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Sociologists see education as one the major
institutions that constitutes society. While theories guide
research and policy formulation in the sociology of
education, they also provide logical explanations for why
things happen the way they do. These theories help
sociologists understand educational systems.

This chapter presents an introduction to the social

science theories of education-consensus and conflict,
structural functionalist and interaction theories as related
to education.
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‡among all members of a particular society.
conflict is a disagreement or clash between
opposing ideas, principles, or people ± this can be a
covert or overt conflict.
The conflict theory, according Horton and Hunt
(1984) focuses on the heterogeneous nature of society and
the differential distribution of political and social power.
A struggle between social classes and class conflicts
between the powerful and less powerful groups occur.
Conflict theorists ask how school contribute to the
unequal distribution of people into jobs in society so that
more powerful members of society maintain the best
positions and the less powerful groups (often women,
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The most significant inventions made possible by culture is
language. The learning of culture takes place through language.
From our enormous capacity to learn and use language is derived our
collective memory (myths, fables, sayings, ballads, and the like) as
well as writing, art and all other media that shape human
consciousness and store and transit knowledge. If culture can affect
the structure and content of its language, then it follows that
linguistic diversity derives in part from cultural diversity.

The linguistic-relativity hypothesis asserts that languages

determines thought and therefore culture. In reality language and
culture influence each other (Edward Sapir). Every society has a
culture, no matter how simple the culture may be, and every human
being is cultured in the sense of participating in some culture or
other.
È 


 
Culture refers to the attitudes, values, customs, and
behavior
Patterns that characterize a social group. The characteristics of


 are:
1. Culture is learned.
2. Culture is shared by a group of people.
3. Culture is cumulative.
4. Culture change.
5. Culture is dynamic.
6. Culture is ideational.
7. Culture is diverse.
8. Culture gives us a range of permissible behavior patterns.
 `
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1.  
 It is the act of imparting, sharing and conveying

information The communication component are:
1.1.   . It defines what it means to be human. It forms
the core of all culture. When people share a language, they share a
condensed, very flexible set of symbols and meanings. It is beyond
grunts and hand signals, and provides the basis for symbolic
interaction.
1.2. !"
. Along with language and non-verbal signals,
symbols form the backbone of symbolic interaction. They condense
very complex ideas and values into simple material forms so that the
very presence of the symbol evokes the signified ideas and values.
It carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share
culture.
2.  
% 

. It is the mental act of perceiving things.
2.1. ? These are mental representations (concepts,
categories, metaphors) used to organize stimulus; they are the basic
units out of which knowledge is constructed and a world emerges.
2.2. # 
 . These are ideas which were linked together
and organized into larger sets, systems, etc. # 
 
systematically summarizes and elaborates how we think the world
looks and acts. It is the storehouse where we accumulate
representations, information, facts, assumptions, etc. Once stored,
knowledge can support learning and can be passed down from one
generation to the next.
2.3. 
 Beliefs accept a proposition, statement,
description of facts, etc. as true. Explanations and predictions (cause
and effect logic) rely on beliefs.
 2.4. 
 It is defined as culturally defined standards of
desirability, goodness, and beauty which serve as broad guideline
for social living. They support beliefs, or specific statements that
people hold to be true. The values people hold vary to some
degree by age, sex, race, ethnicity, religion, and social class.
Values change over time.
2. 5. 
. People who share a culture share a common
language for talking about their inner selves. Accounts are how
people use that common language to explain, justify, rationalize,
excuse, or legitimize our behavior to themselves and others.
3.  %


&   
'
3.1  Norms are rules and expectations by which a
society guides the behavior of its members. Norms vary in terms
of importance. They are reinforced through sanctions, which take
the form of either rewards or punishment.
 3.2.  They are customary behavior patterns or
folkways which have taken a moralistic value. This includes
respect for authority, marriage and sex behavior patterns, religious
rituals, and other basic codes of human behavior.
3.3.  They are formalized norms, enacted by people
who are vested government power and enforced by political and
legal authorities designated by the government.
3.4. 
$ ! They are behavior patterns of society which
are organized and repetitive. They are commonly known as
customs. It involves the way we eat, how we dress and other
patterns that we follow.
3.5. `

These are highly scripted ceremonies or strips
of interaction that follow a specific sequence of actions.
4. 



They refer to physical objects of
culture such as machines, equipment, tools, books, clothing, etc.
  (
 


While the culture of a group is an integrated network of folkways,
mores, systems of beliefs, institutional patterns, it can be broken
into simple units or elements called 




 A 





either of a material or non-material culture, represents a
single element or a combination of elements related to a specific
situation. Example of cultural traits are kissing the hands of the
elders after Sunday mass and at angelus. Cluster of culture traits
are known as 

 

 which, in turn, group together to
form a 

 


 
 

  


Culture is transmitted through:
1.  


 It is the process of learning culture of one¶s
own group. Example, Learning the folkways, mores, social
traditions, values and beliefs of one¶s own group.
2. 


 . It is the process of learning some new traits
from another culture. For example, when students from the rural
areas migrate to the urban areas and gradually learn some urban
customs, they become acculturated.
3. 

 It is the process in which an individual entirely loses
any awareness ho his previous group identity and take on the culture and attitudes of
another group. An Ilocano who moves to Mindanao and assumes the folkways of
the local group, then he has become assimilated.
?

    
 


Culture is what distinguishes human beings from the lower animal forms
making them unique. It is a powerful force in the lives of all people and shapes and
guides people¶s perceptions of reality.
1. 

 


 %



 



  
"  It helps in the regulation of a person¶s conduct and prepares him so he can
participate in the group life.
2.   
 %




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3. 

 
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4. 

 

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It is impossible to understand what the actions of members of other
groups mean if we analyze them in terms of our motives and values.
We must interpret their behavior in the light of their motives, habits,
and values. The same behavior has different meanings in different
cultures and we must look at the behavior in relation to the culture of
the society where it takes place.

 

: Practices considered immoral or taboo to a
certain group of people but are accepted by other groups with a
different cultural orientation.

The central point in cultural relativism is that in a particular

setting certain traits are right because they work in that setting while
other traits are wrong because they clash painfully with parts of the
culture.
 `?



   
   ") 
% 
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1. explain the concepts of multiculturalism and multi-cultural
education;
2. identify and explain the four approaches to multicultural
education;
3. Describe student subcultures; and
4. Accept the diverse characteristics and needs of learners.
?


Whenever two or more people come together with a shared
purpose, they form a culture with its own written and unwritten
rules for behavior. Our families, workplaces, and communities all
have cultures. These cultures have a tremendous impact upon our
behavior as individuals.
 




It is a policy that emphasizes the unique
characteristics of different cultures, especially as they relate to one
another in receiving nations. It is a systematic and comprehensive
response to cultural and ethnic diversity, with educational, linguistic,
economic and social components and specific institutional
mechanisms.






 It is an emerging discipline whose
aim is to create equal educational opportunities from diverse racial,
ethnic, social class and cultural groups.
One of its important goals is á


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There are four approaches in accomplishing the related goal of
multicultural education which is to help all students develop more
positive attitudes toward different racial, ethnic, cultural and religious
groups.
›  






1. 



 It deals with the extent to which teachers
use examples and content from a variety of cultures and groups to
illustrate key concepts, generalizations, and issues within their
subject area or disciplines.
2. # 
  

 
 It describes how teachers
help students to understand, investigate, and determine how the
biases, frames of reference, and perspective within a discipline
influence the ways in which knowledge is constructed within it.
3.  )  
 It describes lessons and activities used
by teachers to help students to develop positive attitudes toward
different racial, ethnic, and cultural groups.
4. *
!
!It exists when teachers modify their
teaching in ways that will facilitate the academic achievement of
students from diverse racial, cultural, and social class groups.
5. 
   


  


 It will
transform ways to enable students from diverse racial, ethnic, and
gender groups to experience equality and equal status 
 


"

 
As we have seen, people develop cultures to provide a
structured framework of rules for their behavior. In turn, people¶s
behavior is influenced by their cultural background (socialization)
and setting (their personal experiences in society). They also form
much smaller groups within society which we term subcultures.
"

 refers to the cultural patterns that set apart some
segment of a society¶s population. It can be based on age, ethnicity,
residence, sexual preference, occupation, and many other factors.

 
 "

 

+ 

 

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-





     
 


   imply the transmission of ideas from
generation to generation by significant members of the older
generation (parents, teachers, religious leaders, etc.).
È 




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Culturally responsive teaching 
 
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It does this in three important ways.
1. By recognizing and accepting student diversity, it
communicates that all students are welcome and valued as human
beings.
2. By building on students¶ cultural backgrounds, culturally
responsive teaching communicates positive images about the
students¶ home cultures.
3. By being responsive to different student learning styles,
culturally responsive teaching builds on students¶ strengths and use
these to help students learn.
According to Banks (1996), these four approaches are:
1. 
"
 

 ± The ethnic heroes and holidays are

included in the curriculum.
2. 
% 

 / A unit or course is incorporated (for

example, a unit on women in history), but no substantial change
to the curriculum as a whole.
3.  
 

 / Curriculum is changed, so that

students are taught to view events and issues from diverse ethnic
and cultural perspective.
4. 

 

 / Students make decisions about their

world and become directly involved in social actions.





 
 is a progressive approach for
transforming education that holistically critiques and addresses
current shortcomings, failings, and discriminatory practices in
education.
 Several shared ideals on 




 
 which
provided a basis for its understanding.
* Every student must have an equal opportunity to achieve her
full potential.
* Every student must be prepared to competently participate in an
increasingly intercultural society.
* Teachers must be prepared to effectively facilitate learning for
every individual student, no matter how culturally similar or
different from themselves.
* Schools must be active participants in ending oppression of all
types, first by ending oppression within their own walls, then by
producing socially and critically active and aware students.
* Education must become more fully student-centered and
inclusive of the voices and experiences of the students.
* Educators, activists and others must take a more active role in
reexamining all educational practices and how they affect the
learning of all students: testing methods, teaching approaches,
evaluation and assessment, school psychology and counseling.
 p( 
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1. To identify and describe the characteristics and functions of
different social institutions.
2. To describe the various types of governments.
3. To discuss the relationship between economy and education.
4. To show the interrelationships among the social institutions.
?


Individual, formal organizations, commonly identified as
³institutions,´ may be deliberately and intentionally created by
people. Their development and functioning in society in general may
be regarded as an instance of emergence, that is, institutions arise,
develop and function in a pattern of social self-organization, which
goes beyond the the conscious intentions of the individual humans
involved.
È 
 
? 


 
In any human society are social structures and social mechanisms
of social order and cooperation that govern the behavior of its
members. These are called social institutions and according to
functional theorists, perform five essential tasks namely: replacing
members or procreation, teaching new members, producing,
distributing and consuming goods and services, preserving order, and
providing and maintaining a sense of purpose.
Social institution is a group of social positions, connected by social
relations, performing a social role. It is a society that works to
socialize the groups of people in it. Common examples include
universities, governments, families, and any people or groups that you
have social interactions with.

 

    
    ? 




Palispis (1996) pointed out the following characteristics and
functions of an institution. They are:
1. Institutions are purposive.
2. They are relatively permanent in their content.
3. Institutions are structured.
4. Institutions are a unified structure.
5. Institutions are necessarily value-laden.

From these characteristics, it may be said that an institutions is

a relatively permanent structure of social patterns, roles, and relations
that people enact in certain sanctioned and unified ways for the
purpose of satisfying basic social needs.
? 


  % %  
   

 0
1) Institutions simplify social behavior for the individual person.
2) Institutions, therefore, provide ready-made forms of social
relations and social roles for the individual.
3. Institutions also act as agencies of coordination and stability for
the total culture.
4. Institutions tend to control behavior.
) 
 


 
The five major social institutions are: =
  
 

   

 
1.  
 The family is the smallest social institution with the
unique function or production and rearing the young. It is the basic
unit of Philippine society and the educational system. It is the
institution to which we owe our humanity.
 
  

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The basic purpose of education is the transmission of knowledge.
Schools became necessary when cultural complexity created a need
for specialized knowledge and skill which could not be easily
acquired in the family, church and community.

    
 
a. The intellectual purposes of schooling.
b. The political purposes of schooling.
c. The social purposes of of schooling.
d. The economic purposes of schooling.
  
 
  
 

The   
 
  of education are defined as the open and
intended goals or consequences of activities within an organization or
institution. There are six major manifest functions of education in
society, to wit:          
 

  



          
      =  
(Javier et al, 2002)


 
    

The    =  of schools are the hidden, unstated and
sometimes unattended consequences of activities within an institution.
* 
  
 
*  
   
 =    

 
  =  
  

  
Religion may be defined as any set of coherent answers to the
dilemmas of human existence that makes the world meaningful.
`
 as defined in terms of its social function is a system of
beliefs and rituals that serves to bind people together through shared
worship, thereby creating a social group. It is the socially defined
patterns of beliefs concerning the ultimate meaning of life, it assumes
the existence of the supernatural.

 

  `


* Belief in a deity or in a power beyond the individual,
* A doctrine of salvation,
* A code of conduct.
* Religious rituals.
 
   `

Among the many functions of religion identified by Calderon
(1998) are the following:
1. Religion serves as a means of social control.
2. It exerts a great influence upon personality development.
3. Religion allays fear of the unknown.
4. Religion explains events or situations which are beyond the
comprehension of man.
5. It gives man comfort, strength and hope in times of crises and
despair.
6. It preserves and transmits knowledge, skills, spiritual and cultural
values and practices.
7. It serves as instrument of change.
8. It promotes closeness, love, cooperation, friendliness and
helpfulness.
9. Religion alleviates sufferings from major calamities.
10. It provides hopes for a blissful life after death.
 

  `

There are four elements of religion. They are  
 and 
= 

 =


  and
  

 
m ÷
   
Human behavior is mainly concerned with the satisfaction of
material wants. It is centered on the task of making a living, the most
absorbing interest of man. To that end, man in all ages and among all
classes struggle to bring about changes in the environment. The
changes that have take place and are taking place are the result of the
interplay of forces in our efforts to improve our material well-being.
Our mode of living centers on the acquisition of wealth in order to
satisfy our wants and this aspect of man¶s activity constitutes the field
of  

   %   



 looks at the trees, while


 looks at
the forest. Both categories involve the construction of theories and
formulation of policies-activities that are the heart of 


   "



what goods and services to produce and how much.
   how to produce goods and services.
  for whom are the goods and services.
s  

   !    
The institution which resolves conflicts that are public in
nature and involve more than a few people is called  

 
The Supreme Court of the Philippines defines  

  as
³that institution by which an independent society makes and carries
out those rules of action which are necessary to enable men to live in
a social state, or which are imposed upon the people for that society
by those who possess the power or authority of prescribing them.´
       %  

In the Philippines, there are three branches of government:
 " #
 which proposes and enforces rules and laws;
   #
 which makes rules and laws;   $ 
#
 which adjudicates rules and laws.
 
   %  

The functions of government are:
1.     =   contribute to the very bonds of society
and are therefore compulsory.
2. 
 
 =   are those undertaken to advance the
general interest of society, such as public works, public charity, and
regulation of trade and industry. These functions are merely optional.
È   ! 
 

Look at the following purposes of schools. Encircle the

number that best reflects how important you think each school
function is.

Use the following scale.

1 Very Unimportant
2 Unimportant
3 Moderately important
4 Important
5 Very Important
1. To transmit the nationµs cultural heritage 1 2 3 4 5

2. To encourage students to question current

practices and to promote social change 1 2 3 4 5

3. To prepare competent workers to compete

successfully in a technological world economy 1 2 3 4 5
4. To develop healthy citizens aware of nutritional 1 2 3 4 5
exercise and good health.

5. To lead the world in creating a peaceful global

society, stressing an understanding of other cultures. 1 2 3 4 5

6. To nurture students in developing art,

music, and writing. 1 2 3 4 5

7. To demonstrate academic proficiency through

high standardized test scores 1 2 3 4 5

8. To teach students work ethics: punctuality,

responsibility, cooperation, self-control, neatness 1 2 3 4 5

9. To prepare students for college and/or

well-paid careers 1 2 3 4 5

10. To eliminate racism and all forms of

discrimination in society 1 2 3 4 5
 `?

   › %



    ") 
% 0
At the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
1. Describe gender equality and inequality and how they affect
development.
2. Explain the relationship between gender and power.
3. Discuss significant gains that have been made in woman¶s
education as a result of global advocacy.

?


In addition to age, gender is one of the universal dimensions on
which status differences are based. Unlike sex, which is a biological
concept, gender is a social construct specifying the socially and
culturally prescribed roles that men and women are to follow.
Gender shapes the lives of all people in all societies. It
influences all aspects of our lives, the schooling we receive, the social
roles we play, and the power and authority we command. Population
processes ± where women and men live, how they bear and rear
children, and how they die ± are shaped by gender as well (Riley,
1997).

       › %



4 !   
  
 ± They believe that parents are the
distributors of reinforcement, reinforce appropriate gender role
behaviors. By the choice of toys, by urging ³boy´ or ³girl´
behavior, and reinforcing such behavior, parents encourage
children to engage in gender-appropriate behavior.

,     
  
 V This derives from Kohlberg¶s
speculations about gender development. We know from Piaget¶s
work that children engage in symbolic thinking by about 2 years
of age. Using this ability, children acquire their gender identity
and then, Kohlberg believes, they begin the process of acquiring
gender-appropriate behavior.
  


 V A schema is a mental blueprint for
organizing information, and children develop and formulate
appropriate gender. Such a schema helps a child to develop
gender identity and formulate an appropriate gender role.
Consequently, children develop an integrated schema ir picture,
of what gender is and should be (Elliott et al., 1996).
È 
    
 
!
 
Gender stereotyping is defined as the beliefs humans hold
about the characteristics associated with males and females. From an
early age, people form ideas of what males and females should be,
beginning to accumulate characteristics that they consider male and
female, and assigning labels to those categories. This process certain
simplifies the ability to deal with the world. Obviously, that rough,
noisy person is a boy, and that gentle, soft-spoken, obedient person is
a girl.
     *

!
Gender equality gives women and men the same entitlements
to all aspects of human development, including economic, social,
cultural, civil and political rights, the same level of respect, the same
opportunities to make choices, and the same level of power to shape
the outcomes of these choices.
Research from around the world has shown that gender
inequality tends to slow economic growth and make the rise from
poverty more difficult. The reasons for this link are not hard to
understand. Half of the world¶s population is female, hence, the
extent to which women and girls benefit from development policies
and programs has a major impact on the countries¶ overall
development success.
   ? *

!
Four themes characterize feminist theorizing of gender
inequality.
1. 
 Men and women are situated in society not only
differently but also unequally. Specifically, women get less of
material resources, social status, power, and opportunities for self-
actualization than do men who share their social location ± be it
location based on class, race, occupation, ethnicity, religion,
education, nationality, or any other socially significant factor.
2 !  This inequality results from the organization of
society, not from any significant biological or personality differences
between men and women.
3. 
 Although individual human beings may vary somewhat
from each other in their profile of potentials and traits, no significant
pattern of natural variation distinguishes the sexes. Instead, all human
beings are characterized by a deep need for freedom to seek self-
actualization and by a fundamental malleability that leads them to
adapt to the constraints or opportunities of the situations in which
they find themselves.
4.  
 All inequality theories assume that both men and
women and men will respond fairly easily and naturally to more
egalitarian social structures and situations.
      

Gender refers to the different ways men and women play in

society, and to the relative power they wield. While gender is
expressed differently in different societies, in no society do men and
women perform equal roles or hold equal positions of power.

Power is a basic fabric of society and possessed in varying

degrees by social actors in diverse social categories. Power becomes
abusive and exploitive only when independence and individuality of
one person or group of people becomes so dominant that freedom for
the other is compromised.
Women and children have often been on the abusive side of
power. Some causes that are often referred to are: the greater
physical strength that men tend to have the imbalance of power
between men and women resulting from social structures and
historical practices in regard to finances, education, roles of authority
and decision making; the abuse of power by men and the failure of
cultural pressures to prevent such abuse; and a distorted view of
sexuality and the objection of the female.
Several factors act as determinants of the amount of power a
person holds or can use in his or her relation with others:  

 
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 One could think that globalization is only a matter of industry
and business, and that education as a moral process is not part of this
development. However, if we understand education as a part of the
information business, 
 !
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(

  Rinne (2000) emphasizes that educational
policy has become an ever more important part of economic, trade,
labor and social policy in western countries. One complete global
development is the development of mega-universities, university
networks and virtual universities, that can offer competitive training
programs for students recruited from all over the world.
 ›? › ?1?
An education for globalization should therefore nurture the
higher order cognitive and interpersonal skills required for problem
finding, problem-solving, articulating arguments, and deploying
verifiable facts or artifacts. These skills should be required of
children and youth who will as adults, fully engage the larger world
and master its greatest challenges, transforming it for the betterment
of humanity ± regardless of national origin or cultural upbringing.
Globalization has become a widespread idea in national and
international dialogue in recent years. But what do we mean when we
invoke each of these terms, and is there really a meaningful
distinction between the two.
Globalization¶s shifting and controversial parameters make it
difficult to describe it as clearly as a dominant force, both positively
and negatively, shaping the environment in which we live. Motivated
by economic forces and driven by digital technologies and
communications, globalization links individuals and institutions
across the world with unprecedented interconnection. In doing so, it,
in some way democratizes and intensifies interdependence and in
other ways creates new forms of local reaction and self-definition.
While it may spread certain freedoms, higher living standards, and a
sense of international relatedness, it also threatens the world with a
³universal´ economy and culture rooted in North American and
Western ideals and interests.
 
"

 as distinct from globalization, does what
higher education has traditionally aimed to do: 
 

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Global education places particular emphasis on the changes in
communication and relationships among people throughout the world
highlighting such issues as human conflict, economic systems, human
rights and social justice, human commonality and diversity, literatures
and cultures, and the impact of the technological revolution.
While it continues to depend on the traditional branches of
specialist knowledge, global education seeks to weave the boundaries
between the disciplines and encourages emphasis on what
interdisciplinary and multi-disciplinary studies can bring to the
understanding of to human problems. Some see global education as
a vehicle for the promotion of global education that might itself be
seen as the West¶s effort to destabilize fragile balances in economic
and political systems.
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Globalization is undoubtedly an important constitutive feature of the
modern world. One of the current interdisciplinary assumptions is that
globalization necessarily amounts to the loss of cultural identity.
Philosophers may argue endlessly about globalization, but they can all
agree that it refers to an increasing interconnectedness and
convergence of activities and forms of life among diverse cultures
throughout the world. As it has been plausibly suggested, a culture ³is
no longer a discrete world. It is transformed to accord with a world of
ruptured boundaries´ (Held and McGrew, 2003). Globalization has
attracted the attention of many disciplines because it affects both self-
understanding and cultural identity.
If we look at the recent developments in the education sector
globally, we can summarize the implications of global information
society in the education system as follows:
* Demand for widening the education access for all.
* Continuous lifelong learning(e.g., facing the boundaries
between present and inset, formal education and working life).
 * Global versus local cultural developments.
* Creation of new educational networked organizations (e. g.,
global virtual universities, virtual schools, multinational educational
consortiums, etc.).
* Changing of educational management from hierarchical
institutions to equal distributions of network organizations, from
commanding to negotiating.
* Demand for more flexible and general skills (e.g., meta-
skills such as problem solving, searching information, learning skills,
etc..).
 
    

   
"


Our vision of global education was organized around the
following core values: peace and non-violence, social justice and
human rights, economic well-being and equity, cultural integrity,
ecological balance, and democratic participation. Core skills and
competencies included self-worth and self-affirmation, the affirmation
of others, including cultural and racial differences, critical thinking,
effective communication skills (including active listening), non-
violent conflict resolution and mediation, imagination (the ability to
envision alternatives), and effective organizing (Mische, 2001).
.


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"
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1. Massive migration ± Globalization and massive migrations
are changing the ways we experience national identities and cultural
belonging.
2. Managing difference ± It is becoming one of the greatest
challenges to multicultural countries. From France to Sweden, Brazil
to Bolivia, Indonesia to Malaysia, the work of managing difference
calls forth a new educational agenda. Children growing up in these
and other settings are likely than in any previous generation in human
history to face a life of working and networking, loving and living
with others from different national, linguistic, religious, and racial
backgrounds.
3. Global changes in culture deeply affect educational policies,
practices and institutions. Particularly in advanced industrial societies,