Unit 5

Land use capability classification indicates the suitability of various kinds of soil for
economic uses, mainly agriculture.

The classification devised for Indian conditions draws heavily from the classificatory
approach followed by the United States Department of Agriculture. The guiding principles
for this classification are the limitations imposed on the sustained use of soils by the basic
characteristics of soils in combination with climate, topography,” surface drainage,
vegetation cover, erodibility and other natural hazards.

There are eight land capability classes which are indicated by Roman numbers I to VIIL
Then, there are capability sub-classes and capability units. The classes I to IV include lands
suited for cultivation and should be maintained under natural vegetation of forests or grasses.

This scheme of land capability classification is based on economic returns in terms of

agricultural output because agriculture is the most widespread and basic occupation in India.

The various classes and their characteristic features are as follows:

Class I:
Soils in this class are very good. The soils are deep, productive and easily worked and nearly
level. They are not subject to overflow (runoff) damage. However, they are subject to
variations of fertility and puddle erosion. Soils of this class have slight or no risk of damage.
These are the most productive parts of our country and are to be found in flood-plain regions
of the country.

Class-I soils used for crops need practices’ to maintain soil fertility and soil structure. These
practices involve use of fertilisers, cover cropping, green manure crop and crop rotation.

Class-II:
As far as natural conditions are concerned, the land is excellent, but some limitation is
possible, which may restrict the choice of crops to some extent. Soils of this group can be
cultivated with easily applied practices, and a majority of crops can be grown. They are,
however, subject to moderate risk of damage.

Soils of this group have gentle slopes and are subject to moderate erosion. They are also
subject to moderate overflows. These are areas of specialised cropping and are commercially
one of the most suitable parts of our land.
These soils may require special practices, such as contour tillage, crop rotation and water-
control devices.

Class III:
These are moderately good soils. They can be used regularly for crops. These soils have steep
slopes and suffer from either some ecological problem (as soil erosion) or climatic problem
(rainfall irregularity) which inhibits intensive commercial exploitation. Also, these soils are
inherently low in fertility.

These soils require cropping systems that produce adequate plant cover. The cover is needed
to protect the soil from erosion. It also helps protect the soil structure. Also, proper surface
drainage should be ensured and practices like contour tillage undertaken.

Class IV:
These soils are affected by severe permanent hazards like waterlogging and water deficiency.
They occur frequently on steep slopes which are vulnerable to erosion. The soils are low in
fertility. Commercial exploitation is nearly absent. Subsistence farming is practised and
mainly coarse grains are grown on these soils.

These soils should be kept in pastures. A grain crops may be grown once in five or six years.
Soil and. moisture conservation measures, like water disposal of terraces, contour tillage and
stabilisation of gullies, should be undertaken.

Class V:
These soils are found in foothills or in mountain valleys and are suitable for grasses, shrubs,
etc. These soils should be used for pasture or forestry operations. Cultivation is not feasible
because these soils are wet and stony. The land is nearly level and subject only to slight
erosion by wind or water, if properly managed. There are few permanent limitations. Grazing
should be regulated in these soils.

Class VI:
These soils have moderate permanent limitations and are unsuitable, for cultivation. These
soils should be used for grazing and forestry. They are steep and shallow and more prone to
erosion than class V soils. Grazing should not be permitted in these soils. They suffer from
certain environmental constraints as well and are the environmentally fragile zones of our
country.

Class VII:
The severity of environmental constraints is much greater in these soils, compared to class VI
soils. As a result, these soils are subject to severe permanent hazards. They are fair to poor for
grazing or forestry. These soils are steep, eroded, shallow or swampy and are completely
unsuitable for cultivation. Strict management should be applied to these soils.

Class VIII:
These occur in those parts which have no direct potential for exploitation for living. These
soils can serve the purposes of preserving some rare species or acting as a water catchment
zone. Soils of this class are extremely rough, arid or swampy and are unsuitable for
cultivation. They are not suited for forestry or grazing. They may be used for wildlife
sanctuaries, recreation or watershed uses.

Capability Sub-Classes:
These are subdivisions of capability classes, made on the basis of four dominating
limitations, namely, (i) risk of erosion (e), (ii) wetness, drainage or overflow (w), (iii) rooting
zone limitations (s), and (iv) climatic limitations (c). The sub-classes are mapped by adding
the limitation symbol to the capability class number, e.g., IIe, Ills, etc. There are no sub-
classes in Class I.

Significance of Land Capability Classification in Landuse Planning:

Land capability classification helps in planning for landuse:

1. The land capability classification determines the use ceiling for any piece of land and helps
to define the conservation problems and possible treatments. Keeping this in mind, a piece of
land can be put to the most efficient landuse. For instance, all agricultural activity must be
confined to classes I to IV and others, such as pasturelands, energy plantation, buildings,
roads, etc., to classes V to VIII. Within this scheme, one can select the most suitable crop for
a particular piece of land.
 2. The land capability classes can change towards better classes, if the existing limitations can
be permanently removed or reduced in extent by economically feasible reclamation measures,
such as providing irrigation, providing proper drainage, constructing flood-control measures
or stabilising, gullies. A further deterioration of existing conditions can, on the other hand,
shift the capability to poorer classes.

Land Cover

The definition of land cover is fundamental, because in many existing classifications and
legends it is confused with land use:

Land cover is the observed (bio)physical cover on the earth's surface.

When considering land cover in a very pure and strict sense, it should be confined to the
description of vegetation and man-made features. Consequently, areas where the surface
consists of bare rock or bare soil are land itself rather than land cover. Also, it is disputable
whether water surfaces are real land cover. However, in practice, the scientific community
usually includes these features within the term land cover.

Land use

Land use is characterized by the arrangements, activities and inputs people undertake in a
certain land cover type to produce, change or maintain it. Definition of land use in this way
establishes a direct link between land cover and the actions of people in their environment.
The following examples are a further illustration of the above definitions:

There are many types of land use:

 Recreational - fun, non-essentials like parks.
 Transport - roads, railways, and airports.
 Agricultural - farmland.
 Residential - housing.
 Commercial - businesses and factories.
  "grassland" is a cover term, while "rangeland" or "tennis court" refer to the use of a
grass cover; and
 "recreation area" is a land use term that may be applicable to different land cover
types: for instance sandy surfaces, like a beach; a built-up area like a pleasure park;
woodlands; etc.

Forest Management:

Forest Management is defined as the practical application of the scientific, technical and
economic principles of forestry.

Forest management is that branch of forestry whose function is the organization of a forest
property for management and maintenance, by ordering in time and place the various
operations necessary for the conservation, protection and improvement of the forest on the
one hand, and the controlled harvesting of the forest on the other.

Forest management objectives

Primary objective of good management is provision of the maximum benefit to the
greatest number of people for all time.
Forest may be managed primarily for productive purpose, for direct material benefits, or
protective purposes for, indirect benefits. It is depended upon the primary and secondary
objectives of the owners. General objectives of Forest Management
1. Maintaining and as far as possible, raising the productive capacity of the soil and of the
forest stands consistent with the maximum site potential.
2. Promoting the protective effect of the forest, against soil erosion, avalanches floods and
protection of the physical factors, such as natural scenery, local flora and fauna.
3. Execution of silvicultural operations and regulation of felling in such a way so as to
bring the forest to a condition of as near normality as possible: in simple words,
attainment of a normal forest is one of the principle objects.
4. Satisfaction of rights of the right holder in respect of timber, firewood, grazing, etc. in
particular, and to meet the basic requirement of the local population in general.
5. Providing the maximum possible volume of valuable timber for constructional and
industrial proposes, and other forest produces for meeting the market demands and
securing the highest possible financial results.
Forests and Trees affect the hydrologic behavior of a watershed, including the quantity and
quality of stream flow, erosion , and sedimentation. In general, natural forests yield the
highest quality of water of any ecosystem. The lowest erosion and sedimentation rates are
usually associated with forested watersheds in natural conditions (Books et al.1991) stream
flow from forested watersheds tends to be more uniform, with peak flows lower than those
from watersheds with other vegetative cover. Given this background , the role of trees and
forests can be viewed in terms of watershed Protection enhancement of water resources, and
watershed rehabilitation.

Watershed protection is an objective under special conditions, such as fragile, steep slopes ,
and for watersheds above municipal reservoirs. In some cases, may be prohibited on these
watersheds, but they may provide multiple benefits in terms of wildlife habitat, aesthetics ,
recreation, production of high quality water for municipal use, and protection of biodiversity.
• The main purpose of afforestation is to control the erosion of the forest area by
covering the land by forest crops and fruits, thus they conserving soil moisture of the
land.

• Also, it provides timber, fruits and etc.. Which can meet the need of the local
community.

• The maintenance cost of afforestation is low.

• It has become quite profitable in course of time.

• The barren hill becomes green environment.

• The crops and trees selected for covering the barren hill should be fast growing.

• Crops are selected based on; soil characteristics, climate of the area, seeding
available in that area, amount of seeding required for the area, cost estimation and
etc..
 Agricultural land management
• Arable land is directly related to productivity, and therefore this land may also be
called agriculture land.

• Human activities for development on this land are more compared to non-arable land.

• Management work on this land of a watershed are focusing on minimizing land

degradation by minimizing erosion and enhancing the water conservation.

• Mechanical or engineering measures, barriers are used in the arable land to protect it
from runoff and soil erosion

• Control measures like

• Contour furrowing

• Contour farming

• Contour bunding

• Contour terracing & gully control

Benefits of Contour Farming
 Reduce Soil Erosion
 Improves Water Quality

How Contour Strip cropping helps

 Contour strip cropping reduces soil erosion and protects water quality
 contour strip cropping may help reduce
fertilizer costs by providing nutrient inputs
naturally

Benefits of Contour Strip cropping

 Profits
 Soil Erosion
 Water Quality
 Wildlife

Planning

 Longer, steeper slopes may require strip cropping rather than just contour farming.
 Irregular slopes may require more than one key contour line.
 Row crop strips need to be roughly the same width as hay or small grains; consider how
many acres of row crops you need. Remember, hay strips will rotate to row crops over
time.
 Rotating strips from corn to legumes allows corn to use the nitrogen added to the soil by
the legumes.
 Consider whether herbicide carryover will be a problem.
 Replace end rows with grass or legumes, which will reduce erosion and make it easier to
turn equipment.
 Use grass waterways where runoff is concentrated.
 Strip width will depend on slope, equipment and management.
Maintenance
 Keep strip widths consistent from year to year.
 In contour farming, establish a narrow, permanent strip of grass along each key
contour line to avoid having to lay out new key lines every year.

Furrowing:

Furrows are small, parallel channels, made to carry water in order to irrigate the crop. The
crop is usually grown on the ridges between the furrows.
Uniform flat or gentle slopes are preferred for furrow irrigation. These should not exceed
0.5%. Usually a gentle furrow slope is provided up to 0.05% to assist drainage following
irrigation or excessive rainfall with high intensity.

On undulating land furrows should follow the land contours. However, this can be a difficult
operation requiring very careful setting out of the contours before cutting the furrow

Furrows can be used on most soil types. However, as with all surface irrigation methods, very
coarse sands are not recommended as percolation losses can be high. Soils that crust easily
are especially suited to furrow irrigation because the water does not flow over the ridge, and
so the soil in which the plants grow remains friable.

Although furrows can be longer when the land slope is steeper, the maximum recommended
furrow slope is 0.5% to avoid soil erosion. Furrows can also be level and are thus very similar
to long narrow basins. However a minimum grade of 0.05% is recommended so that effective
drainage can occur following irrigation or excessive rainfall.

If the land slope is steeper than 0.5% then furrows can be set at an angle to the main slope or
even along the contour to keep furrow slopes within the recommended limits. Furrows can be
set in this way when the main land slope does not exceed 3%. Beyond this there is a major
risk of soil erosion following a breach in the furrow system. On steep land, terraces can also
be constructed (see Basin Irrigation) and furrows cultivated along the terraces.

In sandy soils water infiltrates rapidly. Furrows should be short (less than 110 a), so that
water will reach the downstream end without excessive percolation losses.

In clay soils, the infiltration rate is much lower than in sandy soils. Furrows can be much
longer on clayey than on sandy soils.

Trenching:

Trenching is one of the major engineering measures for erosion control in non-arable lands
and is mainly aimed to slope stabilization and drainage line treatment. The area with steep
slope e.g. hilly region, are prone to soil erosion due to lack of vegetative cover and
accelerated transportation of soil. The hilly area exhibits the characteristics of “high rainfall,
quick drainage” that provides little retention time to the runoff to infiltrate into the soil
profile. The overland flow velocity is often surpassing the safe limit to cause soil erosion
from surface. The trenches constructed in these regions of address the problem of soil
conservation to act as flow barrier (restricting the flow velocity within the safe limit from soil
erosion point of view) and facilitating in-situ water conservation for establishment of
vegetation.

Types of Trenching

The trenches are constructed in different geometrical configurations namely contour

trenching, continuous trenching, staggered trenching and in line trenching. The selection of
trenches depends on the site characteristics and rainfall intensity. The schematic diagram of
different types of trenches are shown below.
Contour bunding:

It involves the construction of banks along the contours.

Terracing and contour bunding which divide the hill slope into numerous small slopes,
check the flow of water, promote absorption of water by soil and save soil from erosion.

Retaining walls of terraces control the flow of water and help in reducing soil erosion.

Contour bunding technique reduces water runoff and controls soil erosion.
Counter Bunding are carried out in many parts in India- notably in Maharashtra, Gujarat,
Tamilnadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

Contour Bunding:

It consists of building earthen embankments across the slope of the land, following the
contour as closely as possible. A series of such bunds divide the area into strips and act as
barriers to t5he flow of water, thus reducing the amount and velocity of the runoff.

Grassland Management
Grassland management: To develop a forage species with in the productive potential of the
site considering the soil and climatic condition

• Grassland management in watershed is very important for different purposes.

• Natural grasses or vegetations are a food source for livestock.

• Besides, grasses are effective in protection, stabilization and consolidation of soil on

earthen conservation structures such as contour terraces, contour trenches, check dams
and etc.

• Good grass cover will protect the soil.

• Environmental benefits

• Prevents grassland from turning into barren land.

• Helps to maintains or enhances the soil erosion, water quality and etc

• Practical benefits

• It may support nearby crop health

• Helps prevent from gully erosion

• low cost and easy to grow

There are two common terms in grassland ecology Rangelands and pastures

The rangelands refers to large, naturally vegetated, mostly unfenced grasslands of low rainfall
areas that are grazed by domesticated animals and wild life.

Pastures are the improved grazing lands that receive abundant rainfall and are even irrigated,
fenced, generally fertilized and seeded for forage plants.
Managements of grasslands:

 Depends upon type / variety

 Humid dry temperature tropical – managed differently
 Grass cover – protective barrier of the soil
 Enriching biomass – conserving the soil and moisture
 Environs for advanced tree species to regenerate / planted
 Wildland Management
Wildland Management: Wildland is a natural environment that has not been significantly
modified by human activity. It is an area in which development is essentially non-existent,
except for roads, railroads, powerlines and etc.

Wildlands are crucial for survival of certain species, bio diversity, ecological studies,
conservation, and recreation.

Wildland management is combination of both grassland and forest land management.

Land grading operation

Land grading is reshaping of the field surface to a planned grade.

 To make a suitable field surface to control flow of water

 To check soil erosion and
 To provide for surface drainage

Irrigated areas benefit greatly from land grading since the ground in its natural state is seldom
suited for the efficient application of water.

In low rainfall areas, land grading

  Produces a smooth uniform land surface,
 Reduces runoff and induces infiltration of rainfall
 Assures even moisture distribution

On sloping ground, levelling eliminates small depressions, cuts and furrows which leads to
concentrate of runoff.

Proper land grading, coupled with surface drainage measures, recalm unproductive poorly
drained areas.

Criteria for land grading are influenced by

 The characteristics of the soil profile,

 Prevailing land slope
 Rainfall characteristics
 Cropping pattern
 Methods of irrigation
 Other special features of the site
 The preferences of the farmer

Land clearing:

Prior to making the land grading survey, it is advantageous to remove heavy vegetative
growth from the land. Land clearing consists of removing some or all of the trees, bush,
vegetation, trash and boulders and all roots.
 Reclamation of saline and alkaline soils
Introduction
The presence of an excess of sodium salts and the predominance of sodium in the
exchangeable complex are divided into the two main groups:
(1) Saline soils and

(2) Alkaline soils.

(1) Saline Soils:

Saline soils contain an excess of sodium salts, but its colloidal material is not yet sodiumised.

(2) Alkali Soils:

In the case of alkali soils, the exchange complex contains appreciable quantities of
exchangeable sodium. Such soils may or may not contain excess salts.

Alkali soils may be divided into following groups:

(a) Saline-alkali soils:
When they contain soluble salts in excess they are known as saline-alkali soils.

(b) Non-saline-alkali soils (Alkali soil):

When they do not contain soluble salts, they are called non-saline-alkali soils.

(c) Degraded alkali soils:

Under certain circumstances the clay complex of some alkali soils is broken down to give rise
to degraded alkali soils.

Reclamation of Saline and Alkali Soils

1. Adequate drainage.
2. Availability of sufficient water to meet crop use and also leach the salt below the root zone
in the soil.
3. Better than average soil management to include perfect land leveling, good bunding for
irrigation and advanced agronomic practices.
4. Protection and reclamation to be taken in large blocks.
5. Irrigation water should be of good quality.

I. Saline Soil Reclamation and Management:

Saline soils in which the soluble salts contain appreciable amounts of calcium and
magnesium do not develop into alkali soils by the action of leaching water. The reclamation
is comparatively easy in such soils. The main problem is to leach the salts downward below
the root zone and out of contact with subsequent irrigation water.
Following methods may be used for removal of salts:
(A) Mechanical Methods:
(i) Flooding and leaching down of the soluble salts:
The leaching can be done by first ponding the water on the land and lowering it to stand there
for a week. Most of the soluble salts would leach down below the root zone. After a week,
standing water (dissolved with soluble salts) is allowed to escape. Such, 2 to 3 treatments are
given to reclaim highly saline soils. Sometimes gypsum is also added to flood water when the
soluble salts are low in calcium to check development of alkalinity.

(ii) Scrapping of the surface soil:

When the soluble salts accumulate on the soil surface, scrapping helps to remove salts. This
is a temporary cure and salinity again develops on such lands.

(B) Cultural Methods (Crop, Soil and Water Management):

(i) Providing proper drainage:
If the soil is not free draining, artificial, drains are opened or tile drains laid underground to
help wash out the salts.

(ii) Use of salt free irrigation water:

Salt free good quality of irrigation water should be used.

(iii) Proper use of irrigation water:

It is known that as the amount of water in the soil decreases the concentration of salts in the
soil solution increases, thus, moisture should be kept at optimum field capacity.

II. Reclamation and Management of Alkali (Saline-alkali and non-saline-alkali) Soils:

Alkali soils cannot be reclaimed by mere flooding the land. In the case of saline-alkali soils,
flooding is likely to do more harm. Leaching (flooding) down of soluble salts make the soil
alkaline (only Na-clay remain in the soil). Soils get dispersed and become compact
(impervious).

In alkali (non-saline-alkali) soils, exchangeable sodium Na-clay is so great as to make the soil
almost impervious to water. But even if water could move downward freely in alkali soils,
the water alone would not leach out the excess exchangeable sodium. The sodium-cation
must be replaced by calcium-cation and then leached downward.

Following chemical methods are used for reclaiming the alkali soils:
(A) Chemical Methods:
Application of gypsum:
By cationic exchange, calcium is often used to replace sodium in alkali soil. If the soil has no
reserve of calcium carbonate, the addition of gypsum (calcium sulphate) is necessary. When
gypsum is used as a reclaiming agent, calcium replaces the exchangeable sodium and
converts the clay back into calcium-clay (Ca-clay).

Sodium sulphate goes into solution and is then removed by washing it out with water or
leaching down with water with the help of artificial drains. Addition of gypsum improves
physical conditions of soil. Soils become flocculated and drainage improves. pH is lowered
down to a desirable level.

(iii) Addition of organic matter:

The addition of organic matter increases acidity, thus, helping in lowering the pH. Organic
matter is especially helpful where sulphur is added to correct the alkalinity. The organic
matter supplies food for the bacteria that stimulates the oxidation of sulphur to the sulphate
form. The combination of sulphur, organic matter and gypsum has also been used with
success.