncontrollably to form a tumour –
DNA, the molecule of heredity an example of how a cell malfunctioning upsets the delicate balance. (W) Past Papers
(Challenging) Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q4 (b)
 Learners sequence a set of diagrams (prepared by you) showing changes that occur
to result in a tumour (should include an abnormal mass from which two arrows
emerge to a benign growth and a cancerous (malignant) growth (see Unit 5). (I)
(Basic).
o Following research, learners add brief annotations to the diagrams. (H)
(Challenging)
o Extension: learners research differences between the two types of tumour. (I)
(Challenging)
 Extend 5.1.c to discuss the statement: "Stem cells allow multicellular organisms to
develop and to maintain their programmed structure and organisation”. (W) (G)
(Challenging)
 Extension: learners investigate biotechnological applications, e.g. the use of adult
stem cells in research and therapy. (I) (Challenging)
5.2.a  Demonstrate using a model of a cell (2n=4) (2 short and 2 long pipe cleaners = CD-ROM
describe, with the aid of chromosomes; cell surface membrane and nuclear envelope = string). (W) (Basic) Bioscope – has material which covers
photomicrographs and diagrams, the o Model the events as a continuous process. this
behaviour of chromosomes in plant o Model replication by attaching a second pipe cleaner to the first. Simulate
and animal cells during the mitotic cell nuclear envelope disassembly by cutting the string into smaller lengths. Online
cycle and the associated behaviour of o Cytokinesis should be described for both animal and plant cells. http://www.rothamsted.bbsrc.ac.uk/not
the nuclear envelope, cell surface o Learners describe and make suggestions as to why various events occur. (W) ebook/courses/guide/movie/mitosis.ht
membrane and the spindle (names of (Basic) (Challenging) m
the main stages of mitosis are  From a list (prepared by you), learners match an event that occurs in relation to the http://faculty.nl.edu/jste/mitosis.htm
expected) spindle fibres and spindle (centrioles in animal cells only) to the behaviour of the http://www.biology.arizona.edu/cell_bio
chromosomes during the mitotic cell cycle. (W) (Basic) /tutorials/cell_cycle/main.html
Key concepts  Learners work with their own models and talk through each stage. (P) (Challenging) http://highered.mcgraw-
Cells as the units of life,  Learners make annotated diagrams of stages in mitosis. (I) (Challenging) hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_vi
DNA, the molecule of heredity  Learners practise identification of the stages and description of events using a range ew0/chapter2/animation__control_of_
of photomicrographs and diagrams of both plant and animal cells. (I) (Basic) the_cell_cycle.html
(Challenging)
 Learners sequence images of a cell at various stages during the cycle, naming the Textbooks/Publications
stages and noting chromosome behaviour. (F) Bio Factsheet 76: The eukaryotic cell
cycle and mitosis
Note
 Condensation/coiling of DNA to form the prophase chromosome can be simulated Past Papers
by taking a very long piece of thin wire that is then wrapped round a pencil (which is Paper 21, June 2011, Q1 (c)
removed) to make a coiled, string-like structure that is now much shorter, fatter and Paper 23, June 2011, Q1 (a)
more visible. Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q4 (c)
5.2.b  Learners draw from a prepared slide a plan diagram of a root tip to indicate: the root Online
observe and draw the mitotic stages cap; meristematic area (zone of cell division); zone of elongation (expansion); and http://www.microscopy-
visible in temporary root tip squash zone of differentiation. (I) (Basic) uk.org.uk/micropolitan/index.html
preparations and in prepared slides of  Learners identify, draw and annotate cells (high power) in all stages of mitosis. (I) http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
root tips of species such as those of (Challenging) hing-resources/552-floating-garlic-
Vicia faba and Allium cepa  Learners prepare a root tip squash (e.g. garlic or onion root tips with acetic orcein or growing-roots-
toluidine blue) and examine their slide and those of others for stages of mitosis. (G) http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
Key concepts (I) (Basic) hing-resources/288-investigating-
Cells as the units of life  Learners use the eyepiece graticule by measuring the relative length and width of mitosis-in-allium-root-tip-squash
chromosomes and cells. (I) (Challenging) http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
o Learners use the calibrated eyepiece graticule to measure the size of hing-resources/109-staining-a-root-
chromosomes in m. (I) (Challenging) tip-and-calculating-its-mitotic-index
 Extension: learners investigate why each step of the procedure in the root tip squash
preparation is necessary. (I) (Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
King p.236, 207, 209
Siddiqui p.79-81.
6.2.a  Learners recall primary structure and a polypeptide (Unit 1) and suggest a definition Online
state that a polypeptide is coded for by of a gene from previous learning objectives. http://evolutionlist.blogspot.co.uk/2006/
a gene and that a gene is a sequence o Refer to the ‘DNA as the ideal molecule’ poster and ensure learners understand 10/new-definitions-of-gene.html
of nucleotides that forms part of a DNA the idea of the term ‘coded’ (see 6.2.c, 6.2.d). (W) (Basic) http://www.sanger.ac.uk/
molecule o Discuss the fact that the sequence of nucleotides comprising a gene codes for http://www.yourgenome.org/
the amino acid sequence in a polypeptide chain. (W) (Basic)
Key concepts  Background discussion/extension research about the human genome project. (W) (I)
Biochemical processes, (Basic) (Challenging)
Note
 If learners query the origin of RNA, explain that there are genes that code for tRNAs
and rRNAs and that mRNA is an intermediate molecule in producing the
polypeptide. (W) (Basic).
 For A Level, learners should understand that these proteins, including enzymes, will
ultimately allow development and control of cells and hence organisms (i.e. they
determine the nature of organisms).
6.2.b  After learners write this definition, use question and answer to recall (from Unit 1) Online
state that a gene mutation is a change that primary structure determines secondary and tertiary structure, which then http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/mutati
in the sequence of nucleotides that determine the shape and shape of, e.g. active site, specific channel, receptor site. onsanddisorders/genemutation
may result in an altered polypeptide This determines the function of the protein. (W) (Basic) http://www.yourgenome.org/dgg/gener
 Stress to learners that the gene is responsible for a particular feature, trait or al/var/var_3.shtml
Key concepts characteristic and that a mutation is just an alternative form of the gene, an allele.
Biochemical processes, (W) (Basic)
DNA, the molecule of heredity,
Natural selection Note
 Online resources may be best understood after learning about the genetic code and
transcription and translation
 Learners do not need to define an allele at this point, see 16.2.a.
6.2.c  Learners write out definitions of a gene and a gene mutation. (F) Online
describe the way in which the  Learners suggest why DNA needs to remain in the nucleus (large size, less prone to http://www.yourgenome.org/dgg/gener
nucleotide sequence codes for the degradation). al/proteins/proteins_2.shtml
amino acid sequence in a polypeptide o Lead the discussion to explain that a ‘messenger’ molecule needs to be formed, http://www.kumc.edu/gec/
with reference to the nucleotide in transcription, to take the information to the ribosomes. (W) (Basic) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J3H
sequence for HbA (normal) and HbS  Discuss the concepts involved in the central dogma VVi2k2No
(sickle cell) alleles of the gene for the (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biology overlap with ideas
-globin polypeptide in 6.2.d). (W) (Basic) Past Papers
o Learners produce an annotated flow chart representing the flow of information, Paper 23, June 2011, Q2 (b)(c)
Key concepts beginning with DNA and ending in a functioning protein. Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q3 (b)
Cells as the units of life, o Learners identify the point at which the nucleotide sequence becomes an amino Paper 21, Nov 2013, Q5
Biochemical processes, acid sequence.
DNA, the molecule of heredity, o State that the process is termed translation (details in 6.2.d).
Natural selection  Learners study a DNA genetic dictionary/ DNA triplet table to work out, from specific
nucleotide base sequences, specific amino acid sequences. (P) (I) (Basic)
(Challenging)
o Explain this is the sequence on the strand (the template strand) that is used to
produce the polypeptide
o Include the sections where the nucleotide sequences of normal and sickle-cell
alleles differ.
Note
 Learners should also be able to use the sequence on the non-template strand to
work out the amino acid sequence (using the DNA triplet table)
 The sickle cell -globin polypeptide and sickle cell anaemia also occur in Units 5 and
7.
 It is a common error for learners to state that DNA is a chain of amino acids. When
learners guess or are given incorrect matches, many will learn the incorrect match,
so only reinforce the correct relationship between nucleotides and DNA / RNA, and
between amino acids and protein.
6.2.d Previous learning objectives have included enough additional information to prepare Online
describe how the information in DNA is learners for the details of transcription and translation. http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/
used during transcription and  Learners sequence a set of events to describe and explain the process of molecules/transcribe/
translation to construct polypeptides, transcription. (P) (I) (Basic) (Challenging) http://www.brookscole.com/chemistry_
including the role of messenger RNA o Ensure learners realise that mRNA transcripts pass out through the nuclear d/templates/student_resources/share
(mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA) and the pores to the ribosomes. (W) (Basic) d_resources/animations/protein_synt
ribosomes o Explain post-transcriptional modification: sections not required, introns (now hesis/protein_synthesis.html
known to have a role, not ‘genetic junk’ as previously believed), may be cut out http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/tryit/dna/
Key concepts of the initial transcript and the ‘meaningful’ sections, exons, re-sealed to give
Biochemical processes, shorter mRNA transcripts. (W) (Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
DNA, the molecule of heredity  Formalise knowledge of the genetic code (universal, non-overlapping, degenerate, Bio Factsheet 22: Protein synthesis I –
sequential), by introducing the mRNA genetic dictionary / mRNA codon table. nucleic acids
 For translation, provide learners with a set of diagrams (prepared by you) that can Bio Factsheet 49: Protein synthesis II –
be annotated and discussed. mechanisms
 Learners research the different ways the polypeptide formed can be modified in
post-translational modification. (I) (Challenging) Past Papers
 Learners write a paragraph on each of mRNA, tRNA and the ribosomes, explaining Paper 21, June 2011, Q3 (c)
their roles in transcription and translation. (H) (F) (Challenging) Paper 23, June 2011, Q2 (d)
 Find the DNA nucleotide sequences of sections of proteins (choose from the Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q5 (c)
syllabus) to produce a worksheet (and mark scheme). Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q4 (b)
o Learners use the genetic code and one or more pieces of information to work out Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q4 (c)(d)
missing information. Completed worksheets show the tRNA molecules involved
and the sequences of template and non-template DNA strands, mRNA and
amino acids. (H) (F) (Basic) (Challenging)
o Extension: learners explain why a DNA nucleotide sequence worked out only
using an amino acid sequence may not represent the actual DNA. (I)
(Challenging)
 Learners produce a large annotated diagram to show transcription and translation in
relation to the different locations within the cell. (H) (Challenging)
 Extension: learners research how post-transcriptional modification (removal of
introns and resealing of exons) allows one gene to be able to produce variations of
the protein product. (I) (Challenging)
Note
 TransCription comes before transLation alphabetically as well as in protein
synthesis.
 With website animations, check the level of detail before recommending to learners.
Unit 4: Transport and gas exchange

Knowledge of cell structure, as covered in Unit 2, will enable learners to apply knowledge to cells involved in transport and gas exchange. An understanding of
diffusion, osmosis and active transport from Unit 2 is required, including confidence in understanding the movement of water in terms of differences in water potential.
Learners will need to have an understanding of haemoglobin structure and of hydrogen bonding between water molecules from Unit 1. It will be helpful if learners have
acquired basic knowledge of the mammalian circulatory system in previous studies.
Context
This unit extends the key concept of cells as the units of life by looking at the way in which cells and tissues of plants and mammals, multicellular organisms, are
provided with their requirements and how humans, as multicellular organisms, exchange gases in the lungs. The unit builds on learner knowledge of cell structure and
movement into and out of cells and highlights the importance of water as a transport medium. The work on blood in this unit leads into the immunity section in Unit 5.
Much of this unit lays the foundations for further work on physiology at A Level. In Unit 9, learners will study the way in which oxygen is used by cells for the
biochemical process of aerobic respiration, and how carbon dioxide is produced as a result of this process.
Outline
The topic of transport in plants is introduced by improving learner knowledge of plant anatomy and histology and their understanding of the relation between the
structure and function of transport tissues. Details of transport of water and minerals are covered, including a consideration of the factors affecting the rate of
transpiration, which gives learners the opportunity to carry out investigative practical work. Adaptations of organisms to their environment are exemplified by reference
to xerophytes. The transport of assimilates by phloem tissue is also covered. The topic of mammalian transport is introduced by considering the meaning of a closed
double circulation and then progresses to structure and function of the blood vessels, blood and heart. A comparison of blood, tissue fluid and lymph is made. The
carriage of respiratory gases is covered, which includes revisiting the structure and function of haemoglobin from Unit 1. Detail of gas exchange at the alveolus is
covered. The gross and fine structure of the human gas exchange system will allow learners to see the link between structure and function. Learners will make
comparisons in this unit, for example between xylem and phloem tissue, between an artery and vein, between blood, tissue fluid and lymph, and between the two sides
and upper and lower chambers of the heart .There are many good opportunities within this unit for learners to improve their microscope handling, observational and
diagram-drawing skills, and to develop manipulative and dissection skills if they choose to dissect a mammalian heart.
Teaching time
7.1.a  Revise a simple diagram of a plant: leaves and petioles, stem, (soil level), root(s) CD-ROM
draw and label from prepared slides and piliferous / root hair region. (W) (Basic) Bioscope
plan diagrams of transverse sections o Explain the difference between: tissue and organ; transverse and longitudinal
of stems, roots and leaves of sections (TS and LS). Online
herbaceous dicotyledonous plants o Explain what is meant by a herbaceous (i.e. non-woody) dicotyledon. University biology department and
using an eyepiece graticule to show  Discuss tissue distribution in leaves, roots and stem sections by projecting an microscope manufacturer websites,
tissues in correct proportions electronic image onto a screen. (W) (Basic) e.g.:
(see 1.1.c) o Learners see what they should observe later using the microscope (revise use). http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/index.html
o Describe how to draw the image as a plan diagram. http://images.botany.org
Key concepts  Learners identify tissues (especially the distribution of the vascular tissue) and make
Cells as the units of life, plan diagrams (low power) from slides of TS of a leaf, stem or root (dicotyledonous Textbooks/Publications
Observation and experiment plants e.g. Ranunculus and Ligustrum), using the eyepiece graticule to gauge the Siddiqui p.5-7, 112, 115-124, 135-139
correct proportions. (I) (Challenging)
 Learners draw labelled diagrams of stem and leaf sections and construct a table Past Papers
comparing the two; similarities run across the columns, differences in separate Paper 23, June 2011, Q3
columns. (I) (Challenging) Paper 35, June 2011, Q2
Note Paper 34, June 2011, Q2
 Learners should be able to recognise: epidermis, endodermis, mesophyll, xylem, Paper 33, June 2013, Q2
phloem, cambium, cortex, pith.
 High quality microscope slides are available to order, including those used in
previous practical examinations from the Cambridge publications catalogue
www.cie.org.uk/cambridge-for/teachers/order-publications
7.1.b  Learners observe slides showing LS. An eyepiece graticule and stage micrometer CD-ROM
draw and label from prepared slides can be used for measurement. (I) (Challenging) Bioscope – Superb slides and learning
the cells in the different tissues in  Learners draw and label individual cells under high power (from TS and LS slides). tasks, including chloroplasts in
roots, stems and leaves of herbaceous (I) (Challenging) Elodea, a variety of leaf sections,
dicotyledonous plants using transverse  Extension: learners practise using the eyepiece graticule and stage micrometer to including sun and shade leaves.
and longitudinal sections estimate actual dimensions of the cells. (I) (Challenging)
 Background: discuss briefly differences between monocotyledons and dicotyledons. Online
Key concepts (W) (Basic) University biology department and
Cells as the units of life,  An extension discussion: outlining the anatomical transition in the area where the microscope manufacturer websites,
Observation and experiment root becomes the stem. e.g.
http://www.vcbio.science.ru.nl/en/virtua
Note llessons/leaf/
 High quality microscope slides are available to order, including those used in http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/pae/botan
previous practical examinations from the Cambridge publications catalogue y/histology/html/ptmodov.htm
www.cie.org.uk/cambridge-for/teachers/order-publications http://leavingbio.net/FLOWERING%20
PLANTS.htm
http://images.botany.org/
Siddiqui p.5-7, 112, 115-124, 135-139
Bio Factsheet 19: Plant tissues
Past Papers
Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q3 (a)
7.1.c  Use photomicrographs and diagrams to illustrate and discuss, with teacher prompts, CD-ROM
draw and label from prepared slides the structure of xylem vessel elements, phloem sieve tube elements and companion Bioscope – useful for this section.
the structure of xylem vessel elements, cells. (G) (I) (Challenging)
phloem sieve tube elements and  Learners add annotations to labelled diagrams of these three cell types. (F) Online
companion cells and be able to http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
recognise these using the light et/BiologyPages/P/PlantTissues.html
microscope http://leavingbio.net/FLOWERING%20
PLANTS.htm
Key concepts http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/pae/botan
Cells as the units of life, y/histology/html/ptmodov.htm
Siddiqui p.5-7, 112, 115-124, 135-139
Bio Factsheet 19: Plant tissues
Bio Factsheet 146: Tracheids, vessels
and sieve tubes
Bio Factsheet 132: Phloem
7.2.a  Provide learners with an overview diagram of the movement of water down a water Online
explain the movement of water potential gradient from soil to air. (W) (Basic) http://www.biologymad.com/resources/
between plant cells, and between them o Learners add given numerical values of water potential to the different locations, transpiration.swf
and their environment, in terms of for comparison, and annotate the diagram. (I) (Challenging)
water potential (see 4.2. No  Learners recall osmosis and the concept of water potential. Textbooks/Publications
calculations involving water potential o Learners complete a worksheet (prepared by you) containing examples of Bio Factsheet 225: Synoptic biology:
will be set) adjacent cells / cells and their environment with water potential values. Learners water potential.
work out and explain which way water will flow. (H) (F) (Basic) (Challenging)
Key concepts
Organisms in their environment
7.2.c  From a diagram, learners suggest how a root hair cell is adapted for water and Online
describe the pathways and explain the mineral ion uptake (e.g. large surface area, lack of cuticle, thin cell walls, membrane http://www.microscopy-
mechanisms by which water and transport proteins, mitochondria). (W) (G) (Challenging) uk.org.uk/mag/artmar00/watermvt.ht
mineral ions are transported from soil  Learners suggest how mineral ions are taken up by the root hair cell. (W) (Basic) ml
to xylem and from roots to leaves  Learners research the most important mineral ions that are required, giving reasons. http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
(include reference to the symplastic (H) et/BiologyPages/X/Xylem.html
pathway and apoplastic pathway and  Ensure that learners know the difference between the apoplastic pathway and http://highered.mcgraw-
Casparian strip) symplastic pathway (include the vacuolar pathway). hill.com/olcweb/cgi/pluginpop.cgi?it=s
o Agree that osmosis is not involved in the apoplast pathway (no membranes). wf::600::480::/sites/dl/free/007353224
Key concepts o Use a model to explain why water has to take a symplastic pathway at the x/788092/Water_Uptake.swf::Water%
Cells as the units of life, endodermis (suberised Casparian strip). 20Uptake
Biochemical processes o Learners use arrows and labels to show the different pathways on diagrams and
annotate, using the terms water potential and water potential gradient. (W) (I) Textbooks/Publications
(Basic) (Challenging) Bio Factsheet 82: Transport in
 Learners stand small plants (intact root systems, soil washed off) in dye (e.g. eosin) flowering plants
for 10-30 minutes, then cut thin sections to investigate the distribution of the dye and Bio Factsheet 108: Water movement
show the position and continuous nature of xylem vessels (the dye collects in the across the root
leaf as water is lost by transpiration). (I) (Challenging)
 Learners use cut petioles of variegated leaves to make sections and observe xylem Past Papers
tissue. (P) (I) (Basic) Paper 23, June 2011, Q3 (a)
 Discuss briefly the concept of root pressure (outline only). (W) (Basic)
Note
 Root hairs can be seen clearly on newly-germinated seedlings, such as mung
beans, if these are grown on damp filter paper or cotton wool.
 Do not discuss the concept of capillarity.
 Learners are better to explain water movement in terms of water potential gradients
to avoid confusion with mass flow in phloem.
7.2.b  Tackle cohesion-tension first: use a question and answer session to help learners Online
explain how hydrogen bonding of make the link between hydrogen bonding of water molecules (cohesive forces) and http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Physical_
water molecules is involved with the concept of transpiration pull. (W) (Basic) Chemistry/Physical_Properties_of_M
movement in the xylem by cohesion-  Discuss the concept of adhesion. Remind learners that the attraction of water atter/Atomic_and_Molecular_Properti
tension in transpiration pull and molecules to the secondary cell wall of xylem vessel elements is mainly as a result es/Intermolecular_Forces/Cohesive_
adhesion to cellulose cell walls of hydrophilic cellulose (which is impregnated with lignin). (W) (Basic) And_Adhesive_Forces
 Learners write a paragraph explaining the difference between cohesion and http://www.microscopy-
Key concepts adhesion in the movement of water up the xylem. (F) uk.org.uk/mag/artmar00/watermvt.ht
Biochemical processes  Learners research what is meant by a transpiration stream. (H) (Basic) ml
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
et/BiologyPages/X/Xylem.html.
http://highered.mcgraw-
hill.com/olcweb/cgi/pluginpop.cgi?it=s
wf::600::480::/sites/dl/free/007353224
x/788092/Water_Uptake.swf::Water%
20Uptake
Bio Factsheet 82: Transport in
flowering plants
Bio Factsheet 108: Water movement
across the root
Past Papers
Paper 23, June 2011, Q3 (a)
7.2.d  Learners write a definition of transpiration. (I) (Basic) Online

define the term transpiration and  Learners draw a large diagram of a vertical section through part of a leaf, adding http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
explain that it is an inevitable numbered annotations to show the pathway of water (beginning with water leaving et/BiologyPages/T/Transpiration.html
consequence of gas exchange in xylem vessels) and the sequence of events occurring, using correct water potential
plants terminology. (I) (Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
o Emphasise the need to refer to water evaporated from the moist cell walls of the Bio Factsheet 64: Transpiration
Key concepts spongy mesophyll cells as water vapour. Bio Factsheet 81: Gas exchange in
Cells as the units of life  Discuss the association between transpiration (reduces the water potential at the top plants
of the plant) and tension (of cohesion-tension). (W) (Basic)
 Learners explain the differences between transpiration and evaporation. (F) Past Papers
 Discuss cuticular transpiration (links to 7.2.f, leaves of xerophytes). (W) (Basic) Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q3 (b)
 Learners study a graph showing how the rate of transpiration varies during a 24-hour Paper 22, Nov 2013, Q3 (a)
day and interpret using a word list (stomata, open, closed, photosynthesis, oxygen,
carbon dioxide, gas exchange, transpiration). (I) (Basic)
 Extension: take climate into account and interpret a graph (prepared by you) with
transpiration varying over a few days. (I) (Challenging)

 Learners research the advantages of transpiration and produce a list. (H) (Basic)
7.2.e  Demonstrate the use (or show diagrams) of a standard commercial potometer to Practical booklet 6
investigate experimentally and explain measure water uptake (e.g. Thoday). (W) (Basic)
the factors that affect transpiration rate o Discuss the reasons for: a slanting cut across the leafy shoot; submerging in Online
using simple potometers, leaf water; use of petroleum jelly round the joint; drying leaves. (W) (Challenging) http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/genbio/virt
impressions, epidermal peels, and  Practical: learners make a simple potometer using a long piece of capillary tubing ual_labs/BL_10/BL_10.html
grids for determining surface area that has a short length of rubber tubing attached at one end. The whole apparatus http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
can be supported vertically. hing-resources/115-potometer-
Key concepts o Learners record the height of the air/water meniscus at suitable time intervals. measuring-transpiration-rates
Observation and experiment (P) (I) (Basic) http://www.mikecurtis.org.uk/Potomete
o Discuss how to make results quantitative, e.g. using grids to determine the r/potometer.html
surface area of leaves; using the volume of a cylinder to calculate the volume of http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
water taken up. (W) (Basic) hing-resources/299-measuring-
 Extension practical: learners enclose part of a plant inside a plastic bag and use stomatal-density-
data-logging equipment and a humidity-recording sensor to investigate the effect of
transpiration on humidity. (P) (I) (Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
 Learners plan and/or carry out a controlled investigation into the effect of wind King p.142-146
speed, temperature or light on the rate of transpiration. Siddiqui p. 140-144, 146-147
o Learners present results (or are given results) in graphical form and give
explanations for the shape of the graph. (P) (I) (Challenging)
 Learners make temporary slides of epidermal strips from leaves of different species
(use nail varnish or ‘new skin’ liquid plaster and peel off when dry). (I) (Basic)
 Practical booklet 6 is designed to develop some of the practical skills (listed in the
Teacher’s practical notes) assessed in paper 3.
Note
 Remind learners that potometers measure rates of water uptake only and that a cut
end of a stem is not the same as uptake via root hairs.
 If a potometer is placed on a balance sensitive to small changes in mass, then it is
possible to measure water uptake and transpiration.
7.2.f  Explain the terms mesophyte, hydrophyte and xerophyte and discuss ways in which CD-ROM
make annotated drawings, using plants can reduce their water loss. (W) (Basic) Bioscope – has suitable images.
prepared slides of cross-sections, to  Learners consider the mesophyte leaf and give comparative descriptions (e.g.
show how leaves of xerophytic plants thicker waxy cuticle, fewer stomata per unit area of leaf, etc.) using diagrams of Online
are adapted to reduce water loss by leaves from a range of xerophytes. (P) (I) (Basic) www.worldofteaching.com/powerpoints
transpiration  Learners use prepared slides of cross-sections of leaves of xerophytes to make /biology/Xerophytes.ppt
annotated plan diagrams and detailed drawings. (I) (Basic)
Key concepts o Learners describe features and explain how each helps to reduce water loss. (I) Textbooks/Publications
Natural selection, (Challenging) Bio Factsheet 29: Plant and animal
Organisms in their environment o Extend this to a circus of activities with, e.g. living examples; photographs and adaptations to dry habitats
photomicrographs; Bioscope; microscope slides; electron micrographs. (P) (I) Bio Factsheet 84: Xerophytes and
(Challenging) hydrophytes
 Learners make temporary slides of epidermal strips from leaves of mesophytes and
xerophytes and estimate the number of stomata per unit area to make quantitative
comparisons. (I) (Challenging)
o Extension: some may know how to use the t-test to see if differences are
significant (not required at AS Level). (P) (I) (Challenging)
7.2.g  Explain the term assimilates and discuss examples. (W) (Basic) Online
state that assimilates, such as sucrose  Introduce translocation as the movement of assimilates from the source (area where http://leavingbio.net/FLOWERING%20
and amino acids, move between they are produced) to the sink (area where they are used / stored). PLANTS.htm
sources (e.g. leaves and storage o As an example, state that sucrose is loaded into phloem at the source, and then
organs) and sinks (e.g. buds, flowers, removed at the sink. Textbook/Publications
fruits, roots and storage organs) in o Learners suggest source and sink locations within the plant. (W) (Basic) King p.146-147
phloem sieve tubes Siddiqui p.135-136
Note
Key concepts  Learners should also be familiar with the term photosynthates. Past Papers
Cells as the units of life, Paper 23, June 2011, Q5 (b)(ii)
7.2.h  Use learner knowledge of membranes and transport mechanisms to describe and Online
explain how sucrose is loaded into explain the events that occur. (W) (Challenging) http://www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bios10
phloem sieve tubes by companion  Learners write out a set of cards containing relevant points and practise re-ordering 0/lectf03am/sucrosepump.jpg
cells using proton pumping and the co- them to give a sequential account.
transporter mechanism in their cell o These could range from main points to a detailed account (see table for Past Papers
surface membranes examples). (P) (I) (Basic) (Challenging) Paper 23, June 2011, Q5 (c)
o Learners write an account from memory. (F) Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q5 (b)
Key concepts Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q6 (b)
Cells as the units of life, H+ actively pumped out of companion ATP required
Biochemical processes cells
concentration of H+ builds up outside membrane impermeable to H+ so
the membrane they cannot diffuse back in

H+ diffuses back in via a membrane down the electrochemical gradient
carrier protein
cotransport of sucrose occurs H+ and sucrose bind to the protein
(conformational change occurs)
sucrose diffuses into phloem sieve via plasmodesmata
tube element
Note
 Emphasise that the entry of sucrose into the phloem sieve tube is passive but the
whole process is sometimes described as ‘active loading’.
7.2.i  Learners sort out cards (prepared by you) containing details such as below before Online
explain mass flow in phloem sap down making notes. (P) (I) (Basic) http://highered.mcgraw-
a hydrostatic pressure gradient from hill.com/sites/9834092339/student_vi
source to sink at the source, sucrose enters the phloem sieve tube ew0/chapter38/animation_-
_phloem_loading.html
this lowers the water potential
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life this draws (extra) water into the sieve tube by osmosis Textbook/Publications
this increases the hydrostatic pressure Bio Factsheet 132: Phloem.
at the sink, sucrose leaves the phloem sieve tube
Past Papers
water follows osmotically Paper 23, June 2011, Q5 (c)
the hydrostatic pressure at the source is higher than at the sink Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q5 (b)
fluid / phloem sap moves from source to sink
down this pressure gradient
by mass flow
Note
 Learners should understand that phloem translocates soluble organic compounds.
7.1.d  For xylem vessel elements, use diagrams to aid a ‘structure to function’ discussion. CD-ROM
relate the structure of xylem vessel Recall the role of xylem in the transport of water and mineral ions and introduce the Bioscope – useful for this section.
elements, phloem sieve tube elements need for lignification (see also 7.2.a) because of the tension created by the
and companion cells to their functions transpiration pull. Online
o Learners suggest other functions of lignin and continue to provide other http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
Key concepts examples of structure to function. (W) (Challenging) et/BiologyPages/P/PlantTissues.html
Cells as the units of life o Learners match statements about structure to statements about function. The http://leavingbio.net/FLOWERING%20
activity could be divided into the main points and additional points. (P) (I) (Basic) PLANTS.htm
(Challenging) http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/pae/botan
 Learners use resources (see also 7.1.c) to label diagrams of phloem sieve tube y/histology/html/ptmodov.htm
elements and companion cells. (I) (Basic)
o Learners point out the relationship between structure and function for these two Textbooks/Publications
cell types. (W) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 19: Plant tissues
o Learners make bullet-pointed notes, using one colour for a structural detail and a Bio Factsheet 146: Tracheids, vessels
different colour for a link to a function. (I) (Challenging) and sieve tubes
Bio Factsheet 132: Phloem
Note
 It is now believed that protein strands are not present in living, functioning phloem Past Papers
tissue. Paper 23, June 2011, Q5 (a)
8.1.a  Display an image giving an overview of the whole circulatory system and check that Online
state that the mammalian circulatory learners can describe what is meant by pulmonary and systemic circulations. (W) http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebite
system is a closed double circulation (Basic) size/pe/appliedanatomy/0_anatomy_
consisting of a heart, blood vessels  Use a question and answer session to determine that arteries carry blood away from circulatorysys_rev1.shtml
and blood the heart and veins towards the heart. (W) (Basic) http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
 Extension (useful for later studies): discuss names given to blood vessels serving et/BiologyPages/A/AnimalHearts.html
Key concepts organs e.g. pulmonary + lungs; coronary + heart, hepatic + liver; renal + kidney. (W)
Cells as the units of life (Basic)
 Learners make brief written notes explaining closed circulation and double
circulation. (I) (Basic)
 Learners label diagrams of double circulation, including the heart chambers, the two
types of circulation and the names of the main blood vessels. (I) (Basic)
 Learners describe the journey made by a red blood cell in one complete circuit of the
mammalian blood system. (H) (F) (Basic)
 Extension: learners research and contrast the mammalian circulatory system with
organisms organised differently, e.g. insect, squid, fish and amphibians. Search
online for images of diagrams of insect, fish, amphibians and squid circulatory
systems. (I) (Challenging)
8.1.b  Gauge learner knowledge of the basic structure of arteries, veins and capillaries with CD-ROM
observe and make plan diagrams of a brainstorming session before providing labelled diagrams. (W) (Basic) Bioscope – has appropriate slides.
the structure of arteries, veins and  Learners study photomicrographs of (muscular) arteries and veins (TS), and an
capillaries using prepared slides and electron micrograph of capillaries. Learners label the layers and, with prompting, Online
be able to recognise these vessels annotate with details. (W) (I) (Basic) http://sln.fi.edu/biosci/vessels/vessels.
using the light microscope  Learners observe prepared TS slides, and draw labelled plan diagrams. Practise html
measurement using an eyepiece graticule. (I) (Basic) (Challenging) http://www.histology.leeds.ac.uk/circul
Key concepts  Extension: learners investigate the elasticity of blood vessels by suspending weights atory/arteries.php
Cells as the units of life, on sections of arteries and veins. (P) (Challenging) http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practi
Observation and experiment  Learners carry out research into other types of blood vessels, including elastic cal-biology/elastic-recoil-arteries-and-
arteries, arterioles and venules (stress this is not required learning). (H) veins
(Challenging) http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/C
 Learners sort out statements (prepared by you) into three columns for each of the VHTML/CVIDX.html
three blood vessel types. (F)
Siddiqui p.175-177
8.1.c  Learners construct a table showing the relationship between structure to function for Online
explain the relationship between the each of the three blood vessel types. (I) (Challenging) http://nsb.wikidot.com/2-2-3-compare-
structure and function of arteries, veins  Learners label the layers on diagrams of an artery, vein and capillary in TS, and then the-structure-of-arteries-capillaries-
and capillaries annotate to link structure to function. (F) and-vein
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life
8.1.d  Learners observe blood cells using the light microscope or use other images. (I) CD-ROM
observe and draw the structure of red (Basic) Bioscope – has appropriate images.
blood cells, monocytes, neutrophils o Learners draw labelled diagrams of the different cell types and make tables to
and lymphocytes using prepared slides compare: red blood cells with white blood cells; monocytes with neutrophils. (I) Online
and photomicrographs (Challenging) http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/index.html
 Learners use resources to explain how the structural features of a red blood cell are http://education.vetmed.vt.edu/Curricul
Key concepts related to the function of oxygen transport. (I) (Challenging) um/VM8054/Labs/Lab6/Lab6.htm
Observation and experiment Note Textbooks/Publications
 The terms erythrocyte and leucocyte should also be mentioned (not required King p.120-122, 164-165
learning). Siddiqui p. 179-182
 The function of the white blood cells and details of B-lymphocytes compared to T- Bio Factsheet 62: Animal tissues I –
lymphocytes are covered in Unit 5. epithelia and blood
 To help later understanding, explain that monocytes take on a different appearance Bio Factsheet 36: Structure and
when they mature to become macrophages, and that these cells are usually in function of blood and lymph
locations other than blood tissue.
Past Papers
Paper 22, June 2011, Q3 (a)(b)
8.1.e  Brainstorm the composition of blood and discuss the need for exchange with cells. Textbooks/Publications
state and explain the differences (W) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 36: Structure and
between blood, tissue fluid and lymph o Discuss how and why the concentrations of substances in blood, such as function of blood and lymph
oxygen, carbon dioxide and dissolved glucose, can vary. (W) (Challenging) Bio Factsheet 89: Tissue fluid
Key concepts  Explain how pressure changes from the arterial to the venous end of the capillary Bio Factsheet 171: Answering exam
Cells as the units of life network. Ask for suggestions, with reasons, as to which of the components would be questions: the formation and
able to leave the network. (W) (Challenging) drainage of lymph
 Learners use resources to label and annotate a diagram of a capillary network,
including explanations of how tissue fluid and lymph are formed and arrows to show Past Papers
direction of blood flow, formation of tissue fluid and formation of lymph. (I) Paper 21, June 2011, Q2 (b)
(Challenging)
o Learners add arrows of different colours or styles (use a key) to represent the
movement of substances such as dissolved glucose and amino acids, oxygen
and carbon dioxide. (I) (Basic)
 Learners construct a comparative table of differences between blood, tissue fluid
and lymph. (H) (F)
Note
 Highlight the difference between blood and blood plasma.
8.2.a  Learners check their knowledge of the internal structure of the heart by adding as Online
describe the external and internal many labels as possible to a diagram. Go through this, allowing learners to add any http://www.learnerstv.com/animation/a
structure of the mammalian heart missing e.g. tendinous cords and papillary muscles, sinoatrial node, atrioventricular nimation.php?ani=321&cat=biology
node and Purkyne tissue. (I) (Basic) http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Dis
Key concepts  Show learners images of the external structure of the heart and agree labels. (W) eases/hhw/hhw_anatomy.html
Cells as the units of life (Basic) http://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/Context
 Learners match up a set of labels with a set of descriptions. (I) (Basic) s/See-through-Body/Sci-
 Learners practise adding labels, with descriptive features, to a range of internal and Media/Animations-and-
external diagrams of the heart. (H) (F) (Basic) (Challenging) Interactives/Label-the-heart
 Learners study models of the heart or dissect a heart (or observe) obtained from http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/C
butchers, abattoirs or suppliers. (G) (P) (I) (Basic) (Challenging) VHTML/CVIDX.html
o Heart models are useful for learners to get a 3-D understanding if dissection is
not carried out. Textbooks/Publications
King p.128-130
Note Siddiqui p.173-174
 Hearts obtained for dissection have often lost their blood vessels and some or all of Bio Factsheet 35: Structure and
their atria. Obtaining heart and lungs may provide a more complete heart (useful for function of the mammalian heart
the gross structure of the gas exchange system, studied later).
8.2.b  Learners complete a short test or sort statements into the correct order to remind Online
explain the differences in the thickness them about the pathway of blood in one complete circuit of the body. (F) http://www.physiologymodels.info/cardi
of the walls of the different chambers  Explain that the differences in pressure between the left and right ventricles are ovascular/arterioles.htm
in terms of their functions with related to the ability to overcome resistance to flow by the blood vessels as blood
reference to resistance to flow travels to the body tissues. Past Papers
o Learners volunteer that there is a far lower resistance to flow in the pulmonary Paper 22, June 2013, Q6 (b)
Key concepts circulation than in the systemic.
Cells as the units of life o Remind learners that the thicker the wall of a heart chamber, the more cardiac
muscle there is to generate force when it contracts.
 Relate the thinner atrial walls (compared to the thicker ventricle walls) to the much
lower resistance that blood has to overcome to travel the short distance to the
ventricles. (W) (Basic)
Note
Pulmonary capillaries are very delicate (very small diameter) so an increase from
normal pressure of blood leaving the right ventricle increases the likelihood of damage.
8.2.c  A discussion should switch the focus from a description of one complete circuit of Online
describe the cardiac cycle (including the body to one cardiac cycle. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/eheart/h
blood pressure changes during systole o Remind learners that a decrease in volume of a heart chamber when the cardiac uman.html
and diastole) muscle contracts means an increase in blood pressure within the chamber. (W) http://library.med.utah.edu/kw/pharm/h
(Basic) yper_heart1.html
Key concepts o Associate the events occurring during one cardiac cycle to changes in blood
Cells as the units of life pressure , explaining that valves are pushed open and shut by differences in Past Papers
pressure on either side. (W) (Challenging) Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q2 (b)
Learners produce a table describing the sequence of events (including the status
of the valves) occurring in one cardiac cycle and highlighting that both sides of the
heart contract and relax in unison: (I) (Challenging)
right side of heart left side of heart
 Learners annotate a set of diagrams (prepared by you) showing the heart during one
cardiac cycle. (F)
 Use OHP overlays / PowerPoint presentation to build up a graph showing the
pressure and volume changes on one side of the heart (left side is most commonly
shown).
o Add heart diagrams below the x-axis in the different stages of the cycle,
corresponding to the correct times on the graph.
o Learners volunteer explanations throughout. (W) (Challenging)
 Learners annotate a pressure change graph describing the event in the cardiac
cycle that correlates to the change shown on the graph (including points at which
named valves open and shut). (I) (Challenging)
 Learners practise extracting information and interpreting questions based on
pressure change graphs (prepared by you). (I) (F) (Basic) (Challenging)
Note
ECGs (not required learning), accompanied by explanations, may be given as stimulus
material in a question.
8.2.d  Use explanations, interspersed with questions requiring thoughtful suggestions, to Online
explain how heart action is initiated present the following ideas: http://hyperphysics.phy-
and controlled (reference should be o The heart is myogenic (initiates heart beat without receiving nerve impulses from astr.gsu.edu/hbase/biology/sanode.ht
made to the sinoatrial node, the outside). ml
atrioventricular node and the Purkyne o The sinoatrial node (SAN - primary pacemaker) initiates muscle cell http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-
tissue, but not to nervous and depolarisation and atrial systole. topics/topics/hhw/
hormonal control)  The insulating ring of non-conducting (connective) tissue (fibrous ring): prevents the
atria and ventricles from contracting at the same time; forces the wave of Textbooks/Publications
Key concepts depolarisation to pass through the atrioventricular node (AVN), delaying its passage Bio Factsheet 139: Answering exam
Cells as the units of life so the atria complete systole before ventricular systole begins. questions on the heart
 The Purkyne tissue passes the depolarisation down to the apex of the heart so that Bio Factsheet 7: Comparing transport
the ventricles contract from the bottom up, squeezing blood out up the arteries. (W) in plants and animals.
(Challenging)
 In the correct locations on a diagram of the heart, learners number the events Past Papers
occurring in sequence, making notes underneath for each number. (I) (Basic) Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q2 (a)
 Learners place in sequence statements of each of the events occurring, starting with
the SAN. (P) (I) (Basic)
o Create a second column so that statements of cardiac cycle events correspond
with the timing. (P) (I) (Challenging)
Note
 ‘Wave of excitation’ or ‘impulses’ are acceptable terms, not signal, wave, pulse,
message or nerve impulse.
 Learners should understand that the wave of depolarisation spreads across the
network of cardiac muscle fibres to bring about systole, and that the fibres do not
fatigue (no other details of cardiac muscle required).
9.1.a  Agree that the mammalian transport system carries the respiratory gases, oxygen Textbooks/Publications
describe the gross structure of the and carbon dioxide and contrast this with plant vascular tissue (not involved with gas Siddiqui p.183
human gas exchange system. transport). Explain that the gas exchange system facilitates exchange with the
external environment. (W) (Basic)
Key concepts  Learners revise previous knowledge by labelling familiar structures on a diagram of
Cells as the units of life the human gas exchange system, using resources to complete labelling and add
annotations. (I) (Basic)
o Ensure learners know that the specialised gas exchange surface is the alveolus.
(I) (Basic)
9.1.b  Project images or show photomicrographs of the named structures and give Online
observe and draw plan diagrams of the guidance as to how to identify the named structures and learn about the distribution http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/Me
structure of the walls of the trachea, of the named features. (W) (Basic) dEd/Histo/frames/Histo15.html
bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli  Learners observe, interpret, and draw plan diagrams of prepared slides. (I) http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/index.html
indicating the distribution of cartilage, (Challenging) http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/HI
ciliated epithelium, goblet cells, smooth o Learners also identify cilia, mucous glands and elastic fibres to prepare for 9.1.c. STHTML/EM/EM040.html
muscle, squamous epithelium and (I) (Challenging)
blood vessels o Learners complete a table (tick = present, cross = absent) such as below. (I) Textbooks/Publications
(Challenging) King p.89-91
Key concepts o Learners compare their diagrams and table with textbook versions. (I) (Basic) Siddiqui p.184-185
ciliated smooth squamous blood
structure cartilage goblet cells
epithelium muscle epithelium vessels
trachea
bronchus
bronchiole
alveoli
 Learners label diagrams of sections through the trachea, bronchus and bronchiole
and complete blank tables as above. (F)
Note
 Learners should know the singular and plural: bronchus and bronchi; alveolus and
alveoli.
 Explain that there are only a few goblet cells in the bronchiole (some textbooks may
state none are present) and discuss the reason for this, i.e. avoiding mucus
hindering gas exchange in the alveoli.
9.1.c  Discuss the reasons for the distribution of the various features within the gas Online
describe the functions of cartilage, exchange system by explaining their functions. (W) (Basic) http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/Me
cilia, goblet cells, mucous glands,  Learners match statements: features with correct functions. (I) (Basic) dEd/Histo/frames/Histo15.html
smooth muscle and elastic fibres and  Reinforce learning by providing photomicrographs and electron micrographs for http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/index.html
recognise these cells and tissues in learners to identify the features. (P) (I) (Challenging) http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/HI
prepared slides, photomicrographs and  Learners give written explanations linking the presence / location of the features in STHTML/EM/EM040.html
electron micrographs of the gas the different areas of the gas exchange system to their function. (F)
exchange system Textbooks/Publications
King p.89-91
Key concepts Siddiqui p.184-185

Past Papers
9.1.d  Discuss the roles of blood flow and ventilation in maintaining diffusion gradients for Online
describe the process of gas exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli and blood. http://www.johnwiley.net.au/highered/in
between air in the alveoli and the o Incorporate a question and answer session so learners can apply knowledge of teractions/media/Respiration/content/
blood the function of haemoglobin (Unit 1). (W) (Basic) Respiration/resp1a/frameset.htm
 Learners draw and annotate diagrams with key features of the process, adding http://www.johnwiley.net.au/highered/in
Key concepts arrows to indicate the direction of exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. (I) teractions/media/Respiration/content/
Cells as the units of life (Challenging) Respiration/resp2a/bot.htm
 Learners write a short account of how concentration gradients are maximised for
efficient gas exchange. (I) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
 Learners produce a written description explaining gas exchange in terms of the Bio Factsheet 26: Gas exchange in
structure of the alveolus and capillary and diffusion across cell surface membranes. animals
(I) (Challenging)
o The account should make clear the difference between diffusion across alveolar
and capillary walls and diffusion across membranes.
 Using a diagram of an alveolus and associated capillaries, learners give an account
of how the structure of the gas exchange surface is adapted for its function. (F)
Note
 A common written error in examinations is to state that diffusion occurs across
‘epithelial cell walls’ or ‘the cell walls of the capillary’.
 It is not sufficient to state that red blood cells take up oxygen: learners should refer
to oxygen uptake by haemoglobin in red blood cells.
8.1.f  Use a question and answer session to revise haemoglobin structure (Unit 1) before Online
describe the role of haemoglobin in providing further details of oxygen binding and carriage and oxygen release. (W) http://www.biology4all.com/resources_l
carrying oxygen and carbon dioxide (Challenging) ibrary/details.asp?ResourceID=8
with reference to the role of carbonic  With teacher prompting, learners construct a diagram summarising the carriage of http://www.mrothery.co.uk/circulation/ci
anhydrase, the formation of carbon dioxide by haemoglobin at the respiring tissue (ensure they understand that rculationotes.htm#BLOOD
haemoglobinic acid and the reverse happens in the lung tissue). (I) (Challenging)
carbaminohaemoglobin (details of the o The labelled diagram to include the red blood cell, the endothelium with pores, Textbooks/Publications
chloride shift are not required) and the body cells. Bio Factsheet 175: Haemoglobin:
o Discuss in stages, with learners adding information, the sequence of events structure & function
Key concepts
Cells as the units of life, occurring. Past Papers

Biochemical processes  Discuss the importance of carbonic anhydrase (recall enzyme knowledge), also Paper 21, June 2011, Q2 (a)(c)
highlighting that haemoglobin is not the only protein found in red blood cells. (W) Paper 22, June 2011, Q3 (d)(e)
(Basic)
 Learners produce a written explanation of the events occurring in the: respiring
tissues, using a diagram as stimulus material; in the lungs. (H) (F) (Challenging)
 Learners explain the roles of haemoglobin in the carriage of carbon dioxide in
buffering hydrogen ions and transporting carbon dioxide directly as
carbaminohaemoglobin. (I) (Challenging)
Note
Learners should not describe oxygen binding to haemoglobin as ‘bonding’.
8.1.g  Introduce the oxygen dissociation curve step-by-step (a difficult concept to grasp), Online
describe and explain the significance returning to previous steps if necessary. http://www.biology4all.com/resources_l
of the oxygen dissociation curves of o Introduce partial pressure as a measure of concentration and ‘availability’ of ibrary/details.asp?ResourceID=8
adult oxyhaemoglobin at different oxygen and the percentage saturation of haemoglobin as ‘affinity’ for oxygen. http://www.mrothery.co.uk/circulation/ci
carbon dioxide concentrations (the o Explain that the oxygen dissociation curve is constructed from results of rculationotes.htm#BLOOD
Bohr effect) experimental measurements. http://www.wiley.com/college/fob/anim/
o Explain the loading of oxygen in the lung (see 8.1.f). http://www.wiley.com/college/fob/quiz/
Key concepts o Explain the release of oxygen (i.e. oxyhaemoglobin dissociation) as a result of quiz07/7-7.html
Cells as the units of life, the lower partial pressure in other body tissue (resting). (W) (Challenging) http://www.wiley.com/college/fob/quiz/
Biochemical processes  Learners annotate their own diagrams of the oxygen dissociation curve of adult quiz07/7-12.html
haemoglobin. (I) (Challenging)
 Learners suggest why the steep part of the curve is important and beneficial Textbooks/Publications
(efficient unloading in partial pressures common in respiring tissues). (W) Bio Factsheet 175: Haemoglobin:
(Challenging) structure & function
 Explain the Bohr shift in relation to carbon dioxide carriage by haemoglobin, using a Bio Factsheet 9: Oxygen dissociation
summary diagram from 8.1.f. curves
o Explain that haemoglobin dissociates to a greater extent in working tissue as the
presence of increased carbon dioxide concentrations facilitates the unloading of Past Papers
‘more’ oxygen by haemoglobin. Paper 21, June 2011, Q2 (a)(c)
o Ask learners to suggest the significance of the greater dissociation (greater need Paper 22, June 2011, Q3 (d)(e)
of tissues for oxygen as they are more actively respiring). (W) (Challenging) Paper 21, June 2011, Q2 (d)
 Learners complete worksheets involving data extraction and interpretation of the Paper 23, June 2011, Q4
curve. (P) (I) (F) (Challenging)
 Extension: learners research (using textbooks/internet), consider and explain the
oxygen dissociation curves of myoglobin and foetal haemoglobin. (H) (Challenging)
8.1.h  Learners make bullet-point notes after discussing how an increase in red blood cell Online
describe and explain the significance count is linked to an increase in haemoglobin, and how this compensates for the http://www.sportsci.org/traintech/altitud
of the increase in the red blood cell lower saturation that occurs at high altitudes (hence ensuring that body tissues e/wgh.html
count of humans at high altitude receive sufficient oxygen). (W) (I) (Basic)
 Learners complete a worksheet (prepared by you) to make comparisons of red blood Textbooks/Publications
Key concepts cell counts at different altitudes, including giving percentage changes. (H) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 149: High altitude
Cells as the units of life, (Challenging) biology
Organisms in their environment  Extension: learners research the benefits to athletes of training at high altitude, or
investigate if communities who have always lived at high altitude are different to
others. (I) (H) (Challenging)
Unit 5: Disease and protection against disease

Some introductory knowledge of sickle cell anaemia would be useful, which may have arisen from additional information acquired when learning about sickle cell
haemoglobin in Unit 1, or about mutations in Unit 3. Also from Unit 1, an appreciation of protein structure to function will help when studying antibody structure and
function. Learners should have a good understanding of cell structure, the role of cell surface membrane receptors and the mechanism of endocytosis from Unit 2. They
should appreciate the difference between eukaryotes, prokaryotes and viruses. An understanding of how uncontrolled cell division may result in a tumour, studied in
Unit 3, is required. From Unit 4, learners should be familiar with the histology of the gas exchange system and have knowledge of white blood cells.
Context
Previous units have looked at living organisms on the molecular and cellular scale, before moving on to organs and systems. Disease is an outcome of the
malfunctioning of cells through altered biochemical processes. Infectious diseases show how humans interact with pathogens. These interactions are one component
of the key concept Organisms in their environment. A multicellular organism must organise, control and coordinate activities so that they have defence mechanisms
and can develop immunity from disease. A link is provided to another key concept, Natural selection, with a consideration of the development of antibiotic resistance by
bacteria. Learners are also introduced to monoclonal antibodies, one important aspect of biotechnology. Monoclonal antibodies are the result of observation and
experiment, which is a key concept.
Outline
An understanding is gained of what is meant by disease and what the differences are between infectious and non-infectious diseases. Learners are provided with
examples of non-infectious disease by learning more about sickle cell anaemia and considering how tobacco smoking affects the gas exchange and cardiovascular
systems. Five infectious diseases of global importance are studied in some detail: cause; transmission; prevention and control, including the use of antibiotics. The unit
continues with a consideration of the factors that influence the global patters of TB, malaria and HIV/AIDS. Smallpox is introduced as an infectious disease so that
learners can appreciate how vaccination programmes have helped to eradicate the disease. Penicillin is studied as an example of an antibiotic and learners then
progress to study antibiotic resistance and consider the steps taken to alleviate this problem. There are good opportunities within this unit for learners to develop their
skills in data analysis, particularly with respect to disease statistics. Natural and artificial immunity is studied, including the structure and function of antibodies. Learners
will be provided with more detail about phagocytes and the way in which they function to protect against disease. The events occurring during a specific immune
response are covered. A brief consideration is given to the outcome to the body when the immune system fails to work correctly, using myasthenia gravis as an
example. An account of the production of monoclonal antibodies and how they are used in the diagnosis of disease and treatment of disease is included. The unit
concludes with a study of vaccination and a comparison of the effectiveness of vaccination programmes in the prevention and control of the infectious diseases studied.
Teaching time
10.1.a  Ask learners for their ideas for the definition of disease (see examples below). Online
define the term disease and explain o An abnormal condition affecting an organism, which reduces the effectiveness of http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/in722
the difference between an infectious its function.
disease and non-infectious disease o An absence of one or more of physical, social and mental well-being. (W) Textbooks/Publications
(limited to sickle cell anaemia and lung (Basic) Bio Factsheet 40: Disease and
cancer)  Learners name common infectious diseases and suggest the type of causative defence
organism, the pathogen (use both terms).
Key concepts o Add examples to cover bacteria, viruses and fungi. Past Papers
Cells as the units of life, o Introduce protoctists as pathogens (causative pathogen of malaria) using simple Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q4 (b)
Biochemical processes, ideas (e.g. eukaryotes, many are unicellular, organisms not fitting into other Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q2 (b)(i)
Natural selection groups / kingdoms). (W) (Basic)
 Learners give examples of non-infectious diseases.
o Ensure they include diseases of the gas exchange system (linked with tobacco
smoking) and sickle cell anaemia.
o Discuss the cause of sickle cell anaemia (see 6.2.c), Unit 3)). (W) (Basic)
 Learners explain why lung cancer and sickle cell anaemia are not considered to be
infectious diseases.
 Learners summarise discussions in a comparison table or in comparative sentences.
(I) (Basic)
 Extension: learners research the term pathogen, e.g. ‘a biological agent (e.g. a virus,
bacterium, fungus or protoctist) that causes disease and has proteins (foreign/non-
self antigens) as part of its structure that are different from those of the human host’.
Note
 ‘Germs’ as an alternative to ‘pathogens’ is not acceptable.
 A common error is to use the term disease rather than pathogen, e.g. “the disease
enters cells” or to name the disease instead of the pathogen e.g. “malaria enters red
blood cells”.
9.2.a  In a question and answer session, learners explain why chronic bronchitis and Online
describe the effects of tar and emphysema are also non-infectious diseases (in addition to lung cancer). (W) http://www.lung.ca/diseases-
carcinogens in tobacco smoke on the (Basic) maladies/index_e.php
gas exchange system with reference to  Check learner knowledge of the terms carcinogen and carcinogenic. (W) (Basic) http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/L
lung cancer and chronic obstructive  Learners volunteer examples before projecting/showing the long list of carcinogens UNGHTML/LUNGIDX.html
pulmonary disease (COPD) in tobacco smoke. (W) (Basic) http://www.ash.org.uk/information/facts
o Explain that lung cancer may happen naturally, but the risk is increased by a -and-stats
Key concepts range of different environmental factors, identifying tar as a main causative http://www.insidecancer.org/
Cells as the units of life, http://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancerca
DNA, the molecule of heredity, agent. (W) (Basic) uses/geneticsandcancer/oncogenesa

Observation and experiment  Relate back to Unit 3 and ask learners to write out an outline sequence of ndtumorsuppressorgenes/oncogenes
consequential events leading to a tumour and the development of cancer. (W) (I) -tumor-suppressor-genes-and-
(Basic) cancer-mutations-and-cancer
 Discuss the imprecision in the statement: “Cigarettes cause lung cancer” and ask http://www.who.int/en/
learners to suggest improvements, e.g. “There is a correlation between tobacco http://www.sanger.ac.uk/genetics/CGP
smoking and the development of lung cancer”, “Tar in tobacco smoke is known to be /Census/
a cause of lung cancer”. (W) (Challenging) http://info.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer
 Learners investigate how carcinogens can promote the mutation of two important stats/causes/genes/cancergenes/inde
types of genes involved in the control of cell division, proto-oncogenes (form x.htm
oncogenes, associated with the development of cancer) and tumour suppressor http://www.parliament.the-stationery-
genes (may mutate so that they can no longer act as a control). (W) (I) (H) office.co.uk/pa/cm199900/cmselect/c
(Challenging) mhealth/27/9120907.htm
 Name chronic bronchitis and emphysema as the two diseases of COPD. (W)
(Basic) Textbooks/Publications
o For each, learners make short notes summarising the changes that occur in the Bio Factsheet 104: Biological basis of
gas exchange system that lead to the symptoms of disease. (I) (Challenging) cancer.
 Extension: learners use data from the WHO website to practise data handling and
investigate the occurrence of deaths from cancers. (P) (I) (Basic) (Challenging) Past Papers
 Learners collect, display and analyse data about a smoking-related disease of the Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q1 (c)(d)(e)
gas exchange system and give a short presentation to the class. (W) (H)
(Challenging)
Note
 Explain the difference between a mutagen (an agent that increases the mutation rate
of DNA) and a carcinogen (an agent that can cause cancer).
 To help make links to changes that occur in the gas exchange system, learners will
benefit from an outline of the signs and symptoms that the diseases share in
common and those that are characteristic for each disease.
9.2.b  Explain what is meant by the term cardiovascular. (W) (Basic) Online
describe the short-term effects of  Introduce carbon monoxide and nicotine as two components of smoke that can http://www.ash.org.uk/files/documents/
nicotine and carbon monoxide on the easily pass across the alveolar wall to the bloodstream. ASH_111.pdf
cardiovascular system o Discuss how the presence of these components can cause short-term effects, http://www.bhf.org.uk/
which may lead to other short-term effects (consequential outcomes) and to http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/A
Key concepts long-term effects. (W) (Basic) THHTML/ATHIDX.html
Cells as the units of life,  Explain the affinity of haemoglobin to carbon monoxide (links to Unit 4) and the http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/C
Biochemical processes VHTML/CV005.html
permanency of this association. (W) (Basic)

o Learners discuss the consequences of this with respect to: uptake of oxygen; Textbooks/Publications
delivery to tissues (especially the extremities); effect on heart rate. (W) (G) Bio Factsheet 218: Biology of risk
(Basic) factors 1: Smoking
 State that carbon monoxide can also cause damage to the endothelial lining, which Bio Factsheet 37: Ischaemic
is a starting point for vascular disease (atheroma/atherosclerosis). (W) (Basic) (coronary) heart disease (for
 Learners make bullet-point notes about the effects of carbon monoxide. (F) extension work)
 Learners research the short-term effects of nicotine and produce a concept map or
spider diagram (with links to consequential effects). Past Papers
o Examples: damage to endothelial lining, which can cause turbulent blood flow Paper 22, June 2011, Q6
and increase risk of clotting (thrombosis); increase in blood pressure owing to Paper 22, Nov 2013, Q6 (b)
release of adrenaline (can also damage the endothelial lining); making platelets
‘sticky’(increasing platelet aggregation), so increasing thrombosis risk; increased
heart rate; vasoconstriction, which can reduce blood flow to extremities; increase
in LDLs (low-density lipoprotein). The summary could be in the form of a concept
map/spider diagram. (P) (I) (Challenging)
 Extension: learners research how the short-term effects can lead to longer term
effects (e.g. atheroma and atherosclerosis, peripheral arterial disease). (H)
(Challenging)
Note
 The addictive effects of nicotine are not related to the cardiovascular system, so are
not required.
10.1.b  Explain the convention for naming the organisms: upper case (capital) letter for the Online
state the name and type of causative first letter of the generic name, lower case letter for the specific epithet. (W) (Basic) http://textbookofbacteriology.net/tuberc
organism (pathogen) of each of the  You may wish to concentrate on one disease and work through 10.1.b to 10.1.e ulosis.html
following diseases: cholera, malaria, before moving onto the next disease. Alternatively two to four learners work together http://textbookofbacteriology.net/choler
tuberculosis (TB), HIV/AIDS, smallpox (lesson and homework), to research information about one disease and prepare a a.html
and measles (detailed knowledge of presentation for the class, sharing notes. (G) (H) (Challenging) http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/HI
structure is not required. For smallpox o Learners then make learning notes on each of the five diseases. (I) (H) (Basic) STHTML/EM/EM018.html
(Variola) and measles (Morbillivirus)  Learners research the required information and complete the first two columns of a
only the name of genus is needed) large summary headed table. (I) (H) (Basic) Past Papers
 Learners carry out a mix and match card exercise (prepared by you) with the name Paper 22, Nov 2012, Q4 (a)
Key concepts of disease, type of causative organism/pathogen, name of causative organism /
Cells as the units of life, pathogen. (F)
Note
 In their own handwriting learners should underline the species name, in print they
are in italics.
 A brief discussion of the term species will help understanding (defined in Unit 6).
 Learners should spell species names correctly.
 For malaria, parasite will be seen in addition to pathogen.
10.1.c See 10.1.b for group work. Online

explain how cholera, measles, malaria,  Discuss what is meant by a transmission cycle, noting that the causative organism is http://www.who.int/en/
TB and HIV/AIDS are transmitted transmitted when a disease spreads. http://www.who.int/research/en/
o Learners suggest reasons for some diseases spreading more rapidly than http://www.biology4all.com/resources_l
Key concepts others. ibrary/details.asp?ResourceID=36
Cells as the units of life, o Summarise on a poster learner suggestions as to main modes of transmission.
Organisms in their environment o Learners assign a mode of transmission to each named disease and write a
paragraph for each. (W) (Basic)
 Learners add key points to their summary table. (I) (Challenging)
Note
 Ensure learners know the difference between the causative organism of malaria, the
protoctist Plasmodium, and the mosquito vector, Anopheles.
10.1.d See 10.1.b for group work. Online

discuss the biological, social and  Begin with a general discussion, learners suggesting what is meant by ‘social’ http://www.who.int/en/
economic factors that need to be factors (relating to human society and interdependence - the idea of benefit to all as http://www.who.int/research/en/
considered in the prevention and a result of cooperation). http://www.cdc.gov/
control of cholera, measles, malaria, o Discuss the distinction between prevention and control. (W) (Basic)
TB and HIV/AIDS (a detailed study of  Learners study information (provided by you), including statistics, about a recent Past Papers
the life cycle of the malarial parasite is outbreak of one of the named diseases. (G) (Basic) Paper 23, Nov 2011, Q4
not required) o Discuss the availability of vaccines and treatments (including drugs) for the
disease. (W) (Basic)
Key concepts  Outline what antibiotics are and when they are useful in the treatment of disease.
Cells as the units of life, (W) (Basic)
Organisms in their environment,  Learners use information sheets to suggest ways of breaking the transmission cycle
Observation and experiment for each disease, and the difficulties in making this happen.
o Learners consider biological, social and economic factors in relation to
prevention and control. (G) (P) (Challenging)
 Learners research where these diseases are currently prevalent and how this affects
people in different parts of the world. (I) (Challenging)
Note
 Learners should be aware that antibiotics can be antifungal.
10.1.e See 10.1.b for group work. Online

discuss the factors that influence the  From 10.1.d, learners give reasons why some countries are better able to prevent http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/malaria_wo
global patterns of distribution of and control a particular disease. (I) (Basic) rldwide/impact.html
malaria, TB and HIV/AIDS and assess  Learners choose one of the named diseases to research and produce a short report. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2
the importance of these diseases (H) (Challenging) 1728152
worldwide o Learners contribute from their report to a group discussion. (W) (Basic) http://www.who.int/hiv/mediacentre/ne
o Point out how there is often a correlation in disease pattern, e.g. high incidence ws60/en/
Key concepts of TB in people with HIV/AIDS. (W) (Basic)
Cells as the units of life, o Learners make summary learning notes on each disease. (I) (Basic)
Organisms in their environment,  Learners fill in details on a partially completed table summarising all the main points
Observation and experiment for 10.1.b to 10.1.e (see Note). (F)
Note
 Display world maps showing the areas most affected by each disease.
10.2.a  Outline the difference between bacteriostatic and bactericidal antibiotics. (W) Online
outline how penicillin acts on bacteria (Basic) http://www.cellsalive.com/pen.htm
and why antibiotics do not affect  Explain that the penicillin group of antibiotics are also known as beta lactams http://www.biology.ed.ac.uk/research/g
viruses (describes their structure). (W) (Basic) roups/jdeacon/microbes/penicill.htm
 Review learner knowledge of bacterial cell wall structure and use a question and http://pathmicro.med.sc.edu/fox/antibio
Key concepts answer session to build up the action of penicillin. tics1.htm
Cells as the units of life, o Explain that transpeptidase enzymes (glycoprotein peptidases) catalyse http://textbookofbacteriology.net/antimi
Biochemical processes formation of peptide cross links between peptidoglycan chains, which complete crobial.html
the strength of the cell wall.
o Prompt learners to recall knowledge of enzyme inhibition before they suggest Textbooks/Publications
how penicillin acts to inhibit transpeptidases. King p.172-173
o Learners suggest why penicillin is only active against growing bacteria that are Siddiqui p.52
laying down new cell wall components. (W) (Challenging)
 Display key terms and key points for learners to write a summary of the discussion. Past Papers
(F) Paper 22, June 2013, Q3 (b)
 Extension: learners research the other main ways in which antibiotics act and
explain why penicillin and other antibiotics do not harm human cells. (I)
(Challenging)
 Microbiology practical: learners place filter paper discs impregnated with different
antibiotics (e.g. Mast rings), or different concentrations of the same antibiotic, onto a
Petri dish with nutrient agar inoculated with non-hazardous bacteria (e.g. Bacillus
subtilis).
o Learners measure zones of inhibition created around the discs on the lawn of
bacteria and compare to determine the efficacy of each antibiotic (or antibiotic
concentration). (P) (I) (Challenging)
 Learners write a paragraph explaining why antibiotics do not affect viruses (see Unit
2, viral structure), extending this to use HIV as an example. (I) (Challenging)
o Remind learners that there are anti-viral drugs effective against HIV. (W) (Basic)
10.2.b  Learners suggest changes in bacteria that could lead to the ‘inactivation’ of penicillin. Online
explain in outline how bacteria become (W) (Challenging) http://www.hpa.org.uk/Topics/Infectiou
resistant to antibiotics with reference to o Ensure the discussion covers: mutations in genes lead to new proteins; the new sDiseases/InfectionsAZ/Antimicrobial
mutation and selection protein can be an enzyme; the enzyme can breakdown penicillin; hence Resistance/
antibiotic resistance. http://www.tufts.edu/med/apua/index.s
Key concepts o Introduce beta lactamase (formerly penicillinase) as the enzyme. html
DNA, the molecule of heredity, o Mention that plasmids often carry genes for antibiotic resistance. http://www.antibioticresistance.org.uk/
Natural selection,  Learners suggest how new proteins could act in other ways to provide resistance, http://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-
Organisms in their environment e.g. membrane proteins pumping out antibiotics (efflux pumps) or inactivating them. level/biology/evolution/revise-
(W) (Challenging) it/evolution-in-action
 Learners recall why it is important to complete a course of antibiotics in the http://textbookofbacteriology.net/resant
treatment of TB. imicrobial.html
o Discuss how the presence of antibiotic acts as a selection pressure, so resistant
bacteria (with a mutation) are selected for, and those that are killed are selected Textbooks/Publications
against. Bio Factsheet 100: Antibiotics and
o Explain the different ways (vertical and horizontal transmission) that resistance antibiotic resistance
can be passed. (W) (Challenging) Bio Factsheet 71: The control of
 Learners write a summary of the discussions. (F) bacteria.
Note
Past Papers
 Two common errors: stating that resistance to the antibiotic develops in people, not Paper 22, June 2011, Q4 (c)(d)
in bacteria; confusing resistance with immunity.
10.2.c  Learners cover this learning objective by researching a chosen bacterium that shows Online
discuss the consequences of antibiotic multiple drug resistance and present their findings to the rest of the group. http://www.bbsrc.ac.uk/web/FILES/Pub
resistance and the steps that can be o Points to consider in reducing impact: dosage; length of treatment; use of narrow lications/bioscience_behind_superbu
taken to reduce its impact spectrum antibiotics; identify correctly the causative organism; hygiene and gs.pdf
aseptic conditions in areas such as hospitals; measures to reduce the impact of
Key concepts antibiotic therapy with farm animals. (W) (I) (H) (Challenging)
Natural selection,
Organisms in their environment,
11.1.d  Learners suggest mechanisms considered as ‘first line of defence’ (e.g. skin, Past Papers
explain the meaning of the term stomach acid). Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q6 (c)
immune response, making reference to o Explain that the next defence will be responses to invasion of body tissue.
the terms antigen, self and non-self o Discuss how the body can distinguish between non-self and self and recall
previous work on antigens. (W) (Basic)
Key concepts  Learners write a definition of antigen, referring to self and non-self, the production of
Cells as the units of life specific antibody to form an antigen-antibody complex and including examples (e.g.
a molecule on the outside of a bacterium, virus, parasite, allergen or tumour cell). (I)
(Basic)
 Discuss the meaning of immune response (a complex series of reactions of the
body, involving white blood cells, to a non-self antigen) before learners make notes.
(W) (I) (Challenging)
o Ensure learners understand that the non-specific (innate) response involves
phagocytes and the specific (adaptive) response involves lymphocytes, and that
the responses interact.
o Explain that the reactions result in destruction of the foreign invader and prepare
the body for a faster response to a second invasion (so the person will have few
or no symptoms).
11.1.a  Remind learners that all blood cells have their origin in the bone marrow (Unit 3, CD-ROM
state that phagocytes (macrophages 5.1.c): stem cells) and that some mature elsewhere in the body. Bioscope – has relevant images.
and neutrophils) have their origin in o Learners recall that monocytes mature into macrophages, which are phagocytes
bone marrow and describe their mode (see Note 8.1.d, Unit 4). (W) (Basic) Online
of action  Learners draw annotated labelled diagrams of a neutrophil, a monocyte, and a http://education.vetmed.vt.edu/Curricul
macrophage (arrow pointing from monocyte). Learners include a label to (Fc) um/VM8054/Labs/Lab6/Lab6.htm
Key concepts receptors that can bind to antibodies. (I) (Basic) http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/index.html
Cells as the units of life  Explain that phagocytes can respond to isolated pathogens or to antibodies bound http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/HI
to antigens of pathogens. (W) (Basic) STHTML/EM/EM001.html
 Learners sequence and label diagrams (provided by you) showing events occurring http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/HI
during phagocytosis, recalling studies on endocytosis, the role of receptors and STHTML/EM/EM002.html
function of lysosomes. http://highered.mcgraw-
o Learners should know the term antigen presenting cell (APC). (I) (Basic) hill.com/sites/0072507470/student_vi
(Challenging) ew0/chapter3/animation__phagocyto
 Learners match cards of descriptive text (provided by you) to diagrams of stages. (F) sis.html
 Learners compare and contrast phagocytes and lymphocytes on microscope slides.
(I) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
King p.164-165
Siddiqui p.181-182
Past Papers
Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q2 (a)
11.1.b  Discuss how the non-specific response of phagocytes to infection differs from the Online
describe the modes of action of B- specific response of B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes, which each have different http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes modes of action. (W) (Basic) et/BiologyPages/B/B_and_Tcells.html
 Using a step-by-step teacher-prompted approach or by individual research, learners http://www.merckmanuals.com/home/i
Key concepts draw an annotated flow diagram to show how specific B-lymphocytes respond mmune_disorders/biology_of_the_im
Cells as the units of life (humoral response): mune_system/acquired_immunity.ht
o Recognition and binding of specific antigen. ml?qt=immune%20response&alt=sh
o Activation/sensitisation followed by clonal expansion (mitotic division). http://www.accessexcellence.org/AB/G
o Differentiation to produce (i) plasma cells that make antibodies in a primary G/antibodies.html
immune response and (ii) memory cells (see 11.1.e). http://www.cellsalive.com/antibody.htm
o There are important interactions with the T-lymphocytes response. (I) http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/H
(Challenging) EMEHTML/HEMEIDX.html
 Discuss the similarity of the T-lymphocyte response (cell-mediated immunity) to the http://www.bu.edu/histology/p/21001oo
humoral response, before outlining other key points. a.htm
o T-helper cells activation produces a clone of cells that release cytokines, which
stimulate and strengthen both the humoral response and macrophage response. Past Papers
o T-killer (cytotoxic) cells activation produces a clone of cells that can directly kill, Paper 23, Nov 2013, Q.1 (b)
for example, infected cells. Paper 21, Nov 2011, Q6 (c)
o Both types produce memory cells. (W) (Basic)
 Learners choose to show the information in a flow diagram or with written notes. (I)
(Challenging)
 Distinguish between receptors of B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes that bind non-
self antigen: for B-lymphocytes the receptor is immunoglobulin (slightly different to a
secreted antibody); the T-receptor recognises antigens displayed on the surface of
APCs (see T-helper cells) or infected or foreign cells (see T-killer cells). (W)
(Challenging)
 Extension: learners research the effect of active HIV in human T-lymphocytes (also
attacks phagocytes) and see the consequences of a reduction in numbers of white
blood cells (helps to explain why people with HIV/AIDS are prone to opportunistic
infections). (I) (Challenging)
Note
 Refer to humoral and cell-mediated responses (not required knowledge) as learners
will see these terms in resources used.
 11.1.e can be incorporated into this learning objective.
11.1.e  Discuss why the presence of memory cells means that a secondary immune Online
explain the role of memory cells in response will be faster and stronger than a primary response. (W) (Basic) http://www.biology.arizona.edu/immun
long-term immunity  Learners suggest meanings for the term immunity and write out an agreed ology/tutorials/immunology/09t.html
explanation of immunity and long-term immunity.
Key concepts  Learners could draw and annotate a sketch graph showing antibody concentrations
Cells as the units of life against time during an immune response. (I) (Basic)
o Learners reproduce this graph at a later date, with more detailed annotations. (F)
Note
 Encourage use of scientific terminology and explanations: phrases such as
‘remembers the disease’ and ‘fights the disease’ are unacceptable.
11.1.c  Provide learners with information about leukaemias. Learners write an account Online
describe and explain the significance explaining the difference between an increase in white blood cell count http://www.lls.org/diseaseinformation/
of the increase in white blood cell accompanying infectious diseases with that of leukaemias. (F) managingyourcancer/newlydiagnose
count in humans with infectious  Learners explain why people with leukaemia are susceptible to infections. (I) (Basic) d/understandingdiagnosis/labimaging
diseases and leukaemias  Extension: learners research the difference between acute and chronic leukaemias. tests/bloodtests/bloodcounts/
(H) (Challenging)
Key concepts Textbooks/Publications
Cells as the units of life Siddiqui p.182-183
11.1.f  Use myasthenia gravis as an example to explain what is meant by autoimmune Online
explain, with reference to myasthenia disease, provide learners with a straightforward information sheet from which they http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/en
gravis, that the immune system can make their own bullet-pointed notes. (I) (Basic) cy/article/000816.htm
sometimes fails to distinguish between  Extension: learners research other auto immune diseases to highlight the range of https://www.mga-
self and non-self immune dysfunctions that can exist. (H) charity.org/information-mg
Key concepts
11.2.a  Revise protein structure with a short written test. (F) Online
relate the molecular structure of  Discuss the basic structure of an immunoglobulin (e.g. IgG) and how these http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/V
antibodies to their functions (see 2.3.b) molecules interact with antigens. (W) (Basic) L/GG/ecb/antibody_molecule.php
 Explain that the variable regions in different antibodies have different sequences of http://www.biology.arizona.edu/immun
Key concepts amino acids and ask for suggestions as to how this related to the specificity of ology/tutorials/antibody/structure.html
Biochemical processes antibodies. (W) (Basic) http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
 Learners use, for example, a ribbon diagram of IgG to explain how primary, et/BiologyPages/A/AntigenReceptors.
secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures of proteins are shown. (P) (I) html
(Challenging)
 Learners draw a labelled, annotated diagram linking the structure of an antibody to Past Papers
its function, reproducing this diagram at a later stage. (I) (F) (Challenging) Paper 21, June 2013, Q2
Note
 Learners may be interested to know that antibodies are glycoproteins.
 Mention the different antibody classes and refer to the term antitoxins (not required
learning) for interest.
 There is potential confusion between antibodies and antibiotics – apply error-free
learning.
11.2.b  Learners review antigens, antibodies, specificity, B-lymphocytes, plasma cells and Online
outline the hybridoma method for the cancer cells with a brainstorming session. (W) (Basic) (Challenging) http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
production of monoclonal antibodies  With guidance, learners work through the hybridoma method and produce either a et/BiologyPages/M/Monoclonals.html
summary flow diagram, set of notes, or completed table. Learners highlight the main http://www.bio.davidson.edu/Courses/
Key concepts stages of the process and the steps that occur within each stage are described and molbio/MolLearners/01rakarnik/mab.
DNA, the molecule of heredity, explained. (I) (Challenging) html
Observation and experiment  Ask learners to state the desirable features which are contributed by each cell that http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?rec
become incorporated into the hybridoma cell (this contains the genetic material of ord_id=9450&page=8
both cells). (W) (Basic)
 Learners describe the distinction between the hybridoma cell and the monoclonal Past papers
antibody (see Note). (W) (Challenging) Paper 41, June 2012, Q2
 Learners could make a list of all the cells involved in the production and state the
role of each. (I) (Basic)
 Discuss why there has been a move to produce humanised antibody rather than
mouse antibody. (W) (Challenging)
Note
 Ensure learners understand that:

o a clone (group of genetically identical cells formed from one original ‘ancestor’
cell) of hybridoma cells produces one type of specific antibody, monoclonal
antibody;
o the ‘ancestor’ cell forms from the fusion of a specific plasma cell (B-lymphocyte)
and a myeloma cell.
 In this rapidly-developing area of biotechnology, learners need to apply biological
principles and concepts to new situations.
11.2.c  Explain that a sample of fluid taken from a person with an infectious disease could Online
outline the use of monoclonal contain both pathogen (with non-self antigens) and specific antibody. (W) (Basic) http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/mon
antibodies in the diagnosis of disease  Learners study a set of diagrams showing the steps occurring in a direct enzyme- oclonalantibody/CA00082
and in the treatment of disease linked immunosorbent test (ELISA) and answer a set of questions that require http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/imm
application of the principles of immune response and knowledge of monoclonal unology/vlab.html.
Key concepts antibody. (I) (Challenging) http://web.archive.org/web/200803290
Observation and experiment o Extension: learners describe what is occurring in an indirect ELISA test for the 02645/http://www.molecular-plant-
presence of circulating specific antibody. (I) (Challenging) biotechnology.info/hybridoma-and-
 Learners research one example of the use of monoclonal antibody in the treatment monoclonal-antibodies-mabs/uses-of-
of disease and present their findings to the class. (H) (W) (Basic) (Challenging) monoclonal-antibodies.htm
http://www.sumanasinc.com/webconte
Note nt/animations/content/pregtest.html
 Learners do not need to know the term ELISA or the details of the test.
Bio Factsheet 112: Monoclonal
antibodies
Bio Factsheet 219: Monoclonal
antibodies: An update
Past papers
Paper 41, June 2012, Q2 (b)(c)
11.2.d  Discuss the principles behind passive immunity before learners produce an account Online
distinguish between active and explaining why (i) passive immunity is immediate but short-lived and active immunity http://www.spmsd.co.uk/cat.asp?catid=
passive, natural and artificial immunity is delayed but longer-term, and (ii) passive immunity does not produce memory 9
and explain how vaccination can cells whereas active immunity does. (W) (I) (Basic) (Challenging) http://www.polioeradication.org/
control disease  Learners draw an annotated version of the immune response curve to show how http://www.who.int/features/factfiles/pol
vaccines act to give immunity. (I) (Challenging) io/en/
Key concepts  Learners construct a summary chart, leaving enough room to add features and
Cells as the units of life, examples to show the differences between the categories, or, the chart of immunity Textbooks/Publications
Organisms in their environment, is divided into active and passive, each divided into natural and artificial. (I) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 99: Vaccines
Observation and experiment Bio Factsheet 71: The control of
Immunity bacteria.
Past Papers
Natural Artificial
Active Passive Active Passive

 Discuss briefly how vaccination can provide immunity to avoid the spread of disease.
Include the term herd immunity. (W) (Basic)
 Extension (highly relevant): learners access current information on the programme
to eradicate polio.
11.2.e  Discuss the features that contributed to the success of the smallpox vaccination Online
discuss the reasons why vaccination programme, which was considered the main factor in the eradication of the disease. http://www.who.int/features/2010/small
programmes have eradicated (W) (Basic) pox/en/
smallpox, but not measles, o Learners contribute information about the progress of vaccination programmes http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Maow_
tuberculosis (TB), malaria or cholera for the other diseases. (W) (Basic) Maalin
 Working in groups of four, each member researches one of the four named http://www.who.int/topics/vaccines/en/
Key concepts diseases, making comparisons with the smallpox vaccination programme. http://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-
Cells as the units of life, o Provide a list of terms to be incorporated into the group study, e.g. antigenic level/biology/immunity/revise-
Organisms in their environment concealment, antigenic drift, boosters, long/short-term, etc. (G) (Challenging) it/problems-with-vaccines
http://www.who.int/immunization/en/
http://www.iavi.org/Pages/default.aspx
Past Papers
Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q2 (b)(ii)(iii)
Unit 6: The diversity of life

Learners should have a good understanding of the difference between plant and animal cells and of the difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes from Unit 2.
Also from Unit 2, learners should know the basic structure of viruses. They should also be familiar with ecological concepts, such as: the meaning of the terms
population and community; the flow of energy through the different trophic levels of the ecosystem; and interactions between organisms.
Context
This unit, above all the others, belongs to the learner. This is their opportunity to get to know the local environment, with opportunities for fieldwork and for research into
local conservation issues and local conservation projects, allowing a practical application of the key concepts of organisms in their environment and of observation and
experiment. Stimulating an interest in biodiversity will lead appropriately to the next unit, Unit 7, Genetics, population genetics and evolutionary processes.
Outline
The unit begins with a discussion of the meaning of the terms species, ecosystem and niche so that learners will have a good grounding for later ecological studies,
and then continues with a more detailed study of classification and taxonomy. Biodiversity is considered at three different levels, and species biodiversity is further
explored by fieldwork opportunities in a local area. Spearman’s rank correlation and Pearson’s linear correlation, together with Simpson’s diversity of index are
introduced as analytical tools for the data collected from fieldwork. The unit also covers the threats to the maintenance of biodiversity and discusses both issues
concerning conservation and practical ways to conserve endangered species and restore degraded habitats. One aspect of the key concept of organisms in their
environment is how humans can interact with their environment in ways that can have a great impact on ecosystems. Here, consideration is given to the part humans
may play in the extinction of species.
Teaching time
18.1.a  Carry out a brainstorming exercise to indicate how much learners can recall of each Online
define the terms species, ecosystem term. (W) (Basic) http://purchon.com/ecology/
and niche  Discuss the species concept (and difficulties in defining the term – there are over 20 http://www.ecologydictionary.org/
definitions) before learners make notes.
Key concepts o Expand ideas of: reproductively isolated; production of fertile offspring; members Textbooks/Publications
Natural selection, have the same (very similar) features in morphology, anatomy, physiology, Bio Factsheet 131: Ecological niche
Organisms in their environment behaviour and biochemistry; occupy the same niche; defined by same (very
similar) DNA. (W) (I) (Basic) Past Papers
 Extension: learners explore difficulties in defining species in terms of fertile offspring Paper 22, June 2011, Q2
by researching examples, e.g. between plant species or between mammalian Paper 41, June 2012, Q1 (a)
species (polar bear and brown bear - rare; canid hybrids - common). (H)
(Challenging)
 Extension: learners consider how the species concept works for asexually
reproducing organisms and for interspecific plasmid transfer between bacteria. (H)
(Challenging)
 Learners write a definition of an ecosystem, incorporating the following ideas and the
same (or equivalent) terminology: (I) (Basic)
o a self-sustaining unit consisting of abiotic and biotic factors interacting together
o includes all organisms of all populations (in a given area)
o energy flows through and cycling of minerals occur.
 Learners make notes on (ecological) niche, the functional role of a species, to
include: a description of its habitat; how it is adapted to its environment; interactions
with other organisms; features of its life-cycle. (I) (Basic)
 Learners visit an ecosystem to place into context these terms and concepts,
describing in terms of: energy flow / trophic levels; interactions between organisms;
interactions between organisms and the physical environment. Examples of species
and of niche are described. (G) (P) (Basic) (Challenging)
 Explain that an ecosystem can vary in size and could be temporary or permanent.
(W) (Basic)
Note
 A niche is often described in terms of an organism or a population.
 A field trip should be considered before covering 18.1.c) to 18.1.f). If a trip is not
possible, visiting any suitable area populated by plants and animals, within or near to
school, will be a rewarding experience for learners.
18.2.a  Learners suggest a method to sort all the different organisms in the world and then Online
describe the classification of species share ideas. (W) (G) (Basic) http://www.microscopy-
into the taxonomic hierarchy of  Introduce the idea of sorting as ‘classification’ and agree that a hierarchical uk.org.uk/mag/indexmag.html?http://
domain, kingdom, phylum, class, approach is sensible. www.microscopy-
order, family, genus and species o State that levels in the hierarchy are termed taxonomic ranks, with each example uk.org.uk/mag/artmay98/classif.html
of a rank known as a taxon (plural: taxa). http://www.biologymad.com/master.ht
Key concepts o Explain that the members of a group share common (homologous) features ml?http://www.biologymad.com/Class
Cells as the units of life, based on phylogenetic / evolutionary patterns (more details in Unit 7). (W) ification/classification.htm
DNA, the molecule of heredity (Basic)
 Display a ‘tree of life’ with the three domains and briefly outline the other taxonomic Textbooks/Publications
ranks, asking for suggestions why the species taxon is considered to be the only Bio Factsheet 91: Taxonomy and
natural classification group. classification.
o Outline the classification of humans, with learners contributing their ideas. (W) Bio Factsheet 170: Answering Exam
(Basic) Questions: Classification and Keys
 Learners note down the taxonomic ranks listed and decide a good mnemonic to help
remember the hierarchical order. (P) (I) (Basic)
 Extension: choose one or more organisms to classify from domain through to the
species, for example, organisms encountered during fieldwork. (H) (Basic)
(Challenging)
 Extension: learners research classification systems based on analogous features. (I)
(Basic)
18.2.b  Learners complete a short written test (produced by you, with mark scheme) about Online
outline the characteristic features of prokaryotes and eukaryotes. (F) http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/Education-
the three domains Archaea, Bacteria  Explain that the Archaea and Bacteria are both prokaryotic but have quite different resources/Education-and-
and Eukarya features, reflecting their evolutionary history. learning/Big-Picture/All-
o State some features of the Archaea that contrast with Bacteria: e.g. different cell issues/Evolution/index.htm
Key concepts wall structure, which can be quite varied (not murein); different types of http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/alllife/th
Cells as the units of life, membrane lipids (not phospholipids); differences in tRNA and ribosomes. reedomains.html
DNA, the molecule of heredity, o Discuss the specialised habitats of some members of the Archaea: high
Organisms in their environment temperatures, extreme saline, and anaerobic environments. (W) (Basic)
 Learners use resources (textbooks, internet, etc.) to produce a list of the main
features of each domain. (I) (Basic)
Note
For this syllabus learners should use ‘Bacteria’ and not ‘Monera’.
18.2.c  Learners brainstorm the names of the kingdoms. Write down all ideas so any Online
outline the characteristic features of incorrect can be put into context (i.e. see 18.2.a). http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/plants/p
the kingdoms Protoctista, Fungi, o Agree the kingdoms and discuss criteria used for classification into Fungi, lantae.html
Plantae and Animalia Animalia or Plantae kingdom, e.g. animals are eukaryotic, multicellular, feed as
heterotrophs. Point out that absent features also helps confirm the classification, Textbooks/Publications
Key concepts e.g. no cells with cell walls, don’t photosynthesise. Bio Factsheet 91: Taxonomy and
Cells as the units of life, o Discuss the Protoctista as the kingdom that contains organisms that do not quite classification
DNA, the molecule of heredity, fit into the other kingdoms. Bio Factsheet 170: Answering Exam
Organisms in their environment o Learners make notes using resources. (W) (Basic) Questions: Classification and Keys
 Learners make up an imaginary ‘named’ organism and produce a sticky note or label
with enough of a description for it to be classified into a kingdom. The notes could be Past Papers
stuck around the class for a class activity, learners revealing their answers at the Paper 43, June 2011, Q1 (c)
end of the activity. (W) (I) (Basic) (Challenging). Paper 43, Nov 2011, Q1 (c)
Paper 41, Nov 2012, Q11 (a)
18.2.d  Check learner knowledge of the main features of viruses (1.2.f) with a question and Online
explain why viruses are not included in answer session. http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/51c
the three domain classification and o Add more information about the genetic material: either single or double- bef267896bb431f69cb9a/?topic=51cb
outline how they are classified, limited stranded RNA or single or double-stranded DNA, but never both RNA and DNA. fc78f702fc2ba8129e70
to type of nucleic acid (RNA or DNA) o Learners produce a generalised diagram that is annotated. (W) (I) (Basic) http://www.johnkyrk.com/virus.html
and whether these are single stranded  Learners suggest why viruses are not included in the three domain classification.
or double stranded o Remind learners of the Unit 2 discussion (viruses do not fit the key concept of Textbooks/Publications
cells as the basic units of life) and see if they have any other points to contribute. Bio Factsheet 32: Viruses made
Key concepts (W) (Basic) simple.
18.1.b  A discussion about the term biodiversity will highlight that a simple definition may be Online
explain that biodiversity is considered difficult. Introduce the idea of three different ‘levels’ of biodiversity, ecosystem, http://www.eoearth.org/topics/view/494
at three different levels: species, and genetic. (W) (Challenging) 80/
 variation in ecosystems or habitats o Point out the transition from an ecological to a molecular biological approach. http://www.bbsrc.ac.uk/web/FILES/Exh
 the number of species and their o Explain that ecosystem biodiversity is more difficult to measure, as ecosystems ibitions/pod2-factsheet.pdf
relative abundance may merge at their ‘boundaries’ (so not easy to define) and vary greatly in size. http://www.geography.learnontheintern
 genetic variation within each  Explain that biodiversity can be considered at a local, national and global level. (W) et.co.uk/topics/ecosystem.html
species (Basic) http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/
 Give a definition of a habitat, for reference only, e.g. the particular location and type biodiversity/what_is_biodiversity/
Key concepts of local environment occupied by a population or organism, characterised by its http://www.iucn.org/iyb/about/?gclid=C
DNA, the molecule of heredity, physical features or by its dominant producers. (W) (Basic) J7n2a2576QCFQsGbAodI3nz1A
Organisms in their environment  Learners volunteer the different types of medium-scale (meso) ecosystems in their
region: e.g. wood/forest, lake/river, field, rocky shore (ecosystem biodiversity).
o To understand how biodiversity can be reduced, learners suggest an occurrence
for each ecosystem that would lead to its loss. (W) (Basic)
 In groups, volunteer states a habitat within one of the named ecosystems, choosing
the next person to give another habitat and so on. (G) (Basic) (Challenging)
 Reinforce, using examples, learner understanding of the differences between
ecosystem and habitat, e.g. the habitat of a catfish is a freshwater stream versus the
catfish is part of the freshwater ecosystem; removal of boulders from the stream bed
reduces the variety/number of different habitats in the ecosystem. (W) (Basic)
 Learners consider species biodiversity within a community.
o Give a definition of community (reference only), e.g. all of the populations of all
of the different species within a specified area at a particular time.
o Explain, using examples, the difference between number of species (count of
how many species exist within a particular community), and relative abundance
of species (count how many members of each species there are - the population
size).
o Expand the discussion to consider species diversity on a global scale. (W)
(Challenging)
 For genetic biodiversity, explain that a genome is the sum total of all the hereditary
information in an organism, and discuss how, although each species can be
identified by a characteristic genome, there will still be variation (link to Unit 7).
o Learners recall from Unit 3, the different nucleotide sequences for HbA (normal)
and HbS (sickle cell) alleles and their definition of a mutation (6.2.b).
o Explain that genetic biodiversity (variation) can be within a population or
between populations. (W) (Basic)
 Learners summarise discussions with their own notes, using examples to help their
explanation. (F)
 Extension: learners consider further examples of how ecosystem biodiversity can be
affected by different factors: trophic levels, food chains/webs and energy flow; the
cycling of nutrients; interactions. (H) (Challenging)
Note
When tackling variation in ecosystems or habitats, reference to some of the issues in
18.3.a and 18.3.h will help for later studies.
18.1.c  Random sampling is best demonstrated by holding up one page from a large Practical booklet 11
explain the importance of random newspaper that contains words of different sized fonts, images and blank areas.
sampling in determining the o Explain that this simulates a field, which has no more than 26 species living Online
biodiversity of an area there, each species represented by a letter of the alphabet. (W) (Basic) http://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/howto
o Learners discuss a method to determine how many different species and how .htm
Key concepts many individuals of each species there are (and only 30 minutes to carry out the http://fua.field-studies-
Organisms in their environment, task). (G) (Challenging) council.org/media/59629/how_to_carr
Observation and experiment o Discuss a suitable strategy, highlighting the importance of: having to sample; y_out_a_random_sample.pdf
taking a number of samples (the sample may be unrepresentative, e.g. a
photograph could represent a bare rock, so no individuals would be found);
choosing the correct size/area of each sample; random sampling (biased
sampling - any measurements can only apply to the sample, not to the whole
area). (W) (Basic)
Note
 Learning objectives 18.1.c to 18.1.f are best understood, and could be carried out, in
the context of fieldwork. Practical booklet 11 may provide suitable protocols and
should be consulted first.
18.1.d  See Note for 18.1.c. Practical booklet 11

use suitable methods, such as frame  Learners use resources to note the difference between distribution and abundance.
quadrats, line transects, belt transects (I) (Basic) Online
and mark-release-recapture, to assess  Discuss different techniques for estimating, e.g. counting numbers of each of the http://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/howto
the distribution and abundance of different species within the quadrat; ‘by eye’ estimation of percentage of quadrat .htm
organisms in a local area covered by each particular plant species; using an abundance scale (e.g. ACFOR). http://fua.field-studies-
o Learners suggest what to do with their data in order to make calculations of council.org/media/59629/how_to_carr
Key concepts estimates of population size. (W) (Basic) y_out_a_random_sample.pdf
Organisms in their environment,  Discuss how quadrats of a known area can be used for random sampling and the http://fua.field-studies-
Observation and experiment importance of: choosing the right size of frame quadrat (e.g. size of organisms, area council.org/teaching-equipment-and-
to cover; reducing edge effects); when to use a quadrat with a grid. (W) (Basic) methods.aspx
 Explain line and belt transects for systematic sampling. http://www.biologymad.com/resources/
o Learners suggest advantages and disadvantages of belt versus line transects. RevisionM5Ch4.pdf
o Explain the difference between interrupted belt transects (quadrats placed at http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/appli
regular intervals) or continuous belt transects (quadrats laid side by side). (W) ed-science/distribution-and-
(Basic) abundance-species
 Learners consider different (theoretical) fieldwork tasks and choose whether frame
quadrats randomly placed, line transects, interrupted belt transects or continuous Textbooks/Publications
belt transects would be most the appropriate, justifying their answers. (H) (F) (Basic) King Chapter 11
(Challenging) Siddiqui, Chapter 7
 Discuss the concept behind the mark-release-recapture technique and situations Bio Factsheet 5: An idiot’s guide to
where mark-release-recapture would be appropriate. Show the formula to use: populations.
number in the first sample x number in second sample Bio Factsheet 68: Fieldwork
number marked in second sample techniques
o Explain the problem if there is a low rate of recapture, e.g. 20 animals caught Bio Factsheet 184: Investigating sand
and marked, 1 marked in 10 captured the second time, estimate of total number dunes.
=200/1 = 200, but 2 marked individuals recaptured makes the estimate only 100.
(W) (Basic)
o Learners practise this using a container of beans or beads. Remove a small
handful to be marked for the first sample, add them back to the container (shake
them up), remove a second sample for the ‘recapture’ (closed eyes) and record
results, obtaining the estimate using the formula. (P) (I) (Basic)
 Learners obtain estimates of population size from several different sets of data using
the mark-release-recapture formula. (I) (Basic)
o Learners extract the required numerical data from paragraphs of prose to
estimate the population size (no formula provided). (F)
 Learners make notes on the mark-release-recapture technique, annotating the
formula to use and explaining some of the assumptions made: marked animals
returned to the population mix randomly; the marking had no effect (e.g. non-toxic,
more visible to predators); the marking remained on individuals; equal chance of
capturing marked and unmarked individuals; no immigration or emigration during the
sampling. (I) (Challenging)
 Learners carry out fieldwork, using each of the methods listed to assess the
distribution and abundance of organisms. (G) (P) (Basic) (Challenging)
18.1.e  See Note for 18.1.c. Practical booklet 11

use Spearman’s rank correlation and  Discuss instances in fieldwork where differences in species abundance or
Pearson’s linear correlation to analyse distribution occurred (or provide examples). Explain that the next step is to find out if Online
the relationships between the these correlate with some factor, either biotic or abiotic (see 18.1.a). http://www.statstutor.ac.uk/topics/corre
distribution and abundance of species o Explain the measure of association between two variables ranges from lation/pearsons-correlation-
and abiotic or biotic factors completely negatively correlated, -1, to completely positively correlated, +1; the coefficient/
closer to these values, the stronger the relationship. http://www.statstutor.ac.uk/topics/corre
Key concepts o Explain that a statistical test cannot confirm a relationship between the two, but lation/spearmans-correlation-
Organisms in their environment, can lends support to it. (W) (Basic) coefficient/
Observation and experiment  Discuss situations when Pearson’s linear coefficient calculation is carried out: when http://www.heckgrammar.co.uk/index.p
there is interval (quantitative) data that shows a linear relationship and a statistical hp?p=10310
assessment of the strength of the correlation is required (e.g. data plotted on a
scattergraph; a ‘by-eye’ judgment of correlation is not always reliable). (W) Textbooks/Publications

(Challenging)
o Learners work through an example, with guidance, starting with a null hypothesis Bio Factsheet 144: Spearman’s rank
statement before using the formula to calculate the Pearson product moment correlation coefficient.
correlation. Learners use a table of critical values to reject or accept the null
hypothesis and make a statistically valid statement about the strength of the
correlation and its significance. (W) (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
 Explain that if one variable increases and the other increases (or decreases) then
Spearman’s rank correlation can be carried out, even if the relationship is non-linear,
and that ordinal data can also be used with this test. (W) (Challenging)
o Work through examples with learners, as with Pearson’s test, and discuss how
to use Spearman’s table. (W) (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
 Learners analyse relationships by practising a number of different examples using
either Spearman’s rank correlation or Pearson’s linear correlation.
o Learners then work with calculated values to analyse the data and make
judgements about the strength of the relationship. (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
 Discuss how correlation does not imply causation, e.g. abundance of a plant species
appears to decrease with increasing altitude. Applying caution with cause and effect
would consider other factors that change with altitude (oxygen concentration,
temperature, soil nutrients etc.). (W) (Basic)
Note
 Learners should work through examples themselves before using other resources
available to them.
 Learners could use spreadsheet software to enter the relevant figures and obtain a
scattergraph and the final calculated value, and then explain what the results are
showing. You could set up spreadsheets of data for learners to access (see learning
resources).
 Practical booklet 11 includes the chi-squared test for association. This is another
use in addition to the ‘goodness of fit’ test (see 16.2.d).
18.1.f  See Note for 18.1.c. Practical booklet 11

use Simpson’s Index of Diversity (D) to  Explain that Simpson’s Index of Diversity gives an overall measure of diversity by
calculate the biodiversity of a habitat, taking into account the number of different species in a sample and the abundance Online
using the formula D = 1–(Σ(n/N)2) and of each species. http://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/simps
state the significance of different o Explain that a high D value represents high biodiversity, indicating a high ons.htm
values of D number of species, evenly spread for abundance. The value of D goes down if http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/appli
there are fewer species, or if, for example, one or a few species are very ed-science/ecology-and-simpsons-
abundant and others are very rare. diversity-index

Key concepts o Discuss how this can be used to compare biodiversity over time in any one area.
Organisms in their environment, (W) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
Observation and experiment  Learners use their fieldwork data (or be given data) to calculate a biodiversity value Bio Factsheet 34: Species diversity
and state its significance. (I) (Challenging)
18.3.a  To check understanding of the terms, learners give examples of specific local Online
discuss the threats to the biodiversity terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. (W) (Basic) http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary
of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems  Discuss the global food and energy demands (from increasing population size, /news/120301_chipmunks
(see 18.1 b) developing nations and increasing industrialisation) that may affect ecosystems (also http://www.wri.org/resources/maps
to a lesser extent, demand for ‘living’ space). (W) (Basic) http://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/fre
Key concepts o Learners consider these factors on a local basis, suggest ways to satisfy these shwater/panafrica/threats
Organisms in their environment, demands and consider the consequential effects of this action on one chosen http://www.biodiv.be/biodiversity/threat
Observation and experiment local terrestrial or aquatic ecosystem. (P) (Challenging) s
o Point out that global effects, such as climate change and global warming can still http://environment.nationalgeographic.
affect at a local level. (W) (Basic) co.uk/environment/
o Learners add their ideas to master sheets headed, ‘demand for food’, ‘demand
for energy’ and ‘demand for living space’ (each sheet divided vertically into Textbooks/Publications
‘terrestrial ecosystems’ and ‘aquatic ecosystems’) and follow up with a class Bio Factsheet 27: Biological effect of
discussion. It is highly likely that their ideas will reflect what is happening deforestation
globally. (W) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 203: Climate change
 Learners produce a general list, using local and global examples to help explain and ecological decoupling
each point. (H) (Challenging) Bio Factsheet 197: Biology of coral
reef ecosystems
Note
 The effect of introducing alien species into an ecosystem is also an important Past Papers
feature, covered in 18.3.f (you may prefer to teach 18.3.f with 18.3.a). Paper 41, June 2011, Q8 (a)(b)
17.3.e  Discuss what is meant by extinction, pointing out that it is a natural process and part Online
explain why organisms become of the theory of evolution by natural selection (see Unit 7). http://www.bbc.co.uk/lastchancetosee/
extinct, with reference to climate o Explain that there is a threshold number below which extinction is inevitable. sites/about/extinction.shtml
change, competition, habitat loss and o Learners suggest why species become extinct (check that those referenced in http://www.iucnredlist.org/
killing by humans 17.3.e are covered). (W) (Basic)
 Learners find examples (relevant to them) of plant and animal species that have Past Papers
Key concepts become extinct or are near extinction for the reasons listed in 17.3.e and produce Paper 43, June 2011, Q1 (a)
Natural selection, poster displays. (G) (P) (Basic)
18.3.b  Learners research the reasons to maintain biodiversity. (H) (Basic) Online
discuss the reasons for the need to o In a follow-up discussion include the following ideas: maintenance of gene pools; http://www.nationalgeographic.com/xp
maintain biodiversity preservation of genetic diversity; applications of the use of gene technology (see editions/lessons/08/g68/preserve.htm
Unit 8); current and new uses of organisms; discovery of new species (may have l
Key concepts use in the future); aesthetic and spiritual benefits; practical value of animals (e.g. http://www.davidsuzuki.org/search/?q=
Organisms in their environment, dolphins helping autistic children); the awe of the vast range of organisms, their biodiversity&x=0&y=0
Observation and experiment attractive or unusual appearances and different methods of survival. (W) (Basic) http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/
 Agree some main categories, e.g. genetic, future uses, current uses, spiritual / biodiversity/biodiversity/
aesthetic, etc. (W) (Basic)
o Learners place each idea on the list in the correct category, with an Textbooks/Publications
accompanying explanation. (I) (Challenging) Bio Factsheet 224: Why we need
biodiversity
Past Papers
Paper 41, June 2012, Q6 (b)(ii)
Paper 43, Nov 2013, Q5 (a)(iii)
18.3.g  Learners suggest what is meant by ‘NGOs’. Discuss the advantages of non- Online
discuss the roles of non-governmental governmental organisations, such as greater cooperation between nations, http://wwf.panda.org/
organisations, such as the World Wide international agreements that can be reached sooner than inter-governmental http://www.cites.org/
Fund for Nature (WWF) and the agreements.
Convention on International Trade in o Introduce WWF and CITES.
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna o Learners are shown or browse CITES Appendices I, II and III. (W) (Basic)
and Flora (CITES), in local and global  Learners check the websites or read summary print-out sheets to become familiar
conservation with a variety of NGOs active in conservation.
o Agree a definition for the term ‘conservation’. (W) (Basic)
Key concepts o Learners write a short account summarising the role of the WWF and CITES and
Organisms in their environment, the benefits of NGOs in general. They could also add details of a local
Observation and experiment conservation group. (H) (Basic)
18.3.c  Introduce the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Discuss what is Online
discuss methods of protecting meant by the term ‘endangered’ (refer learners to work on biodiversity). http://www.iucn.org/knowledge/tools/
endangered species, including the o Discuss (or display the IUCN web page) the criteria used to classify an organism http://www.iucnredlist.org/
roles of zoos, botanic gardens, as endangered. (W) (Basic) https://worldwildlife.org/species/directo
conserved areas (national parks and o Learners write a definition of the term ‘endangered’, researching a named ry?direction=desc&sort=extinction_st
marine parks), ‘frozen zoos’ and seed example and include the species name and the reasons for it being endangered. atus
banks (H) (Basic) http://www.endangeredspecie.com/

o Learners findings are shared in a class presentation. (W) (Basic) http://www.kew.org/index.htm
Key concepts  Learners refer to the species identified in their fieldwork for 18.1.d and use the IUCN http://www.zsl.org/conservation/
Organisms in their environment, Red List to determine their category. (I) (Basic) http://www.petermaas.nl/extinct/index.
Observation and experiment  Discuss what is meant by a frozen zoo and a seed bank. (W) (Basic) html
o Learners research the variety of methods employed to help protect endangered http://www.eoearth.org/topics/view/495
species in one of: zoos, botanic gardens, national parks, marine parks. Include 13/
any advantages or disadvantages of each method. (G) (Basic) (Challenging) http://www.bbsrc.ac.uk/society/schools
o Learners produce a summary sheet of their research to share with the class. (W) /secondary/extinct.aspx
(G) (Challenging) http://www.satavic.org/biodiversity.htm
o Produce one card for each member of the group. On each card write one of the http://www.jic.ac.uk/corporate/about/pu
categories listed (zoo, national park etc.). Give out the cards randomly. Learners blications/substainable.pdf
give a written outline of methods used to protect endangered species. (F) http://www.sandiegozooglobal.org/wha
 Learners research local and national efforts to protect endangered named species. t_we_do_banking_genetic_resources
(H) (Basic) /frozen_zoo/
 With reference to genetic improvement and the maintenance of the gene pool, http://animals.nationalgeographic.co.uk
learners research examples of wild relatives of crop plants, landraces of crop plants /animals/conservation/
and rare breeds of livestock. (H) (Basic)
 A visit to a national park, nature reserve, zoo or botanic garden will enable learners Textbooks/Publications
to see the work that is being done locally or nationally. Bio Factsheet 65: Conservation
Bio Factsheet 208: Captive breeding
Note and the role of zoos
 Point out that the IUCN list does not cover all groups of organisms.
Past Papers
Paper 43, Nov 2011, Q1 (a)(b)
18.3.d  Explain that humans can assist reproduction in endangered mammals and, with Online
discuss methods of assisted learner input, discuss the techniques involved. http://www.cvmbs.colostate.edu/bms/P
reproduction, including IVF, embryo o Learners suggest the considerations when deciding that assisted reproduction DF/640_RM_endangsld.pdf
transfer and surrogacy, used in the should be used, such as: research to decide on appropriate method (not always http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
conservation of endangered mammals easy to study reproduction in rare mammals); modify technique to be specific to et/BiologyPages/S/Sexual_Reproduct
the mammal; evaluating success. (W) (Basic) ion.html#ART
Key concepts  Learners make notes, using resources, outlining the main stages and the main http://www.eplantscience.com/index/bi
Organisms in their environment, principles involved. (I) (Challenging) otechnology/animal_biotechnology/m
Observation and experiment o Learners apply the principles to examples they have been given or have anipulation_of_reproduction_and_tra
researched. (H) (Basic) nsgenic_animals/biotech_in_vitro_fert
ilization_technology.php
 Learners could be asked to sort statements, some irrelevant to be discarded, to end http://nationalzoo.si.edu/SCBI/reprodu
up with a set of notes that could be used as a summary of assisted reproduction. (I) ctivescience/consendangeredcats/
(Basic)
Note Bio Factsheet 105: Manipulation and
 Learners may have included ideas from this in their research for 18.3.c. control of reproduction.
 Although this learning objective is about endangered mammals, not about assisted Some parts of this are relevant.
reproduction for humans, the techniques are similar and learners may gain useful
information by researching them. Past Papers
18.3.e  Ensure learners know what is meant by the two terms, and then explain that there Online
discuss the use of culling and are frequently debates about the issue, including deciding when a population is http://www.tams.act.gov.au/parks-
contraceptive methods to prevent considered to be ‘over-populated’. (W) (Basic) recreation/plants_and_animals/urban
overpopulation of protected and non-  Learners research examples meaningful to them, including the different reasons _wildlife/local_wildlife/kangaroos/kan
protected species given to either culling or use of contraceptive methods, and explaining why one garoo_population_control_methods
method was favoured. (I) (Basic) http://www.egzac.org/whyusecontrace
Key concepts  Provide new examples: learners write a short article weighing up the advantages ption.aspx
Organisms in their environment, and disadvantages of culling versus contraceptive methods. (F) http://www.ceru.up.ac.za/elephant/faqs
Observation and experiment  Organise a mini debate. (W) (H) (Basic) (Challenging) .php
Note Textbooks/Publications
 Stress that learners will need to develop the ability to apply principles to new Bio Factsheet 65: Conservation.
situations
18.3.f  Discuss how, in many ecosystems throughout the world, the introduction of alien Online
use examples to explain the reasons species has had harmful economic or ecological effects (termed ‘alien-invasive’ http://www.birdlife.org/worldwide/progr
for controlling alien species species). Balance this with a discussion of how some alien species have been of ammes/invasive-alien-species
benefit. (W) (Basic) http://eol.org/info/460
Key concepts  Learners research examples of alien species (local, national and global) that are http://www.galapagos.org/conservation
Organisms in their environment, now considered unwelcome, and for each explain the reasons for controlling them. /invasive-species/
Observation and experiment (H) (Basic)
Past papers
Note Paper 41, June 2011, Q8 (a)(b)
 This may have been discussed with 18.3.a.
 Some agencies give ‘alien’ and ‘exotic’ slightly different meanings, others use them
interchangeably. Also seen are ‘non-indigenous’, ‘non-native’ and ‘introduced’.
18.3.h  Discuss the concept of restoration ecology and the need for scientific planning and Online
outline how degraded habitats may be understanding when restoring degraded habitats or ecosystems. (W) (Basic) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restoration
restored with reference to local or  Learners research one example and present their findings to the group. (W) (I) _ecology
regional examples (Challenging). Points to consider: http://www.ser.org/
o A description of the habitat before degradation. http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowle
Key concepts o Reasons for the degradation and what may happen if degradation continues. dge/library/restoration-ecology-
Organisms in their environment, o What could be / is being carried, with overall aims, e.g. re-establishing what was, 13339059
Observation and experiment improving by addition of species or physical factors, modifying to create a new
habitat.
o The benefits to the community of restoration.
Unit 7: Genetics, population genetics and evolutionary processes

Learners should have a good knowledge and understanding of the mitotic cell cycle from Unit 3. They should be able to describe the structure of DNA and the events
occurring in DNA replication, in transcription and in translation from Unit 3, including an understanding of the genetic code. Learners should have a good understanding
of what is meant by a gene, an allele and a gene mutation. An appreciation of the diversity of life, from Unit 6, will stimulate interest in how diversity has come about.
Context
This unit builds on AS Level work, especially Unit 3, DNA and the mitotic cell cycle. It leads on from Unit 6, The diversity of life, so that learners are provided with an
explanation of how the mechanisms of natural selection and isolation can lead to the formation of new species. This unit strongly incorporates the key concepts of cells
as the basic units of life, biochemical processes, DNA, the molecule of heredity and observation and experiment. Knowledge and understanding gained in this unit will
be particularly useful for Unit 8, Molecular biology and gene technology.
Outline
The unit begins with an introduction to ideas and terms that will be needed. The mechanism and significance of meiosis is dealt with, showing how genetic information
passes from parent to offspring. A link is made to gamete formation in animals and plants. Genetic crosses are practised and the chi-squared test is used. The nature of
genes and alleles and their role in determining the phenotype is discussed, including human conditions that result from gene mutations. Once an understanding of basic
genetics is gained, the unit leads to a consideration how the passage of information from parent to offspring is translated to population genetics. Variation, and its
importance for the mechanism of natural selection, is studied before considering the role of natural selection in evolution and speciation. Natural selection is a key
concept in biology, with mutation acting as the raw material for evolution. The unit considers how selection pressures allow successful individuals to survive to pass on
genes to the next generation and how changes in the genetic make-up of the population, coinciding with isolation, can lead to speciation. The key concept of
observation and experiment is exemplified by studying the improvement of the milk yield of dairy cattle and the improvement of crop plants by humans. Humans can
apply the principles of natural selection to artificial selection and speed up the process of biological change.
Teaching time
16.1.a  Introduce the topic explaining that a fertilised egg cell will have a set of Online
explain what is meant by homologous chromosomes from the mother and a set from the father, to give pairs of http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
pairs of chromosomes chromosomes in cells. (W) (Basic) 423/n6942/fig_tab/423810a_F1.html
 Discuss the features of homologous chromosomes. (W) (Basic)
Key concepts o Learners list the similarities and differences between a pair of homologous
DNA, the molecule of heredity chromosomes and note the differences between the X and Y chromosomes. (I)
(Basic)
Note
 Avoid using 46 chromosomes and 23 pairs of chromosomes in explanations (also for
16.1.b): a common error is stating these when answering questions about other
organisms.
 The term bivalent is the same as one pair of homologous chromosomes.
16.1.b  From 16.1.a, explain that cells with one set of chromosomes are termed haploid (n), Online
explain the meanings of the terms and a particular species has a specific haploid number. Extend this to explain the http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/V
haploid and diploid and the need for a term diploid (2n). (W) (Basic) L/GG/ecb/haploid-
reduction division (meiosis) prior to o Discuss why a diploid organism needs a reduction division (meiosis) to produce diploid_sexual_reproduction.php
fertilisation in sexual reproduction haploid cells. Use phrases such as ‘restore the diploid number on fertilisation’,
‘to avoid doubling the number of chromosomes’. (W) (I) (Basic)
Key concepts  Extension: learners outline the differences between asexual and sexual reproduction
Cells as the units of life, and between asexual reproduction in eukaryotes and asexual reproduction in
DNA, the molecule of heredity prokaryotes (background information - refer to binary fission). (H) (Challenging)
Note
 Do not go into details of meiosis for this learning objective.
 Mention that some organisms only have one set of chromosomes, while others have
one set for some part of their life cycle
16.2.a (i) Only part of this learning objective is included here: explain the terms gene, locus, Online
explain the terms gene, locus, allele, allele, dominant, recessive, phenotype, genotype, homozygous and heterozygous http://www.biology.arizona.edu/vocabul
dominant, recessive, codominant,  Learners recall previous studies: ary/mendelian_genetics/mendelian_g
linkage, test cross, F1 and F2, gene 6.2.a definition enetics.html
phenotype, genotype, homozygous allele 6.2.b concept of new alleles forming by mutation http://www.genome.gov/glossary/index
and heterozygous 6.2.c HbA and HbS alleles. .cfm?id=8
 Use pipe cleaner or string models, with sticky labels for alleles, to help explain gene,
Key concepts allele, locus, dominant, recessive, heterozygous, homozygous, genotype, then Textbooks/Publications
Biochemical processes, discuss the meaning of phenotype. (W) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 156: Dominant and
DNA, the molecule of heredity  Learners write definitions for the terms and draw diagrams of homologous Recessive Alleles.
chromosomes to annotate locus and allele and, using examples, draw homologous Bio Factsheet 45: Gene expression
chromosomes with different genotypes (homozygous alleles and heterozygous
alleles; dominant and recessive), indicating the phenotype. (I) (Challenging) Past Papers
 Learners match a set of cards with terms to a second set with definitions. (F) Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q9 (a)
Note
 It is useful to introduce the term early so learners can correlate the behaviour of
chromosomes in meiosis and the formation of gametes with allele behaviour (and
enhance understanding of genetic crosses).
16.1.c  State that meiosis involves two divisions to produce four cells. Explain what is meant Online
outline the role of meiosis in by the term ‘gamete’. Highlight the role of meiosis in terms of a reduction division http://highered.mcgraw-
gametogenesis in humans and in the and the production of genetically different cells. (W) (Basic) hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_vi
formation of pollen grains and embryo  Using resources, learners write out a definition and give an outline of ew0/chapter28/animation__unique_fe
sacs in flowering plants gametogenesis, naming the ovary and testis as the organs involved and including atures_of_meiosis.html
the role of meiosis. (I) (Challenging) http://wps.prenhall.com/esm_freeman_
Key concepts  Learners draw a fully labelled human life cycle. (I) (Basic) biosci_1/0,6452,501052-,00.html
Cells as the units of life  Using resources and teacher input, learners produce annotated diagrams to outline http://highered.mcgraw-
the formation of pollen grains and embryo sacs. hill.com/sites/0072495855/learner_vi
o Diploid pollen mother cells in pollen sacs (in the anther) divide by meiosis to ew0/chapter28/animation__spermato
form 4 haploid microspores. These mature to become pollen grains (details of genesis__quiz_1_.html
mitosis not required.
o In the ovule the megaspore mother cell divides by meiosis to form 4 haploid Textbooks/Publications
megaspores: one survives to divide by mitosis to produce an eight-nucleate Bio Factsheet 168: Gamete Formation
embryo sac. (I) (Challenging) in Animals
 Learners compare the main similarities and differences between gametogenesis in
humans with pollen grain and embryo sac formation in plants.
o Include a flow chart diagram to highlight the stages where meiosis and mitosis
occur. (H) (Challenging)
Note
 Details of ovary and testis histology are not required.
 Learners should be familiar with the terms oogenesis and spermatogenesis.
16.1.d  With a short written test (prepared by you, with mark scheme), assess learner recall Online
describe, with the aid of of mitosis. (F) http://www.biologymad.com/CellDivisio
photomicrographs and diagrams, the  Show learners diagrams or photographs of an ordered haploid chromosome set n/CellDivision.htm
behaviour of chromosomes in plant (karyotype), e.g. human sperm and egg to review knowledge of homologous www.biology.arizona.edu/cell_bio/tutori
and animal cells during meiosis, and chromosomes, haploid, diploid, sex chromosomes. (W) (Basic) als/meiosis/page3.html
the associated behaviour of the  Learners model meiosis with teacher guidance. Use pipe cleaners (or string or wool) http://www.biologyinmotion.com/cell_di
nuclear envelope, cell surface to demonstrate the behaviour of 4 chromosomes. Explain the use of e.g. one vision/index.html
membrane and the spindle (names of homologous pair (i.e. maternal and paternal) = 2 (sister chromatids) light blue and 2 http://www.sumanasinc.com/webconte
the main stages are expected, but not dark blue pipe cleaners; the second homologous pair use a different colour, light and nt/animations/content/meiosis.html
the sub-divisions of prophase) dark. http://www.cellsalive.com/meiosis.htm
o Learners model late interphase (DNA replication means 1 pipe cleaner becomes
Key concepts 2 identical) before moving onto the stages of meiosis. Learners suggest ‘what Textbooks/Publications
Cells as the units of life, happens next’ and explain why each stage occurs. Bio Factsheet 50: Sources of genetic
DNA, the molecule of heredity o At the appropriate points explain the concepts of chiasmata formation, crossing variation.
over and independent assortment. (P) (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
o Learners model meiosis (no help, noting the comparisons with mitosis (correct Past Papers
spellings). (P) (I) (Challenging) Paper 43, June 2011, Q7 (a)
 Learners study prepared slides, photomicrographs and diagrams. (I) (Basic)
 Learners draw a series of annotated diagrams, or annotate prepared diagrams. (I)
(Basic)
 Learners construct a table of differences between mitosis and meiosis or sort a set
of statements into comparative statements, into two columns. (I) (Basic)
(Challenging)
16.1.e  Learners recall their understanding of a gene and an allele. Emphasise the Online
explain how crossing over and random importance of using the terms in the correct context. (W) (Basic) http://www.biologymad.com/CellDivisio
assortment of homologous  Use the pipe cleaner models of a homologous pair (label ‘A’ on each chromatid of n/CellDivision.htm
chromosomes during meiosis and one homologue and label ‘a’ on each chromatid of the other) to explain how www.biology.arizona.edu/cell_bio/tutori
random fusion of gametes at reduction division separates the two alleles of a gene. als/meiosis/page3.html
fertilisation lead to genetic variation o Mention how this creates variation when gametes fuse randomly at fertilisation. http://www.biologyinmotion.com/cell_di
including the expression of rare, o Discuss how this allows rare recessive alleles to come together. (W) (Basic) vision/index.html
recessive alleles  Choose two different organisms, e.g. fruit fly (n=4) and humans. Using 2n, learners http://www.sumanasinc.com/webconte
work out how many different types of gamete could be formed with two homologous nt/animations/content/meiosis.html
Key concepts pairs assorting randomly and independently at metaphase I of meiosis. (I) http://www.cellsalive.com/meiosis.htm
Cells as the units of life, (Challenging) http://www.biozone.co.uk/biolinks/GEN
DNA, the molecule of heredity  Make a pipe cleaner / string model for a second homologous pair using ‘B’s and ‘b’s. ETICS.html#Inheritance
Learners show how random assortment in one cell can produce AB and ab gametes, http://www.contexo.info/DNA_Basics/M
and in another Ab and aB gametes. eiosis.htm
o Using this example, learners explain how random fusion contributes to variation. http://www.sumanasinc.com/webconte
o Learners draw annotated diagrams to illustrate the concepts. (W) (Challenging) nt/animations/content/independentas
 Add labels (‘alleles’) ‘D’ to the homologue with ‘A’ genes, and ‘d’ to the homologue sortment.html
with ‘a’ genes. Explain that if the genes are on the same chromosome, they are said
to be linked. Past Papers
o Demonstrate crossing over to show how this can lead to even more variation in Paper 43, June 2011, Q7 (b)
the gametes (AD, ad = parental: Ad, aD = recombinant).
o Explain that the longer the chromosome pair, the greater the number of possible
crossovers.
o Learners draw annotated diagrams to illustrate the concept. (W) (Challenging)
 Learners give written and diagrammatic descriptions of random assortment, crossing
over and random fusion, explaining how each of these leads to genetic variation. (F)
Note
 Explain that homologous pairs assort randomly at metaphase I and this means they
are assorting independently of other homologous pairs.
16.2.a (ii) Only part of this learning objective is included here: explain the terms codominant, Online
explain the terms gene, locus, allele, linkage, test cross, F1 and F2 http://www.biology.arizona.edu/vocabul
dominant, recessive, codominant,  Using the pipe cleaner / string models, discuss the meaning of the term codominant. ary/mendelian_genetics/mendelian_g
linkage, test cross, F1 and F2, (W) (Basic) enetics.html
phenotype, genotype, homozygous  Remind learners of a simple monohybrid cross from previous studies and using the http://www.genome.gov/glossary/index
and heterozygous terms already discussed show what is meant by F1 and F2. Briefly explain a test .cfm?id=8
cross for learners to define. (W) (I) (Basic)
Key concepts  Learners match a set of cards with terms from 16.2.a to a second set with all the Textbooks/Publications
Biochemical processes, definitions. (F) Bio Factsheet 156: Dominant and
DNA, the molecule of heredity Recessive Alleles.
Note Bio Factsheet 45: Gene expression
 These definitions are best understood when tackling 16.2.b.
 A full explanation of test cross should be reserved for later.
16.2.b  Using resources, learners write out what is meant by a monohybrid cross and a Online
use genetic diagrams to solve dihybrid cross, and explain what is meant by true (or pure) breeding, multiple alleles, http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/i
problems involving monohybrid and pedigree diagrams, autosomal chromosome and sex chromosome. (I) (Basic) nheritance/
dihybrid crosses, including those  Monohybrid cross: using a visual (photographs/drawings) simple example (e.g. http://www.dnaftb.org
involving autosomal linkage, sex purple and white flowers in pea plants), demonstrate how to set out a genetic http://www.biology.arizona.edu/mendel
linkage, codominance, multiple alleles diagram (circles should be drawn around the gametes). ian_genetics/mendelian_genetics.htm
and gene interactions (the term o Learners explain why they can be certain of the genotype if a pea plant has l
epistasis does not need to be used; white flowers. http://faculty.baruch.cuny.edu/jwahlert/
knowledge of the expected ratio for o Explain test crosses. (W) (Basic) bio1003/genetics.html
various types of epistasis is not o Learners work though one problem themselves and peer-check the quality of the http://www.utilitypoultry.co.uk/sexlinkag
required. The focus is on problem genetic diagrams. (I) (Basic) e.shtml
solving)  Learners construct genetic diagrams, working through monohybrid cross problems, http://udel.edu/~mcdonald/mythintro.ht
including pedigree diagrams. Learners also performing test crosses. (P) (I) (F) ml
Key concepts (Basic) (Challenging) http://www.pc.maricopa.edu/Biology/rc
DNA, the molecule of heredity,  Codominance: describe an example of codominance and the convention to otter/BIO%20181/Lab/181Labpdf/10
Organisms in their environment, represent this (alleles as superscripts). Many examples involve a ‘colour’ gene: MendelianGenetics.pdf
Observation and experiment ensure learners know that C is for colour, not codominance. http://www.mendel-
o Go through the different ratios obtained and ask learners to explain why no test museum.com/eng/1online/experiment
cross is required. (W) (Basic) .htm
o Learners work through some codominance problems (monohybrid crosses). (I) http://www.sumanasinc.com/webconte
(Basic) (Challenging) nt/animations/content/mendel/mendel
 Multiple alleles: as an example, discuss the inheritance of human blood groups .html
(ABO system) to illustrate multiple alleles, dominance, recessiveness and http://www.learnerstv.com/animation/a
codominance before learners work through problems. (W) (I) (Challenging) (Basic) nimation.php?ani=2&cat=Biology
 Sex linkage: describe the largely non-homologous X and Y chromosomes to explain
why the male genotype has only one allele for genes located on sex chromosomes. Textbooks/Publications
o Using an example of a sex-linked trait, e.g. eye colour in Drosophila, explain how Bio Factsheet 23: Genetics made
to annotate the allele symbol as a superscript by the X (Y- shows that the allele simple: I
is absent in the Y chromosome). (W) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 97: A guide to sex
o Learners write down the possible genotypes for this trait, then tackle a linkage
monohybrid cross problem, covering the reciprocal cross. (I) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 93: The ABO Blood
o Emphasise that not all problems indicating numbers of individuals of each sex, Group System
or stating ‘female crossed with male’ will be sex-linked inheritance. (W) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 183: Variations from
o Learners state and explain the pattern of inheritance associated with sex-linkage expected Mendelian Monohybrid
and then practise questions. (I) (Challenging) Ratios.
 Learners model using pipe cleaners / string, or draw diagrams, to show how a Bio Factsheet 115: Answering
written genetic cross correlates to events occurring at meiosis and fertilisation. (P) (I) Examination Questions: Genetics
(Challenging) Past Papers

 Dihybrid cross: explain that these involve two genes located on non-homologous Paper 43, June 2011, Q9 (b)
chromosomes (unlinked / separate linkage groups). Work through a dihybrid cross, Paper 41, June 2012, Q7
e.g. Mendel’s pea plants, showing how to write out genotypes e.g. AaBb and not
ABab. (W) (Basic)
o Learners work out the possible gametes from crossing the double
heterozygotes. Guide learners how to construct a Punnett square and complete
it correctly before they work out the phenotypic ratio (explain that 9:3:3:1 still fits
the 3:1 monohybrid crosses ratio: each gene shows a 12:4 ratio). Learners work
through a test cross. (W) (I) (Challenging)
 Linkage: remind learners of the concept of linkage and of crossing over (16.1.e)):
two linked genes involve only one homologous chromosome pair. Using a model or
diagrams, explain how linked genes could result in both parental and recombinant
types in the gametes and offspring, but not in the standard Mendelian ratios.
o Discuss why genes close together will produce few, if any, recombinant types
(the further apart the greater proportion of recombinant to parental types). (W)
(Challenging)
 Learners tackle a range of differentiated questions involving two genes. (I) (F)
Note
 The terms backcross and incomplete dominance are no longer used.
 There are two approaches: (i) cover the theory of the learning objective, then
learners work on genetics problems or (ii) have a set of problems prepared for each
type of cross and learners practise these as they are taught.
 Some human genetic traits used as examples in schools are now known to be more
complex than at first thought, Learners should be discouraged from analysing
patterns of inheritance in their family.
16.2.c  This learning objective is covered in 16.2.b. Online

use genetic diagrams to solve  Consolidate by agreeing that a test cross should be performed to find out the http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/i
problems involving test crosses genotype of an organism that is known to have a dominant trait but could be nheritance/
homozygous dominant or heterozygous. (W) (Basic) http://www.dnaftb.org
Key concepts http://www.mendel-
DNA, the molecule of heredity, Note museum.com/eng/1online/experiment
Observation and experiment Learners should appreciate the advantage of carrying out test crosses in terms of the .htm
ratios between the phenotypic classes when compared to a cross involving two
heterozygotes.
16.2.d  Revise different ratios obtained with the different types of genetic cross, Online
use the chi-squared test to test the emphasising that these are theoretical (based on probability) ratios. http://www.blc.arizona.edu/courses/mc
significance of differences between o Learners mentally calculate expected numbers from totals e.g. with 40 offspring, b422/MendelStarFolder/merChiSquar
observed and expected results (the how many of each if expecting a 3:1 ratio? (W) (Basic) e.html
formula for the chi-squared test will be  Approach the concept using observed results: learners suggest and justify the type
provided) (see Mathematical of genetic cross when given actual genotype numbers, e.g. codominance, for a ratio Textbooks/Publications
requirements) of 32 red, 26 pink, 10 white flowers (ratio approximating 1:2:1). (W) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 79: The chi-squared test
o Learners debate a result of: 15 red, 20 pink, 13 white. Agree that a statistical test for goodness of fit.
Key concepts is needed to compare the observed ratio to the expected: near enough for
Observation and experiment differences to be due to chance effects or so different that other factors should Past papers
be considered. (W) (Challenging) Paper 43, Nov 2013, Q1
 Practical booklet 11. Work through, with guidance (if not covered in 18.1.e, in the Paper 51, Nov 2011, Q2
context of field study), examples of the use of the chi-squared test. (I) (Basic) Paper 53, Nov 2011, Q2
 Learners use a calculated chi-squared value to:
o State the critical value at a stated probability level.
o State where the chi-squared value fits in the range of probabilities.
o Make a conclusion, referring to a null hypothesis and significance level. (I)
 Learners use results from a genetic cross (increasing difficulty)to:
o Practise the calculations involved in the chi-squared test
o Interpret the results to write a valid conclusion about the nature of the genetic
cross. (I) (Basic) (Challenging)
Note
 See also the syllabus section, Mathematical requirements.
 Learners should be able to:
o Identify the situations where the use of the test is applicable
o Use the table of critical values and state the probability of obtaining their results
by chance.
 Learners should consider :
o The use of stating the actual probability value (p), which they can calculate using
software
o The probabilities of 0.05 and 0.01 (often used to report results).
17.1.a  Explain that biological variation describes the variation within a population (members Online
describe the differences between of the same species). http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowle
continuous and discontinuous variation o Learners suggest examples of variation that is: inherited / genetic; not inherited / dge/library/mutations-are-the-raw-
and explain the genetic basis of environmental; likely to be due to both genetic and environmental sources. materials-of-evolution-17395346
continuous (many, additive genes o Explain the equation Vp = Vg +Ve, (no need to learn) and use an example (e.g. http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpa
control a characteristic) and blood groups) to show Ve = 0 when a trait is due only to genetic effects. ge/genomics-enables-scientists-to-
discontinuous variation (one or few o Discuss the use of monozygotic twins, (Vg = 0), to study the effects of the study-genetic-variability-6526364
genes control a characteristic) environment on variation. (W) (Basic) http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebite
(examples from 16.2.f) may be used to  Learners produce a list of causes of genetic variation for sexually reproducing size/science/edexcel_pre_2011/gene
illustrate discontinuous variation; organisms and for asexually reproducing organisms (i.e. only mutation), as well as s/genesrev1.shtml
height and mass may be used as causes of environmental variation (disease, edaphic factors, climate, water
examples of continuous variation) availability, etc.). (I) (Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
 Using resources, learners define discontinuous variation (include a bar chart) and Bio Factsheet 50: Sources of genetic
Key concepts continuous variation (include a histogram), and give examples. (I) (Basic) variation
DNA, the molecule of heredity, o Learners consider a trait that has a genetic basis and describe what is likely to
Natural selection, be occurring to if the variation is (i) discontinuous (one/two genes), and (ii)
Organisms in their environment continuous (polygenic, environmental effects may also contribute). (I)
(Challenging)
17.1.c  Explain the situations where the t-test would be applicable and work through an Practical booklet 10
use the t-test to compare the variation example. (W) (Basic)
of two different populations (see  Learners work through a number of examples, stating a null hypothesis and using a Online
Mathematical requirements) table of critical values to state the probability of obtaining the result. (W) (I) (Basic) http://www.theseashore.org.uk/theseas
(Challenging) hore/Stats%20for%20twits/T%20Test
Key concepts  Learners choose from a list of outlines of investigations those for which the t-test .html
Observation and experiment could be used. (F) http://archive.bio.ed.ac.uk/jdeacon/stati
stics/tress4a.html
Note
 There is information about this test in the syllabus (Mathematical requirements Textbooks/Publications
section). Bio Factsheet 3: Which stats test
 Practical booklet 10 gives learners the opportunity to use the t-test on data that should I use?
they have collected themselves
Past papers
17.1.b  Learners recall the difference between genotype and phenotype and describe the Online
explain, with examples, how the flow of information from DNA to the phenotype. (W) (Basic) http://www.flowersbulbs.com/ql_hydran
environment may affect the phenotype  Explain that the term ‘environment’ encompasses everything that is not considered gea_color.htm
of plants and animals genetic. (W) (Basic) http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpa
 Learners research examples that they are given and provide explanations for the ge/environmental-influences-on-
Key concepts observations. (I) (Basic) (Challenging) gene-expression-536

DNA, the molecule of heredity,  Learners research further examples and report back to the class. (H) (Basic) http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpa
Organisms in their environment ge/phenotypic-range-of-gene-
expression-environmental-influence-
581
http://www.nature.com/scitable/content
/gene-environment-interactions-from-
epidemiological-studies-33011
http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn
1520-iq-is-inherited-suggests-twin-
study.html
http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpa
ge/the-collective-set-of-alleles-in-a-
6385985
16.2.e  Use questioning to gauge knowledge of DNA structure, the definition of a gene Online
explain that gene mutation occurs by mutation, protein synthesis and protein structure. (W) (Basic) http://www.dnaftb.org/dnaftb/27/conce
substitution, deletion and insertion of  Outline the changes that occur to give base substitution, deletion and insertion pt/index.html
base pairs in DNA and outline how mutations. Point out how frameshift mutations arise. Learners can produce summary http://www.who.int/genomics/public/ge
such mutations may affect the notes. (W) (Basic) neticdiseases/en/index2.html
phenotype o Learners research and give an account of how a base substitution in the Hb A http://chroma.gs.washington.edu/outre
allele to produce the Hb S allele leads to the altered amino acid in sickle cell ach/genetics/sickle/
Key concepts anaemia. (W) (Challenging) http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
Biochemical processes, o Learners work out the new amino acid sequences for examples of insertion and et/BiologyPages/M/Mutations.html
DNA, the molecule of heredity, deletion mutations and suggest how this could affect the protein synthesised
Natural selection (include examples leading to premature stop codons). (I) (Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
 Discuss how it is possible that some changes in DNA nucleotide sequences have no Bio Factsheet 94: Gene Mutations
(e.g. same amino acid specified), or little (e.g. non-structural amino acid replaced) Bio Factsheet 179: Answering Exam
consequential effects while others have profound effects. (W) (Challenging) Questions: Mutation
 Extension: learners research examples of gene mutations resulting in cystic fibrosis
(differing severities). (W) (Challenging) Past Papers
Note
 Focus on gene mutation, but alert learners to the existence of chromosomal
mutations (sections of chromosomes/many genes and chromosome number).
16.2.f  Learners construct a flow chart to show how a gene mutation can lead to symptoms Online
outline the effects of mutant alleles on of sickle cell anaemia. (I) (Challenging) http://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-
the phenotype in the following human  Learners research one other condition from the list then work with others (that have level/biology/evolution/revise-
conditions: albinism, sickle cell covered the same condition) to produce an information sheet to present to the class it/evolution-in-action
anaemia, haemophilia and to use as notes. (W) (G) (H) (Basic) (Challenging) Notes on sickle cell anaemia.
Huntington’s disease
Key concepts Bio Factsheet 110: Genetic Disease in
DNA, the molecule of heredity, Humans.
16.2.g  Provide information about the role of tyrosinase. Learners produce an annotated Online
explain the relationship between flow diagram to illustrate the relationship between the gene, the enzyme and the http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/TYR
genes, enzymes and phenotype with phenotype. (I) (Challenging)
respect to the gene for tyrosinase that
is involved with the production of
melanin
Key concepts
17.1.d  Discuss how named examples of animals, plants and bacteria with different Online
explain why genetic variation is genotypes and hence phenotypes (e.g. bacteria and antibiotic resistance) may differ http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/v
important in selection in their chances of survival or in their reproductive capacity. (W) (Basic) ariation/sources/
 Learners suggest why ‘more likely to survive to reproduce’ is more important for the http://darwiniana.org/evolution.htm
Key concepts species than ‘more likely to survive’ (idea of passing on genetic information. (W) http://www.eoearth.org/article/Genetic_
Natural selection (Basic) variation
 Learners debate the advantages and disadvantages of asexual and sexual http://www.wellcometreeoflife.org/
reproduction. (G) (Basic)
Past Papers
Note Paper 43, Nov 2013, Q2 (c)
Learners should have an outline of selection – covered in detail later.
17.2.a  Introduce the idea that organisms have high reproductive potential and given ideal Online
explain that natural selection occurs as conditions, exponential or explosive population growth occurs (starting with a few http://www.bbsrc.ac.uk/web/FILES/Exh
populations have the capacity to individuals). ibitions/pod1-factsheet.pdf
produce many offspring that compete o Describe examples of ideal conditions and for each ask learners to suggest http://www.biologycorner.com/workshe
for resources; in the ‘struggle for phenotypes (and hence genotypes) that are more likely to survive (introduce the ets/peppermoth_paper.html
existence’ only the individuals that are term differential survival) if ideal conditions are not maintained. http://www.accessexcellence.org/AE/A
best adapted survive to breed and o Remind learners of variation within a population and explain that some EPC/WWC/1995/camouflage.html
pass on their alleles to the next organisms are better adapted to survive when selection pressures act to control http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
generation population size (most populations oscillate about a mean size). et/BiologyPages/P/Populations2.html
o Explain that individuals that are better adapted to survive are said to be fitter http://www.eoearth.org/article/Populati
Key concepts than those who do not have the adaptations. (W) (Basic) on_ecology
Natural selection  Learners list examples of selection pressures and describe phenotypes that are http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/libr
selected for and those selected against. (I) (Basic) ary/01/2/l_012_02.html
 Learners summarise discussions with bullet-point notes and complete the idea of www.biologyinmotion.com/evol/
natural selection with the following points: http://anthro.palomar.edu/synthetic/syn
o Individuals selected for pass on their alleles to their offspring when they th_4.htm
reproduce (differential reproduction)
o The frequency of the allele in the population increases. (I) (Challenging) Past Papers
 Explain that a gene pool describes the sum of all alleles for all the genes in a Paper 43, June 2011, Q8
population. (W) (Basic)
 Explain that most mutations are not beneficial. Learners complete a worksheet
(prepared by you) describing and explaining changes to allele frequencies / the gene
pool following mutation: (a) if the mutation is not beneficial and is a (i) dominant
allele and (ii) recessive allele; (b) if environmental factors change and the mutation
becomes beneficial. (F)
 Learners research examples of natural selection and produce a summary table:
example, different phenotypes involved, selection pressure(s) involved, adaptation
possessed, and additional notes.
o Suggestions: warfarin resistance in rats; melanism in peppered moths;
cyanogenic clover; antibiotic resistance in bacteria; resistance in insects to
insecticides. (H) (Challenging)
 Learners choose one example from the summary table and write a sequential
account to explain how allele frequencies within a population can change. (F)
Note
 Avoid using the phrase ‘survival of the fittest’ (different phenotypes can be equally
fit).
 Background: take some time to discuss the work of Charles Darwin and Alfred
Russel Wallace.
 An understanding of abiotic and biotic limiting factors and of density-dependent and
density-independent factors will be beneficial.
17.2.b  Explain that in most cases the environment remains relatively stable and so the Online
explain, with examples, how same phenotype has a selective advantage in each generation. http://www.eoearth.org/article/Evolutio
environmental factors can act as  Discuss how the environment acts as a stabilising force of natural selection, so that n?topic=49508
stabilising, disruptive and directional selection pressures act to remove the extremes of the phenotype (e.g. birth weight in http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/ridl
forces of natural selection human babies). ey/a-z/Stabilizing_selection.asp
 Discuss the other two modes of selection: directional, where allele frequencies http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
Key concepts change in one direction (e.g. drug resistance in bacteria) and disruptive, where the 313/n5997/abs/313047a0.html
Natural selection, extremes of the phenotype are favoured (e.g. size of male Pacific salmon). (W)
Organisms in their environment (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
 Learners draw annotated graphs for each of stabilising, directional and disruptive Bio Factsheet 44: Evolution.
selection to show the frequency of phenotypes ‘before’, ‘during’ and ‘after’ a period Also useful for 17.3c).
of time when selection occurred. (I) (Basic)
 Learners research and describe one further example for each of the three types. (H) Past Papers
(Challenging) Paper 42, June 2012, Q1 (a)
Paper 42, June 2013, Q8 (b)
17.2.c  Learners should consider how natural selection can affect the level of genetic Online
explain how selection, the founder variation for any one heritable trait. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/libr
effect and genetic drift may affect allele o Use an example (e.g. melanism in Biston betularia) to discuss how a different ary/06/3/l_063_03.html
frequencies in populations set of selection pressures in a different environment affects allele frequencies http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowle
and leads to different outcomes for the population. (W) (Basic) dge/library/natural-selection-genetic-
Key concepts  Learners research the link between sickle cell anaemia and malaria to describe and drift-and-gene-flow-15186648
Natural selection explain the differences in allele frequencies between areas free of malaria and areas http://biology4.wustl.edu/cloverproject/
where malaria is endemic. (H) (Challenging) Assets/White%20Clover%20Backgro
 Learners use beads to model the effect on allele frequency in a population by und%20for%20Teachers.pdf
differential survival of two different genotypes for one gene. http://evolution-
o Place a large (known) number of beads of two different colours (alleles) in a textbook.org/content/free/notes/ch18
container (the population). Decide on a percentage survival rate for the _WN18Dc.html
homozygous recessive genotype, e.g. 60%. http://sickle.bwh.harvard.edu/malaria_s
o Pick out pairs of beads at random, discarding four out of every ten pairs of ickle.html
recessive beads. When all beads have been used, only replace the ones which http://wps.prenhall.com/esm_freeman_
'survived' (not discarded) and repeat for the next generation. evol_3/0,8018,849374-,00.html
o Record numbers of each genotype in each generation and construct graphs to http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary
show the effect of selection over time. (G) (Challenging) /home.php
 Introduce Darwin’s finches and outline the main points of the founder effect for
learners to summarise. (W) (I) (Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
 Explain that genetic drift involves chance effects, known as sampling errors, where Bio Factsheet 191: What have we
the allele frequencies of a small founding (ancestor) group are unlikely to be learned from Darwin’s finches?
representative of the larger main population (the smaller the population the greater
the likely effect).
o Exemplify the concept using Darwin’s finches. (W) (Basic)
 Learners suggest the similarities and differences between natural selection and
genetic drift and then engage in class discussion. (W) (P) (Basic) (Challenging)
o Similarities: both involve changes in allele frequency and can contribute to
change (evolution).
o Differences: natural selection is a directed process, genetic drift is not; only
natural selection involves adaptations; with natural selection the frequency of the
‘advantageous’ allele increases whereas with genetic drift, allele frequencies
change by chance/sampling error (the frequency of a ‘disadvantageous’ allele
could increase). (W) (G) (Challenging)
17.2.d  Explain that Hardy and Weinberg considered the behaviour of genes in idealised Online
use the Hardy-Weinberg principle to populations. http://anthro.palomar.edu/synthetic/syn
calculate allele, genotype and o Work through an example to show how allele frequencies can be used to th_2.htm
phenotype frequencies in populations calculate genotype frequencies and how genotype frequencies can be used to http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
and explain situations when this calculate allele frequencies. (W) (Basic) et/BiologyPages/H/Hardy_Weinberg.
principle does not apply o Learners work through simple examples using the Hardy-Weinberg equation and html
make notes. (I) (Basic) http://highered.mcgraw-
Key concepts  Learners use an example where the number of individuals with the recessive trait is hill.com/sites/0767424263/student_vi
Natural selection, known to calculate the proportion, and hence number of, heterozygotes in a ew0/chapter4/the_hardy-
Observation and experiment population. (W) (Challenging) weinberg_equilibrium.html#
 Learners make notes to: http://www.wwnorton.com/college/biolo
o Explain the differences between allele frequencies, genotype frequencies and gy/discoverbio3/core/content/ch17/an
phenotype frequencies. imations.asp
o Explain the conditions that need to be met for the Hardy-Weinberg principle to http://www.perinatology.com/calculator
apply. (I) (Challenging) s/Hardy-Weinberg.htm
 Learners suggest reasons why an unchanging allele frequency from one generation
to the next is rarely encountered in nature (non-random breeding; not all individuals Textbooks/Publications
produce offspring; not a static population as there is emigration/immigration; Bio Factsheet 211: Hardy Weinberg
selection occurs; mutation occurs). and population genetics.
o Discuss how these frequencies would change if mutations occurred (e.g. harmful
recessive mutations; heterozygote advantage etc.), so that learners appreciate
the potential for change by evolution. (W) (Basic)
 Explain to learners that the Hardy-Weinberg equations can be used to determine
frequencies for ‘at this moment in time’ occurrences.
o Learners use an example, e.g. the incidence of cystic fibrosis to calculate the
allele frequencies and work out the carrier frequency (the heterozygotes) in the
population. (I) (Challenging)
17.3.a  17.3.c) includes the idea that species have formed from pre-existing species. Online
state the general theory of evolution Discuss the ideas of ‘change over time’ and of common descent - there is http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary
that organisms have changed over overwhelming evidence to suggest that all life is related. (W) (Basic) /article/evo_47
time  Learners research examples of evolution to outline how change over time has
occurred. (H) (Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
Key concepts o A class discussion will help learners appreciate that the pace of change can be Jones, Fosbery, Taylor, Gregory,
Natural selection different for different examples. pages
253-254 (2007), or pages 374-375
(2013), includes the Darwin-Wallace
theory and a discussion about
speciation.
17.3.b  Learners suggest the type of evidence used to determine whether organisms were Online
discuss the molecular evidence that closely related (i.e. comparative morphology and anatomy, fossils, classification and http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary
reveals similarities between closely embryology). (W) (Basic) /news/100501_xwoman
related organisms with reference to o Explain how the continually improving techniques to obtain DNA base/nucleotide http://www.wiley.com/college/pratt/047
mitochondrial DNA and protein sequences and protein amino acid sequences (e.g. rapid sequencing) has 1393878/instructor/activities/phylogen
sequence data provided databases to improve understanding of relationships. (W) etic_trees/index.html
(Challenging) http://www.indiana.edu/~ensiweb/lesso
Key concepts  Explain that evolutionary related proteins that belong in a group (protein family) can ns/molb.ws.pdf
Biochemical processes, be most usefully compared between organisms. (W) (Basic)
DNA, the molecule of heredity,  Introduce the use of a single letter code for the amino acids before learners analyse Past papers
Natural selection (in terms of closely related organisms) sequence data of a number of organisms Paper 43, Nov 2013, Q2
(e.g. for cytochrome C). (I) (Challenging)
 With prompting, learners suggest how mitochondrial DNA differs from nuclear DNA
(inherited only from the mother; doesn’t swap genetic material with paternal
mitochondrial DNA and higher mutation rate).
o Discuss the usefulness, in terms of close relationships, of databases for
comparing mitochondrial DNA sequences of different organisms. (W) (I)
(Challenging)
Note
 This has close links to 19.2.a) and bioinformatics.
 Learners should understand that there are freely accessible databases available to
researchers.
17.3.c  Review learner understanding of the terms species and gene pool by a question and Online
explain how speciation may occur as a answer session. (W) (Basic) http://people.rit.edu/rhrsbi/GalapagosP
result of geographical separation  Define speciation. ages/DarwinFinch.html
(allopatric speciation), and ecological o Discuss the importance in speciation of (i) reproductive isolation and (ii) natural http://www98.homepage.villanova.edu/
and behavioural separation (sympatric selection acting within a population in different ways on different groups. (W) robert.curry/Nesomimus/index.html
speciation) (Basic) http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/
 Give examples (e.g. separating land masses millions of years ago and road laying 2011/10/111003080523.htm
Key concepts dividing up forests) illustrating ways that sub-populations are formed by geographical http://www.the-
Natural selection, separation and brainstorm other examples. (W) (Basic) scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/
Observation and experiment o Discuss how the different abilities of organisms to move from one area to 23704/title/Evidence-for-sympatric-
another are an important factor in the formation of new species. speciation/
o Remind learners that the process of allopatric speciation requires that the http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpa
populations remain separated and interbreeding is prevented. (W) (Basic) ge/polyploidy-1552814
 Learners research one or two examples and use these to explain what is meant by http://www.evolutionsbiologie.uni-
allopatric speciation. (I) (Basic) konstanz.de/pdf1-182/P089.pdf
 Extension: learners research how the observations made of the four species of http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary
mockingbirds in the Galapagos Islands are believed to have had a large influence on /news/090301_cichlidspeciation
Darwin’s development of the concept of natural selection. (H) (Challenging)
 Introduce the idea of sympatric speciation: occurring within the same geographic Textbooks/Publications
area by reducing gene flow between groups of the same population. Bio Factsheet 142: Modern Examples
o State that two of the many ways to do this is by ecological separation and by of Evolution in Action
behavioural separation and ask learners to suggest what this means or to Bio Factsheet 92: Isolation
volunteer examples. (W) (Basic) Mechanisms
o Learners research one example of each to explain the principles involved and
share their findings with the group. (W) (I) (Challenging) Past Papers
 Learners research the evolution of cichlid fish in the great lakes of Africa, e.g. Lake Paper 41, June 2011, Q8 (c)
Victoria, and present arguments as to whether speciation has occurred by allopatric Paper 41, June 2012, Q1
speciation, sympatric speciation, or both. (I) (Challenging)
 Learners continue their work on Darwin’s finches and the founder effect to explain
how speciation has occurred by both allopatric and sympatric speciation. (I)
(Challenging)
 Learners write a paragraph comparing allopatric and sympatric speciation. (F)
17.3.d  Remind learners that isolating mechanisms provide a barrier to gene flow and when Online
explain the role of pre-zygotic and successful interbreeding no longer occurs a new species is considered to have been http://www.biologyaspoetry.com/terms/
post-zygotic isolating mechanisms in formed. (W) (Basic) postzygotic_barrier.html

the evolution of new species  Learners write out definitions of the two types of reproductive isolating mechanisms http://wps.pearsoncustom.com/wps/me
and then decide whether the examples from 17.3.c are pre-zygotic or post-zygotic. dia/objects/5697/5834441/ebook/htm/
Key concepts (I) (Basic) 0cc6e.htm?14.03
Natural selection  Post-zygotic isolating mechanisms may need further discussion and summary with
individual notes. Textbooks/Publications
o Discuss what is meant by a hybrid (hybridisation from 17.2.f is a different Bio Factsheet 92: Isolation
context). Explain that generally a hybrid dies as an embryo or is sterile if it Mechanisms
survives, so a sub-population on the verge of becoming a separate species is
unlikely with interbreeding to incorporate back into the main population – the Past papers
gene pools are sufficiently different. Paper 43, Nov 2013, Q2 (c)
o Explain that hybrids that manage to produce fertile offspring tend to be less fit
than others and with natural selection will die out. (W) (I) (Challenging)
 Provide descriptive examples of speciation on separate cards for learners to
produce two piles, pre-zygotic or post-zygotic and then compare with a partner. (P)
(I) (Basic)
 Learners produce a written outline of the overall role of isolating mechanisms in
speciation and then describe, using examples, the contribution of pre-zygotic and
post-zygotic isolating mechanisms.
o The account should highlight the differences between the two. A word list or a
hints sheet could be provided. (F)
17.2.e  Explain that in selective breeding, humans have applied knowledge of natural Online
describe how selective breeding selection to make ‘improvements’. (W) (Basic) http://www.embryoplus.com/cattle_ayr
(artificial selection) has been used to  Discuss why selective breeding to improve the milk yield of dairy cattle must take shire.html
improve the milk yield of dairy cattle place over several generations. (W) (Basic) http://www.ilri.org/InfoServ/Webpub/full
o Learners suggest main stages involved in the selective breeding programme, docs/SmHDairy/chap5.html#Dairy%2
Key concepts before presenting ideas to the group. (W) (G) (Basic) 0cattle
Natural selection, o Learners research details, guided by prompts such as: ‘Explain whether one or http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/co
Observation and experiment many genes are involved’; ‘State what needs to be considered for improved milk ntent/360/1459/1479.full#abstract-1
yield’; ‘Describe other desirable features for the cattle involved’. (H) http://babcock.wisc.edu/node/182
(Challenging) http://www.petermaas.nl/extinct/articles
 Learners describe (e.g. in a table) the similarities and differences between selective /selectivebreeding.htm
breeding and natural selection. (F)
 Learners use data for milk yield of different generations in a selective breeding Textbooks/Publications
programme to carry out a statistical comparison (t-test). (I) (Challenging) Bio Factsheet 187: Selective Breeding
 Learners discuss the balance between improving features and maintaining genetic of Cattle
diversity. (G) (Challenging)

Past Papers
17.2.f  Continue the theme of 17.2.e with a discussion about the need to supply an Online
outline the following examples of crop increasing global population and the improvement of crop plants. http://archaeology.about.com/od/dome
improvement by selective breeding: o Learners suggest the most important crop plants grown (the three most stications/qt/wheat.htm
 the introduction of disease important are maize wheat and rice – grain crops). http://www.dupont.com/corporate-
resistance to varieties of wheat and o Outline the difference between crop improvement by conventional means, functions/our-approach/global-
rice selective breeding, and improvement by genetic modification. (W) (Basic) challenges/food.html
 the incorporation of mutant alleles  Learners may be able to name a disease to which wheat (e.g. stem rust) and rice http://irri.org/our-work/research/better-
for gibberellin synthesis into dwarf (e.g. sheath blight) are susceptible; discuss the need to breed crop plants resistant rice-varieties/disease-and-pest-
varieties so increasing yield by to disease (e.g. disease lowers yield and some can leave harmful toxins in the crop). resistant-rice
having a greater proportion of o Learners recall the steps involved in selective breeding and suggest desirable http://www.lsuagcenter.com/en/crops_l
energy put into grain features, e.g. resistant to infection, maintaining resistance for a long time, ivestock/crops/rice/Diseases/
 inbreeding and hybridisation to localising infection to one area of the plant, resistance to toxin accumulation, http://www.agprofessional.com/resourc
produce vigorous, uniform varieties seed (kernel) resistance, able to produce a high yield when infected. (W) e-centers/wheat/disease/news/Do-
of maize (Challenging) disease-resistant-wheat-varieties-
o Learners research the steps involved in introducing disease resistance into pay-a-price-in-yield-229754951.html
Key concepts wheat or rice (cover one crop each and share notes). (P) (Basic) http://www.businessinsider.com/10-
Natural selection,  State that the presence of gibberellins leads to stem elongation and explanations will crops-that-feed-the-world-2011-
Observation and experiment be covered in Unit 11 (15.2.d, 16.3.d). 9?op=1
o Explain that the sd-1 gene encodes an enzyme (GA20-oxidase) involved in the http://5e.plantphys.net/article.php?ch=
later stages of gibberellin biosynthesis. 20&id=355
o Learners suggest an outcome if mutations in this gene occur (very low levels of
gibberellins resulting in dwarf varieties). Past Papers
o Explain that some varieties of crops such as rice and barley have these semi- Paper 43, June 2011, Q4 (a)
dwarf / dwarf varieties. (W) (Challenging) Paper 41, Nov 2013, Q5
 Learners write definitions of inbreeding and hybridisation and explain what is meant
by inbreeding depression, outbreeding, and hybrid vigour. (I) (Basic)
o Discuss the difficulties in maize in achieving the balance between homozygosity
and heterozygosity. (W) (Basic)
o Learners list the advantages and disadvantages of inbreeding and outbreeding
in maize. (I) (Challenging)
o Learners explain how selective breeding has produced homozygous maize
plants that can be crossed with other homozygous plants, to produce hybrids
with combinations of desirable features. (I) (Challenging)
 Extension: learners research the ‘Green Revolution’ and debate the advantages and
disadvantages of this. (W) (Basic)
Unit 8: Molecular biology and gene technology

The structure of proteins and the structure of DNA from Unit 1 should be well understood. In addition, from Unit 3, learners should be familiar with semi-conservative
replication of DNA and understand the principles of transcription, the genetic code and translation in the synthesis of proteins. Knowledge from Unit 7 of gene
expression, including an understanding of how some mutations affect gene expression is also required.
Context
This unit provides learners with the opportunity to consider some of the latest developments in biology and appreciate the key concept of observation and experiment.
In this unit, learners will see how humans can make use of living systems and organisms to benefit themselves, such as in the development of genetically modified
plants and in improvements in genetic screening, in the treatment of genetic disorders and advancements in forensic science. Knowledge and understanding of
biological facts, principles and concepts from previous units will help their understanding of the techniques applied.
Outline
The lac operon is studied as an example of gene regulation and control in eukaryotes is touched upon with a discussion of the role of transcription factors. The study of
gene expression with the use of microarrays is covered. Recombinant DNA is explained and steps involved in genetic engineering are covered, including the use of
enzymes, plasmids, markers and control sequences, including promoters. Two main applications of genetic engineering, the production of proteins of medical
importance and the production of genetically modified crops and livestock are studied. Gel electrophoresis and the amplification of DNA by the polymerase chain
reaction are two techniques that are described and an application of these is considered with an outline of the technique associated with genetic fingerprinting.
Learners see that the pace of development of genetic technology can be partly attributed to bioinformatics. Other aspects of genetic technology that are covered are
the sequencing of genomes, screening for genetic conditions and gene therapy. The unit also includes a discussion on the social and ethical issues and implications of
genetic technology.
Teaching time
16.3.b  Learners complete a short written test (prepared by you, with mark scheme) to Online
explain genetic control of protein remind them of previous knowledge and help understanding of this unit. http://www.sumanasinc.com/webconte
production in a prokaryote using the o Include relevant questions on: prokaryote structure (including plasmids and nt/animations/content/lacoperon.html
lac operon genes for antibiotic resistance); definition of a gene; DNA structure and http://pathmicro.med.sc.edu/mayer/gen
replication; protein synthesis. (F) eticreg.htm
Key concepts o Go through the answers before proceeding. (W) (Basic) http://highered.mcgraw-
Biochemical processes,  Explain that in protein synthesis, gene expression describes the whole process hill.com/sites/0072556781/student_vi
DNA, the molecule of heredity where DNA is transcribed to produce mRNA, which is translated to produce ew0/chapter12/animation_quiz_4.htm
polypeptides (that form proteins). l
o Discuss the need to control gene expression, as all genes cannot be switched http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
on at any one time. (W) (Basic) et/BiologyPages/L/LacOperon.html
 Explain the concept of an operon, then display a diagram of the arrangement in the
lac operon and describe the gene products of gene Z and gene Y. Textbooks/Publications
o Discuss the roles of lactose permease and -galactosidase in lactose uptake Bio Factsheet 45: Gene Expression
and metabolism, encouraging learners to contribute using AS Level knowledge.
(W) (Challenging)
 Learners participate in a group demonstration using a large model set-up.
o Sheets of coloured paper stuck together represent the operon (promoter,
operator, genes Z, Y and A); the operator gene has a shape cut out,
complementary to the shape of the repressor protein; a separate sheet of paper
represents the regulatory gene (located elsewhere on the genome); use different
shapes for each of glucose, lactose, RNA polymerase and repressor protein.
o Discuss each gene and then place on top of them cards with their labels
(remove to test learners).
o Involve learners to describe the state of the operon when: no lactose is present
and glucose is present; when no glucose is present and lactose is present. (W)
(Challenging)
o Repeat, but this time allow learners to take charge and share out the
demonstration. (W) (I) (Challenging)
 Learners annotate a set of diagrams and give explanations. (I) (Challenging)
 Learners complete a gap-filling exercise that serves as their notes. (I) (Basic)
 Learners sort out a set of statements to show the sequence of events occurring (F)
Note
 The lac operon of Escherichia coli was the first example of genetic control
discovered and investigated.
 Details of cAMP and the catabolite activator protein are not required.
16.3.a  Learners make notes on the differences between: structural and regulatory genes; Online
distinguish between structural and repressible and inducible enzymes. (I) (Basic) http://textbookofbacteriology.net/regula
regulatory genes and between o Learners also explain that a repressor protein is the product of a regulatory tion.html
repressible and inducible enzymes gene. http://www.sumanasinc.com/webconte
o Learners determine whether the enzyme products of the lac operon structural nt/animations/content/lacoperon.html
Key concepts genes are repressible or inducible enzymes (they are inducible). (I) (Basic) http://pathmicro.med.sc.edu/mayer/gen
Biochemical processes, eticreg.htm
DNA, the molecule of heredity http://highered.mcgraw-
hill.com/sites/0072556781/student_vi
ew0/chapter12/animation_quiz_4.htm
l
et/BiologyPages/L/LacOperon.html
16.3.c  Explain that RNA polymerase in eukaryotic cells cannot initiate transcription alone: Online
explain the function of transcription binding of transcription factors (proteins) to the DNA and to each other allow RNA http://biotech.about.com/od/proteinengi
factors in gene expression in polymerase to bind; others bind to the RNA polymerase (the whole complex is neering/f/transcriptfact.htm
eukaryotes termed the transcription initiation complex). (W) (Basic) http://bcs.whfre.d
o Learners draw annotated diagrams to visualise the function of transcription eman.com/thelifewire/content/chp14/1
Key concepts factors. (I) (Basic) 402002.html
Biochemical processes,  Extension: learners investigate more detail of transcription factors, e.g. how inactive
DNA, the molecule of heredity transcription factors can be activated. (I) (Challenging)
19.1.i  Discuss how each cell of a multicellular organism contains the same genes, but Online
explain, in outline, how microarrays are some will be inactive and there will be no gene expression (link back to 16.3.b). http://www.bio.davidson.edu/courses/g
used in the analysis of genomes and in o Learners suggest why detection of mRNA is carried out to measure gene enomics/chip/chip.html
detecting mRNA in studies of gene activity. (W) (Basic) http://www.genome.gov/glossary/index
expression  Explain, step-by-step, the principles behind the use of microarrays, with learners .cfm?id=125
making notes. http://www.web-
Key concepts o Researchers can now access a database of nucleotide sequences (often called books.com/MoBio/Free/Chap9.htm
DNA, the molecule of heredity, ‘gene sequences’) for different genes. http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/l
Observation and experiment o Multiple copies of the sequences are placed by robotic machines (micro-scale abs/microarray/
process) into separate areas on a solid surface, e.g. glass slide.
o Using reverse transcriptase, cDNA is synthesised using fluorescent nucleotides
from the mRNA collected, indirectly ‘labelling’ the genes that are most active.
o cDNA added to the microarray surface ‘hybridises’ (complementary copy) with
their particular gene sequence.
o The intensity of the fluorescent-coloured areas can be detected using scanners

and the most active genes identified. (W) (Challenging)
 Discuss a use of microarrays for learners to research further, e.g. comparing gene
activity of healthy and diseased cells.
o E.g. use red fluorescent nucleotides to ‘label’ the cDNA of a healthy cell, use
green for that of the tumour cell. A combined image of the two scans will show
red, green and yellow areas: red = genes from healthy cell expressed more than
tumour cell; green = genes from the tumour cell expressed more; yellow = both
cells expressing the genes equally. (W) (H) (Challenging)
19.1.a  Remind learners that, in Unit 7, ‘recombination’ and ‘recombinant’ are terms used in Online
define the term recombinant DNA the context of crossing over and the production of genetically different gametes and http://higheredbcs.wiley.com/legacy/col
offspring. (W) (Basic) lege/voet/0470129301/animated_figs/
Key concepts  Explain that there are many definitions of recombinant DNA: learners need the idea ch03/3-26.html
DNA, the molecule of heredity that novel DNA is formed by joining together DNA/genes from different sources.
o Explain that DNA can be added to plasmids, hence the term ‘recombinant
plasmid’, and transferred from one organism to another, hence ‘recombinant
host’. (W) (Basic)
 Learners write a definition, qualifying with reference to recombinant plasmids and
recombinant hosts. (I) (Basic)
19.1.b  Remind learners that genes code for proteins and in genetic engineering the desired Online
explain that genetic engineering product is a protein. http://www.learner.org/interactives/dna/
involves the extraction of genes from o Learners suggest why it is necessary to use another organism to produce the engineering.html
one organism, or the synthesis of protein. (W) (Basic) http://www.biology.arizona.edu/molecul
genes, in order to place them in  Talk learners through the outline construction of a large flow diagram: brief ar_bio/problem_sets/Recombinant_D
another organism (of the same or explanations for each step will help for 19.1.c, 19.1.e, 19.1.f, 19.1.g and 19.1.h, NA_Technology/recombinant_dna.ht
another species) such that the when they can add further notes (see below). (W) (I) (Basic) ml
receiving organism expresses the
gene product Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 13: Genetic engineering
Key concepts
DNA, the molecule of heredity, Past Papers
Observation and experiment Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q7
 Learners suggest why mRNA is sometimes used to obtain the gene (many more
copies of the mRNA in the cell than the genes; a host bacterial cell cannot cut out
introns from the RNA transcripts of eukaryotic DNA). (W) (Challenging)
 Introduce the idea that DNA libraries are now available. (W) (Basic)
 Explain that a vector (carrier) is frequently used (often a plasmid) to get the desired
gene into the host. (W) (Basic)
o Discuss when gene cloning occurs: producing many initial copies of the desired
gene and as the host cell replicates. (W) (Challenging)
 Learners revise 17.2.a and give an account of the similarities and differences
between genetic engineering and selective breeding. (H) (Challenging)
 Learners investigate what is meant by a cDNA library. (I) (Challenging)
Note
 19.1.b can be amalgamated with 19.1.h.
19.1.h  Outline the role of restriction endonucleases and DNA ligases. Online
explain the roles of restriction o Explain how different endonucleases cleave at different, specific sequences to http://highered.mcgraw-
endonucleases, reverse transcriptase obtain blunt or ‘sticky’ / overlapping ends. hill.com/olcweb/cgi/pluginpop.cgi?it=s
and ligases in genetic engineering o Learners add the enzymes to their main flow-chart from 19.1.b and annotate. wf::535::535::/sites/dl/free/007243731
(W) (Basic) 6/120078/bio37.swf::Restriction%20E
Key concepts  Provide learners with details of different restriction endonucleases. On nucleotide ndonucleases
Biochemical processes, sequence diagrams, learners indicate the cleavage sites and state whether blunt or http://www.geogene.com/genetic-eng-
Observation and experiment sticky ends are produced and the number of fragments formed. (P) (I) (Challenging) basics.html
 Outline the role of reverse transcriptase.
o Learners annotate their flow chart. Past Papers
o Explain where DNA polymerase would be required (amplifies the gene). (W) (I) Paper 42, June 2012, Q4 (a)(i)
(Basic)
 Learners sequence a set of cards, each containing a single step involved in genetic
engineering. With a second set of cards containing more detail, allocate these to the
correct step. (F)
 Learners produce a summary table of names of enzymes involved in genetic
engineering and details of the reactions they catalyse. (H) (Basic)
 Extension: learners research the origins of these enzymes. (I) (Basic)
19.1.e  Discuss features of plasmids and ask learners to suggest advantages: found in Online
describe the properties of plasmids bacteria (will be taken up); small (easy to manipulate/easily taken up); replicate http://www.addgene.org/mol_bio_refer
that allow them to be used in gene semi-conservatively (identical copies); replicate independently within bacteria (so ence/plasmid_background/
cloning gene cloning occurs); can be removed from one bacterial species and be taken up
by another (greater flexibility); can be cut at specific locations by restriction
Key concepts endonucleases (for gene insertion). (W) (Challenging)
Cells as the units of life, o Learners add annotations in the relevant steps of their flow chart of 19.1.b. (I)
DNA, the molecule of heredity, (Basic)
Observation and experiment  Explain that once bacteria have taken up the plasmid, they are said to be
‘transformed’. (W) (Basic)
 Background: explain that plasmids are more easily taken using, for example,
electroporation or by using calcium ions and heat shock (the bacteria are said to be
‘competent’). (W) (Basic)
Note
 It is preferable to state that plasmids are taken up, rather than ‘placed in’ bacteria.
 Learners should appreciate that other organisms, such as yeasts, are useful in
genetic engineering, as they can carry plasmids.
19.1.f  Learners recall (16.3.b) that a promoter is a nucleotide sequence on the DNA where Online
explain why promoters and other RNA polymerase attaches to initiate transcription. http://www.addgene.org/mol_bio_refer
control sequences may have to be o Explain that the transcription start point (the first nucleotide to be transcribed) is ence/promoter_background/
transferred as well as the desired gene within the sequence and the promoter allows the RNA polymerase to recognise
which DNA strand is the template. Past Papers
Key concepts o Remind learners of the involvement of transcription factors and that there are Paper 42, June 2012, Q4 (a)(ii)
DNA, the molecule of heredity, genes coding for these, and that other control sequences exist (no detail Paper 41, June 2013, Q2 (c)(ii)
Observation and experiment required). (W) (Basic)
 With these discussed, learners suggest why, in genetic engineering, promoters and
other control sequences may need to be transferred with the desired gene. (W)
(Challenging)
 Learners make brief annotations to their summary flow-chart from 19.1.b. (I) (Basic)
 Learners write a short paragraph to explain the role of promoters and why they can
be said to control the expression of a gene. (F)
 Extension: learners investigate how the early production of insulin by genetic
engineering used the machinery of the lac operon to control gene expression. (I)
(Challenging)
Note
 In bacteria, RNA polymerase recognises and binds to the promoter with the aid of
one main protein transcription factor but in eukaryotes binding is enabled by a
complex of transcription factors.
19.1.g  Learners recall the concepts involved in DNA uptake to produce recombinant hosts Online
explain the use of genes for (19.1.b). http://www.dnaftb.org/34/problem.html
fluorescent or easily stained o Explain that a cut plasmid may (with DNA ligase present) re-circularise and be http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/GFP/
substances as markers in gene taken up by a host bacterial cell, or a bacterial cell may not be transformed (take GFPh.htm
technology up the plasmid). These bacteria would not have the desired gene. http://www.conncoll.edu/ccacad/zimme
o Agree that some method to identify the recombinant bacteria is desirable r/GFP-ww/GFP-1.htm
Key concepts (‘screening for recombinants’) in order to avoid wasting money if all bacterial http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Flu
DNA, the molecule of heredity, forms were cultured together. (W) (Basic) orescent_proteins
Observation and experiment  Use images to explain how the gene encoding GFP, green fluorescent protein (most http://www.microscopyu.com/articles/li
commonly used gene), is placed between the promoter and the desired gene. vecellimaging/fpintro.html
Transcription of both genes occurs and GFP and the desired product result. http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/tec
o Discuss how UV light enables selection of host cells for large scale culturing, hniques/fluorescence/fluorescentprot
while non-recombinant bacteria will not fluoresce. (W) (Challenging) eins/fluorescentproteinshome.html
o Learners add annotations to their flow-chart from 19.1.b about screening for http://www.gmo-
successful recombinants and write a paragraph of explanation. (I) (Challenging) compass.org/eng/safety/human_healt
 Learners research one example where genes for enzymes that produce fluorescent h/126.position_efsa_antibiotic_resista
or easily stained substances are now used as markers. Examples are presented to nce_markers.html
the class. (W) (G) (P) (Basic) http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/ar
ticles/31227.php
Note
 Background: provide learners with a brief historical perspective on the use of Past Papers
antibiotic resistance markers to enable screening and explain why these are Paper 41, Nov 2012, Q3 (a)(ii)
becoming less favoured. Paper 41, June 2013, Q2 (b)
19.2.c  Discuss the advantages of producing human proteins by genetic engineering / Online
explain the advantages of producing recombinant DNA techniques (‘genetic manipulation’ is also a term used). http://www.diabetes.co.uk/insulin/huma
human proteins by recombinant DNA o Discuss how some of the diseases were not previously treatable with the natural n-insulin.html
techniques (reference should be made protein: could not be extracted or produced (e.g. adenosine deaminase); http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/u
to some suitable examples, such as expensive to produce and purify; required extraction from many blood donations nilever/16-
insulin, factor VIII for the treatment of (e.g. factor VIII); problems with the protein used for treatment (e.g. insulin from 18/proteins/Protch4pg3.html
haemophilia and adenosine pigs or other mammals). http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/adenos
deaminase for treating severe o Discuss additional benefits such as: fewer/no allergic responses from ine-deaminase-deficiency
combined immunodeficiency (SCID)) contaminants; lower/no immune responses from non-self antigen detection; no
risk of disease from contaminating pathogens; ethically/religiously/morally more Past Papers
Key concepts acceptable. Paper 43, Nov 2011, Q5 (b)
Cells as the units of life, o Include an outline of the benefits of using bacteria, yeast or mammalian cells in
Biochemical processes, tissue culture. (W) (Basic)
DNA, the molecule of heredity,  Learners research the genetically engineered protein products for treatment of
Observation and experiment people with the conditions listed. Provide guidance.
o State whether the protein could be extracted for treatment before genetic
engineering techniques.
o State the function of the protein and if the protein is deficient or absent.
o State how successful the treatment is and whether there are alternative
treatment methods. (H) (Challenging)
 Learners make outline notes following discussion on their research. Fill in any gaps
with further explanation.
o Explain that some people require the protein insulin to regulate their blood
glucose concentration (covered in Unit 10). (W) (Basic)
o Explain that factor VIII is a protein required in the cascade of reactions involved
in blood clotting and is used to treat haemophilia (16.2.f, Unit 7). (W) (Basic)
o For SCID, explain that mutations of the ADA gene result in a lack of adenosine
deaminase: a build-up of the substrate (deoxyadenosine) is toxic to immune
system cells (background information: an autosomal recessive disorder). (W)

(Basic)
 Learners list the benefits, giving relevant examples where relevant. (F)
Note
 The benefits of using bacteria or yeast cells as hosts could be a useful extension
discussion.
19.3.a  Learners recall selective breeding in cattle and in crop plants (17.2.f) and Online
explain the significance of genetic discussions about the global demand for food (and energy). http://www.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/
engineering in improving the quality o Learners suggest ways in which crops and livestock may be genetically modified serials/files/regulation/2003/4/v26n1-
and yield of crop plants and livestock to benefit populations. 4.pdf
in solving the demand for food in the o Discuss why Golden riceTM providing vitamin A is considered an improvement in http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn
world, e.g. Bt maize, vitamin A the quality of a crop plant. 3364-gm-crops-boost-yields-more-in-
enhanced rice (Golden riceTM) and GM o Explore further ideas that crops may be modified to give a higher yield: two main poor-countries.html#.UvhpJ_s9BOo
salmon ways are making crops resistant to herbicides and resistant to pests (insects). http://www.europabio.org/do-gm-crops-
o Learners suggest why livestock improvements (far less common) are not as really-have-higher-yields
Key concepts universally approved. Discuss the idea of livestock such as sheep, cattle, hens http://www.gmo-
Observation and experiment and goats growing faster, larger and being more resistant to disease. compass.org/eng/agri_biotechnology/
o Debate the farming of GM salmon (not strictly ‘livestock’), which can grow to a breeding_aims/147.pest_resistant_cr
marketable size much quicker than non-GM salmon. (W) (Basic) (Challenging) ops.html
 Learners write an account explaining why crops genetically modified for herbicide http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/to
and pest resistance would lead to increased yields. (I) (Basic) pic/gmanimals.htm
 Learners state ways in which livestock can be modified, giving examples to help
their answer. (I) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
 Learners outline the advantages and disadvantages of crop improvement by Bio Factsheet 13: Genetic engineering
conventional breeding techniques compared to genetic modification. (F) Bio Factsheet 69: Genetic engineering
 Extension: learners research examples of crop improvement by genetic modification in agriculture
(such as frost resistance, ability to fix nitrogen, increased time for fruit spoilage, Bio Factsheet 192: Investigating
drought resistance, etc.) and of livestock improvement. (H) (Challenging) weeds and crop yield.
Past Papers
19.3.b  In groups, learners use resources to prepare annotated flow diagrams summarising Online
outline the way in which the production one example of crop improvement from the list in the learning objective. http://www.gmo-
of crops such as maize, cotton, o Copies of the summary diagrams are made and shared with the rest of the class. compass.org/eng/grocery_shopping/c
tobacco and oil seed rape, may be  Learners research and produce summary notes about the use of Agrobacterium rops/24.genetically_modified_rice.ht
increased by using varieties that are tumefaciens as one of the most common vectors and other methods such as ml
genetically modified for herbicide electroporation and ‘gene guns’ to deliver genetic material into host plant cells. http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowle
resistance and insect resistance  Learners find, analyse and evaluate data that compares the yields of GM crops with dge/library/use-and-impact-of-bt-
non-GM crops. (H) (Challenging) maize-46975413
Key concepts http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_rice
Observation and experiment http://www.goldenrice.org/
in agriculture
Bio Factsheet 192: Investigating
weeds and crop yield.
19.3.c  Learners use guidelines to research some ethical and social implications of using Online
discuss the ethical and social GMOs, and then debate and discuss these points in class. (W) (H) (Basic) http://technyou.education.csiro.au/mod
implications of using genetically  Learners produce summary points about the topic. (I) (Challenging) ule/ethics-food-and-
modified organisms (GMOs) in food agriculture/page/204/issues
production Note http://www.i-sis.org.uk/GE-ethics.php
 Advise learners to look at the source of funding and editorial policy of websites to http://www.beep.ac.uk
Key concepts gauge whether the information is objective and impartial. http://www.salmonnation.com/fish/gefis
Observation and experiment h.html
http://www.oceanconservancy.org/our-
work/aquaculture/aquaculture-
genetically.html
Bio Factsheet 13: Genetic engineering.
Bio Factsheet 106: Ethical issues in A-
level Biology
Bio Factsheet 137: GM Farm Scale
Evaluation Trials.
Past Papers
Paper 43, June 2011, Q5 (b)(c)(d)
Paper 42, June 2012, Q4 (e)
19.1.c  Use a question and answer session to agree that: the desired gene used in the Online
describe the principles of the genetic engineering process needs to be cloned (19.1.b); DNA polymerase is http://www.genome.gov/Glossary/index
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to required to replicate DNA (Unit 3); the DNA strands are held together strongly by .cfm?id=159
clone and amplify DNA (the role of Taq many (individually) weak hydrogen bonds. (W) (Basic) http://www.web-
polymerase should be emphasised)  Explain that, outside the cell, heat (approximately 90°C) can be used to separate the books.com/MoBio/Free/Ch9E.htm
DNA strands. http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
Key concepts o Learners explain why heat stable polymerase enzymes are required. hing-resources/119-investigating-
Biochemical processes, o Introduce Taq polymerase derived from the thermophilic bacterium Thermus plant-evolution-amplifying-dna-using-
DNA, the molecule of heredity, aquaticus, and discuss how this enzyme’s thermostable structure also allows it pcr
Observation and experiment to have a long shelf life. http://www.rothamsted.ac.uk/notebook/
o Explain what primers are before explaining their role in dictating the correct pcr.htm
section of DNA to be copied and enabling Taq polymerase attachment. (W)
(Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
 Using diagrams, provide an overview of PCR. Involve learners in explanations of the Bio Factsheet 67: Modern techniques
benefits of Taq polymerase stability (heating and many cycles). (W) (Basic) in biology: genetics.
o Learners label the diagrams and produce a two-column table: main stage and
corresponding explanations. (I) (Challenging)
 Learners match statements of the main stages with explanations of why they are
carried out, they then sequence them. (F)
 Learners match statements of the components involved to their role in the process.
(F)
Note
 Explanation of a primer can be limited to the idea of a short nucleotide sequence
that binds to the DNA template strand at a specific sequence, so enabling chain
elongation.
 T. aquaticus was discovered in 1969 in Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming,
USA, noted for its hot springs and geysers.
19.1.d  Show learners an electrophoresis kit (or a photograph of a kit), explaining the Practical booklet 12
describe and explain how gel principles and outlining the technique.
electrophoresis is used to analyse o Include discussion on: the composition of the gel (size of ‘pores’ formed by the Online
proteins and nucleic acids, and to fibrous matrix); ability to alter the voltage applied and/or the ‘run’ time; methods http://www.genome.gov/Glossary/?id=
distinguish between the alleles of a used e.g. stains or fluorescent dyes to ‘see’ separated bands (if not visible). 56
gene (limited to the separation of o Prompt learners to suggest and explain the factors affecting movement through http://www.life.uiuc.edu/molbio/geldige
polypeptides and the separation of the gel. Ensure they appreciate that separation of a mixture will be based on: st/electro.html#run
DNA fragments cut with restriction size/length/mass; and charge (discuss resistance to flow). (W) (Basic) http://www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk/NCBE/
endonucleases) MATERIALS/menu.html
 Learners explain why samples of DNA/RNA will move towards the anode http://www.bio-rad.com/
Key concepts (phosphate groups give a negative charge), and how restriction enzymes (see http://www.edvotek.com/
Biochemical processes, 19.1.h) will give specific different-sized fragments. http://www.medicine.mcgill.ca/physio/vl
DNA, the molecule of heredity, o Explain that the solution containing the DNA fragments can be treated so the ab/Other_exps/endo/electrophoresis.
Observation and experiment charge is the same for all; hence they are separated by size/length (all htm
fragments same shape). http://www.bio-rad.com/en-
o Discuss how RNA molecules will be of different lengths and hence separation by ca/applications-technologies/protein-
size will work. (W) (Basic) electrophoresis
 Learners use kits (or simulations) to carry out gel electrophoresis of DNA. (I) http://bcs.whfreeman.com/lehninger5e/
(Challenging) content/cat_020/0301_gel_electropho
 Using resources, learners draw an annotated diagram that helps to outline the resis.html?v=chapter&i=03020.01&s=
principles behind the process, using nucleic acids as an example. (I) (Basic) 03000&n=00020&o=7
 Learners recall protein molecular structure to realise that a mixture can be different http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/l
lengths, charges and shapes, hence requiring a different electrophoresis set-up to abs/gel/
DNA. (W) (Basic) http://www.neosci.com/demos/10-
o Explain that a buffer can be used to provide a uniform negative charge and 1091_DNA/Labs_RestrictionEnzyme.
unfold the proteins. swf
 Learners research identification of a protein by protein blotting or antibody tagging. http://www.biotechlearn.org.nz/themes/
(H) (Challenging) dna_lab/gel_electrophoresis
 Learners investigate the uses of gel electrophoresis in the analysis of proteins and www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk/ncbe/protocol
nucleic acids and a ‘class list’ made of each to display. (W) (H) (Basic) s/PDF/DiceSG.pdf
 Extension: learners research the advantages and disadvantages of the two main http://www.stanford.edu/group/hopes/c
gels, agarose and polyacrylamide. (I) (Challenging) gi-bin/wordpress/2011/03/genetic-
testing/
 Learners discuss the differences that may exist between alleles of a gene.
o Discuss how alleles of only slightly different length can be detected with the
correct gel composition.
Bio Factsheet 67: Modern techniques
o Explain that if alleles are the same or similar, undetectable length, restriction
in Biology: Genetics.
enzymes could be used to obtain fragments: different fragments with different
sequences can be detected. An alternative is using a DNA probe.
Past Papers
o Mention that there are DNA sequence ‘libraries’ to obtain known sequences to
act as markers.
o Use sickle cell anaemia to exemplify how differences between alleles can
sometimes be detected by sampling the protein products, e.g. the two types of
haemoglobin (confirms carrier status). (W) (Challenging
 Practical booklet 12 is a protocol for separating dyes by gel electrophoresis that
demonstrates the principles involved in separating DNA.
Note
 Generally, small agarose gels are used to separate DNA (lower voltage for
approximately 1-2 hours) whereas large polyacrylamide gels are required for
proteins (higher voltages for about 4 hours). Different electrophoresis tanks and
power packs are required.
 Links to 19.2.d: genetic screening can involve gel electrophoresis, e.g. identifying
carriers. In some cases restriction enzymes are used, or probes to locate specific
base sequences.
o Cystic fibrosis: some mutant alleles have large deletions.
o Huntington’s disease: the mutant allele of the Huntington gene has tri-nucleotide
repeat sequences.
o Some cases of haemophilia: a mutant allele in the factor VIII gene has an
insertion that inactivates the gene.
19.2.g  Explain that pure DNA or DNA mixed with other biological materials (e.g. in a tissue Online
outline the use of PCR and DNA sample such as dried blood) is analysed and compared to existing profiles or known https://koshland-science-
testing in forensic medicine and markers. museum.org/sites/all/exhibits/exhibitd
criminal investigations o Explain what variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs) are and detail their na/index.jsp
importance in an analysis, including: a particular VNTR occurs at a specific http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/l
Key concepts locus; for a particular VNTR different individuals can have a different number of abs/pcr/
DNA, the molecule of heredity, repeats (so different lengths of the DNA section); VNTRs that are very variable http://technyou.education.csiro.au/mod
Observation and experiment in different individuals can be used as markers. (W) (Challenging) ule/dna-profiling/page/220/dna-
 Learners suggest the role of PCR (amplify the quantity of each VNTR marker in the profiles-forensic-use
sample). (W) (Basic) http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sheppar
 Ensure learners understand that the chance that two individuals (except for identical d/analyze.html
twins) have exactly matching DNA profiles (genetic fingerprints) for these selected
markers is virtually nil. (W) (Challenging) Past Papers
 Learners use resources to extract the main points of the technique of genetic Paper 41, June 2012, Q3 (a)
fingerprinting and list as bullet points. (I) (Challenging)
 Learners carry out analyses of different results of genetic fingerprints or make up
their own worksheet containing simulated results from a crime scene to swap within
the class for another learner to analyse. (P) (I) (Basic)
 Learners explain the role of PCR in DNA fingerprinting and outline the principles as
applied to VNTRs:
o Very small samples of DNA can be analysed.
o Millions of DNA copies can be produced (so can run many tests on the same
original DNA sample).
o Longer VNTRs will be impeded more by the gel (move a shorter distance in the
same time than the shorter VNTRs). (I) (Challenging)
19.2.a  Learners work out what the term bioinformatics means: biology and data, computer Online
define the term bioinformatics science and information technology merged into one (remind them about statistics). http://www.yourgenome.org/downloads
(W) (G) (Basic) /genomiclinks.pdf
Key concepts  Explain that there are linked databases holding freely available, continually updated, http://www.bioinformatics.org/wiki/Bioin
Observation and experiment information on: nucleotide sequences of genes (gene sequences); whole genome formatics_FAQ
sequences; mutation sequences; amino acid sequences of proteins; protein http://www.ploscompbiol.org/article/info
structures; phenotypic data. %3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.
o Ideas for learners to consider: input, storage and retrieval of biological 1002789
information for analysis; data that can be searched is increasing exponentially. http://www.biotnet.org/training-
o Learners define the term bioinformatics and list the principles involved. (W) (I) materials/das-game
(Challenging) http://www.genecards.org/#
 Demonstrate how to use BLAST (basic local alignment search tool), which compares http://www.genome.gov/glossary/index
nucleotide or protein sequences to databases. When a match is found, the statistical .cfm?id=17
significance of the match is calculated. http://www.malacards.org/
o Show learners how a nucleotide sequence can be matched to an amino acid http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/Education-
sequence and how these may match up to known genes belonging to resources/Education-and-
organisms. (W) (Challenging) learning/Big-Picture/All-
 Learners explore the world of bioinformatics for themselves if there is internet issues/Genes-Genomes-and-
access and report back findings. (W) (H) (Challenging) Health/WTDV027167.htm
http://www.ebi.ac.uk/about
Note http://www.bioinformaticsatschool.eu/
 Suitable databases to explore are Ensembl (genome), GenBank (DNA sequence), http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpa
UniProt (protein sequence), PDB (protein structure) and COSMIC (somatic ge/genomics-enables-scientists-to-
mutations in cancer). study-genetic-variability-6526364
19.2.b  Give an outline of the human genome project (HGP). Online

outline the role of bioinformatics o With prompting, learners suggest the role of bioinformatics, such as in: targeting http://www.yourgenome.org/downloads
following the sequencing of genomes, drug design to the individual; investigating evolutionary links by comparing gene /genomiclinks.pdf
such as those of humans and and protein sequence data; searching for the functions of genes; identifying http://www.bioinformatics.org/wiki/Bioin
parasites, e.g. Plasmodium (details of mutations; identifying genetic risk factors; gene therapy. (W) (Challenging) formatics_FAQ
methods of DNA sequencing are not  Revise Plasmodium and the control of malaria, including problems with finding a http://www.genecards.org/#
required) vaccine (Unit 5). (W) (Basic) http://www.genome.gov/glossary/index
o Then open up a discussion about the role of bioinformatics following the .cfm?id=17
Key concepts sequencing of genomes of the species of Plasmodium. http://www.malacards.org/
Natural selection, o Learners suggest the benefits in identifying the genes involved in antigenic http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/Education-
Observation and experiment variation and in evading the immune response (information gained about how resources/Education-and-
some species are more invasive than others). learning/Big-Picture/All-
o Learners discuss how information could be used in the search for new drugs and issues/Genes-Genomes-and-
vaccines. (W) (G) (Challenging) Health/WTDV027167.htm
 Learners write an account of the role of bioinformatics following the sequencing of http://www.ebi.ac.uk/about
genomes, referring to the HGP and the Plasmodium genome and making relevant http://www.bioinformaticsatschool.eu/
links to other relevant learning objectives. (F) http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpa
ge/genomics-enables-scientists-to-
study-genetic-variability-6526364
http://www.sanger.ac.uk/resources/do
wnloads/protozoa/plasmodium-
falciparum.html
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
419/n6906/full/nature01097.html
http://web.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/H
uman_Genome/project/timeline.shtml
uman_Genome/project/info.shtml
uman_Genome/publicat/genegatewa
y/GeneGatewayHandout.pdf
et/BiologyPages/T/Taxonomy.html
http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/Education-
resources/Education-and-
learning/Big-Picture/All-
issues/Genes-Genomes-and-
Health/WTDV027173.htm
http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/Education-
resources/Education-and-
learning/Big-Picture/All-
issues/Genes-Genomes-and-
Health/Videos-genomes-and-genetic-
testing/WTDV027199.htm
19.2.d  Learners suggest what is involved in genetic screening (using family history and, if Online
outline the advantages of screening for the test is available, analysing tissue samples for DNA) and name conditions for http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/cy
genetic conditions (reference may be which genetic screening is available. sticfibrosis.html
made to tests for specific genes such o Ensure the conditions listed are included and explained. (W) http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/CFTR
as those for breast cancer, BRCA1  Explain what is meant by genetic counselling. (W) (Basic) http://www.ygyh.org/cf/whatisit.htm
and BRCA2, and genes for  Brainstorm advantages of screening for genetic conditions and complete the list if http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/B
haemophilia, sickle cell anaemia, necessary. BSRC/casestudies/cystic.pdf
Huntington’s disease and cystic o Provides information about increased risk of having genetic conditions. http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/d
fibrosis) o Identifies carriers. isorders/screening/
o Early diagnosis, including identification of disorders in embryos. http://www.hdfoundation.org/html/hdsat
Key concepts o Identifies conditions in foetuses (early treatment may be possible and allows est.php
DNA, the molecule of heredity, parents to prepare. http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec22/ch
Natural selection, o Enables decisions to be made about having children or having follow-up 256/ch256b.html
Observation and experiment treatment. (W) (Challenging)
 Learners research and make outline notes on the genetic conditions named, then Textbooks/Publications
match up advantages from the brainstorm list to each condition. (I) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 110: Genetic Disease in
 Extension: learners suggest some of the disadvantages of screening. (I) Humans.
(Challenging) Bio Factsheet 134: Cystic Fibrosis
Bio Factsheet 215: Genetic Testing
Note and Screening
 This topic needs careful handling.
 Background: some genetic conditions are more common in certain groups as a
result of common ancestry (sharing similar genetic make-up), e.g. cystic fibrosis is
most common in Caucasians; sickle cell anaemia is common in West and East
African, African-American and Mediterranean populations; Huntington’s disease is
more common in Europe and countries with European links.
19.2.e  Explain that in gene therapy, the aim is for affected cells to take up the normal, non- Online
outline how genetic diseases can be mutated gene and produce the normal, functioning protein product. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/cy
treated with gene therapy and discuss o Prompt learners to suggest methods of delivery of the normal gene, such as sticfibrosis.html
the challenges in choosing appropriate viruses and liposomes (you may need to describe liposomes). (W) (Basic) http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/CFTR
vectors, such as viruses, liposomes  Learners discuss in groups why viruses may be ideal vectors, and then share ideas http://www.ygyh.org/cf/whatisit.htm
and naked DNA (reference may be with the class. Features: small; can be manipulated to incorporate the gene, be http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/B
made to SCID, inherited eye diseases harmless and not trigger an immune response; target particular cells and enter, or BSRC/casestudies/cystic.pdf
and cystic fibrosis) inject the gene into the cell; have mechanisms to pass through the mucus lining http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/d
cells; can integrate their nucleic acid into the target cell genome. isorders/screening/
Key concepts o Explain that the ‘ideal’ virus is difficult to find as it will be almost impossible to fit http://www.hdfoundation.org/html/hdsat
DNA, the molecule of heredity, est.php
Observation and experiment all the criteria. (W) (G) (Challenging) http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec22/ch
 Learners research the advantages of the type of virus used in the gene therapy for 256/ch256b.html
eye disease and explain why the eye is a good candidate for gene therapy. (I) http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/g
(Challenging) enetherapy
 Learners research (also use knowledge of cell surface membrane structure) why http://www.vision-
liposomes can be used as vectors. research.eu/index.php?id=696
o Learners explain how liposomes have been used in clinical trials for the http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn
treatment of cystic fibrosis. 24879-gene-therapy-restores-sight-
o Extension: learners include an account of the problems faced in treating this in-people-with-eye-disease.html
condition. (I) (Challenging) http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg
 Explain that SCID has been a successful candidate for gene therapy: the gene for 22029413.200-bubble-kid-success-
adenosine deaminase is introduced into T-lymphocytes removed from children with puts-gene-therapy-back-on-track.html
SCID. The lymphocytes are cultured in tissue culture with a viral vector and then the http://history.nih.gov/exhibits/genetics/
cells injected back into the child. (W) (Basic) sect4.htm
 Extension: learners research the historical work done by French-Anderson, Blaese http://www.genemedresearch.ox.ac.uk/
and Rosenburg on SCID gene therapy and explain how the therapy was carried out. genetherapy/cfgt.html
(H) (Basic) http://www.extremetech.com/extreme/1
 Discuss any recent successes in naked DNA therapy. Explain that initial results 71873-naked-dna-gene-therapy-
showed that direct injection into muscle has indicated some success in uptake; there used-to-non-invasively-cure-heart-
has also been uptake by liver cells. (W) (Basic) disease
http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/therap
y/procedures
Bio Factsheet 51: Gene therapy
Past Papers
Paper 43, Nov 2013, Q10 (a)
19.2.f  Explain that there are social and ethical considerations (see Note) of using gene Online
discuss the social and ethical testing and gene therapy. http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/
considerations of using gene testing o Agree that not all genetic conditions are treatable. 505222_4
and gene therapy in medicine o Discuss issues arising from: gene testing embryos by performing an embryo http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/therth
(reference should be made to genetic biopsy; couples deciding on IVF treatment for embryo testing and preselection e/ethics
conditions for which treatments exist for implantation.
and where none exist, also to IVF, o If not discussed in 19.2.d, explain briefly what is meant by therapeutic abortion. Textbooks/Publications
embryo biopsy and preselection and to Bio Factsheet 51: Gene therapy
therapeutic abortions) (W) (Basic)

 Learners write their ideas under four headings on pieces of paper ‘Gene testing – Past Papers
Key concepts social consideration’; ‘Gene testing – ethical consideration’; ‘Gene therapy - social Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q5
Observation and experiment consideration’; Gene therapy - ethical consideration’.
o Learners justify their statements to a small group and, if agreed, add it to a
poster.
o Display the posters for learners to consider and make notes. (G) (I) (Basic)
(Challenging)
Note
 This needs to be treated with sensitivity.
 Social = related to human society, e.g. interdependence, mutual relationships,
cooperation for all to benefit.
 Ethics = set of agreed standards, determine what is acceptable, followed by a group
of individuals, regulated behaviour.
Unit 9: Respiration
Learners should be familiar with the concept of energy transfer and understand that energy contained within biological compounds can be released for use by the cell.
They should have a sound understanding of what a molecule is, and understand chemical formulae and equations. It would be helpful if they understood the concept of
oxidation and reduction, at least at a simple level.
Context
This unit considers the key concept of biochemical processes and focuses on how the energy contained within food molecules such as glucose is transferred into the
universal energy currency of ATP for use in the cell. All unicellular and multicellular organisms use the organic compound ATP to drive the energy-requiring processes
that occur in cells. There are many direct links to other areas of the syllabus, such as: the structure and role of glucose and lipids from Unit 1; mitochondrion structure
and function from Unit 2; the role of enzymes in metabolic reactions from Unit 2; and ATP from Units 1 and 3. The unit has close links with photosynthesis in Unit 11,
which also covers the concept of energy transfer and ATP synthesis. Throughout the syllabus there are examples of the use of ATP for biochemical processes.
Outline
This unit covers the need for energy in living organisms and the universal occurrence of ATP as energy currency. The four main stages of aerobic respiration,
glycolysis, the link reaction, the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation are described. A distinction is made between the synthesis of ATP by substrate-linked
reactions and by oxidative phosphorylation; the role of coenzymes in these stages is made clear. A comparison is made between aerobic and anaerobic respiration in
mammals and in yeast. An explanation of RQ is given and different respiratory substrates are considered. Learners use respirometers to make quantitative studies of
respiration and have an opportunity to improve planning and evaluative skills. This unit lends itself to sequential descriptions and the construction of flow diagrams to
illustrate the many different stages that occur within the overall process.
Teaching time
12.1.a  Brainstorm ideas to construct a disorganised set of statements. Encourage learners Online
outline the need for energy in living to include examples from prokaryotes and eukaryotes. (W) (Basic) http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchem
organisms, as illustrated by anabolic o Learners give headings for main uses of energy in organisms, accompanied by book/592energy.html
reactions, such as DNA replication bullet-point notes. http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teacher
and protein synthesis, active transport, o Agree that some examples from the brainstorming session could be grouped, s/Resources/cfb/index.htm
movement and the maintenance of e.g. under ‘movement’. Bullet points could include: bacteria and flagellar
body temperature movement (outline the difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic flagella);
protoctists and amoeboid movement, synchronous rhythm of cilia and flagellar
Key concepts movement; discharge of spores in fungi; muscle contraction in animals;
Cells as the units of life, translocation of sugars or closure of flytrap (see 15.2.a) in plants.
Biochemical processes o Learners recall Unit 1, Biological molecules, for relevant bullet points for
anabolic reactions. (I) (Basic)
Note
 Ensure that learners understand the meanings of the terms metabolism and
catabolism.
12.1.b  Use questioning to remind learners of the structure of an ATP molecule. Ensure Online
describe the features of ATP that learners realise that energy is released at each step of the complete hydrolysis of http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
make it suitable as the universal ATP: et/BiologyPages/A/ATP.html
energy currency ATP  ADP  AMP http://staff.jccc.net/pdecell/metabolism
(W) (Basic) /entrans.html#atpadp
Key concepts  Write out a list of features that make ATP suitable as the universal energy currency. http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/f
Biochemical processes o Learners add brief notes to explain each feature, including a diagram showing arabee/BIOBK/BioBookATP.html
the one-step process of release of energy from ATP hydrolysis and synthesis of
ATP from ADP and Pi (inorganic phosphate). (I) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
Bio Factsheet 129: ATP – what it is,
what it does
Past Papers
12.2.a  Learners recall an overall equation for aerobic respiration: Online

list the four stages in aerobic glucose + oxygen  energy + water + carbon dioxide http://leavingbio.net/RESPIRATION-
respiration (glycolysis, link reaction, o State that ATP should be substituted for ‘energy’. %28ordinary%20level%29.htm
Krebs cycle and oxidative o Learners write out a balanced equation using the correct chemical formulae (for http://leavingbio.net/respiration-
phosphorylation) and state where completeness, mention heat energy). (W) (Basic) %28higher%20level%29.htm
each occurs in eukaryotic cells  Learners write out the overall equation for aerobic respiration and produce a large
diagram (full page) of a cell (cytoplasm labelled), containing a (not-to-scale) large Past Papers
Key concepts labelled mitochondrion with visible cristae (1.2.b, Unit 2). Paper 41, June 2011, Q7 (b)(iii)
Cells as the units of life, o Learners write the heading of each of the four stages in the correct locations
Biochemical processes, and add to this later. (I) (Basic)
Natural selection
Note
 Glycolysis: can be shown later as glucose  pyruvate.
 Link reaction: pyruvate entering the mitochondrial matrix and the reaction with
coenzyme A, acetyl coenzyme A, enters the cycle.
 Krebs cycle: main stages of the cycle only, showing involvement of FAD and NAD,
decarboxylation and ATP production.
 Oxidative phosphorylation: NADH and FADH leaving the cycle to the crista, ATP
formation.
 Highlight to learners the similar biochemistry in different species of organisms (link
to the evidence for evolution in Unit 7).
12.2.b  Build up the idea that: (i) respiration is a series of enzyme-controlled metabolic Online
outline glycolysis as phosphorylation reactions, (ii) it takes place in all living cells, and (iii) energy contained in molecules http://glycolysis.co.uk/
of glucose and the subsequent such as glucose is used to make ATP molecules. (W) (Basic) www.science.smith.edu/departments/
splitting of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate  Explain that glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm (in virtually every organism) in both Biology/Bio231/glycolysis.html
(6C) into two triose phosphate anaerobic and aerobic respiration. (W) (Basic) http://www.sumanasinc.com/webconte
molecules, which are then further  Learners copy out a skeleton flow diagram of glycolysis, with glucose, the two nt/animations/content/cellularrespirati
oxidised to pyruvate with a small yield intermediates, and pyruvate shown (missing intermediate stages could be signified on.html
of ATP and reduced NAD by the correct number of arrows in between). http://www.johnkyrk.com/glycolysis.ht
o With question and answer prompts, learners build up their flow charts with detail ml
Key concepts and explanatory annotations. Ensure they understand that: coenzyme NAD is http://highered.mcgraw-
Biochemical processes required to act as an electron (hydrogen) carrier for the enzyme-catalysed hill.com/sites/9834092339/student_vi
reaction (see 12.1.d); NADH has different fates, depending on whether or not ew0/chapter7/how_glycolysis_works.
oxygen is available. html
o Learners show clearly the tally of ATP use and production. http://resources.teachnet.ie/foneill/res
o The number of carbons for each of the molecules in the process is shown in pir.html
brackets. (W) (I) (Challenging)
 Explain that in glycolysis ATP can be formed when another phosphorylated organic Past Papers
compound transfers a phosphate to ADP: so ATP is synthesised as a product in a Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q6 (a)(b)
substrate-linked reaction (see 12.1.c). (W) (Basic)
Note
 If able learners are given a more complete picture, stress that the additional
intermediate steps and compounds are not required learning.

 Mention that ‘substrate-level phosphorylation’ is an alternative term to substrate-
linked ATP synthesis.
12.2.c  Explain that pyruvate travels from the cytosol through the inner and outer Online
explain that, when oxygen is available, mitochondrial membranes to enter the matrix where the link reaction occurs. (W) http://www.saps.org.uk/learners
pyruvate is converted into acetyl (2C) (Basic) http://www.wiley.com/legacy/college/b
coenzyme A in the link reaction  Learners study and comment on the link reaction equation before making notes. oyer/0470003790/animations/tca/tca.
They should note that: htm
Key concepts o Coenzyme A transfers an acetyl group to the Krebs cycle (see 12.1.d). http://www.science.smith.edu/departm
Biochemical processes, o Carbon dioxide is given off, hence decarboxylation* occurs. ents/Biology/Bio231/krebs.html
Organisms in their environment o NAD acts as an electron (hydrogen) carrier, hence dehydrogenation* occurs. http://www.johnkyrk.com/krebs.html
o The reaction occurs twice for each original glucose molecule. (G) (I) (Basic) http://highered.mcgraw-
(Challenging) hill.com/sites/0072507470/student_vi
ew0/chapter25/animation__how_the
Note _krebs_cycle_works__quiz_1_.html
 See 12.2.e also.
12.2.d  Build up the simple diagram showing the required steps in the Krebs cycle, including Online
outline the Krebs cycle, explaining that the number of carbon atoms for the three named compounds. http://www.saps.org.uk/learners
oxaloacetate (a 4C compound) acts as o Emphasise: its cyclic nature; enzyme-controlled reactions (no names required); http://www.wiley.com/legacy/college/b
an acceptor of the 2C fragment from more steps are involved than is shown. (W) (I) (Basic) oyer/0470003790/animations/tca/tca.
acetyl coenzyme A to form citrate (a  Explain that two carbon dioxide molecules are released for one turn of the cycle and htm
6C compound), which is reconverted ask learners to decide where this is and add to the diagram. http://www.science.smith.edu/departm
to oxaloacetate in a series of small o Tell learners where substrate-linked phosphorylation occurs (see 12.2.b and ents/Biology/Bio231/krebs.html
steps 12.1.c) so they can add ATP formation to their diagram (knowledge of GTP not http://www.johnkyrk.com/krebs.html
required).
Key concepts o Learners volunteer the role of NAD and FAD, and then add the formation of Past Papers
Biochemical processes NADH and FADH to their cycle (see 12.2.d). (I) (Basic) Paper 43, June 2011, Q6 (a)(b)
 Learners state and explain how many turns of the cycle occur for each molecule of
glucose. (I) (Basic)
 Allow learners a short time to look at their diagrams, and then talk through the steps
while they draw the cycle. (F)
Note
 Learners should avoid websites that have far more detail than required.
12.2.e  Learners add annotations to the Krebs cycle:

explain that reactions in the Krebs o dehydrogenation occurs: the NADH and FADH contain hydrogen atoms protons
cycle involve decarboxylation and and electrons (from the respiratory substrate)
dehydrogenation and the reduction of o decarboxylation of intermediates occurs: carbon dioxide is given off. (I) (Basic)
NAD and FAD  Give learners time to assimilate the information on their diagrams before testing
them. (I) (Challenging)
Key concepts
Biochemical processes Note
 Dehydrogenase and decarboxylase enzymes could be mentioned here (not required
learning).
12.1.c  Learners add an explanation of ATP synthesis by substrate-linked reactions to their Online
explain that ATP is synthesised in summary diagram of 12.2.a. (W) (Basic) http://sandwalk.blogspot.co.uk/2007/1
substrate-linked reactions in glycolysis 2/how-cells-make-atp-substrate-
and in the Krebs cycle level.html
Key concepts
12.2.g  Learners label a basic diagram of the membrane carriers of the electron transport Online
explain that during oxidative chain (ETC) and the ATP synthase (synthetase) complex in the inner mitochondrial / http://www.science.smith.edu/departm
phosphorylation: crista membrane (include labels for the mitochondrial matrix and the inter- ents/Biology/Bio231/etc.html
 energetic electrons release energy membrane space). http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/c
as they pass through the electron  With prompting and guidance, learners show on their diagram the transfer of ontent/chp07/0702001.html
transport system hydrogen to the membrane from NADH and FADH and the release of the
 the released energy is used to coenzymes for re-use in the Krebs cycle. (W) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
transfer protons across the inner  Learners contribute to build up the rest of the diagram. For the electron transport Bio Factsheet 12: Respiration
mitochondrial membrane chain include:
 protons return to the mitochondrial o Hydrogen from NAD/FAD split into protons and electrons. Past Papers
matrix by facilitated diffusion o Oxidation-reduction reactions are involved (hence ‘oxidative’) as electrons are Paper 42, June 2013, Q4 (a)(i)
through ATP synthase providing transported down the ETC (i.e. to lower energy levels).
energy for ATP synthesis (details of o Energy provided by the electron transfer is used to pump protons from the
ATP synthase are not required) matrix into the intermembrane space.
o Oxygen (final electron acceptor) + electrons + protons produce water as a waste
Key concepts product.
Biochemical processes  For chemiosmosis, use learner knowledge of AS Level to discuss:
o The relatively impermeability of the membrane to protons (so allowing a build-
up).
o Facilitated diffusion of protons through the enzyme complex down their

concentration (and electrical) gradient.
o The enzyme-catalysed synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate by
the movement of protons (proton-motive force). (W) (I) (Challenging)
 Learners sort a set of statements into a correct sequence to outline oxidative
phosphorylation and then add an outline to their summary diagram of 12.2.a. (P) (I)
 Learners write a sequential account of the process. (F)
12.2.f  Assess understanding of 12.2.g by agreeing an outline summary with learners. Online
outline the process of oxidative o Oxidative phosphorylation is the last stage in the release of energy from the http://www.stolaf.edu/people/giannini/fl
phosphorylation including the role of initial respiratory substrate and oxygen is the final electron acceptor. ashanimat/metabolism/mido%20e%2
oxygen as final electron acceptor (no o The two linked parts to the process are the events involving the electron 0transport.swf
details of the carriers are required) transport chain and the events linked with a process known as chemiosmosis.
o The sources of the ‘energetic’ electrons are NADH and FADH from the Krebs Past Papers
Key concepts cycle and NADH from the link reaction. Paper 43, June 2011, Q6 (c)
Biochemical processes o ATP formation by oxidative phosphorylation is a process involving oxidation-
reduction reactions, where the energy needed for ATP synthesis is from the
transfer of electrons from a higher energy electron donor to a lower energy
electron acceptor.
 Learners add an outline of the link reaction, Krebs cycle and oxidative
phosphorylation to their summary diagram of 12.2.a. (I) (Basic)
Note
 Carriers do not need identifying but explain that these are membrane proteins.
 Learners should be able tackle the concepts involved in 12.2.h if they have
mastered the outline of 12.2.g.
 Chemiosmosis as a term is not specified in a learning objective, but learners should
be familiar with the term.
12.1.e (i) Only part of this learning objective is included here: explain that the synthesis of ATP is Online
explain that the synthesis of ATP is associated with the electron transport chain on the membranes of mitochondria (see http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NB
associated with the electron 12.2.g) K21063/
transport chain on the membranes  With a brief written test, confirm learner knowledge and understanding of this
of mitochondria and chloroplasts learning objective (all details previously covered). (I) (Basic)
(see 12.2.g)  In preparation for Unit 11, explain that there is also an ETC located in the thylakoid
membranes of chloroplasts. (W) (I) (Basic)
Key concepts

12.1.d  Explain that many enzymes require a non-protein (co-)factor, in their active site to Online
outline the roles of the coenzymes help in catalysis, and that organic cofactors that associate with the enzyme during http://www.ebi.ac.uk/thornton-
NAD, FAD and coenzyme A in catalysis and then dissociate are known as coenzymes. (W) (Basic) srv/databases/CoFactor/index.php
respiration  Ensure learners now understand that NAD and FAD are electron (hydrogen)
carriers, so become reduced and can give electrons to electron acceptors during
Key concepts respiration (becoming oxidised again).
Biochemical processes o Learners should be clear that the oxidation of NADH and FADH releases energy
that can be used to synthesise ATP. (W) (Basic)
12.2.i  From electron micrographs of mitochondria, learners identify the outer and inner Online
describe the relationship between membrane, cristae and matrix. http://www.johnkyrk.com/mitochondrio
structure and function of the o Learners check if 70S ribosomes and small circular DNA is visible. (P) (I) n.html
mitochondrion using diagrams and (Basic)
electron micrographs  Learners construct an annotated diagram summarising how the structure of a Textbooks/Publications
mitochondrion is adapted for its functions. (I) (Challenging) Bio Factsheet 61: Chloroplasts and
Key concepts mitochondria
12.2.k  Use flow diagrams to explain the lactate pathway in mammals and the ethanol Online
explain the production of a small yield pathway in yeast, with learners providing the main outline of glycolysis (glucose to http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/f
of ATP from respiration in anaerobic pyruvate) and naming the location (cytoplasm). (W) (Basic) arabee/BIOBK/BioBookGlyc.html#An
conditions in yeast and in mammalian  Explain that these pathways occur when oxygen is not available, with pyruvate and aerobic
muscle tissue, including the concept of ethanol acting as the final electron acceptors to produce lactate and ethanol as http://www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/oxd
oxygen debt waste products. (W) (Basic) ebit.htm
 Learners suggest why pyruvate needs to be processed further when no more ATP
Key concepts is produced (the regeneration of NAD to allow glycolysis to continue - there is a very Textbooks/Publications
Biochemical processes, limited quantity of NAD in each cell). (W) (Basic) King p.84
Natural selection  Learners add an outline to their summary diagram of 12.2.a after making their own Siddiqui p.101
flow diagrams. (I) (Basic)
 Learners begin with oxidative phosphorylation and work backwards through earlier Past Papers
stages to write down a series of statements showing the consequences if oxygen is Paper 43, June 2013, Q4 (b)
not available. (F) (Challenging)
 Learners research the concept of oxygen debt and write an explanation.
o Annotations can be added to the lactate pathway to show how, when oxygen
becomes available, lactate can be converted back to pyruvate, which can then
be converted to glucose and glycogen for storage, or enter the Krebs cycle. (H)
(Challenging)
 Extension practical: learners investigate the effect of different concentrations of
ethanol on rates of respiration in yeast. (I) (Challenging)
Note
 Mention to learners that anaerobic respiration in yeast is also known as alcoholic or
ethanol fermentation and that anaerobic respiration in mammalian tissues is also
known as lactic acid or lactate fermentation.
 Explain to learners that the reduction of pyruvate to lactate is common in many
bacteria. Highlight that these reactions are similar in widely different species of
organism.
12.2.l  Remind learners of xerophytes and adaptation to survival in arid conditions (7.2.f) Online
explain how rice is adapted to grow and introduce rice as a plant adapted to survive with its roots submerged in water, http://plantsinaction.science.uq.edu.au
with its roots submerged in water in which has little oxygen. (W) (Basic) /edition1/?q=content/18-1-2-
terms of tolerance to ethanol from  Explain that an ethanol build-up is toxic to yeast cells and that plant cells also adaptive-responses-waterlogging
respiration in anaerobic conditions and produce ethanol when in anaerobic conditions. www.biologymad.com/resources/Crop
the presence of aerenchyma o Agree that continuous or prolonged anaerobic conditions as experienced by rice %20Plants.pps
when it is growing in flooded fields means that root cells need to be tolerant to
Key concepts ethanol. (W) (Basic) Past Papers
Organisms in their environment  Check learner understanding of the terms used in the learning objective: submerged Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q4 (a)(b)
and tolerance. (W) (Basic) Paper 42, June 2013, Q10 (b)
 Learners use a light microscope to observe aerenchyma in root and stem sections
of prepared slides. (I) (Basic)
 To summarise, learners list and explain the features that make rice adapted to grow
with roots that are submerged in water, and explain why most plants cannot survive
when their roots are submerged in water. (F)
12.2.j  Learners suggest what is meant by respiration: brainstorm ideas such as: the Textbooks/Publications
distinguish between respiration in release of energy from food; the production of ATP; ATP for use by the cell; the Jones, Fosbery, Taylor, Gregory, has
aerobic and anaerobic conditions in process occurs in the cell. on page 205 (2007), or on page 277
mammalian tissue and in yeast cells, o Expand the discussion to distinguish between aerobic respiration and (2013), a balance sheet of ATP use
contrasting the relative energy respiration in anaerobic conditions. (W) (Basic) and synthesis. This could be used to
released by each (a detailed account  Emphasise that most of the ATP is synthesised as a result of oxidative give learners an idea of the
of the total yield of ATP from the phosphorylation, requiring the reduced coenzymes from the link reaction and Krebs difference in relative energy
aerobic respiration of glucose is not cycle (compare with the 2ATPs produced without oxygen). (W) (Basic) released.
required)  Learners make notes comparing respiration in aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
Key concepts Paper 41, June 2011, Q7 (b)(ii)
Biochemical processes Note Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q6 (c)
 ‘Balance sheets’ are not required. There are different totals for ATP production in
aerobic respiration, varying from 32, to 36, to 38 in older text books. In more recent
texts, the estimate of ‘1NADH = 3ATP’ is now seen as approximately 1NADH =
2.5ATP (also 1FADH = 1.5ATP).
12.2.h  Remind learners that yeast is not a plant but a fungus. Emphasise that yeast
carry out investigations to determine respires aerobically and in anaerobic conditions. (W) (Basic)
the effect of factors such as  Explain that redox dyes are used as indicators of hydrogen transfer and in
temperature and substrate investigations can be used as artificial hydrogen acceptors to provide a visual check
concentration on the rate of respiration on the rate of respiration (the reduction of NAD or FAD cannot be ‘seen’). (W)
of yeast using a redox indicator (e.g. (Basic)
DCPIP or methylene blue) o State that methylene blue is blue in the oxidised state (without hydrogens) and
turns colourless as hydrogens are accepted and it becomes reduced. (W)
Key concepts (Basic)
Biochemical processes, o With this knowledge, small groups can be set the task of planning an
Organisms in their environment, appropriate investigation to carry out. (G) (Challenging)
Note
 These investigations are a good opportunity to develop planning skills.
 Experiments with yeast and anaerobic respiration require the substrate solution
(e.g. glucose) to be boiled (to remove oxygen) and cooled.
12.1.f  Learners recall the overall equation for aerobic respiration and understand how it Online
explain the relative energy values of balances. (W) (Basic) http://mutuslab.cs.uwindsor.ca/schurk
carbohydrate, lipid and protein as  Explain that many cells can use other respiratory substrates, such as other sugars, o/animations/bombcal/animation4.ht
respiratory substrates and explain why lipids and proteins, and that different substrates have different energy values per m
lipids are particularly energy-rich unit mass. (W) (Basic) http://highered.mcgraw-
 Reflect back to 12.1.e to remind learners about the importance of supplying hill.com/sites/0073040541/learner_vi
Key concepts hydrogen to the ETC for electron flow and the release of energy for ATP production. ew0/chapter7/animation__bomb_cal
Biochemical processes  Learners consider ratios of C, H and O, to explain and note down the relative orimeter.html#
energy values of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids, noting that lipids, with
proportionately more hydrogen per g of substrate, will yield more energy. (W) (I)
(Basic)
Note
 Knowledge of how the energy values are obtained is not required (see learning
resources / endorsed textbooks for background information).
12.1.g  Learners write out the definition of respiratory quotient and the formula to use when Online
define the term respiratory quotient calculating RQ values. http://www.biologymad.com/master.ht
(RQ) and determine RQs from o Explain that volumes or moles or molecules can be used but for any one ml?http://www.biologymad.com/Phot
equations for respiration calculation they should not be mixed. osynResp/PhotosynResp.htm
o Learners calculate the RQ value for glucose. (W) (I) (Basic)
Key concepts  When provided with equations, learners calculate the RQs for named substrates. Textbooks/Publications
Biochemical processes, (P) (I) (Basic) (Challenging) In Jones, Fosbery, Taylor, Gregory,
Organisms in their environment o Learners construct a summary table for carbohydrates, proteins and lipids pages 208-209 (2007), or page 281
(approximate values). (I) (Basic) (2013), explains respiratory quotient
o Learner explain the link between high RQ values and anaerobic respiration. (I) and has worked examples.
(Basic)
 Learners try SAQ 15.8, in Jones, Fosbery, Taylor, Gregory (2007), to calculate an Past Papers
RQ for a fatty acid. (I) (Challenging) Paper 43, Nov 2012, Q8 (c)
12.2.m  Explain how to use a simple respirometer to determine the rate of oxygen uptake Practical booklet 7
carry out investigations, using simple and rate of carbon dioxide production. (W) (Basic)
respirometers, to measure the effect  Discuss the benefits of using thermostatically-controlled water baths to maintain a Online
of temperature on the respiration rate constant temperature. http://www.phschool.com/science/biol
of germinating seeds or small o Learners suggest other ways of maintaining a constant temperature, with peer ogy_place/labbench/lab5/features.ht
invertebrates evaluation of the method. (P) (I) ml
 Practical booklet 7 involves using a simple respirometer and provides opportunity http://www.biologymad.com/master.ht
Key concepts for data analysis and planning for Paper 5. Learners plan an investigation to find the ml?http://www.biologymad.com/Phot
Observation and experiment optimum temperature for respiration. Learners swap and carry out a partners plan osynResp/PhotosynResp.htm
exactly as written, each to provide their partner with an evaluation of the plan. (P) (I)
(Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
King p.80-83
Note Siddiqui p.101-103
 You may wish to save time and also carry out the requirement of 12.1.h.
 Simple designs, using a single syringe and capillary tubing (as in Practical booklet
7) are far more sensitive to temperature and require minimal handling.
 The simple respirometers are more reliable in yielding results than the modifications
of the Barcroft respirometer, usually given in practical guides.
 Temperature compensation by having two tubes linked by a manometer results in

well controlled experiments, but introduces potentially leaky joints.
 A teacher demonstration of a temperature-compensated respirometer is advisable,
so learners see both types.
12.1.h  Learners carry out an investigation to measure RQ using the simple respirometers Practical booklet 7
carry out investigations, using simple (planning skills may be developed here),
respirometers, to determine the RQ of o e.g. learners measure carbon dioxide production and oxygen absorption by Online
germinating seeds or small germinating seeds, and calculate RQ. This has the potential to develop abilities http://www.biologymad.com/master.ht
invertebrates (e.g. blowfly larvae) evaluating investigations. (I) (Challenging) ml?http://www.biologymad.com/Phot
osynResp/PhotosynResp.htm
Key concepts http://www.phschool.com/science/biol
Observation and experiment ogy_place/labbench/lab5/features.ht
ml
King p.80-83
Siddiqui p.101-103
Unit 10: Mammalian physiology, control and coordination

Learners should have a good understanding of cell structure and the structure of a cell surface membrane. They should have an appreciation of the role of the various
components, particularly the role of glycoproteins as receptors in cell signalling and of membrane transport proteins. They should understand the concept of water
potential and have good knowledge of transport mechanisms across membranes, including facilitated diffusion and active transport from Unit 2.
Context
This unit builds on the key concept of cells as the basic units of life to consider how mammals, as multicellular organisms, control and coordinate activities and how
homeostatic mechanisms enable a balance to be maintained. The maintenance of homeostatic mechanisms for healthy functioning, such as in controlling blood
glucose concentrations, extends learner understanding of non-infectious disease. Cell structure, cell membranes, transport across membranes and the mammalian
circulatory system are topics covered at AS Level that are an important foundation for the learning objectives studied in this unit. A study of dipsticks, biosensors and
the contraceptive pill highlights the dependence of humans on biotechnology: biotechnology results from observation, enquiry and experiment, a key concept. The
examples studied here extend learner knowledge from those already covered in Unit 8.
Outline
This unit begins by highlighting the importance of responding to external and internal stimuli with effective control and coordination by the nervous system and by the
endocrine system. The structure and function of the motor and sensory neurone is covered and there is a detailed study of the transmission of nerve impulses,
including transmission across the synapse and the neuromuscular junction, followed by a consideration of the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction. Learners
consider the involvement of the nervous and endocrine systems in homeostatic mechanisms and discuss the role of negative feedback. Thermoregulation,
osmoregulation and blood glucose regulation exemplify the importance of homeostasis in mammals. The production of urea and the role of the kidney in the excretion
of nitrogenous wastes are described. Detail of the control of blood glucose concentration and water content (by the kidney) illustrates the concept of homeostasis.
Biotechnological applications are included by considering the use of dipsticks and biosensors in the detection of glucose in the blood and urine, and of protein and
ketones in urine. The unit concludes with a study of the menstrual cycle and the role of hormones in the cycle, which leads to a description of the contraceptive pill.
Teaching time
15.1.a  Discuss the need for communication between organs in a multicellular organism and CD-ROM
compare the nervous and endocrine how activities need to be controlled and coordinated. (W) (Basic) Bioscope – has images of nerves (LS
systems as communication systems  Use a brainstorm session to gauge learner knowledge and to discuss the main and TS).
that co-ordinate responses to changes features of each. As individuals make suggestions and agree whether they are
in the internal and external referring to the nervous or endocrine system. (W) (Basic) Online
environment (see 14.1.a) and 14.1.b) o Learners note down that the two systems are for control, coordination and http://www.udel.edu/Biology/Wags/hist
internal communication, and that they can interrelate and affect each other. (W) opage/colorpage/cp/cp.htm
Key concepts (Basic) http://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-
Cells as the units of life,  Learners research and give definitions of the terms: stimulus, receptor, effector, level/biology/nervous-and-hormonal-
Organisms in their environment control centre and response. (I) (Basic) control
 Learners list the features of an endocrine gland (an organ or tissue), with teacher
guidance. (W) (I) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
o Learners sketch endocrine glands onto a cut-out / diagram of a body and name Bio Factsheet 38: Animal hormones
the hormones that they secrete. Fill in any gaps in knowledge, mentioning those and hormone action.
particularly that are in this syllabus. (I) (Basic) King p. 151-152
o Learners name the target cells / tissues of each hormone, consolidating Siddiqui p.164-167, 171
understanding of hormones acting at a distance from their origin and at particular
sites of action. (W) (Basic) Past Papers
 Focus on the nervous system and ask what the equivalent to the hormones would Paper 41, June 2011, Q9 (a)
be to enable coordination. Encourage learners to use the terms nerve impulses or
impulses. (W) (Basic)
 Continue the discussion for learners to name the brain as the main control centre,
and muscles and glands, including endocrine glands, as effectors.
 Divide the class into two. One half participates in a group discussion to suggest
examples of internal changes in organisms, stating for each one: the organs /
systems that are affected; receptor(s); communication method; effector(s); and
response(s). The other half suggests examples of changes in external environment.
The two groups come together to share ideas. (W) (G) (Basic).
Note
 It will be noted that both systems involve negative feedback – a verbal clarification of
this mechanism is sufficient as learners will define the term later.
 Understanding of all terms will be consolidated as learners cover specific examples
within the unit.
15.1.b  Explain that nerves are composed of many specialised nerve cells, neurones, held Online
describe the structure of a sensory by connective tissue. (W) (Basic) http://www2.estrellamountain.edu/facul
neurone and a motor neurone  Learners draw, label and annotate a sensory and a motor neurone. (I) (Basic) ty/farabee/biobk/BioBookNERV.html#
o Learners compare the diagrams with electron micrographs. (I) (Challenging) The%20Neuron
Key concepts  Learners explain how the structure of the neurone is related to its function (or wait http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
Cells as the units of life until after 15.1.d has been covered). (H) (Basic) et/BiologyPages/N/Neurons.html
 Learners complete unlabelled and incomplete diagrams (the diagrams could lack
nuclei, myelin sheaths and synaptic knobs). (F) Past Papers
Paper 43, Nov 2011, Q9 (a)
15.1.c  Explain the difference between a sensory receptor cell and a sense organ, e.g. Online
outline the roles of sensory receptor tongue = organ of taste; taste cells are chemoreceptors (sensory receptor cells) http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/c
cells in detecting stimuli and found in clusters called taste buds. (W) (Basic) ontent/chp44/4402001.html
stimulating the transmission of nerve  Explain that the different forms of energy arriving at the sensory receptor get http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/t
impulses in sensory neurones (a converted (transduced) into electrical energy of the nerve impulse. wopt.html
suitable example is the chemoreceptor o State that all sensory receptors are transducers. (W) (Basic) http://www.answers.com/topic/taste-
cell found in human taste buds)  Learners research and list the different sensory receptors in humans and name the and-smell
forms of energy received by each receptor. (P) (I) (Basic)
Key concepts  Describe the sensory neurone with a resting potential and explain how a stimulus Textbooks/Publications
Cells as the units of life, leads to membrane depolarisation and impulse transmission. King p.180-183
Organisms in their environment o State that depolarisation causes an action potential to be generated and explain
that details are covered later. (W) (Challenging) Past Papers
 Choose for example, chemoreceptors as sensory receptors and state that they Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q11 (a)
detect specific molecules or classes of molecule.
o Learners suggest internal and external stimuli that are detected by
chemoreceptors and give examples of responses (e.g. the difference between
harmful / toxic substances taken into the mouth and food). (W) (Basic)
 Show learners a diagram of a sensory receptor cell / chemoreceptor and explain that
a taste cell has contact with a sensory neurone.
o Explain that the binding of molecules to receptors on the cell surface membrane
(many microvilli) of the taste cell leads to depolarisation, which is passed onto
the sensory neurone and the control centre.
o Learners state the type of transduction that has occurred. (W) (Challenging)
 Learners produce a diagram of a sensory receptor cell, showing synapses with
dendrites of a sensory neurone.
o Learners annotate the sequence of events occurring from the detection of a
stimulus to an impulse being transmitted along the sensory neurone. (I)
(Challenging)
 Introduce the terms receptor potential and all-or-nothing law/rule, either by teacher-
led discussion or by textbook/internet research. (W) (I) (Challenging)

 Practical: learners carry out experiments to investigate touch, temperature and pain
receptors in the skin. (P) (I) (Basic)
Note
 Explain to learners that some sensory receptors are also sensory neurones, while
others are specialist receptor cells that synapse with sensory neurones.
 Learners should feel confident applying the principles of the process to other
examples of sensory receptor cells.
15.1.d  Explain that a reflex arc is the neural pathway behind a reflex action. Online
describe the functions of sensory, relay o Introduce the relay neurone before asking learners to draw and annotate a reflex http://www.sumanasinc.com/webconte
and motor neurones in a reflex arc arc. (W) (I) (Basic) nt/animations/content/reflexarcs2.htm
 Practical: learners look at prepared slides of cross-sections of the spinal cord to l
Key concepts identify features. (I) (Basic) http://www.sciencejoywagon.com/explr
Cells as the units of life  Practical: learners carry out an experiment on a particular reflex action. sci/media/reflex.htm
o For each, learners draw a reflex arc and annotate to show the function of the http://www.intelligencetest.com/reflex/i
neurones. (F) ndex.htm
 Learners research examples of reflexes using the spinal cord and the brain,
detailing: stimulus; receptor; effector; and response. (H) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
o Learners share examples with the class. (W) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 58: Reflex action
Note
 Point out that some reflex actions (e.g. the pupil reflex) involve the brain rather than
the spinal cord.
15.1.e  Describe an action potential as a rapid, temporary change in a membrane potential, Online
describe and explain the transmission explaining that this acts as a ‘booster’ to ensure the impulse (see 15.1.a) travels the http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/c
of an action potential in a myelinated distance. (W) (Basic) ontent/chp44/4402002.html
neurone and its initiation from a resting  Explain the potential difference across the neurone membrane (mention also the http://www.biology4all.com/resources_l
potential (the importance of sodium presence of large anions inside the axon). ibrary/details.asp?ResourceID=40
and potassium ions in impulse o Build on AS Level knowledge to discuss how the resting potential is maintained http://www.biologymad.com/NervousS
transmission should be emphasised) (membrane polarised) by the sodium-potassium pump. ystem/nerveimpulses.htm
o Explain the presence of non-voltage gated channels and facilitated diffusion of http://outreach.mcb.harvard.edu/anima
Key concepts K+ outwards. tions/actionpotential_short.swf
Cells as the units of life, o Describe the voltage-gated channels (NaV and KV) specific to the two ions
Biochemical processes (which are closed). (W) (Challenging) Past Papers
 Learners set the scene by drawing an annotated diagram of the axon at rest / Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q11 (a)
polarised. (I) (Basic)

 Revisit understanding of ‘partially permeable’ and discuss ‘relatively impermeable’
and ‘relatively permeable’.
o Explain that open voltage-gated channels will increase membrane permeability
to the ion concerned (Na+ or K+). (W) (Basic)
 Display diagrams showing the outside and the inside of a neurone – one at a time or
project an animation – to explain what occurs when depolarisation in the previous
section increases the membrane voltage above a threshold value (relate back to all-
or-nothing from 15.1.c). Include diagrams for:
o Depolarisation: explain how the open NaV channels stimulate more channels to
open (further depolarisation = positive feedback); action potential = the large
change in membrane potential.
o Repolarisation: Describe the changes occurring to NaV and KV channels and
movement of ions.
o (Temporary) undershoot: explain that the membrane is more permeable to K+
than at rest, until their channels close.
o Refractory period: explain how closed voltage-gated channels and action of the
sodium-potassium pump restores the resting potential.
o At each stage, learners suggest permeability states to the different ions,
highlighting the slower-to-react KV channels and the importance of inactivity of
NaV channels. (W) (Challenging)
 Learners prepare the axes on graph paper and sketch the changes to potential as
each stage is discussed. (I) (Basic)
o Learners annotate the graph, explaining what is occurring at different time
points: resting potential, rising and falling phases of action potential, undershoot,
refractory period. (F)
 Discuss how Na+ entering the axon establishes a local circuit between this and the
negatively charged resting potential in the area ahead. (W) (Challenging)
o Learners suggest how current flow changes membrane permeability to Na+ to
cause self-propagation of the action potential, and how/why this is in one
direction only. (W) (Challenging)
 Discuss the two phases of the refractory period. (W) (Challenging)
 Learners draw four diagrams of the same section of axon (e.g. draw a simple
cylinder to show the outside and inside of the neurone), headed ‘resting potential’
‘depolarisation’ ‘repolarisation’ ‘refractory period’.
o Learners draw on the location or movement of Na+ and K+, giving a summary
under each diagram. (I) (Challenging)
 Learners explain the difference between the following: absolute refractory period and
relative refractory period; resting potential and action potential; polarised and
depolarised; impulse and action potential. (H) (Challenging)
Note
 There are no action potentials in short neurones as current flow is sufficient to
ensure the impulse travels the short distance.
15.1.f  Learners use resources to draw a labelled, annotated diagram showing transmission Online
explain the importance of the myelin of an action potential in a myelinated axon. http://www.bu.edu/histology/m/t_electr.
sheath (saltatory conduction) in o Learners add explanations to show how saltatory conduction is brought about, htm
determining the speed of nerve noting the high concentration of voltage-gated channels at the nodes. http://www.bu.edu/histology/p/21201lo
impulses and the refractory period in o Learners note how saltatory conduction has a great effect on speed of a.htm
determining their frequency transmission of impulses. (I) (Challenging) http://www.uni-
 Learners link the inactivated sodium voltage-gated channels during the falling phase mainz.de/FB/Medizin/Anatomie/works
Key concepts and part of the undershoot of the action potential (see 15.1.e), to an inability to hop/EM/EMSchwannE.html
Cells as the units of life trigger another action potential immediately if a second depolarisation arrives.
o Learners annotate their action potential graph. (W) (I) (Challenging) Past Papers
 Learners interpret diagrams and electron micrographs of an axon with a myelin Paper 41, June 2011, Q6 (c)
sheath, identifying Schwann cells and nodes of Ranvier.
o Learners study electron micrographs of unmyelinated axons and make
comparisons. (I) (Basic)
15.1.g  Learners copy out a definition of a synapse. Explain they will study a cholinergic Online
describe the structure of a cholinergic synapse, which is a chemical synapse. (W) (I) (Basic) http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/c
synapse and explain how it functions,  Learners draw and label a diagram of a synapse. (I) (Basic) ontent/chp44/4402003.html
including the role of calcium ions  Learners compare electron micrographs and diagrams of synapses. (I) (Basic) http://www.sumanasinc.com/webconte
 Remind learners of links with AS Level before outlining events in synaptic nt/animations/content/synaptictransmi
Key concepts transmission: for example, mitochondria, exocytosis, diffusion, membrane proteins, ssion.html
Cells as the units of life, hydrolysis catalysed by enzymes. (W) (Basic) http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
Biochemical processes  One learner makes the first statement in the sequence of events in synaptic et/BiologyPages/D/Drugs.html
transmission and chooses another learner to describe the next event, and so on. (G)
(Basic) Textbooks/Publications
 A learner chooses a diagram in the sequence and a partner describes what is Bio Factsheet 20: Nerves and
occurring and what will happen next. (P) (Basic) synapses
 Learners rearrange a set of diagrams to arrive at the correct sequence of events in Bio Factsheet 155: Answering exam
synaptic transmission. (F) (Basic) questions on neurones and synapse
o Learners add annotations to the sequenced diagrams and if necessary make Past Papers
additional bullet points. (F) (Challenging) Paper 43, Nov 2011, Q9 (b)
 Extension: discuss the effects of drugs on the transmission across the synapse and
show learners how to apply knowledge and understanding to new situations. (W)
(Basic)
Note
 Explain that there are other types of chemical synapses, and mention electrical
synapses.
15.1.h  Learners suggest and note down which features ensure one-way transmission of Online
outline the roles of synapses in the impulses across a synapse (vesicles with transmitter substance only found in the http://www.skoool.ie/skoool/examcentr
nervous system in allowing presynaptic neurone; specific receptor proteins only located on the postsynaptic e_sc.asp?id=2879
transmission in one direction and in membrane). (W) (I) (Basic)
allowing connections between one  Discuss the fact that one neurone can have many synapses relating to it, thus Textbooks/Publications
neurone and many others (summation, allowing interconnection of numerous nerve pathways. (W) (I) (Basic) King p.202-205.
facilitation and inhibitory synapses are  Background: discuss the benefits of interconnection (a stimulus can lead to a range
not required) of responses; can collect more information; excitatory and inhibitory synapses Past Papers
provide more flexibility in response, hence a wider range of behaviour. (W) (Basic) Paper 41, Nov 2012, Q1 (b(i)
Key concepts  Extension: learners carry out some simple investigations into learning that involves
Cells as the units of life synapses. (P) (I) (Challenging)
15.1.i  Learners study one or more labelled diagrams and establish that: striated muscle is Online
describe the roles of neuromuscular voluntary; skeletal muscle, the multinucleate cells are also known as muscle fibres http://www.bu.edu/histology/p/21501oo
junctions, transverse system tubules and contain a bundle of myofibrils. a.htm
and sarcoplasmic reticulum in o Learners note that the cell surface membrane of the muscle fibre is termed https://highered.mcgraw-
stimulating contraction in striated sarcolemma, and the cytoplasm is sarcoplasm. hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_vi
muscle o Explain that the sarcoplasmic reticulum is in contact with the myofibrils and is ew0/chapter10/animation__function_
similar to SER (Unit 1) and that transverse system tubules are infoldings of the of_the_neuromuscular_junction__qui
Key concepts cell surface membrane. (W) (Basic) z_3_.html
Cells as the units of life,  Learners label a diagram of a neuromuscular junction, adding labels using resources http://www.getbodysmart.com/ap/musc
Biochemical processes and knowledge of synaptic transmission. letissue/fibers/sr/tutorial.html
o Learners note that the neuromuscular junction is a form of synapse that is
necessary to allow the effector to respond. (I) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
 Learners sort cards containing details of the sequence of events occurring following Bio Factsheet 190: Neuromuscular
depolarisation at the synaptic terminal of the motor neurone (end with calcium ion junctions
release by the sarcoplasmic reticulum – see 15.1.k).
o Learners make notes, highlighting roles of the named items in the learning
objective. (P) (I) (Challenging)
 Extension: learners research myasthenia gravis (Unit 11) and compare a normal and
a myasthenic neuromuscular junction. (H) (Challenging)
15.1.j  Discuss the idea of a sarcomere (see 15.1.i diagrams) as the basic unit of Online
describe the ultrastructure of striated contraction, a repeating unit of a pattern made by thick and thin protein filaments. http://www.bu.edu/histology/p/21601oo
muscle with particular reference to (W) (Basic) a.htm
sarcomere structure  Learners label and annotate diagrams of the same sarcomere (i) relaxed, (ii)
contracting, and (iii) fully contracted, to prepare for 15.1.k.
Key concepts o Learners compare electron micrographs with their diagram. (I) (Basic)
15.1.k  Explain the sliding filament model while learners add labels to prepared diagrams. Online
explain the sliding filament model of o Discuss the role of the released calcium ions in binding to sites on troponin and http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/c
muscular contraction including the shifting the position of tropomyosin to expose the myosin binding sites. (W) ontent/chp47/4702001.html
roles of troponin, tropomyosin, calcium (Basic) http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/Education-
ions and ATP  Learners annotate their diagrams from 15.1.j. (I) (Challenging) resources/Education-and-
 As a whole group, the first member states the first event occurring, ‘depolarisation of learning/Big-Picture/All-
Key concepts the membrane of the synaptic terminal’ and then chooses the next member of the issues/Exercise-energy-and-
Biochemical processes group to continue the ‘story’. (W) (Challenging) movement/WTDV033020.htm
 Learners produce a written account, or a flow chart diagram, summarising the
sequence of events occurring from the arrival of an action potential at the synaptic Textbooks/Publications
terminal of the motor neurone to the contraction of the sarcomere. (F) Bio Factsheet 46: Muscles.
14.1.a  Learners write an explanation of what is meant by homeostasis. Online

discuss the importance of homeostasis o Explain that they should think of main ideas and use appropriate terminology http://www.biologymad.com/master.ht
in mammals and explain the principles (e.g. give choice as below). ml?http://www.biologymad.com/Hom
of homeostasis in terms of internal and  Maintenance of, an internal / a cellular, environment … eostasis/Homeostasis.htm
external stimuli, receptors, central  at a constant level / set point / norm / normal level / stable level or within
control, co-ordination systems, normal limits …
effectors (muscles and glands)  despite changes / fluctuations in the internal or external environment …
 using negative feedback control mechanisms …
Key concepts  so that cells can function efficiently. (I) (Basic)
Cells as the units of life,  Learners suggest the different parameters or physiological factors that should be
Organisms in their environment kept at / around a set point (e.g. temperature, blood glucose concentration, blood pH
/ carbon dioxide concentration, water balance / water potential, metabolic wastes)
and explain the importance of maintaining the balance.

o Encourage use of the terms negative feedback (defined in 14.1.b) receptors and
effectors. (W) (Basic)
 Learners use separate cards (limit 10-12) to write out definitions and features of the
terms stimulus, receptor, effector, control centre, response.
o Learners swap with a partner, who can write down the relevant term that is being
described. (P) (I) (Challenging)
14.1.b  Learners write out the simple definition using resources and then qualify further after Online
define the term negative feedback and discussion: http://www.biology-
explain how it is involved in o Physiological processes or a changing external environment can cause variation online.org/4/1_physiological_homeost
homeostatic mechanisms from the set point. asis.htm
o A mechanism brings the internal environment back to the set point, or small http://scienceaid.co.uk/biology/humans
Key concepts oscillations about the set point. /homeostasis.html
Cells as the units of life o Negative feedback always involves a receptor and effector and often involves a http://science.jrank.org/pages/3365/Ho
control centre. (W) (I) (Challenging) meostasis.html
 Using a named example, learners draw a flow chart to summarise homeostatic
control and negative feedback, showing the named receptor(s), effector(s) and Textbooks/Publications
control centre (if present). (H) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 28: Feedback control
 Learners are provided with a paragraph describing a named example of homeostatic mechanisms
control and construct an annotated diagram as a summary. (F) Bio Factsheet 161: Negative Feedback
Mechanisms
14.1.c  Learners write a paragraph explaining what the two systems have in common and Online
outline the roles of the nervous system then construct a table of the differences. (I) (Challenging) http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/c
and endocrine system in co-ordinating  Learners to research the difference between: excretion and secretion; an endocrine ontent/chp41/41020.html
homeostatic mechanisms, including gland and an exocrine gland. (H) (Basic) http://www.abpischools.org.uk/page/m
thermoregulation, osmoregulation and  Using resources, learners outline the involvement of the nervous system and odules/homeostasis_sugar/sugar2.cf
the control of blood glucose endocrine system in each of the named mechanisms, including naming, and m
concentration describing the role of, any hormones. (I) (Basic)
Key concepts Note

Cells as the units of life,  There are close links to 15.1.a.
Biochemical processes  The research on osmoregulation and blood glucose concentration is useful for later
studies.
14.1.d  Learners suggest the distinction between excretion and egestion. (W) (Basic) Online
describe the deamination of amino http://www.ilng.in/pdf/mtg_bio_final.pdf
acids and outline the formation of urea  Describe how deamination removes the toxic part of an amino acid molecule, http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
in the urea cycle (biochemical detail of forming highly toxic ammonia, and leaves a useful keto acid (chemical energy for et/BiologyPages/U/UreaCycle.html
the urea cycle is not required) respiration or conversion for energy storage).
o Explain that in many terrestrial animals the ammonia is immediately converted to Textbooks/Publications
Key concepts the less toxic urea. (W) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 59: Excretion.
Biochemical processes  Learners annotate an outline diagram of deamination and the urea (ornithine) cycle
as you provide additional information, including: takes place in the liver; enzyme
controlled; ATP required; urea transported dissolved in the blood. (I) (Basic)
 Extension: learners draw a molecule of urea highlighting that it is a small organic
compound (useful for later work on the kidney). (W) (Basic)
Note
 Explain that amino acids are not stored in the body.
14.1.e  Agree with learners the location of their kidneys. (W) (Basic) CD-ROM
describe the gross structure of the  Show learners, on a whole kidney, what is meant by transverse and longitudinal Bioscope – has images of kidney
kidney and the detailed structure of the sections before learners identify structures from images. sections.
nephron with its associated blood o Learners hold up to the light the prepared slides of rat kidney to show the shape
vessels using photomicrographs and of the entire kidney in LS or TS, and the areas of cortex and medulla. (W) (I) Online
electron micrographs (Challenging) http://www.histology.leeds.ac.uk/urinar
 Learners dissect (e.g. from a sheep), or use images of, a whole kidney to make y/kidney.php
Key concepts annotated drawings of the external appearance and a section through the kidney. (I) http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/R
Cells as the units of life (Challenging) ENAHTML/RENALIDX.html
 Go through a diagram of nephron structure, including the associated blood vessels. http://www.cie.org.uk/cambridge-
Refer also to the high blood pressure in the renal artery. for/teachers/order-publications/
o Explain that the venous system does not begin immediately after the glomerulus,
and that there is a dense capillary network serving the nephrons. (W) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
o Learners label and annotate the diagram. (I) (Basic) King p.155-156
Siddiqui p.191-194
Note Bio Factsheet 1: The kidney: excretion
 If a kidney is dissected, learners can trace the renal artery, renal vein and ureter, and osmoregulation
and follow the blood vessels into the cortex.
Past Papers
Paper 41, June 2012, Q10 (a)
14.1.f  For an overview, learners annotate a large diagram as you outline the processes Online
describe how the processes of occurring in each region. (W) (I) (Basic) http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
ultrafiltration and selective  Explain how sufficient pressure is present for ultrafiltration. et/BiologyPages/K/Kidney.html
reabsorption are involved with the o Discuss how the presence of the plasma proteins remaining in the blood has www.biologyinmotion.com/nephron/ind
formation of urine in the nephron some effect on water potential and the filtration process. (W) (Basic) ex.html
 Learners annotate diagrams to explain how the structure of the Bowman’s capsule http://www.biologymad.com/resources/
Key concepts and glomerulus allows the process of ultrafiltration to occur. kidney.swf
Cells as the units of life, o Explain the role of the basement membrane as the true dialysing filter. (I) http://www.sumanasinc.com/webconte
Biochemical processes (Challenging) nt/animations/content/kidney.html
 Learners make a list of the components of glomerular filtrate and list the components
of blood that are too large for ultrafiltration. (I) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
 Learners interpret tables showing the concentration of various substances in the Bio Factsheet 1: The kidney: excretion
blood plasma and the glomerular filtrate to make comparisons. (I) (Basic) and osmoregulation
 Learners annotate diagrams of selective reabsorption in the proximal convoluted Bio Factsheet 59: Excretion
tubule (PCT), with teacher-led prompts Bio Factsheet 150: Answering Exam
o To consolidate, learners make bullet point notes using resources. (I) Questions on the Kidney
(Challenging)
 Learners produce a summary listing the mechanisms of transport used in selective Past Papers
reabsorption and the substances that are transported. (I) (Basic) Paper 41, June 2012, Q10 (b)
 Learners explain how the structure of the cuboidal epithelial cells of the PCT are
suited to their function. (H) (F) (Challenging)
 Background: learners research the principles behind kidney dialysis. (I)
(Challenging)
Note
 For the overview diagram, explain that in the loop of Henle most water is
reabsorbed, and that the outward movement of sodium (and chloride) ions into the
interstitial fluid occurs to create a very low water potential. No details of the
mechanism or the countercurrent multiplier are required.
14.1.g  Learners recall from 14.1.c and AS Level why it is important to control the water Online
describe the roles of the content of the blood (refer to water potential gradients and osmosis). http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
hypothalamus, posterior pituitary, ADH o Learners discuss the consequences and the conflict between maintaining a et/BiologyPages/K/Kidney.html
and collecting ducts in osmoregulation constant volume of blood and maintaining constant water potential, e.g. when www.biologyinmotion.com/nephron/ind
someone has a meal high in salt. (W) (Basic) ex.html
Key concepts  Learners rearrange a set of linked, sequential statements to give a description of the http://www.biologymad.com/resources/
Cells as the units of life, roles in osmoregulation of the hypothalamus, posterior pituitary; ADH and collecting kidney.swf
Biochemical processes duct (CD). Include one statement to show the role of the distal convoluted tubule http://www.sumanasinc.com/webconte
(DCT). nt/animations/content/kidney.html
o Reminded learners that the surrounding (interstitial) fluid has a very low water
potential. (P) (I) (Challenging) Textbooks/Publications
o Learners use the statements as the basis for their notes. (I) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 1: The kidney: excretion
 Learners are later given only a few of these statements to sequence and fill in the and osmoregulation
missing details. (F) Bio Factsheet 59: Excretion
 Learners produce a flow chart to show the negative feedback control of water in the Bio Factsheet 150: Answering Exam
blood. (H) (Basic) Questions on the Kidney
 As a summary, learners interpret data from tables or graphs to explain and relate
concentrations of different substances in each part of the nephron. (I)
(Challenging).
14.1.h  Learners suggest (i) why it is important for blood glucose concentration to be kept Online
explain how the blood glucose relatively constant, and (ii) why, in healthy people, oscillations around the norm http://www.biologyreference.com/Bl-
concentration is regulated by negative concentration is inevitable. (W) (Basic) Ce/Blood-Sugar-Regulation.html
feedback control mechanisms, with  Using resources, learners construct a table similar to the incomplete table below. (I) http://www.mydr.com.au/gastrointestin
reference to insulin and glucagon (Basic) al-health/pancreas-and-insulin
norm/set point of 90-120mg of glucose http://www.betacell.org/content/articlevi
Key concepts 100cm-3 blood ew/article_id/1/
Cells as the units of life, increases above decreases below
Biochemical processes stimulus detected by beta () cells alpha () cells Textbooks/Publications
pancreas pancreas Bio Factsheet 145: Blood sugar and its
hormone released insulin glucagon control
main target tissues of liver and muscles liver
hormone (+adipose tissue) Past Papers
main effects of stimulates uptake of stimulates
hormone glucose breakdown of
……………….. glycogen to glucose
…………………… …………………….
final outcome blood glucose blood glucose

concentration concentration
decreases increases
 Learners describe the sequence of events occurring in the body after having a
carbohydrate-rich meal (illustrating homeostasis). (H) (Basic)
 Learners construct a flow chart to show negative feedback control of blood glucose
concentration involving insulin and glucagon.
o Learners add annotations or bullet points and include the terms homeostasis,
stimulus, receptor, effector and negative feedback. (F)
 Extension: learners investigate the effect of diabetes mellitus on the control of blood
glucose concentration. Links: use of dipsticks, 14.1.k; insulin production by genetic
engineering, 19.2.c. (H) (Basic)
Note
 Accurate spelling is important: both glucagon and glycogen are terms used in this
topic.
14.1.i  Use a question and answer session to remind learners of membrane proteins that Online
outline the role of cyclic AMP as a function as receptors and enzymes. http://courses.washington.edu/conj/gpr
second messenger with reference to o Explain that liver cells have different receptors to bind adrenaline and glucagon. otein/cyclicamp.htm
the stimulation of liver cells by o Learners suggest why the hormones are unable to trigger directly reactions http://highered.mcgraw-
adrenaline and glucagon within the cell (hydrophilic, do not enter cell). hill.com/olcweb/cgi/pluginpop.cgi?it=s
o Use a diagram to outline how binding causes production in the cytoplasm of wf::535::535::/sites/dl/free/007243731
Key concepts cyclic AMP, which then stimulates the enzymatic conversion of glycogen to 6/120109/bio48.swf::Action%20of%2
Biochemical processes glucose. (W) (Basic) 0Epinephrine%20on%20a%20Liver%
 Learners write a paragraph to explain the difference between first and second 20Cell
messengers. (F)
Note
 Muscle cells have receptors for adrenaline but not for glucagon.
 Names of the specific receptors are not required.
 Notes are not necessary at this point as a summary of 14.1.j will suffice
14.1.j  Discuss the role of adrenaline so learners understand the need for a higher-than- Online
describe the three main stages of cell normal blood glucose concentration. (W) (Basic) http://highered.mcgraw-
signalling in the control of blood  Discuss the sequential process using diagrams. (W) (Challenging) hill.com/olcweb/cgi/pluginpop.cgi?it=s
glucose by adrenaline as follows:  Learners annotate copies of the diagrams, highlighting how one event triggers the wf::535::535::/sites/dl/free/007243731
 hormone-receptor interaction at the next: 6/120109/bio48.swf::Action%20of%2
cell surface (see 4.1c)) o Binding of adrenaline and activation of G (membrane) protein. 0Epinephrine%20on%20a%20Liver%
 formation of cyclic AMP which binds o Enzyme-catalysed formation of cyclic AMP at the membrane and consequential 20Cell
to kinase proteins activation of kinase proteins. http://www2.estrellamountain.edu/facul
 an enzyme cascade involving o Phosphorylation of enzymes involved in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, e.g. ty/farabee/BIOBK/biobookendocr.htm
activation of enzymes by for the breakdown of glycogen to glucose-1-phosphate. (I) (Challenging) l
phosphorylation to amplify the signal  Learners re-order statements to show the sequential process (F) http://courses.washington.edu/conj/gpr
otein/cyclicamp.htm
Key concepts
14.1.k  Remind learners how a dipstick is used to detect glucose and then explain the Online
explain the principles of operation of principles of operation before learners make notes. http://www.southernbiological.com/kits-
dip sticks containing glucose oxidase o Learners write out a worded reaction and explain why a reaction catalysed by and-equipment/specialised-
and peroxidase enzymes, and glucose oxidase will confirm the presence of glucose (enzyme specificity, laboratory-and-field-equipment/urine-
biosensors that can be used for Unit 1). testing/g10-41-diastix/
quantitative measurements of glucose o Explain that peroxidases are used so that the hydrogen peroxide product reacts
in blood and urine with a chemical (chromogen) that produces a coloured product. (W) (I) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
 Practical: if available, learners compare Clinistix to Diastix. (W) (Basic) Bio Factsheet 157: Diabetes –
Key concepts  Outline the operation of the biosensor by incorporating questions to link to AS Level Management or Cure?
Biochemical processes, topics: partially permeable membrane, diffusion of glucose molecules (from the Bio Factsheet 167: Biosensors
Observation and experiment blood sample), immobilised enzymes and specificity.
o Discuss how the reaction needs to be detected, e.g. use of electrodes; a Past Papers
decrease in oxygen; increase in hydrogen peroxide; production of gluconic acid. Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q2 (b)
o Learners explain how the digital read-out is proportional to the concentration of
glucose in the sample. (W) (Challenging)
 Discuss how dipsticks and portable devices to detect glucose and measure
concentrations are considered great improvements for people with diabetes
(compared to times before glucose biosensors and the Benedict’s tests. (W) (Basic)
 Learners compare the use of glucose dipsticks and glucose biosensors, explaining
advantages of each. (I) (Challenging)
 Learners draw a diagram to show the main parts of a biosensor and annotate to
show the principles of operation. (F)
Note
 Link with previous work on insulin (14.1.h) and a practical for immobilised enzymes
(3.2.d).
 Note that some textbooks state that the oxidation of glucose produces,
gluconolactone, which is an intermediate of gluconic acid.
 Discuss ideas and developments in the commercial production of glucose
biosensors, e.g. devices that can control and regulate insulin doses.
 Learners should be able to use the principles of operation to apply to a design that
they may not have come across.
14.1.l  Learners reflect back to14.1.f and explain why glucose and proteins would not Online
explain how urine analysis is used in normally be found in urine in detectable levels. http://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/urine-
diagnosis with reference to glucose,  Explain that ketones are products of carbohydrate, protein and lipid metabolism, but dipstick-analysis
protein and ketones high levels in urine may indicate ill health, such as in uncontrolled type I diabetes. http://www.medicinenet.com/urine_test
 Explain that a urine analysis could indicate a condition: glycosuria and diabetes s_for_diabetes/article.htm
Key concepts mellitus; proteinuria / albuminuria / microalbuminuria and renal disease or damage
Biochemical processes, e.g. that may have been caused as a result of long-term type II diabetes. (W) Past Papers
Observation and experiment (Basic) Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q2 (a)
o Learners make outline notes on each of the three named urine compounds.
o Notes to include the diagnostic role of urine dipsticks (specific for each or
multiple combination strips testing for all three). (I) (Basic)
Note
 Very low concentrations are excreted by healthy people, levels detected by urine
dipsticks are indicative of possible health problems.
 Details of other tests that can be performed on urine are not required.
15.1.l  Learners review the endocrine system and hormones with a short written test. Online
explain the roles of the hormones FSH,  Discuss the different origins of the named hormones involved in the menstrual cycle, http://www.biologymad.com/master.ht
LH, oestrogen and progesterone in explaining target tissues differ. ml?http://www.biologymad.com/Horm
controlling changes in the ovary and o Emphasise for later their importance in synchronising activities of the ovary and ones/Hormones.htm
uterus during the human menstrual uterus. (W) (Basic) http://highered.mcgraw-
cycle  Use diagrams to describe the maturation of the follicle in the ovary, ovulation and the hill.com/sites/0072495855/learner_vi
formation of the corpus luteum. ew0/chapter28/animation__positive_
Key concepts o Describe the events occurring in the uterus. (W) (Basic) and_negative_feedback__quiz_1_.ht
Cells as the units of life,  Learners draw a large outline graph. The x-axis being time (to 28 days – explain that ml
Biochemical processes cycles may be longer or shorter), y-axis being hormone concentration (arbitrary http://highered.mcgraw-
units). hill.com/sites/0072495855/learner_vi
o Learners sketch diagrams of (i) the physical changes in the uterus over 28 days ew0/chapter28/animation__maturatio
(above the graph), and (ii) the changes occurring in the ovary (below the graph). n_of_the_follicle_and_oocyte.html
(I) (Basic)
o Using description and question and answers build up the graph to show the Textbooks/Publications
changing concentrations of the hormones over the 28 days (use a method to Bio Factsheet 57: Oestrous cycles.
distinguish oestrogen and progesterone, the sex hormones, from FSH and LH, Includes the menstrual cycle
the two pituitary hormones.
o Discuss the feedback mechanisms that occur to enable the cycle to be Past Papers
controlled, learners annotate or add bullet point notes. (W) (I) (Challenging) Paper 41, June 2012, Q5 (a)
 Extension: learners investigate the role of gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH)

in the control of the menstrual cycle. (I) (Challenging)
 Learners discuss the changes to the graph(s) for shorter / longer cycles, explaining
the reasons for their choices. (G) (Challenging)
 Learners describe specific examples within the cycle of positive and negative
feedback mechanisms. (I) (Challenging)
 Learners complete unlabelled diagrams and graphs showing the events in the
menstrual cycle. (F)
Note
 It may be beneficial for learners to know the full names of FSH and LH: they are not
required learning.
15.1.m  Learners research how the combined oral contraceptive pill prevents pregnancy and Online
outline the biological basis of compare this with the progesterone /progestin-only pill. (H) (Basic) http://www.patient.co.uk/search.asp?s
contraceptive pills containing  Learners consider how concentrations of oestrogen and progesterone differ in earchTerm=contraceptive+pill&collect
oestrogen and/or progesterone women who are taking the contraceptive pill. ions=Condition_Leaflets
o Learners explain the effects of these differences in terms of the feedback http://hcd2.bupa.co.uk/fact_sheets/htm
Key concepts mechanisms discussed in 15.1.l. (I) (Challenging) l/hormonal_contraception.html
Note Past Papers
 The role of oestrogen and/or progesterone in controlling fertility is an extension of Paper 43, June 2011, Q3 (b)
learners’ knowledge and understanding of the menstrual cycle.
Unit 11: Plant physiology and biochemistry

As with respiration, learners should be familiar with the concept of energy transfer, for example from light energy to chemical energy. They should have a sound
understanding of what a molecule is, and understand chemical formulae and equations. It would be helpful if they understood the concept of oxidation and reduction, at
least at a simple level. Knowledge from AS Level of plant cell structure and of gene expression will help understanding of the role of gibberellin in cell elongation. It
would be helpful if learners had an appreciation of the importance of communication, control and coordination in multicellular organisms.
Context
This unit considers another aspect of the key concept of biological processes and studies the transfer of energy from light energy to the energy contained in organic
compounds in living organisms. It has close links to Unit 9, Respiration, and revisits the concepts involved in the synthesis of ATP by chemiosmosis. It builds on
material covered at AS Level: enzymes and biological molecules, especially glucose and starch, from Unit 1; plant cell structure and chloroplast structure and function
from Unit 2; and leaf structure, including stomata from Unit 4. Having considered mammalian physiology in Unit 10, the plant hormones abscisic acid and gibberellin are
used to exemplify communication, control and coordination in plants. Learners first come across gibberellin when studying selective breeding in Unit 7. This unit could
be taught before Unit 9, Respiration, if it is felt more logical to introduce learners first to the process involved with the initial input of energy into the ecosystem.
Outline
The unit begins with an overview of photosynthesis, highlighting the transfer of energy and the link between the light dependent and light independent stages. The light
absorbing pigments are introduced and linked to the concepts involved with absorption and action spectra: learners can also separate photosynthetic pigments by
chromatography. The light dependent and light independent stages of photosynthesis are described. The concept of limiting factors is introduced and learners have the
opportunity of investigating factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis. A consideration of how this knowledge can be applied to crop plants is included. More detail is
provided of the ways in which the structure of a chloroplast is suited to its functions. Learners also consider how some plants have evolved to cope with life in hot
environments. Response to an external stimulus is exemplified by a study of the Venus fly trap. Stomatal closure and opening, including the role of abscisic acid, the
role of auxin in cell elongation and the effect on gene activation of gibberellin is covered. There are numerous practical opportunities within this unit to develop skills
relating to planning, data analysis and the evaluation of investigations.
Teaching time
13.1.b  Project or show an image or diagram of a chloroplast and check learner knowledge Online
state the sites of the light dependent from Unit 1 by a question and answer session. http://resources.teachnet.ie/foneill/phot
and the light independent stages in the o Learners explain why the thylakoid membranes are the location of ATP o.html
chloroplast synthesis (refer back to mitochondrial membranes: site of ATP synthase,
location for photosynthetic pigments).
Key concepts o Learners suggest why the stroma is the site of the Calvin cycle (enzyme
Cells as the units of life, reactions). (W) (Challenging)
Note
 A review may be necessary of the anatomy of the leaf, so that learners can visualise
mesophyll tissue and mesophyll cells containing chloroplasts.
 13.3.a may be taught first to give a visual overview of where the processes of
photosynthesis occur.
13.1.c  Allow learners to state the role of chlorophyll before raising the level of Online
describe the role of chloroplast understanding to explain that the light energy needs to be transferred. Explain that: http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
pigments (chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, o Absorption occurs in areas of the thylakoid membrane that contain hing-resources/283-photosynthesis-
carotene and xanthophyll) in light photosystems. how-does-chlorophyll-absorb-light-
absorption in the grana o Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b are two types of chlorophyll molecule in a typical energy
photosystem, along with other photosynthetic pigments, e.g. carotenes and http://phototroph.blogspot.ca/
Key concepts xanthophylls.
Cells as the units of life o Each type of pigment absorbs certain wavelengths of light and reflects others Textbook/Publications
(mention the antenna complex). Bio Factsheet 63: Pigments in plants
o Absorbed energy is passed on to a special pair of chlorophyll molecules that can
pass on energetic/excited electrons to electron acceptors. (W) (Challenging)
 Learners label and annotate an unlabelled diagrammatic version of a photosystem
as you talk them through the various components.
o Learners note that: the special pair act as the reaction centre and the others as
accessory pigments; in Photosystem I (PI) the pair have a characteristic
absorption wavelength of 700 nm (P700), and in PII of 680 nm (P680).
o Refer to the higher energy state of the electrons as photoactivation of
chlorophyll. (I) (Challenging)
Note
 Explain that xanthophylls and carotenes are carotenoids.
 This overlaps with 13.1.f so details of the photosystems may be taught there.
13.1.d  Background practical to help understanding: learners follow, or have demonstrated Online
interpret absorption and action spectra or described, a protocol to measure an absorption spectrum to see how the curve on http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
of chloroplast pigments the graph is obtained. et/BiologyPages/A/ActionSpectrum.ht
o Explain that absorption is measured using a spectrophotometer). (W) (P) (I) ml
Key concepts  Learners study separate absorption graphs for each of the chloroplast pigments (i.e. http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
Cells as the units of life, each has a characteristic absorption spectrum): check understanding with a hing-resources/130-the-effect-of-light-
Organisms in their environment, worksheet. (I) (Basic) colour-and-intensity-on-the-rate-of-
Observation and experiment  Provide learners with a ‘classic’ absorption spectrum graph (includes the main photosynthesis
pigments) and a set of questions assessing ability to extract data and show
understanding. Textbooks/Publication
o Learners suggest the advantages to plants of having different pigments (extends Siddiqui p.91
the range of light wavelengths absorbed). (F)
 Explain how the graph for the action spectrum of photosynthesis is obtained. (W) Past papers
(Basic) Paper 51, Nov 2011, Q1 (a)(b)
 Show learners a ‘classic’ action spectrum with peaks in the red and blue regions and
sketch an absorption spectrum graph of pigment ‘X’ (actually chlorophyll a) and a
separate one for a pigment ‘Y’ (peaking in the green region).
o Learners suggest, with a reason, which is most likely to be involved in light
absorption for photosynthesis, so that the correlation between absorption and
action spectra is seen. (W) (Basic)
 Explain that there are more pigments involved than those usually shown, so the
absorption spectrum graph is only similar to the action spectrum graph.
o Explain that there are different carotenes and xanthophylls and different plants
have a characteristic set of pigments. (W) (Basic)
Note
 Check that the absorption spectrum is well understood before moving onto the
action spectrum, ensuring that learners make the association between the two.
13.1.e  Practical: learners could carry out the separation for pigments of one plant, and Practical booklet 8
use chromatography to separate and compare results with others that have used different plants.
identify chloroplast pigments and carry o Learners make measurements and calculate Rf values, comparing with Online
out an investigation to compare the published values to make identifications. (G) (I) (Basic) http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
chloroplast pigments in different plants  Practical booklet 8 is a protocol for separating chloroplast pigments by paper hing-resources/181-learner-sheet-10-
(reference should be made to Rf values chromatography. Colours fade relatively quickly so measurements should be made thin-layer-chromatography-for-
in identification) as soon as possible (or take photographs) after removing chromatograms from the photosynthetic-pigments
solvent.
Key concepts Textbook/Publications
Observation and experiment King p.113-114

Siddiqui p.90-91
Past Papers
Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q10 (b)
Paper 51, Nov 2011, Q1 (c)(d)(e)
Paper 53, Nov 2011, Q1 (d)(ii)
13.1.f  Use a diagram to ask learners questions about what happens in a photosystem Online
describe the light dependent stage as (13.1.c). http://cnx.org/content/m48011/latest/
the photoactivation of chlorophyll o Ensure learners know that excitation of energetic electrons results in a transfer http://www.life.illinois.edu/govindjee/tex
resulting in the photolysis of water and to an acceptor. tzsch.htm
the transfer of energy to ATP and o Explain that the absorption of light energy in PII also triggers the photolysis of http://www.johnkyrk.com/photosynthesi
reduced NADP (cyclic and non-cyclic water by an enzyme (termed the oxygen evolving complex, closely located to the s.html
photophosphorylation should be reaction centre). (W) (Basic)
described in outline only)  With verbal prompts, learners build up the ‘Z-scheme’ to produce an outline of non- Textbook/Publications
cyclic photophosphorylation and include explanations. Bio Factsheet 02: The essential guide
Key concepts o Sketch a ‘rising’ letter ‘N’, then add PII, then PI (represent energy to photosynthesis.
Biochemical processes levels). Bio Factsheet 153: The Light
o Add circles for the electron transport chain carriers (or label ETC) Dependent Stage of Photosynthesis
and add arrows to show the electron pathway.
o Add arrows to show the production of ATP as electrons flow down the ETC. Past Papers
o Show the photolysis of water, with electrons replacing the gap in PII, oxygen Paper 43, Nov 2013, Q7 (a)
evolved.
o Show the electrons accepted by NADP to produced reduced NADP.
o Add the title non-cyclic photophosphorylation (noted for 13.1.a later). (I) (Basic)
 Learners repeat the construction of the Z-scheme and add explanatory notes without
help. (F)
o Describe cyclic photophosphorylation.
o Learners suggest why only ATP can be synthesised.
o Learners add this in a different colour to their Z-scheme. (I) (Basic)
 Learners revise work on chemiosmosis (Unit 9) to give an account of ATP synthesis
at the thylakoid membrane. A partially labelled diagram showing a section through
the thylakoid membrane with electron carriers of the ETC and the ATP synthase
complex can be used as stimulus. (H) (Challenging)
12.1.e (ii) Only part of this learning objective is included here: explain that the synthesis of ATP Online
explain that the synthesis of ATP is is associated with the electron transport chain on the membranes of chloroplasts (see http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NB
associated with the electron 12.2.g) K21063/
transport chain on the membranes  Learners complete a short written test to remind them of previous work
of mitochondria and chloroplasts o Chloroplasts are cellular structures where ATP is formed. Textbook/Publications
(see 12.2.g) o ATP is an energy transfer molecule. Bio Factsheet 153: The Light
o The initial energy input for chloroplasts is light energy and for mitochondria, Dependent Stage of Photosynthesis
Key concepts energy-containing organic compounds.
Cells as the units of life, o The ETC involves thylakoid membrane proteins capable of accepting and Past papers
Biochemical processes donating electrons. (F) Paper 41, June 2013, Q10 (b)
13.1.a  In groups learners construct a large, poster-sized concept map / spider diagram with Online
explain that energy transferred as ATP photosynthesis as a topic. (G) (Basic) http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
and reduced NADP from the light  Discuss and agree as a class the main points and improve ideas to A Level hing-resources/134-photosynthesis-
dependent stage is used during the standard. Learners then make notes in diagrammatic or bullet-point form. a-survival-guide-teaching-resources
light independent stage (Calvin cycle) o An overall equation for photosynthesis (word equation changed to chemical http://photoscience.la.asu.edu/photosy
of photosynthesis to produce complex formulae, balanced). n/study.html
organic molecules o Two main stages, occurring in the chloroplasts of mesophyll cells and both http://www.johnkyrk.com/photosynthesi
involving enzymes. sdark.html
Key concepts o In the light dependent stage, light energy is transferred to ATP and the reduced http://www.biologymad.com/master.ht
Biochemical processes, coenzyme, NADP. ml?http://www.biologymad.com/a2bio
Organisms in their environment o Oxygen (waste product) from this stage can be used for aerobic respiration (in logy.htm
plant or released into the atmosphere to other organisms). http://staff.jccc.net/pdecell/photosyn/ph
o In the light independent stage (also termed the Calvin cycle), carbon dioxide, otoframe.html
ATP and NADPH are used for the production of complex organic molecules, http://faculty.fmcc.suny.edu/mcdarby/A
such as glucose and starch. (W) (I) (Challenging) nimals&PlantsBook/Plants/01-
Photosynthesis.htm
Note
 Learners should understand the terms ‘autotroph’, ‘photoautotroph’ and ‘producer’. Past papers
 Avoid using the terms ‘light reaction’ and ‘dark reaction’. Paper 43, Nov 2013, Q7 (b)
13.1.g  Discuss why the light dependent stage of photosynthesis needs to occur when no Online
outline the three main stages of the glucose has yet been made (allows the transfer of light energy to ATP and reduced http://www.science.smith.edu/departm
Calvin cycle: NADP). ents/Biology/Bio231/calvin.html
 fixation of carbon dioxide by o Learners write out the overall equation of photosynthesis to spot that carbon http://www.wiley.com/college/boyer/04
combination with ribulose dioxide has not yet been involved (sets the scene for the Calvin cycle). (W) 70003790/animations/photosynthesis
bisphosphate (RuBP), a 5C (Basic) /photosynthesis.htm
compound, to yield two molecules of  Learners link together a set of statements, based around the ideas in the learning http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/che
GP (PGA), a 3C compound objectives and including rubisco, to describe the Calvin cycle. mistry/laureates/1961/calvin-
 the reduction of GP to triose o Provide curved arrows, so that they can create a cycle with their statements. (P) lecture.pdf
phosphate (TP) involving ATP and (I) (Challenging)
reduced NADP  Discuss their cycles. Textbooks/Publications
 the regeneration of ribulose o Emphasise the roles of reduced NADP and ATP (include the concept of Bio Factsheet 02: The essential guide
bisphosphate (RuBP) using ATP recycling to the light dependent stage). to photosynthesis.
o Explain that the steps are catalysed by enzymes. Bio Factsheet 227: RuBP carboxylase
Key concepts o Show how 6 carbon dioxide molecules are required to produce 1 glucose – the most important enzyme on the
Biochemical processes molecule, so that the overall equation for photosynthesis makes sense. planet?
o Learners then produce their own annotated Calvin cycle. (W) (I) (Challenging)
 Background: learners investigate the experiments carried out by Calvin and his Past Papers
colleagues using the ‘lollipop’ apparatus. (I) (Challenging) Paper 41, June 2011, Q10 (b)
 Learners annotate fully a skeleton outline of the Calvin cycle (provide a variety so Paper 43, June 2011, Q10 (b)
that each contains different information – could be differentiated). (F) (Basic)
(Challenging)
Note
 For ‘error-free learning’, use only the syllabus names and abbreviations:
o GP (glycerate 3-phosphate) or PGA (3PG / 3-phosphoglycerate /
3-phosphoglyceric acid)
o TP (triose phosphate). Avoid other common names: glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
(GALP); 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL)
o Explain that other acceptable names are used.
 No names of enzymes, other than rubisco, are required.
13.1.h  Agree that GP is the raw material for producing carbohydrates, lipids and amino
describe, in outline, the conversion of acids (no details of pathways required).
Calvin cycle intermediates to o Learners add this information to their Calvin cycle. (I) (Basic)
carbohydrates, lipids and amino acids  Briefly discuss how two molecules of GP can produce a hexose sugar. (W) (Basic)
and their uses in the plant cell  Discuss, using question and answer, the use of hexose sugars (glucose and
fructose, Unit 1), including:
Key concepts o Immediate use to release energy as respiratory substrates.
Biochemical processes o Synthesis of sucrose for transport to sinks (revise plant transport, Unit 4).
o Conversion to starch or lipid for energy storage.
o Production of structural compounds (cellulose).
o Learners suggest what else is required to synthesise amino acids for proteins
(uptake of nitrate and sulfate ions in the roots). (W) (Basic)

 Learners produce an outline set of notes from the discussion. (I) (Basic)
13.3.a  Place the chloroplast into context as a summary. Online

describe the relationship between o Learners identify: the photosynthetic organism (plant); the organ of http://www.vcbio.science.ru.nl/en/imag
structure and function in the photosynthesis (leaf); the main photosynthetic tissue (palisade mesophyll); the e-gallery/show/PL0130/
chloroplast using diagrams and organelle of photosynthesis (chloroplast); the structures of the chloroplast. (W) http://www.vcbio.science.ru.nl/en/fese
electron micrographs (Basic) m/applets/chloroplast/
 Learners draw a labelled diagram of a chloroplast, annotating (or write a summary) http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-
Key concepts to show how the chloroplast is adapted for photosynthesis. online/e05/r21.htm
Cells as the units of life, o Note the requirement for membranes and intermembrane spaces to generate http://faculty.uca.edu/johnc/Chloroplast
Biochemical processes ATP as electrons pass along a chain of electron carriers. _and_microbodies.jpg
o Note the locations of the light dependent stage and the light independent stage.
(I) (Challenging) Textbook/Publications
 Learners interpret photomicrographs and electron micrographs of chloroplasts, Bio Factsheet 198: Chloroplasts –
drawing labelled diagrams. (I) (Basic) structure and function
Bio Factsheet 61: Chloroplasts and
mitochondria
Past Papers
Paper 41, Nov 2011, Q10 (a)
13.2.a  Show learners a number of definitions of the term limiting factor. As a group produce Online
explain the term limiting factor in an explanation to note down that is in the context of photosynthesis. (W) (I) (Basic) http://www.rsc.org/learn-
relation to photosynthesis  Learners draw a generalised graph showing the rate of photosynthesis on the y-axis chemistry/content/filerepository/CMP/
and the factor on the x-axis. 00/001/068/Rate%20of%20photosynt
Key concepts o Label the graph with the regions where the factor directly affects the rate of hesis%20limiting%20factors.pdf
Biochemical processes, photosynthesis and those where other factors become limiting. (I) (Basic)
13.2.b  Learners suggest the factors that may affect the rate of photosynthesis, and discuss Online
explain the effects of changes in light ways in which the rate could be measured. (W) (Basic) http://www.biology4all.com/resources_l
intensity, carbon dioxide concentration  Learners suggest the parts of the photosynthetic process that involve enzymes, and ibrary/details.asp?ResourceID=43
and temperature on the rate of hence affect photosynthetic rate. http://resources.teachnet.ie/foneill/exp
photosynthesis o Light dependent stage: photolysis of water; synthesis of ATP (ATP synthase); er.htm
transfer of electrons to NADP for reduction. http://www.assessnet.org.uk/e-
Key concepts o Light independent stage: each of the steps of the Calvin cycle (the bulk of learning/
Biochemical processes, enzyme-catalysed reactions occur here).

Organisms in their environment,  Learners use their notes on chloroplast pigments and the two stages of Textbook/Publications
Observation and experiment photosynthesis to suggest how changes in carbon dioxide concentration and light King p.115-117, 149
intensity will affect the rate of photosynthesis. Siddiqui p.86-89, 94
o Include an explanation as to why the light independent stage will not operate Bio Factsheet 136: Practical
when there is no light. (I) (Basic) (Challenging) Investigations for Photosynthesis
 To link back to 13.2.a learners interpret graphs showing the effects of limiting Bio Factsheet 25: Tackling data
factors, explaining why the rate of photosynthesis changes and using extracted date interpretation questions II:
to support their answer. (I) (Challenging) photosynthesis (limiting factors)
Past Papers
Paper 41, June 2012, Q8 (a)(b)
13.2.c  Explain that knowledge of limiting factors can be used to control the growing Online
explain how an understanding of conditions of commercial crops, especially in protected environments. (W) (Basic) http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebite
limiting factors is used to increase crop  Brainstorm ideas as to what growers can do to increase crop yields in glasshouses. size/science/add_aqa/photosynthesis
yields in protected environments, such Include: /photosynthesisrev3.shtml
as glasshouses o Artificial light (photosynthesis for more hours of the day; increase light intensity http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/cr
on days with little sunlight). ops/facts/00-077.htm
Key concepts o Use of paraffin lamps (carbon dioxide and heat). (W) (Basic)
Biochemical processes, o Learners make notes and explain how these will improve yield. (F)
13.2.d  From 13.2.b learners will know that the production of oxygen can be used to Practical booklet 9
carry out an investigation to determine measure the rate of photosynthesis.
the effect of light intensity or light o Learners suggest why the rate of production of NADP in the light dependent Online
wavelength on the rate of stage correlates with the rate of photosynthesis. http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practi
photosynthesis using a redox indicator o Explain that a way of measuring this could be to use a different electron cal-biology/investigating-light-
(e.g. DCPIP) and a suspension of acceptor, DCPIP, which can be visualised (blue dye that becomes colourless dependent-reaction-photosynthesis
chloroplasts (the Hill reaction) when reduced). (W) (Basic) http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
o Learners suggest how DCPIP can be used to measure rate. (W) (Challenging) hing-resources/157-measuring-the-
Key concepts  Learners carry out a version of the Hill reaction practical or watch it demonstrated rate-of-photosynthesis
Biochemical processes, and then explain a set of results. Ensure that both investigations, light intensity and http://www.hansatech-
Observation and experiment light wavelength, are covered. (P) (I) (H) (Challenging) instruments.com/forum/uploads/david
 Discuss the findings of the original investigation performed by Robin Hill: oxygen is _walker/whose.pdf
evolved in the absence of carbon dioxide; the electrons transferred to the electron
acceptor originate from water. (W) (Challenging) Textbook/Publications
 Practical booklet 9 (Hill reaction) uses melting point tubes as reaction vessels and Siddiqui p.93-93
does not use a centrifuge. Learners can investigate the effect of both light
wavelength and light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis. Pooled data for analysis Past paper
may be collected as preparation for Paper 5. Learners can also use the technique to Paper 53, Nov 2011, Q1 (a)(b)(c)
devise plans that can be peer reviewed (see 12.2.h and 12.2.m).
13.2.e  Practical: learners investigate the effect of light intensity, light wavelength, carbon Online
carry out investigations on the effects dioxide concentration and temperature on the rate of photosynthesis. http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
of light intensity, carbon dioxide and o Learners design and carry out at least one investigation of their own, once a hing-resources/190-using-pondweed-
temperature on the rate of technique has been shown to them. (I) (Challenging) to-experiment-with-photosynthesis-
photosynthesis using whole plants, o Learners explain how the plan can be modified to investigate the effect of limiting http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
e.g. aquatic plants such as Elodea and factors. (I) (Challenging) hing-resources/284-investigating-
Cabomba photosynthesis-with-leaf-discs
Note http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
Key concepts  Carbon dioxide concentration can be varied by using an aquatic (water) plant in hing-resources/285-learner-sheet-20-
Observation and experiment varying concentrations of solutions containing sodium hydrogen carbonate (sodium starch-production-in-plants-during-
bicarbonate). photosynthesis
13.3.b  Learners review C3 photosynthesis by completing worksheets with gaps or by Online

explain how the anatomy and rearranging cards describing stages and then suggest why the term C3 plant is http://www.icrisat.org/crop-
physiology of the leaves of C4 plants, used. (W) (P) (I) (F) (Basic) sorghum.htm
such as maize or sorghum, are  Explain that rubisco can also catalyse the oxygenation of RuBP. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorghum
adapted for high rates of carbon o Use diagrams, and remind learners of enzyme inhibition (AS Level) to prompt http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
fixation at high temperatures in terms them to suggest why the reaction is favoured in high oxygen concentrations. et/BiologyPages/C/C4plants.html
of: o Learners suggest the conditions when oxygen concentrations will be high (high http://www.marietta.edu/~biol/biomes/p
 the spatial separation of initial light intensity and high temperatures increase rate of light dependent stage). (W) hotosynthesis.htm
carbon fixation from the light (Basic) www.biologymad.com/resources/Crop
dependent stage (biochemical o Learners write an explanation of photorespiration. (I) (Basic) (Challenging) %20Plants.pps
details of the C4 pathway are  Explain that C4 plants are traditionally from hotter environments. (W) (Basic)
required in outline only)  Describe, using diagrams, the structural and functional features of maize or sorghum Past Papers
 the high optimum temperatures of as examples of C4 plants. (W) (Challenging) Paper 43, June 2011, Q4
the enzymes involved o Learners suggest how the features adapt the plants to reduce the effects of
photorespiration and allow high rates of carbon fixation.
Key concepts o Learners label and annotate a diagram of a section through the leaf of a C4
Biochemical processes, plant.
Natural selection, o Learners produce a comparison table of C3 (see 13.3.a) and C4 leaf structure.
Organisms in their environment (W) (I) (Challenging)
 Discuss the effect of higher temperatures on C3 enzymes versus C4 enzymes. (W)

(Basic)
o Learners use their graph(s) from 13.2.b (temperature v rate of photosynthesis),
to sketch in a curve for a C4 plant. (I) (Basic)
 Extension: learners consider the effects of global warming on the distribution of C4
plants. (I) (Challenging)
15.2.a  Display photographs of the Venus fly trap plant and its modified leaves. Online
describe the rapid response of the o Leaners brainstorm uses of nitrogen in plants. http://plantsinmotion.bio.indiana.edu/pl
Venus fly trap to stimulation of hairs on o Discuss the need for a source of nitrogen in addition to the products of antmotion/movements/nastic/nastic.ht
the lobes of modified leaves and photosynthesis. ml
explain how the closure of the trap is o Explain that the plant requires supplemental nitrogen owing to low levels of http://www.botany.org/Carnivorous_Pla
achieved nitrogen in the bog habitats where it is found. (W) (Basic) nts/venus_flytrap.php
 Explain to learners that the equivalent of an action potential occurs to cause the
Key concepts snapping shut of the trap to catch insects.
Cells as the units of life, o Briefly review learner understanding of stimulus, receptor and action potential
Organisms in their environment (Unit 10). (W) (Basic)
 Learners sequence a set of statements as the basis to make notes. Ideas to include:
o Stimulus = insect movement (mechanical).
o Receptors = hair cells (upper leaf surface).
o Touching two times in succession, i.e. the presence of an insect, results in
depolarisation of the hair cell membrane (owing to an influx of positive ions).
o If the depolarisation is large enough, action potentials spread across from
receptor cells to reach cells on the outside surface.
o One possible mechanism of closure of the trap:
 H+ is pumped out of cells on the outside surface into the cell walls
 The low pH causes cell wall loosening and movement out of H+ leads to
influx of Ca2+
 Water follows osmotically and the cells swell to snap the trap shut. (I)
(Challenging)
 Background: learners investigate how carnivorous plants like the Venus flytrap
digest and absorb their insect catch. (I) (Basic)
14.2.a  Learners link stomatal opening and closure to transpiration (Unit 4) and Online
explain that stomata have daily photosynthesis. http://www.tiem.utk.edu/~gross/bioed/
rhythms of opening and closing and o Discuss the environmental stimuli for opening and closure (learners recall factors webmodules/circadianrhythm.html
also respond to changes in affecting transpiration rate).
environmental conditions to allow o Explain the ‘internal clock’ of guard cells and the daily rhythm of opening during
diffusion of carbon dioxide and the day and closing during the night. (W) (Basic)
regulate water loss by transpiration  Provide graphs showing daily rhythms of opening and closing, with the effects of
changing environmental conditions on particular days.
Key concepts o Learners describe and explain the graph, using this as the basis of their notes.
Cells as the units of life, (I) (Challenging)
Note
 Mention the term circadian rhythm (not required learning).
 Very high wind speeds may also cause stomatal closure – some books do not show
this on typical graphs.
14.2.b  Learners draw and label a diagram of guard cells, making a note of their function. (I) Online
describe the structure and function of (Basic) http://www.phschool.com/science/biolo
guard cells and explain the mechanism  Learners use an outline diagram of the events occurring for stomatal opening and gy_place/labbench/lab9/stomamov.ht
by which they open and close stomata complete a worksheet to describe and explain the mechanism involved (uses much ml
knowledge from AS Level). (I) (Challenging) http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teac
Key concepts  Learners use knowledge of the mechanism of stomatal opening to write out and hing-resources/104-stomata-function-
Cells as the units of life, explain the sequence of events occurring for stomatal closure. (F) guard-cells-and-transpiration
Biochemical processes  Learners use prepared slides (see 7.2.e, Unit 4) to observe guard cells and stomata.
(I) (Basic)
 Learners observe stomatal opening and closure in temporary slides made of
epidermal strips in solutions of different water potential. (I) (Basic)
14.2.c  Describe the role of abscisic acid (ABA) as a 'stress hormone' to help plants survive Online
describe the role of abscisic acid in the difficult environmental conditions such as drought. (W) (Basic) http://labs.biology.ucsd.edu/schroeder/
closure of stomata during times of  Explain to learners that calcium ions are important in plant cell signalling. (W) clickablegc.html#figure1
water stress (the role of calcium ions (Basic) http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
as a second messenger should be  Learners make summary bullet-point notes based on the following ideas: et/BiologyPages/A/ABA.html
emphasised) o Guard cells have receptors for ABA: the presence of ABA results in high http://www.plant-
concentrations of calcium ions within the cytoplasm. hormones.info/abscisicacid.htm
Key concepts o ABA can inhibit the proton pump used to pump out protons, preventing the
Biochemical processes, inward flux of potassium ions. Textbooks/Publications
Organisms in their environment o The presence of both ABA and calcium ions leads to changes in the membrane Bio Factsheet 48: Tackling exam
that causes the opening of potassium ion channels. questions: plant growth substances
o The calcium ions, therefore, can be considered as a second messenger. Bio Factsheet 111: Plant Growth
o Movement out of potassium ions from the cell will cause stomatal closure (see Substances
14.2.b). (I) (Challenging)
Past Papers
Note
Paper 43, June 2011, Q11 (a)
 Not all the details of ABA and calcium ion involvement in stomatal closure are
known: it is worth checking for updates.
 The changes in the membrane are depolarisation as a result of activation of anion
channels in the membrane (details not required).
 As abscisic acid can enter cells, receptors could be membrane-bound or internally
located.
15.2.b  Discuss how cell division and cell elongation will lead to plant growth and stem Online
explain the role of auxin in elongation elongation. http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/c
growth by stimulating proton pumping o Explain that auxin is a plant hormone involved in cell elongation. (W) (Basic) ontent/chp38/3802003.html
to acidify cell walls  Discuss details of cell wall structure before outlining the sequence of events that http://croptechnology.unl.edu/pages/inf
occur (learners recall AS Level knowledge). Learners make notes to include: ormationmodule.php?idinformationm
Key concepts o Auxin increases the activity of proton pumps (ATP required) and protons are odule=998688536&topicorder=6&ma
Cells as the units of life, pumped out of the cell into the cell wall. xto=11&minto=1
Biochemical processes o The decrease in pH activates expansins (proteins) involved in loosening cell wall http://home.earthlink.net/~dayvdanls/pl
structure. ant_grow.htm
o Water moves in by osmosis, increasing turgor and allowing cells to elongate. (W) http://www.personal.psu.edu/fsl/ExpCe
(I) (Challenging) ntral/
Note
 Auxins are a class of hormones, rather than one particular plant hormone. At this
level the use of ‘auxin’ is acceptable. The same applies to gibberellins.
15.2.c  Introduce gibberellin as a hormone that promotes germination by breaking seed Practical booklet 10
describe the role of gibberellin in the dormancy.
germination of wheat or barley o Agree what is meant by ‘germination’. (W) (Basic) Online
 Learners annotate a diagram of a section through a wheat or barley grain, showing http://www.indiana.edu/~oso/animation
Key concepts the sequential events occurring once water is imbibed. Use questioning and include: s/barley.html
Biochemical processes, o Diffusion, e.g. of gibberellin from embryo to aleurone layer;
Observation and experiment o Transcription and translation (in aleurone layer cells for production of digestive Textbooks/Publications
hormones); King p.240-241
o Hydrolysis of starch and protein (by digestive enzymes) and use of products for
respiration and growth of seedling. (I) (Challenging) Past Papers
 Learners organise a set of statements to show the correct sequence of events in Paper 43, June 2011, Q11 (b)
seed germination. (F) Paper 41, Nov 2013, Q9
 Practical booklet 10: learners carry out practical to investigate the effect of different
concentrations of gibberellic acid on stimulating amylase activity in germinating
seeds.
o The results can be analysed using the t-test (see 17.1.c). (P) (I) (Basic)
15.2.d  Remind learners of 15.2.b and explain that in stem elongation, gibberellin causes Online
explain the role of gibberellin in stem both cell division and cell elongation. (I) (Basic) http://www.tutorvista.com/content/biolo
elongation including the role of the  Learners recall basic points: the definition of an allele (Unit 3); genes code for gy/biology-iv/plant-growth-
dominant allele, Le, that codes for a polypeptides / proteins; enzymes are proteins; the definitions of dominant and movements/gibberellins.php
functioning enzyme in the gibberellin recessive (alleles). (W) (Basic) http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
synthesis pathway, and the recessive  Explain that there is a gene responsible for expressing an enzyme that is important et/BiologyPages/G/Gibberellins.html
allele, le, that codes for a non- in the synthesis of active gibberellin. http://www.plant-hormones.info/
functional enzyme o State that there is a dominant allele for the functioning enzyme and a recessive
allele for a non-functioning enzyme. (W) (Basic) Textbooks/Publications
Key concepts  Learners use knowledge of genetics and of the role of gibberellin to explain how King p.244
Cells as the units of life, plants that are LeLe and Lele will have tall stems, whereas plants that are lele will Bio Factsheet 118: Germination
DNA, the molecule of heredity have short stems. (F) Bio Factsheet 133: Comparing
 Learners carry out practical work to investigate the effect of gibberellic acid on stem Chemical Communication in Plants
(hypocotyl) elongation and on seed germination (barley) (see 15.2.c). and Animals
Note Past Papers

 This could be amalgamated with 16.3.d. Paper 43, Nov 2012, Q10 (b)
16.3.d  Explain that DELLA proteins are regulators of growth: they bind to transcription Practical booklet 10
explain how gibberellin activates genes factors necessary for expression of genes coding for growth proteins.
by causing the breakdown of DELLA o Learners explain how the DELLA proteins can be considered repressors. (W) Online
protein repressors, which normally (Basic) http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultran
inhibit factors that promote  Explain that gibberellin can bind to intracellular receptor proteins (GID1) and that this et/BiologyPages/G/Gibberellins.html
transcription leads to a complex with DELLA proteins, making them susceptible to degradation by
the cell.
Key concepts o Learners suggest the consequences of this breakdown. (W) (Challenging)
Biochemical processes,  Learners describe the sequence of events that lead to an event such as stem
DNA, the molecule of heredity, elongation in the presence of gibberellins. (I) (Challenging)

Note
 Learners could be directed to use this information on the mode of action of
gibberellins in their interpretations of results from practical booklet 10 (see 15.2.c).
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Scheme of work – Cambridge International AS and A Level Biology (9700) from 2016

Recommended prior knowledge

Suggested teaching order

The units within this scheme of work are:

Suggested time allocation (%)

Suggested teaching order

Unit 1: Biological molecules

 Further discussion (W) (Basic)

2.2.f  Draw the general formula for a fatty acid. Online

polypeptide. (W) (Basic) Paper 22, Nov 2011, Q4 (b)

atom numbering. (W) (Basic)

Key concepts electronic balance) over time intervals. hydrogen-peroxide-

(W) (I) (Basic) (Challenging) King p.64-68

Unit 2: Cells as the basic units of life

the worksheet (e.g. Wikipedia). (P) (I) (Basic) (Challenging)

Cells as the units of life,

describe and explain the processes of

Key concepts Past Papers

Unit 3: DNA and the mitotic cell cycle

Unit 4: Transport and gas exchange

7.2.d  Learners write a definition of transpiration. (I) (Basic) Online

transpiration varying over a few days. (I) (Challenging)

the membrane they cannot diffuse back in

right side of heart left side of heart

Cells as the units of life

Cells as the units of life, occurring. Past Papers

oxygen dissociation curves of myoglobin and foetal haemoglobin. (H) (Challenging)

Unit 5: Disease and protection against disease

DNA, the molecule of heredity, agent. (W) (Basic) uses/geneticsandcancer/oncogenesa

permanency of this association. (W) (Basic)

10.1.c See 10.1.b for group work. Online

10.1.d See 10.1.b for group work. Online

10.1.e See 10.1.b for group work. Online

Cells as the units of life

 Ensure learners understand that:

Active Passive Active Passive

Unit 6: The diversity of life

18.1.d  See Note for 18.1.c. Practical booklet 11

18.1.e  See Note for 18.1.c. Practical booklet 11

scattergraph; a ‘by-eye’ judgment of correlation is not always reliable). (W) Textbooks/Publications

18.1.f  See Note for 18.1.c. Practical booklet 11

abundant and others are very rare. diversity-index

banks (H) (Basic) http://www.endangeredspecie.com/

Unit 7: Genetics, population genetics and evolutionary processes

(Challenging) Past Papers

16.2.c  This learning objective is covered in 16.2.b. Online

Key concepts observations. (I) (Basic) (Challenging) gene-expression-536

post-zygotic isolating mechanisms in formed. (W) (Basic) postzygotic_barrier.html

diversity. (G) (Challenging)

Unit 8: Molecular biology and gene technology

o The intensity of the fluorescent-coloured areas can be detected using scanners

system cells (background information: an autosomal recessive disorder). (W)

19.2.b  Give an outline of the human genome project (HGP). Online

therapeutic abortions) (W) (Basic)

12.2.a  Learners recall an overall equation for aerobic respiration: Online

intermediate steps and compounds are not required learning.

12.2.e  Learners add annotations to the Krebs cycle:

o Facilitated diffusion of protons through the enzyme complex down their

Cells as the units of life,

 Temperature compensation by having two tubes linked by a manometer results in

Unit 10: Mammalian physiology, control and coordination

led discussion or by textbook/internet research. (W) (I) (Challenging)

polarised. (I) (Basic)