EE 410/510:

Electromechanical Systems
T/Th 12:45 – 2:05 PM TH N155

Instructor: J.D. Williams, Assistant Professor

Electrical and Computer Engineering
U i
University
it off Al
Alabama
b iin H
Huntsville
t ill
406 Optics Building, Huntsville, Al 35899
Phone: (256) 824-2898, email: williams@eng.uah.edu
C
Course material
t i l posted
t d on UAH A Angell course managementt website
b it

Textbook:
S.E. Lyshevski, Electromechanical Systems and Devices, CRC Press, 2008
ISBN Number: 978‐1‐4200‐6972‐3
Optional Reading:
H.D. Chai, Electromechanical Motion Devices, Prentice Hall, 1998
S.J. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, 4th ed. McGraw Hill, 2005
S E Lyshevski,
S.E. Lyshevski Engineering and Scientific Computations using MATLAB
MATLAB, Wiley
Wiley, 2003
A.E. Fitzgerald, C. Kingsley, S.D. Umans, Electric Machinery, 6th ed. McGraw Hill, 2003
C.W. de Silva, Mechatronics: an Integrated Approach, CRC Press, 2004
5/21/2010 1
All figures taken from primary textbook unless otherwise cited.
 EE 410/510 - Electromechanical Systems:
C
Course M
Material
t i l
• Chapter 1: Introduction to Electromechanical
Systems – Torque Characteristics
• Chapter 2
2. Analysis of Electromechanical – 3 Phase induction motors
Systems – Introduction to Quadrature and Direct Variables
– Review of Electromagnetics – Arbitrary Reference Frames
– Review of Classical Mechanics – Simulation of 2 and 3 Phase AC Induction Motors
using MATLAB and Simulink
– Introduction to MATLAB and Simulink
• Chapter 6.
6 Synchronous Machines (advanced
• Chapter 3. Introduction to Power Electronics
topic)
– Modeling and Application of Op. Amps., Power
Amplifiers, and Power Converters – Introduction
– Single and Three Phase Reluctance Motors
• Chapter 4. DC Electric Machines and Motor
– Two and Three Phase Permanent Magnet
g
Devices
Synchronous Motors and Stepper Motors
– Geometry and Equations of Motion Governing
– MATLAB and Simulink Simulations
DC Electric Motors
– Modeling and Simulation of DC Electric Motors • Chapter 7. Introduction to Control of
– Permanent Magnet DC Generator Electromechanical Systems and PID Control
– DC Electric Machines with Power Electronics Laws
– Axial Topology of DC Electric Machines and – Equations of Motion Governing the Dymamics of
Magnetization Currents Electromechanical Systems
– Analog PID Control laws and application involving
• Chapter 5. Induction Machines (some Permanent Magnet DC Motor
advanced topics)
– Digital PID Control Laws and application involving
– Overview 2 Phase AC Induction Motors Servosystem with Permanent Magnet DC Motor
– Equations of motion for 2 Phase AC Induction
5/21/2010
Motors
2
 EE 410/510 - Electromechanical Systems:
C
Course A
Assignments
i t

Homework:
Homework will be assigned throughout the semester and is due 7 days after
assignment. Assignments will be graded and returned to account for 30% of the
final course grade.
grade

Exams:
Two in class exams will be given during the semester. Students will be allowed
the use of a calculator during the exam. All work will be performed
independently. Each exam will account for 25% of the student’s grade. The final
exam will be comprehensive covering major topics presented throughout the
semester and will constitute 20% of the course grade.

Final Grade:
Homework Weekly 30%
E
Exams 2 per S
Semester
t 25%
Final Comprehensive 20%
5/21/2010 3
 EE 410/510: Electromechanical Systems
Chapters 1 and 2

• Chapter
Ch t 11: IIntroduction
t d ti tto
Electromechanical Systems
• Chapter 2: Analysis of Electromechanical
Systems and Devices
• Introduction to analysis and modeling
• Energy conversion and Force
Production
• Overview of electromagnetics
• Overview of classical mechanics
(Newtonian mechanics only)
• Applications of combined systems
• Simulation of systems in the
MATLAB environment

5/21/2010 4
All figures taken from primary textbook unless otherwise cited.
 Interdisciplinary Approach to
El t
Electromechanical
h i lS Systems
t E
Engineering
i i

dfgdf

dfgdf

dfgdf

dfgdf

dfgdf

Ki ti E
Kinetic Energy

Potential Energy

5/21/2010 5
 Modern Electromechanical Devices

5/21/2010 6
 Interdisciplinary Approach to
El t
Electromechanical
h i lS Systems
t E
Engineering
i i

5/21/2010 7
 Point Charge Distributions and
C l b’ L
Coulomb’s Law
• The force, F, between two point charges Q1 and Q2 is:
– Along the line joining them
– Directly proportional to the product between them
– Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them

Q1Q2
F
4 o R 2
1
Where k  ,  o  8.854 10 12 C 2 / Nm 2
4 o
– The equation above is easily calculated for a test charge, Q1, at the
origin and a source charge, Q2, at a distance R away.
– The solution is slightly more complicated as we move our reference
frame away from the two charge such that Q1 is referenced by the
vector r1 and Q2 is referenced by the r2
r2.

5/21/2010 8
 Gauss’ Law
Gauss
• Gauss’ Law: The electric flux, , through any closed surface is equal to the
total charge enclosed by that surface, thus =Qenc

 
Integral Form    D  dS    v dv  Qenc
s v
Applying the divergence theorem, we have
 
  
 D  dS     D dv   v dv
s v v
yielding the differential form

  D  v
This is the first of the 4 Maxwell Equations which clearly states that the
volume charge density is equal to the divergence of the electric flux density
 
Maxwell s
Maxwell’s   D  v B  0
 
Equations  B   D
 E    H  J 
5/21/2010 In matter t t 9
 Gauss’ Law(2)
Gauss
• Gauss’ law is simply an alternative statement of Coulomb’s law.
• Gauss’ law provides an easy means of finding E or D for symmetrical charge
distributions
• Applications: Point Charge  
D  Dar
  2
dS  ar r sin dd
 
Qenc   D  dS
s
2 
  2
Qenc    Dar ar r sin dd
0 0
2 
Qenc       
2 2
Dr sin d d D 4 r
0 0
 Q 
D a
5/21/2010 4r 2 r
10
Figure from: M.N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics 4th ed. Oxford University Press, 2007.
 Electric Potential
• We define the electric potential (or the irrotational scalar field), V, describing any
electrostatic
l t t ti vector fi ld E,
t field, E as the
th magnitudeit d off th
the diff
difference between
b t E att two
t
points a and b and some standard (common) reference point o.
p
 
V ( p)    E  dl negative
ega e by co
convention
e o
o
b   o   b  
V (b)  V (a)    E  dl   E  dl    E  dl
o a a

• Now, the Gradient theorem states that Note the crucial role that independence
  of path plays: If E was dependent on
dV   E  dl path, then the definition of V would be
  nonsense because the path would alter
dV
dl
  E cos  E  V the value of V(p)

dV 
 E
dl max
5/21/2010 11
 The Dielectric Constant
• It is important to note that up to this point, we have not committed ourselves to the
cause of the polarization, P. We dealt only with its effects. We have stated that the
polarization of a dielectric ordinary results from an electric field which lines up the
atomic or molecular dipoles.
• In many substances, experimental evidence shows that the polarization is proportional
to the electric field, provided that E is not too strong. These substances are said to
have a linear, isotropic dielectric constant
• This proportionality constant is called the electric susceptibility, e. The convention is
t extract
to t t the
th permittivity
itti it off ffree space from
f the
th electric
l t i susceptibility
tibilit to
t make
k the
th units
it
dimensionless. Thus we have  
P   o e E
• From the previous slide
   
D   o E  P   o (1   e ) E The dielectric constant (or relative
  permittivity) of the material, r, is the ratio
D   o r E of the permittivity to that of free space
 
D  E
• If the electric field is too strong, then it begins to strip electrons completely from
molecules leading conduction effects. This is called dielectric breakdown.
• The maximum strength of the electric that a dielectric can tolerate prior to which
breakdown occurs is called the dielectric strength.
5/21/2010 12
 Using Gauss’
Gauss Law With Dielectrics
Two flat conductive plates of Concentric Conducting Spheres with
area A
area, A, filled with dielectric radius a
a, b (b>a) with a dielectric fill

z
 
- Qa R
+ - E
  
    
Et  E1  E2  s a z
+ 4 o R 2
E1  s a z o r 
2 o
   a D 

Dt  Et   o r Et   r s a z V     dl
  
  
E2  s a z   dS  Qenc
D b
Q
2 o S b
  dr
r  D da  DA  Q a
4 o r r 2
D   Qd Q 1 1
d V     dl     
 A 4  a b 

If capacitance, C=Q/V, then what is the value for each example?

5/21/2010 13
Figure from: M.N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics 4th ed. Oxford University Press, 2007.
 Continuity Equation
• Remembering that all charge is conserved, the time rate of decrease of charge
within a given volume must be equal to the net outward flow through the surface
of the volume
• Thus, the current out of a closed surface is
  dQ
Q 
I   J  dS   enclosed    v dv d
S
dt v
t
    v
Applying Stokes Theorem
S J  dS  v   Jdv   v t dv
 
 J   v Continuity Equation
t
• For steady state problems, the derivative of charge with respect to time equals
zero, and thus gradient of current density at the surface is zero, showing that
there can be no net accumulation of charge.

5/21/2010 14
 Electrical Resistively
• Consider a conductor whose ends are maintained at a potential difference ( i.e. the
electric
l t i fifield
ld within
ithi th
the conductor
d t iis nonzero and d a fifield
ld iis passed
d th
through
h th
the material.)
t i l)
• Note that there is no static equilibrium in this system. The conductor is being fed
energy by the application of the electric field (bias potential)
• As electrons move within the material to set up p induction fields,, theyy scatter and are
therefore damped. This damping is quantified as the resistance, R, of the material.
• For this example assume:
– a uniform cross sectional area S, and length l.
– The direction of the electric field
field, E
E, produced is the same as the direction of flow of positive
charges (or the same as the current, I).
V
  E
 E  dl l
V I V
R  v   J   E  
I  E  dS S l
V l l 1
s
R   c 
I S S 
5/21/2010 15
Figure from: M.N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics 4th ed. Oxford University Press, 2007.
 Capacitance
• Capacitance is the ratio of the magnitude of charge on two separated plates
to the potential difference between them
 
Q   E  dS
C   
 
V  E  dl
• Note that V    E  dl The negative sign is dropped in the definition above
because we are interested in the absolute value of the voltage drop
• Capacitance is obtained by one of two methods
– Assuming Q, and determine V in terms of Q
– Assuming V, and determine Q in terms of V
• If we use method 1, take the following steps
– Choose a suitable coordinate system
– Let the two conducting plates carry charges +Q and –Q
– Determine E using Coulomb’s or Gauss’s Law and find the magnitude of
the voltage, V, via integration
– Obtain C=Q/V
5/21/2010 16
Figure from: M.N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics 4th ed. Oxford University Press, 2007.
 Capacitance vs.
vs Resistance

  S d
 C ,R  Parallel Plates
V E  dl
R    d S
I  E  dS b
ln 
  2L
,R   
a Coaxial Cylinders
C
Q   E  dS b 2L
R    ln 
a
V  E  dl 1 1
   
4
,R  
RC  a b  Between 2 Spheres
C
 1 1 4
  
a b
1 Isolated Sphere
C  4a, R 
4a
5/21/2010 17
Summary Diagram of Electrostatics

1 v 
V 
4 o  r
d 
E
1

 v ar
d
4 o r2
 
v E   v
 2V   o
o 
 E  0


E  V
V E
 
5/21/2010 V    E  dl 18

Figure is recopied from Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics,3rd ed., Benjamin Cummings, 1999.
 Biot-Savart’s
ot Sa a t s Law
a

• The differential magnetic field intensity, dH, produced at a point P, by the differential
currentt element,
l t Idl,
Idl is
i proportional
ti l tto th
the product
d t Idl and
d the
th sine
i off the
th angle l b
between
t
the element and the line joining P to the element and is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance, R, between P and the element
  
 Id l  aˆ R Id l  R Idl sin 
dH   
4 R 2 4 R 3 4 R 2

19
Figure from: M.N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics 4th ed. Oxford University Press, 2007.
 Ampere’s
p Circuit Law
• Ampere’s law: The line integral of H around a closed path is the same as the net
current, Ienc, enclosed by the path  
 H  d l  I enc
– Similar to Gauss’ law since Ampere’s law is easily used to determine H when the
current distribution is symmetrical
– Ampere’s law ALWAYS holds, even if the current distribution is NOT symmetrical,
however the equation is only used effectively for symmetric cases
– Like Gauss and Coulomb’s Laws, Ampere’s aw is a special case of the Biot-Savart
l
law and
d can b be d
derived
i d di
directly
tl ffrom itit.

• Applying Stokes’s theorem provides alternative solution methods

 
   
I enc  
L
H  dl 
S
  H  dS
 
I enc  
S
J  dS Definition of Current provided in Chapter 5


  20
  H  J Maxwell’s 3rd Eqn.
 Displacement
p Current
• Lets now examine time dependent fields from the perspective on Ampere’s Law.

 
 H  J
 
 
  H  0   J This vector identity for the cross product is mathematically
  valid. However, it requires that the continuity eqn. equals
 J   v  0 zero,, which is not valid from an electrostatics standpoint!
p
t
  
  H  J  Jd Thus, lets add an additional current density term

 
   to balance the electrostatic field requirement
    H  0    J    Jd

 
   v   D
  J d    J   D  
t t t

 D We can now define the displacement current density as
Jd 
t the time derivative of the displacement vector

  D
 H  J  Another of Maxwell’s for time varying fields
t
This one relates Magnetic Field Intensity to conduction
and displacement
p current densities

5/21/2010 21
 Magnetic
g Flux Density
y

• Magnetic
g Flux density,
y B, is the magnetic
g equivalent
q of the electric flux
 
density, D. As such, one can define
B  0H
where  0  4   10  7 H / m

B
• Similarly, Ampere’s Law is I enc    d lˆ
0
   
• And the Magnetic flux through a surface is   
S
B  dS   0  H  dS
S

• The magnetic flux through an enclosed system is

 
  
  
S
B  dS 
S
  B dv

B  0 Definition of a solenoidal field
and Maxwell
Maxwell’s s 4th eqn.
eqn

22
 Faraday’s
Faraday s Law (1)
• We have introduced several methods of examining magnetic fields in terms of forces,
energy, and inductances.
• M
Magneticti fields
fi ld appear tto bbe a di
directt result
lt off charge
h moving
i ththrough
h a system
t and
d
demonstrate extremely similar field solutions for multipoles, and boundary condition
problems.
• So is it not logical to attempt to model a magnetic field in terms of an electric one? This is
the question asked by Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry in 1831 1831. The result is Faraday’s
Faraday s
Law for induced emf

• Induced electromotive force (emf) (in volts) in any closed circuit is equal to the time rate of
change
g of magnetic
g flux by
y the circuit
d d
Vemf    N
dt dt
where, as before,  is the flux linkage,  is the magnetic flux, N is the number of turns in the
inductor,, and t represents
p a time interval. The negative
g sign
g shows that the induced voltage g
acts to oppose the flux producing it.
• The statement in blue above is known as Lenz’s Law: the induced voltage acts to oppose the
flux producing it.
• Examples of emf generated electric fields: electric generators, batteries, thermocouples, fuel
cells, photovoltaic cells, transformers.

5/21/2010 23
 Faraday’s
Faraday s Law (2)
• To elaborate on emf, lets consider a battery circuit.
• The electrochemical action within results and in emf produced electric field, Ef
• Acuminated charges at the terminals provide an electrostatic field Ee that also exist
that counteracts the emf generated potential
  
E  E f  Ee
    P  
 E  dl   E f  dl  0   E f  dl  IR
L L N

• The total emf generated in by a time dependentmotion or magnetic field is

 
  dB   
Vemff   E  dl      u  B  dl
L S
dt L

 
 dB  
  Em     u  B
dt
• Note the following
g important
p facts
• An electrostatic field cannot maintain a steady current in a close circuit since
 
 e  dl  0  IR
E
L

• An emf
emf-produced
produced field is nonconservative
• Except in electrostatics, voltage and potential differences are usually not equivalent
5/21/2010 24
Figure from: M.N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics 4th ed. Oxford University Press, 2007.
 Inductors and Inductance
• We now know that closed magnetic circuit carrying current I produces a
magnetic field with flux
 
   B  dS
• We define the flux linkage between a circuit with N identical turns as

  N
• As long as the medium the flux passes through is linear (isotropic) then then
flux linkage is proportional to the current I producing it and can be written as
  LI
Where L is a constant of proportionality called the inductance of the circuit.
A circuit that contains inductance is said to be an inductor.
• O can equate
One t the
th iinductance
d t tto th
the magnetic
ti fl
flux off th
the circuit
i it as
 N
L 
I I
where L is measured in units of Henrys (H) = Wb/A
• The magnetic energy (in Joules) stored by the inductor is expressed as
1
5/21/2010 Wm  LI 2
25
2
Figure from: M.N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics 4th ed. Oxford University Press, 2007.
 Inductors and Inductance
• Since we know that magnetic fields produce forces on nearby current elements, and that those
magnetic fields can be generated by an isolated or coupled set of current carrying circuits, then
it is only
y reasonable that such circuits may
y induce fields and magnetization
g between them

• We can calculate the individual flux linkage between the two components as
 
12   B2  dS
S1
• Likewise
Lik i we can d determine
t i a mutual
t l iinductance
d t b
between
t th
the circuits
i it th thatt iis equall ffrom circuit
i it 12
as it is from circuit 21 as 12 N 1 12
M 12  
I2 I2
• Individual inductances are  N   N 
L1  11  1 1 L 2  22  2 2
I1 I1 I2 I2
• The total magnetic energy in the circuit is 1 1 1
5/21/2010 W m  W1  W 2  W12  L1 I 12  L 2 I 22  M 12 I 1 I 2 26
2 2 2
Figure from: M.N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics 4th ed. Oxford University Press, 2007.
 Inductors and Inductance (2)
• As we eluded to before, you should think of an inductor as a conductor shaped in such a way as
to store magnetic energy
• Typical examples include toroids
toroids, solenoids
solenoids, coaxial transmission lines
lines, and parallel-wire
parallel wire
transmission lines
• One can determine the inductance for a given geometry using the following technique
– Choose a suitable coordinate system
– Let the inductor carry current
current, I
– Determine B from Biot-Savart’s or Amperes Law and calculate the magnetic flux
– Find L as a function of the flux times the number of turns over the current carried
• Mutual inductance may be calculated by a similar approach
– Determine the internal inductance
inductance, Lin for the flux generated by the first inductor
– Determine the external inductance, Lext produced by the flux external of the first inductor
– The sum of the internal and external inductance equals the individual inductances plus the
mutual inductance between the elements  
12 N 1 12
M 12 
I2

I2
12  B
S1
2  dS

• For circuit theory, we can also right the inductance as which provides a very useful equation
when quickly mapping out electronic circuits 
L extt C   RC 

  R 1
5/21/2010  R    27
L ext  L ext 
 Forces Due to a Magnetic Field
• Recall that the force on a charged particle is simply F=qE
• If the particle moves however
however, then an additional force is imposed from the charge
displacement of velocity, u, quantified by the magnetic field, B. The combined
force is called the Lorentz Law:
   
F  q( E  u  B)
• Recall from Newton’s Law that
    
 du
F  q ( E  u  B)  ma  m
d
dt
• The kinetic energy of a charged particle For B, u, and a in orthogonal directions,
in an magnetic field is therefore One can deduce a coordinate

system in which
  
  
 q(v  B)1 qv B 
F  q (v  B )  m
du u1   dt   dt    v dt
dt m m 
   
q (v  B ) x q ( v y Bz  v y Bz ) q (v  B ) 2 qB
ux   dt   dt u2   dt  u1 uˆ2 
m m m m
   
q (v  B ) y q ( v x Bz  v z Bx ) q (v  B ) 3
uy   dt    dt u3   dt  0 Cyclotron Resonance
m m m Frequency
 
q (v  B ) z q ( v x B y  v y Bx )
uz   dt   dt The location of the particle can also be found as
m m 
5/21/2010 1 2  dl 28
KE  m u u li   ui dt
2 dt
 Lorentz Force Law
• Recall that the force on a charged particle is simply F=qE
• If the particle moves however
however, then an additional force is imposed from the charge
displacement of velocity, u, quantified by the magnetic field, B. The combined
force is called the Lorentz Law:
   
F  q( E  u  B)
• Recall from Newton’s Law that
    
 du
F  q ( E  u  B)  ma  m
d
dt
• The kinetic energy of a charged particle The location of the particle can also
in an electric field is therefore be found as
  du
 
F  q(E )  m  dl
dt u
ux  
qE x
dt
dt
li   ui dt
m
qE y
uy   dt
m
qE z
uz   dt
m
5/21/2010 29
1  2
KE  m u
2
 Magnetic Torque and Moment
• Now that we have examined the force on a current carrying loop. Let’s examine the Torque
applied to it
• Torque, T, on the loop is the vector product of the force, F, and the moment arm, r.

and _ for _ uniform _ B

F0  IBl

T  IBlw sin 
but
lw  S
yielding

   T  IBS sin 
T  r F Where we can now define a quantity m as
  
T  r F sin  the magnetic dipole moment with units A/m2
which is the product of the current and area
where of the loop in the direction normal the surface
area defined by the loop
   l  0   
F   Idl  B  I   dzaˆ z  B   dzaˆ z  B   F0  F0  0 
m  IS aˆ n
L 0 l    
5/21/2010 T  mB 30
Figure from: M.N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics 4th ed. Oxford University Press, 2007.
 Torque and Dipole Properties
off a Bar
B Magnet
M t
• A bar magnet or small filament loop is generally referred to as a magnetic dipole
• A
Assume abbar magnetic
ti off llength,
th ll, generates
t a uniform
if magnetic
ti fi
field,
ld B,
B and
d a di
dipole
l
moment, |m|=Qml
• Torque, T, on the loop is the vector product of the force, F, and the moment arm, r.

Thus, because the bar magnet represents a

Thus
magnetic dipole moment equal in magnitude
to the dipole moment of a current loop, a bar
magnet can also be taken as a magnetic
dipole

    
T  m  B  Qml  B
 
F  Qm B

T  QmlB  ISB
 Qml  IS
Therefore the field at a reasonable distance
away from any bar magnet is mathematically
identical to that of a dipole.
5/21/2010 31
Figure from: M.N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics 4th ed. Oxford University Press, 2007.
 Maxwell’s
Maxwell s Eqns
Eqns. for Static Fields

Differential Form Integral Form Remarks

  
  D  v  D  dS   v dv
S
Gauss’s Law

   Nonexistence of the
B  0  B  dS  0
S
Magnetic Monopole

  
 E  0  E  dl  0
Conservative nature
of the Electric Field
L

     
 H  J  H  dl   J  dS
L S
Ampere’s
Ampere s Law

5/21/2010 32
 Maxwell’s Time Dependent Equations
• It was James Clark Maxwell that put all of this together and reduced electromagnetic field
theory to 4 simple equations. It was only through this clarification that the discovery of
electromagnetic waves were discovered and the theory of light was developed.
• The equations Maxwell is credited with to completely describe any electromagnetic field
(either statically or dynamically) are written as:

Differential Form Integral Form Remarks

  
  D  v  D  dS   v dv
S
Gauss’s Law

  
B  0
 B  dS  0
Nonexistence of the
Magnetic Monopole
S

 B     
L E  dl   t S B  dS
Faraday’s
Faraday s Law
 E  
t

     D  
  D
 H  J  L H  dl  S  J  t   dS Ampere’s Circuit Law

5/21/2010 t 33
 Analogy
a ogy Between
et ee Electric
ect c aand
d Magnetic
ag et c Fields
e ds
Electric Magnetic

F 
Q 1Q 1
aˆ r
  Idl  aˆ r
• Basic Laws 4  r 2 dB  0
  4 R 2
 
 D  d S  Q enc
 H  d l  I enc
  
• Force Law F  QE F  Qu  B
dQ  
• Source Element Q u  Id l
V
• Field intensity E  (V / m ) H 
I
(A /m)
l l
• Flux density 
 
  
• Relationship Between Fields
D 
S
C /m2 B 
S
 
Wb / m 2
   
D  E B  H
 
• Potentials E   V 
H   V m , ( J  0 )
 L dl 
V   4  r A  
 Id l
  4 R
   D  dS
   B  dS
 
  Q  CV
• Flux   LI
dV
I  C dI
dt I  L
dt
1  
wE  D E 1  
• Energy Density 2 wE  B H
2 34
 
• Poisson’s Eqn.  V   v
2
 2 A   J

 Electromagnetic Work and Power

2
 
We 1 2 1    D
we  lim  E  E  D  Electric energy density
v 0 v 2 2 2

wm  lim
Wm 1
v 0 v
 H  H  B 
2
2

2
 2

1   B 2 Magnetic energy density

wT  we  wm


1    

W   wT dv   D  E  H  B dv Electromagnetic energy
2
   
    1     2
P   E  H  dS    D  E  H  B dv    E dv
S
t 2 v
Total electromagnetic power = rate of decrease in stored energy – ohmic power dissipated

5/21/2010 35
 Electrostatic Boundary Conditions
• Electrostatic boundary conditions for E and D crossing any material interface must
match the following conditions developed using Guass’s
Guass s law and conservation of the
electric field
• Two different dielectrics characterized by 1 and 2.
     
  D   v   D  dS  Qenc   E  0   E  dl
S

D1n  D2 n D1t D2t


E1n 1  E2 n 2 1 2
5/21/2010 E1t  E2t 36
Figure from: M.N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics 4th ed. Oxford University Press, 2007.
 Magnetic Boundary Conditions
• Magnetic boundary conditions for B and H crossing any material interface must match the
following conditions developed using Guass’s
Guass s law for magnetic fields and Ampere’s
Ampere s circuit law
   
 B  dS  0  H  dl  I
 
  dl  I
H

   
B1 n  B 2 n H 1t  H 2 t
   
 1 H 1n   2 H 2 n B1t B
 2t
5/21/2010
1 2 37
Figure from: M.N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics 4th ed. Oxford University Press, 2007.
 Maxwell’s Time Dependent Equations:
Identity Map

5/21/2010 38
Figure from: M.N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics 4th ed. Oxford University Press, 2007.
 Classification of Magnetic Materials (1)
• In general we use the magnetic susceptibility (or relative permeability) to classify materials in
terms of their magnetic property
• A material is said to be nonmagnetic if there is no bound current density  or zero
susceptibility. Otherwise it is magnetic
• Magnetic materials may be grouped into three classes, diamagnetic, paramagnetic, and
ferromagnetic
• For many practice purposes, diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials exhibit little to no
magnetic susceptibility. What magnetic properties these materials do have follows a linear
response over a large range of applied fields
• g
Ferromagnetic materials kept
p below the Curie temperature
p exhibit very
y large
g nonlinear
magnetic susceptibility and are used for conventional magnetic device applications

5/21/2010 39
Figure from: M.N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics 4th ed. Oxford University Press, 2007.
 Classification of Magnetic Materials (2)
• Diamagnetism
– Occurs when the magnetic fields in the material due to individual electron moments
cancels each other outout. Thus the permanent magnetic moment of each atom is zero zero.
– Such materials are very weakly affected by magnetic fields.
– Diamagnetic materials include Copper, Bismuth, silicon, diamond, and sodium chloride
(table salt)
– In general this effect is temperature independent
independent. Thus,
Thus for example
example, there is no
technique for magnetizing copper
– Superconductors exhibit perfect diamagnetism. The effect is so strong that magnetic
fields applied across a superconductor do not penetrate more than a few atomic layers,
resulting in B=0 within the material
• Paramagnetism
– Materials whose atoms exhibit a slight non-zero magnetic moment
– Paramangetism is temperature dependent
– Most materials ((air,, tungsten,
g , potassium,
p , monell)) exhibit paramagnetic
p g effects that p
provide
slight magnetization in the presence of large fields at low temperatures

5/21/2010 40
 Classification of Magnetic Materials (3)
• Ferromagnetism
– Occurs in
O i atoms
t with
ith a relatively
l ti l llarge magnetic
ti momentt
– Examples: Cobalt, Iron, Nickel, various alloys based on these three
– Capable of being magnetized very strongly by a magnetic field
– Retain a considerable amount of their magnetization when removed from the field
– Lose their ferromagnetic
g p
properties
p and become linear p
paramagnetic
g materials ((non magnetic)
g ) when the
temperature is raised above a critical temperature called the Curie temperature.
– Their magnetization is nonlinear. Thus the constitutive relation B=0rH does not hold because r
depends directly on B and cannot be represented by a single value.

– Ferromagnetic shielding
• Ferromagnetic materials can be used to “focus” and guide the flow of incident magnetic fields
• By placing a ferromagnetic material completely around a device, one can shield said device from
an external field. This shielding occurs b/c the ferromagnet acts as a magnetic waveguide, that
transmits the field around the shape of the structure and not within itit.

5/21/2010 41
Figure from: M.N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics 4th ed. Oxford University Press, 2007.
 Classification of Magnetic Materials (4)
• Ferromagnetism - B-H Curve
– The magnetization of a ferromagnet in an external applied field, H, is presented below.
– As H is increased, the magnetic field, B, within the material increases significantly and then begins to
saturate to a value
l Bmax saturate as |H| approachesh Hmax
– As the applied field, H, is removed, the ferromagnetic material retains some degree of its magnetization
until the point at which the applied field H is completely reversed at which time the magnetic field inside
the material saturates to the –Bmax
– The applied field is then increased again to generate the complete Hysteresis curve
– Two other defining values are indicative of every B-H magnetization (Hysteresis) curve.
• When the applied field is maxed and then again reduced to a zero value. The magnetic field within
the material remains at some positive value Br referred to as the permanent flux density.
• The value upon which B become zero under an applied H value is called the coercive field
intensity,
y Hc
• Materials with small coercive field intensity values are said to be soft magnetic materials and do not
retain significant magnetization upon the removal of the field
• Hard magnets (permanent magnets) have very large
coercive field intensity values

5/21/2010 42
Figure from: M.N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics 4th ed. Oxford University Press, 2007.
 Magnetic Properties of Common Materials

5/21/2010 43
 Magnetic Properties of Common Materials

5/21/2010 44
 Review of Newtonian Mechanics

• Let’s recall the study of classical  x

r  xa x  ya y  ya z   y 

Newtonian mechanics in which a Distance ˆ ˆ ˆ
 z 
mass is moved from one location to
 dx 
another in a Cartesian coordinate  dt 
v x   x
system    dr d    dy 
Velocity v  v y    y  
dt dt    dt 
• The mass is p pushed with a force,, F,,  v z   z   dz 
equal to its mass times its  dt 
acceleration, a.  d 2x 
 2
ax  2
 x   dt2 
• The work done upon the mass is the 2
a  a y   2  2  y    2 
 d r d d y
line path independent line integral of Acceleration dt dt  dt 
 a z   z   d 2 z  Potential
F along
l th
the closed
l d contour
t L  2
 dt  Gradient
• And we can define the system by the
  
amount of energy required to move    d mv  dp
d 2r 
Total Force  F (t , r )  ma  m dt 2
    (r )
the mass at a velocity, v, plus the dt dt
   dW 
potential energy of the mass to Work Done W    F (t , r )  dl    (r )
L
dl
move without any external allied likewise,
forces by a distance r. dW   dr  dr

d ( r )
  F (t , r )    (r )  
dt dt dt dt

    
 d 2r
ma   F (t , r )  0  m 2   F (t , r )
dt

d 2r   
 m 2   ( r )   ( r )    ( r )  0
5/21/2010 dt 4
Energy of the system: Kinetic and Potential 5
 Potential Energy Kinetic Energy

Examples of Mechanical Force and Work

• Example 1
– Consider
C id a positioning
iti i ttable
bl actuated
t t db by a motor
t
– Let us find out how much work is done to accelerate a 20g payload with mass = 20g from
v0=0 to vf= 1 m/s

W
1
2
 
mv 2f  mv02  0.020 1  0  0.01J
1
2

• Example 2
– Consider a mass, m, slid across a flat surface in a Cartesian coordinate system
– The force , F, is applied and motion occurs in the x direction
– Find the equations of motion (neglecting coulomb and static friction), however include
viscous friction


F fr  Bv
dx 
 Bv v
d 2x 1
 2   
Fa  F fr  Fa  Bv v 
1
dt dt m m
  yields _ 2 _ first  order _ linear _ ODEs
  2t dx 3
Fa  4 x cos(2t  4)e  t dx
dt v
  2
d y dt
 Fy  FN  Fg  ma y  m dt 2  0 dv 1
  
4 x cos(2t  4)e  2t  vt 3  Bv v , t  0
  2 dt m
d x
5/21/2010  Fx  Fa  Ffr  max  m dt 2 46
 Review of Newtonian Rotational Mechanics
• One can show for rotational devices that the torque, T, generated on an object with a
fixed rotation length |R| is solved in a very similar manner to a linear displacement
and rotation
 
   d 2 d
 T (t , )  J  J dt 2  J dt Sum of all Torques in 3-D
    
Angular _ momentum, Lm  R  p  R  mv

dR
 0 Recall that the rotation length is fixed
dt

 dp  
 
 dLm d  
 T  dt  dt R  p  R  dt  R  F
 
dLm d  
 J  Lm  J
dt dt
For a 1-D system, the sum of all of the moments is:
M  J
where J is the moment of inertia (kg*m2) and
 is the angular acceleration of the body (rad/s2)

5/21/2010 47
 Rotational Mechanics Example

• A motor has the equivalent moment of inertia, J=0.5 kg*m2. When the motor
accelerates,
l t the
th angular
l velocity
l it off th
the rotor
t isi =10t
10t3, t0.
t 0
• Find the angular moment and the torque as a function of time.



Lm  J  0.5kg 
k  m 2 10t 3 rad 
d / s  5t 3 N  m  s
dLm
T  15t 2 N  m
dt

5/21/2010 48
 Review of Newtonian Mechanics

• Consider the translational motion of a body which is attached to an ideal spring that
exerts
t a force
f which
hi h obeys
b H
Hooke’s
k ’ LLaw. N
Neglecting
l ti ffriction,
i ti one obtains
bt i ththe
following expression for energy

1 1 
Total energy in the system E T       mv 2  k s x 2 
2 2 
1 2
Kinetic Energy  mv
2
1
Potential Energy   ks x 2 ks is the spring constant
2

For rotational motion and a torsional spring

1 1 
E T       J 2  k s 2 
2 2 
1 2
 J
2
1
  k s 2
2

For translational and rotational motion and a torsional spring


1
2

mv 2  J 2 
5/21/2010 49
 Review of Newtonian Mechanics
• The moment of inertia J depends on how much mass is distributed with respect to the
axis. Thus note that J is different for different axes of rotation and will have to be
recalculated as one changes coordinate systems or rotational direction
• If the body has a uniform density, J can be calculated for regularly shaped bodies
using their dimensions. For example, a rigid cylinder of mass m, radius R, and
length l has the following horizontal and vertical moments of inertia
length, inertia, J
1
J horizontal  mR 2
2
1 1
J vertical  mR 2  ml 2
4 12
• The radius of gyration can be found for irregularly shaped objects, and the moment of
inertia can be easily obtained. (see in class handout)

5/21/2010 50
 Review of Newtonian Mechanics
• In electromechanical motion devices, the force and torque are of great interest.
• Assuming a rigid body and a constant moment of inertia
inertia, one has
 
    d  d   
T  d  J  d  J  d  J  d  J  d
dt dt
• The total work done is g
given by
y
f
  f   1

W   T  d   J  d  j 2f  j02
2
 Kinetic Energy
0 0

• Furthermore, power is 
dW  d  
P  T  T 
dt dt
 
• This is the analog of P  F  v applied for translational motion
• Example:
– Assume the rated power and angular velocity of a motor are 1W and 1000 rad/s. The
rated electromagnetic torque is found to be

P 1W
T   0.001N  m
5/21/2010
r 1000rad / s
51
 Friction in Motion Devices
• Because all or the devices discussed in this course lead to mechanical motion, a discussion of
friction is essential
• Friction is a highly complex nonlinear phenomenon that is typically simplified to a series of
equations that adequately map losses in the performance characteristics of the system
• For our purposes we will simplify “friction” into one of three different descriptions
– Coulomb friction is a retarding g force ((or toque)
q ) that changes
g its sign
g with the reversal of
the direction of motion. The equations of coulomb friction are
 dx   d 
FCoulomb  k Fc sign  TCoulomb  kTc sign 
 dt   dt 
where kfc and kTc are the Coulomb friction coefficients
– Viscous friction is a retarding force (or torque) that is a linear (or nonlinear) function of
displacement 2 n 1 2 n 1
dx   dx  d 
 d 
Fviscous  Bv   Bvn   Tviscous  Bm   Bmn  
dt n 1  dt  dt n 1  dt 
where Bv and Bm are the Coulomb friction coefficients
– Static friction exist only when the body is stationary and vanishes as motion begins
Fstatic   Fst v
dx
0
Tstatic   Tst   d 0
dt dt

5/21/2010 52
 Friction in Motion Devices

• For several of the pproblems p

presented within this text,, the following
g equation
q for friction will be
applied to provide adequate mapping of physical systems with frictional memory, presliding
conditions, etc is.


F fr  k fr1  k fr 2 e
k v

 k fr 3 v sign 
 k  sign 
k 
T fr fr 1  k fr 2 e  k fr 3

5/21/2010 53
 Simple Pendulum
• A point mass is suspended by a massless unstretchable string of length l.
• Derive the equations of motion


d

dt
d 1
  mgl sin   Ta 
dt J
J  ml 2
Eqns. of Motion: 2 linear ODEs
d
F  mg sin  
dt
T  applied  torque d g T
i   a2
  sin
 M  mgl sin   T a dt l ml
d
2
T  J  J   mgl sin   Ta
dt 2
d 2 1
  mgl sin   Ta 
dt 2 J
5/21/2010 54
 Lagrangian Dynamics
• Lagrangian dynamics is an energy based technique using generalized coordinates to
developp easilyy obtain equations
q of motion for even the most complicated
p of systems
y
• It works for all energy based systems and can therefore be used readily in multi-domain
problems such as electromechanical problems that include electronic circuits, magnetic flux,
torque, and even hydraulic components to the system
• We start by defining the kinetic, dissipative, an potential energy terms in the system
 dq dq 
 t , q1 ,..., qn , 1 ,..., n  Kinetic Energy
 dt dt 
 dq dq 
D t , q1 ,..., qn , 1 ,..., n  Dissipative Energy (non-conserative)
 dt dt 
 t , q1 ,..., qn  Potential Energy

• Where qi are general coordinates best matched to the geometry of the system, and qdoti is
the derivative of qi with respect
p to time ((the momentum component).
p ) Q is a g
generalized
force term used to meet the coordinate used.
dq
qi qi  i Q
dt
• g g equation
The Lagrange q of motion is then defined as
d     D 
    Q
5/21/2010 dt  qi  qi qi qi 55
 Simple Pendulum Revisited
• A point mass is suspended by a massless unstretchable string of length l.
• Derive the equations of motion using Lagrangian Dynamics
  ml 
1 2
Kinetic Energy
2
 generalized _ coordinates :
0 qi  

 d
 ml 2 qi  
 dt
Potential Energy   mgl(1  cos )

g sin 
 mgl

Lagrangian L   0 unstretchable string
d      d dl
    0  ml 2  2ml  mgl sin 
dt      dt dt
d
ml 2  mgl sin   0 Homework:
dt Develop equations of motion for a pendulum
2 d
Lagrange Eqn. of Motion Ta  ml  mgl sin  with a point mass, m, suspended by a
dt massless spring of nominal length, l, and
Eqns of Motion: 2 linear ODEs
Eqns. spring constant
constant, ks. Which method is easier
easier,
d g T Newtonian or Lagrangian Dynamics?
  sin   a 2
5/21/2010 dt l ml 56
d

dt
 Simple Double Pendulum (1)
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/p
hysics/DoublePendulum.html

• A point mass, m1, is suspended by a massless unstretchable string of length, l1, which in
tern suspends a point mass m2, suspended by another massless unstretchable string of
length, l2.
• Derive the equations of motion using Lagrangian Dynamics
x1  l1 cos 1
Potential energy is
y1  l1 sin 1
  m1 gx1  m2 gx2  m1  m2 gl1 cos 1  m2 gl2 cos  2
Which we convert to

x2  l1 cos 1  l2 cos  2  m1  m2 gl1 sin 1
y2  l1 sin 1  l2 sin  2  1


Ki ti energy iis th
Kinetic then   m2 gl2 sin  2


1
2
  1

m1 vx1  v y1  m2 vx 2  v y 2
2 2

2
2 2
 2

Lagrangian is
  m1  m2 l1212  m2l1l212 cos 2  1   m2l2222
1 1 L  
2 2
 Equations of motion are
 m2l1l212 sin  2  1 
1 d     
   0
 dt  1  1 1
  m2l1l212 sin  2  1 
 2 d     
   0

 m1  m2 l121  m2l1l22 cos 2  1  dt  2   2  2
1
5/21/2010  57
 m2l222  m2l1l21 cos 2  1 
2
 Simple Double Pendulum (2)
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/p
hysics/DoublePendulum.html

• A point mass, m1, is suspended by a massless unstretchable string of length, l1, which in
tern suspends a point mass m2, suspended by another massless unstretchable string of
length, l2.
• Derive the equations of motion using Lagrangian Dynamics
Equations of motion are
d     
   0
dt  1  1 1
0  m1  m 2 l12 1  m 2 l1l 2 2 cos  2  1   m 2 l1l 2 22 sin  2  1   m 2 l1l 21 2 sin  2  1   m1  m 2 gl1 sin 1
    
d
    0
 
 2
dt   2   2

d
0  m 2 l 22 2  m 2 l1l 2 1 cos  2  1   m 2 l1l 212 sin  2  1   m 2 l1l 21 2 sin  2  1   m 2 gl 2 sin  2
1

dt 2
d d 
2
If torques
q are applied
pp to drive the system y then, then the equations
q become
  2
dt dt

T1  m1  m2 l121  m2l1l2 2 cos 2  1   m2l1l222 sin  2  1   sin m2l1l212 sin  2  1   m1  m2 gl1 sin 1
T2  m2l22 2  m2l1l21 cos 2  1   m2l1l212 sin  2  1   m2l1l212 sin  2  1   m2 gl2 sin  2


T1  l1 m1  m2 l1 1  m2l2 2 cos 2  1   m2l222 sin  2  1   m2l212 sin  2  1   m1  m2 g sin 1 
 
58
T2  m2l2 l2 2  l11 cos 2  1   l112 sin  2  1   l112 sin  2  1   g sin  2
 Circuit Network using Lagrangian Dynamics
• Consider a 2-mesh electric circuit shown here
• Derive the equations of motion using Lagrangian Dynamics
generalized _ coordinates : current
i2 i
q1  , q2  2
s s
q1  i1 , q 2  i2
Applied _ Voltage : ua (t )  Q

Kinetic Dissipative Homework:

1. Program this into MATLAB and simulate
  L1q12  L12 q1  q 2   L2 q 22
1 1 1 1 1
D  R1q12  R2 q 22
2
the response. Compare to the result
2 2 2 2 2 presented on page 61 of your textbook
  D D
 0, 0  R1q1 ,  R2 q 2
q1 q2 q1 q 2 2. Derive the same set of equations for
 this circuit using Kirchhoff’s Law.
 L1  L12 q1  L12 q 2
Equations _ of _ Motion
q1 d     D 
     Q1

  L12 q1  L2  L12 q 2 dt  q1  q1 q1 q1
q 2
d     D 
     Q2  0
dt  q 2  q2 q 2 q2
Potential
1 q12 1 q22
 
2 C1 2 C2 L1  L12 q1  L12 q2  R1q1  q1  ua (t )
C1
 q1  q2
5/21/2010  ,  59
 L12 q1  L2  L12 q2  R2 q 2 
q2
q1 C1 q2 C2 0
C2
 Simulink Performance

5/21/2010 60
 Another Example of a Circuit Network using
L
Lagrangian
i D Dynamicsi
• Consider a 2-mesh electric circuit shown here
• Derive the equations of motion using Lagrangian Dynamics

generalized _ coordinates : current

i1 i
q1  , q2  2
s s
q1  i1 , q 2  i2
Applied _ Voltage : ua (t )  Q

Kinetic Dissipative First _ and _ Second _ Order _ DEs

1 1 1 1   q1  q2 
  Lq 22 D  R1q12  R2 q 22 q1  i    ua (t ) 
2 2 2 R C 
   D D di 1  q q 
 0,  0, 0  R1q1 ,  R2 q 2 q2    R2 q 2  1 2 
q1 q2 q1 q1 q 2 dt L  C 
Through _ Application _ of _ Kircchoff ' s _ Law
 d    Equations _ of _ Motion
 Lq 2 ,    Lq2 du a (t ) 1  uC u (t ) 
q 2 d  q 2 
dt d     D     iL  a 
     Q1 C R R 
dt  q1  q1 q1 q1
dt
Potential
 uC  RL iL 
diL 1
1 q1  q2  d     D 
2
  dt L
    Q2  0
2 C dt  q 2  q2 q 2 q2 where : ia  q1 , iL  q 2
 q1  q2   q1  q2 q1  q2 
 ,  R1q1   ua (t )
q1 C q2 C C C
duc
 ia  iL
5/21/2010 q q dt 61
Lq2  R2 q 2  1 2  0 q q
C uc  1 2
C
Electromechanical Actuator using
L
Lagrangian
i D Dynamics
i
• Consider the combined electronic and mechanical system
• D i th
Derive the equations
ti off motion
ti using
i L Lagrangian
i D Dynamics
i
generalized _ coordinates :
is i
q1  , q2  r , q3   r
s s
Dissipativ e
q1  is , q 2  ir , q3  r
D  Delec  Dmech
Q1  u s (t ), Q2  ur (t ), Q3  TL
1 1 1
Kinetic D Rs q12  Rr q 22  Bm q 32
2 2 2 Equations _ of _ Motion
  elec  mech D D D
 R1q1 ,  R2 q 2 ,  Bm q 3 d     D 
q1 q 2 q 3      Q1
dt  q1  q1 q1 q1
1 1 1
  Ls q12  Lsr q1q 2  Lr q 22  Jq32
2 2 2 Potential
Lsr  Lsr    Lmutual cos   Lmutual cosq3  d     D 
1      Q2
   elec   mech  k s q32 dt  q 2  q2 q 2 q2
Ls q12  Lmutual cosq3 q1q 2  Lr q 22  Jq32
1 1 1 2

2 2 2    d     D 
 0,  0,  k s q3      Q3
  q1 q 2 q 3 dt  q3  q3 q3 q3
 0,  Ls q1  Lmutual cosq3 q 2
q1 q1
Equations _ of _ Motion
 
 0,  Lmutual cosq3 q1  Lr q 2 u s (t )  Ls q1  Lmutual cosq3 q 2  Lmutual sin
i q3 q 2 q3  R1q1
q2 q 2
  ur (t )  Lmutual cosq3 q1  Lr q2  Lmutual sin q3 q1q3  R2 q 2
  Lmutual sin q3 q1q 2 ,  Jq3
 TL  Jq3  Lmutual sin q3 q1q 2  Bm q3  k s q3
62
q3 q3
5/21/2010
 Electromechanical Actuator using
L
Lagrangian
i D Dynamics
i (2)
• Let’s convert our Lagrangian equations into a set of linear ODE’s using generalized _ coordinates :
time dependent differentials of current,
current angular velocity,
velocity and angle
i i
Equations _ of _ Motion q1  s , q2  r , q3   r
u s (t )  Ls q1  Lmutual cos q3 q 2  Lmutual sin q3 q 2 q 3  R s q1 s s
u r (t )  Lmutual cos q 3 q1  Lr q2  Lmutual sin q 3 q1q 3  Rr q 2
q1  is , q 2  ir , q3  r
 TL  Jq3  Lmutual sin q 3 q1q 2  Bm q 3  k s q3 Q1  u s (t ), Q2  ur (t ), Q3  TL
recall _ that :
d r Homework: Show the conversion between these two forms
 r
dt
Yields _ the _ following

Lmutual sin 2 r is r  Rr Lmutual cos  r ir  Lr Lmutual cos  r ir  r  Lr u s  Lmutual cos  r u r
1 2
 R s Ls is 
di s 2

dt Ls Lr  L2mutual cos 2  r 

R s Lmutual is cos  r   Ls Lmutual sin  r is r  Rr Ls ir  Lmutual sin 2 r ir  r  Lmutual cos  r u s  Ls u r
1 2
di r 2

dt Ls Lr  L2mutual cos 2  r 
d r 1
  Lmutual sin  r is ir  Bm r  k s r  TL 
dt J
d r 63
 r 5/21/2010
dt
Equations of Motion for an Elastic Beam

• Consider the beam supported

pp at one end
• Derive the equations of motion using Lagrangian Dynamics

1  x 2 x3 
y ( x)   3 2  3 
2 l l 
1  x 2 x3 
y (t , x)   3 2  3 q(t )
2 l l 
Kinetic
1  x 2 x3  2
1 1
1 1 33
( q ) 
20  
y dm 
2
A 
0
 3 2  3 q dx 
2 l l  280
Alq 2 Equations _ of _ Motion
  66 d     D 
 0,  Alq      Q1
q1 q1 280 dt  q1  q1 q1 q1
Potential 66 EI
Fq (t , x)  Alq  3 3 q
 2 y 
2
1
1
EI 3q 2  x   x  3 EI 2
1 280 l
 (q )   EI  2 dx 
2 0 2l 2  l   l  2 l 3
1   d    q 
2 0  x 
 (q ) dq EI
EI
3 3 q q   12.7  Fq (t , x)
q1 l dt Al 4

64
5/21/2010
 Rotational Electrostatic Motor Example
A WL
C 
g g
CV 2 We WLV 2
We  , Fex  
2 g 2g 2
We V 2 WL
Ftan   2
x 2g x
for _ misalignment _ along _ the _ width
of _ the _ capacitor
LV 2 W 
Torsional Ratcheting Actuator A high torque
We
Ftan   rotary electrostatic actuator
x 2 g 2 x http://mems.sandia.gov/about/electro-
mechanical.html

65
 Rotational Electrostatic Motor Example
cylindrical _ capaci tan ce _ is _ needed _ for _ torque
l
Er 
2r
 l  r2 
r2

V  Va  Vb   Er dr  ln 
r1
2  r1 
Q 2L
C 
V r 
ln 2 
 r1 
2
C l 2 C  r   N r
   r2 
L V r  ln 
ln 2 
 r1   r1 
1 C  r  2 
Te  V N V2
2  r r 
ln 2 
 r1 
Torsional _ mechanical _ equations
 
 
dr 1 1  
 Te  Bm  TL    N V 2  Bm  TL 
dt J J  r2  
 ln   
  1
r 
66
d r
 r
dt
 Magnetic Circuits
• The following relations allow one to solve magnetic field problems in a manner similar to that of
electronic circuits
• It provides a clear means of designing transformers, motors, generators, and relays using a
lumped circuit model
• The analogy between electronic and magnetic circuits is provided below

5/21/2010 67
 Magnetic Circuits
• To develop our model we define a magnetomotive (mmf) force that is equivalent to voltage for
electronic circuits 

  NI   H  d l

• We then define a reluctance which is equivalent to magnetic resistance

l

S
• And show that the magnetic flux is equivalent to current using the following Ohmic style relation
  

5/21/2010 68
Figure from: M.N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics 4th ed. Oxford University Press, 2007.
 Donut Shaped Toroid
• A steel toroidal core with permeability,=r0 has a mean radius, 0, and a circular cross section
of diameter 2a flux ,
2a. Calculate the current required to generate a flux,  in the core

Method 1
 NI   NI
B  0 r
l 2 0
  NI
   BdS  0 r a 2
2 0
2 0
I 
N0 r a 2

M th d 2
Method
l 2 0  0  r NI 2 0
  NI         a 2  NI
S  0  ra 2
 0  r  a 2 0
2

   2 0 20
I   
N N  0  ra 2 N0r a 2
5/21/2010 69
Figure from: M.N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics 4th ed. Oxford University Press, 2007.
 Toroid with Rectangular Cross-section
Cross section

• A steel toroidal core with permeability,=r0 has a mean radius 0, and a rectangular cross
section 2a *b
section, flux, ,
b. Calculate the current required to generate a flux  in the core

 NI  0  r NI
B 
l 2 0
0 a 0 a
 0  r NI   NIb d  0  r NIb   0  a 
   BdS  
0 a 2
bd   0 r
2 
0 a 

2
lln 

 0  a 

N  0  r N 2b   0  a 
L  ln  
I 2 
 0  a 
1  0  r N 2 Ib   0  a 
W m  LI 2
 ln  
5/21/2010 2 4 
 0  a  70
Figure from: M.N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics 4th ed. Oxford University Press, 2007.
 Force on Magnetic Materials
(E
(Example
l 2)
• For the magnetic circuit shown below, with magnetic flux density of 1.5 Wb/m2 and a relative
permeability of 50.
• Fi d th
Find the iindividual
di id l reluctances
l t and
dddetermine
t i ththe ttotal
t l currentt required
i d tto generate
t a particular
ti l
flux value. All branches have a cross sectional area of 0.001 cm 2

 r  50
 1  path 143
 2  path 123
 3  path 16 and 35
 a  path 56

1   2 
l

30  10   3  10
4 8

0rS 0 50 10  10  20 

4

3 
90  10   0 .9  10
4 8

 50 10  10 
0 20 
4

a 
l

10  10   5  10
4 8

  NI   a  T  S  10  10 
0 0 20  4

  Ba S  1 2
 1 ||  2 
I 
  
B a S  T 1 . 5  10  10 8 7 . 4  10 8
  44 . 16 A
1   2
N 400  20  7 . 4  10 8
 T   3   a   1 ||  2 
5/21/2010 20  71
Figure from: M.N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics 4th ed. Oxford University Press, 2007.
 Force on Magnetic Materials
• Because these are often mechanical system, it is extremely useful to be able to determine the
forces generated by these circuits and those required to move components from one location to
another.
• For ease of use, we will ignore fringe fields in our calculations
• Also, by using ferromagnetic materials and applying simple magnetic boundary conditions, we
path very strong fields into specific geometric shapes
shapes. This allows one to focus the force to a
specific location and move an object in a well defined manner
• Lets examine the force required to pull a magnetic bar vertically up to an electromagnetic yoke.

 1 B2 
dW m   FT dl  2  Sdl 
 2 0 
 B 2S 
FT   2    F1 / 2  F1 / 2
 2  0 
2
B S
F1 / 2   Force on a single gap
20
F1 / 2 B2 1
p1 / 2    BH  w m
A 20 2
pressure = energy density!!!!!!
Note: This diagram shows a yoke pulling a
5/21/2010 bar magnet (keeper) at two gap locations 72
Figure from: M.N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics 4th ed. Oxford University Press, 2007.
 Force on Magnetic Materials
(E
(Example
l 33a))
• A U-shaped electromagnetic is designed to lift a 400 kg mass (which includes the mass of the
keeper) The iron yoke with relative permeability of 3000 has a cross section of 40 cm2 and a
keeper).
mean length of 50 cm. Each of the air gaps are 0.1mm long. Neglecting the reluctance of the
keeper, calculate the number of turns in the coil when the excitation current is 1A.
1  1   
Wm 
2   H dv  2   B dv   F  d y
v v L

B
dW m  dW m , air _ gap  2 Sdy  Fdy
20
B a2 S
F 2  mg
20
mg  0
Ba   1 . 11Wb / m 2
S
  NI    y   g 
l 2  0 . 50  6  10 6
y   
0r S  0 3000 0 . 004  48 
l 2  0 . 0001  5  10 6
g   
0S  0 0 . 004  48 
g g 6
Figure from: M.N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics 4th ed. g   NI  NI
Oxford University Press, 2007. y  g y  g 56
g Ba la
g  NI  H a l a 
y  g 0
5/21/2010 1 . 11 0 . 0001  11 73
N   162
0 5 1
 Force on Magnetic Materials
(E
(Example
l 3b)
• Yoke pulling a keeper from both ends 1  1   
Wm 
2 
v
 H dv 
2 
v
B dv  
L
F  dy

B 
dW  dW  2 Sdy  dy  Fdy
20 20S
m m , air _ gap

W m B 2S
Fl   2 a  mg
x 20
mg  0
Ba 
S
1
Wm  Li a2 ( t )
2
N 
L  
ia (t ) ia (t )
  NI    i
ly lk y (t )
  ,  ,  2
 0  ry S  0  rk S 0S
y k g

2
N
L( y) 

Figure from: M.N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics 4th ed.
Oxford University Press, 2007. i
 N 2 
 
W m 1 L ( y )   
 i  
1 74
Fl   i i

x 2 y 2 y 5/21/2010
 Force on Magnetic Materials
(E
(Example
l 33c))
• Yoke pulling a keeper by gravitational force

W m B 2S
Fl   2 a  mg
x 20
mg  0
Ba 
S
1 2
Wm  Li a ( t )
2
N 
L 
ia (t ) ia ( t )
  NI     i
ly lk x (t )
y  ,k  , g  2
 0  ry S  0  rk S 0S
N2 N 2  0  ry  rk S
L ( x ( t ))  
  i  rk l y  2  ry  rk x ( t )   ry l k
Fl 
W m


1  L ( x ( t ))  i a2 ( t )

 N 2  0  ry  rk S 2 i a2 ( t )
2 2


B a2 S
 mg
 rk l y  2  ry  rk x (t )   ry l k 2 2  0
2
x 2 x
dx
v
dt
1  N 2  0  ry  rk S 2 i a2 ( t ) 
2 2
dv 
   mg
dt m   rk l y  2  ry  rk x ( t )   ry l k 2 
 75
Figure from: M.N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics 4th ed. 5/21/2010
Oxford University Press, 2007.
 Force on Magnetic Materials
(E
(Example
l 3d)
• Yoke pulling a spring loaded keeper from both ends

W m B 2S
Fl   2 a  k s x  k s1 x  k s 2 x
x 20
mg  0
Ba 
S
1 2
Wm  Li a ( t )
2
N 
L 
ia ( t ) ia ( t )
  NI     i
ly lk x (t )
y  ,k  , g  2
 0  ry S  0  rk S 0S
N2 N 2  0  ry  rkk S
L ( x ( t ))  
  i  rk l y  2  ry  rk x (t )   ry l k
Fl 
W m


1  L ( x ( t ))  i a2 ( t )

 N 2  0  ry  rk S 2 i a2 ( t )
2 2


B a2 S
k xk xk x
 rk l y  2  ry  rk x (t )   ry l k 2 2  0 s s1 s 2
2
x 2 x
dx
v
dt
1  N 2  0  ry  rk S 2 i a2 ( t ) 
2 2
dv 
     76
m   rk l y  2  ry  rk x ( t )   ry l k 2
k x k x k x
dt
s s1 s2

 5/21/2010
 Force on Magnetic Materials
(E
(Example
l 33e))
• The system is driven by voltage control and not steady state current

Fl 
W m


1  L ( x ( t ))  i a2 ( t )

 N 2  0  ry  rk S 2 i a2 ( t )
2 2


B a2 S
 k s x  k s1 x  k s 2 x
 rk l y  2  ry  rk x ( t )   ry l k 2
2
x 2 x 20

d d L ( x ) * i a ( t ) 
u a ( t )  Ri a ( t )   Ri a ( t ) 
d
dt d
dt
di ( t ) dL ( x ) dx
u a ( t )  Ri a ( t )  a  ia
dt dt dt
1  2 N 2  0  ry  rk S 2 i a2 ( t ) 
2 2
di ( t )
 a   Ri a ( t )  ia v (t )  u a (t ) 
dt L ( x )   rk l y  2  ryy  rk x ( t )   ryy l k 2 


Thus _ the _ complete _ set _ of _ equations _ is :

1  2 N 2  0  ry  rk S 2 i a2 ( t ) 
2 2
di a ( t )
  Ri a ( t )  ia v (t )  u a (t ) 
dt L ( x )   rk l y  2  ry  rk x ( t )   ry l k 2 

1  N 2  0  ry  rk S 2 i a2 ( t ) 
2 2
dv
   k s x  k s1 x  k s 2 x 
dt m   rk l y  2  ry  rk x ( t )   ry l k 2 

dx
v
dt

77
5/21/2010
 Force on Magnetic Materials
(E
(Example
l 4)
• Solenoid with stationary member and
g with drag.
a movable plunger g
2x
 k s x  k s1 x   F L ( t )
dx
(1) m  Fe ( t )  B v
t 2
dt
spring _ restoring _ force : Fs  k s x  k s 1 x 

For _ linear _ magnetic _ system

1
W c (i , x )  L ( x )i 2
2
 W c (i , x ) 1 2  L ( x )
Fe ( i , x )   i
x 2 x
N 2
N 0rS yS g
2

L( x)  
  i S g l y  S y  r x  2 d  Combining _(1) _ and _( 2 ), _ one _ obtains
L ( x )  N 0 S S g R S g l y  S y  r  x  2 d  r S y S g l y  S y  r x  2 d  u
2 2 2


r y di
 i iv 
x S g l y  S y  r x  2 d 2 dt N 0r S y S g
2 2 2
S g l y  S y  r x  2 d  N 20rS yS g
dv 1

N 2  0  r2 S y2 S g k x  k s1 x   B v v  FL (t )
i2  s
Applying _ Kirchhoff ' s _ law dt 2 S g l y  S y  r  x  2 d 2
m m m
d
u  Ri  ,   L ( x )i dx
v
dt dt
di dL ( x ) dx
u  Ri  L ( x ) i Apply the sliding friction term described previously

dt dx dt
 
B v  k fr 1  k fr 2 e  kv  k fr 3 v sign ( v )

di 1  N 2  0  r2 S y2 S g 

78
  Ri  
S g l y  S y  r x  2 d 2
iv u
(2) dt L ( x )  
 5/21/2010
 Force on Magnetic Materials
(E
(Example
l 5)
• Induced emf from Faraday’s law may also provide sufficient analysis to complete a preliminary
design
d d d d r d d
V emf       r
dt dt d  r dt dt d r
d
where _ _ is _ the _ transforme r _ term
dt
• Th ttotal
The t l flux
fl linkage
li k iin many electric
l t i machines
hi can b
be expressed
d as
1
   N s p where Ns is the number of turns, and p is the flux per pole
4
• For radial topology machines, one uses
 iN
 p  2 s R inst L
P ge

where i= phase current, Rinst is the inner sector radius, L is the inductance, P is the number of
poles, and ge is the equivalent gap (air gap + radial thickness of the permanent magnet)
• Denoting the number of turns as Ns, one has
cos P  r 
iN s
mmf 
P
1 Dr = outer side rotor diameter
T  PB agg i s N s L r D r Lr = axial rotor length
g
2
 iN s
B ag  cos P  r  Field in the air gap
2 Pg e 79
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 Solving 2nd order ODEs

• Lets examine a few second order ODEs commonly solved

d 2x dx d 2i di 1 du
m 2  Bv  k s x  Fa (t ) L 2 R  i a
dt dt dt dt C dt
d 2 d 2
d u 1 du 1 di
J 2  Bm  k s  Ta (t ) C 2   u a
dt dt dt R dt L dt
• Notice that all of these are remarkably similar resulting in similar solutions
• One can therefore infer that if the right choice of multiplicative constants were used, that each
of these could easily be converted into another. Thus the use of electronic control to optimize
translational and rotational mechanical systems as well as magnetic devices
• So in a generalized form, one can solve this ODE using the following method
d 2x dx d
 2  0 x  f (t ) obtained _ from _ Laplace ' s _ equation : s 
dt 2 dt dt
characteristic _ eqn : characteri stic _ roots :
s 2  2s  02  s  s1 s  s2   0 s1, 2     2   02

yielding :
 2  02  x (t )  ae s1t  be s 2 t  c f
 2  02  s1  s2    x (t )  a  b e t  c f

5/21/2010   0  s1, 2    j   0 
2 2 2 2
 
x (t )  e t a cos 2
0 
  2 t  b sin  2
0 
  2t  c f 80
 2nd Order ODE Example (1)
d 2i di 1 du
• Lets examine a series RLC circuit: L 2 R  i a
dt dt C dt
R 1
s2  s 0
L LC
2
R  R  1
s1, 2     
2L  2 L  LC
2
 R  1
For   
 2L  LC
    
x(t )  e t a cos 02   2t  b sin 02   2t  c
R 1
 , 0 
2L LC
Other eqns. such as a parallel RLC and a mechanical spring motion result in
1 1
 , 0 
2 RC LC
Bv k
 , 0  s
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 2nd order ODE example (2)

Matlab Code

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 Solving Differential Equations in Matlab

for

adding

Matlab Code
83
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 Reexamining a simple series RLC circuit

For constant voltage and given RLC constants

Now add initial conditions, and time for the solution

[V, I] = dsolve ('DV=1/C', 'DI=(-V-R*I+Va)/L', 'V(0)=20, I(0)=-10')
t=0:0.001:1;

The solution for both the voltage and current in the circuit is
now solved using the Matlab ODE 45 solver as

Plot the function in Matlab using the following code

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 Example with Three Equations of Motion

• Equations of motion

• Initial Conditions

• Now lets examine options to code this

solution
( Open Matlab )

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 Van der Pol’s
Pol s Eqn

• Nonlinear differential equation

commonlyl used d tto predict
di t h
heartt rhythm,
h th
and tunneling diodes

• Solved using coupled differential

equations

• Now lets examine some code and then

solve with SIMULINK

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