Heal

thi
saf
fect
edby
:

(
i)genet
icdi
sor
der
s:

Def
ici
enci
eswit
hwhichachi
l
disbor
nanddef
ici
enci
es/
def
ect
swhi
cht
hechi
l
dinher
it
sfr
om
par
entsfr
om bi
rt
h;

(
ii
)inf
ect
ionsand

(
ii
i)l
i
fest
ylei
ncl
udi
ngfoodandwat
erwet
ake,
restandexer
cisewegi
vet
oourbodi
es,
habi
ts
t
hatwehaveorl
acket
c.

Di
seasescanbebr
oadl
ygr
oupedi
ntoi
nfect
iousandnon-
inf
ect
ious.

Di
seaseswhi
char
eeasi
l
ytr
ansmi
tt
edf
rom oneper
sont
oanot
her
,ar
ecal
l
edi
nfect
ious
di
seases.

I
nfect
iousdi
seasesar
ever
ycommonandev
eryoneofussuf
fer
sfr
om t
heseatsomet
imeor
ot
her.

Someoft
hei
nfect
iousdi
seasesl
i
keAI
DSar
efat
alandl
eadst
odeat
hmor
eof
tent
hannot
.

Amongnon-i
nfecti
ousdi
seasesi.
esuchdi
seasewhi
chcan'
ttr
ansf
erf
rom oneper
sont
o
anot
her
,canceristhemaj
orcauseofdeat
h.

Dr
ugandal
cohol
abuseal
soaf
fectourheal
thadv
ersel
y.

COMMONDI
SEASESI
NHUMANS

Widerangeoforgani
smsbel
ongi
ngt
obact
eri
a,v
iruses,
fungi
,pr
otozoans,
hel
mint
hs,
etc.
,coul
d
causediseasesi
nman.

Suchdi
seasecausi
ngor
gani
smsar
ecal
l
edpat
hogens.

Mostpar
asi
tesar
ether
efor
epat
hogensast
heycausehar
mtot
hehostbyl
i
vingi
n(oron)t
hem.

Thepathogenscanent
erourbodybyvar
iousmeans,mul
ti
plyandi
nter
fer
ewi
thnor
mal
vit
al
act
ivi
ti
es,resul
ti
ngi
nmorphologi
cal
andfunct
ional
damage.

Pat
hogenshav
etoadaptt
oli
fewi
thi
ntheenv
ironmentoft
hehost
.
Forexampl
e,t
hepathogensthatent
erthegutmustknowawayofsur
viv
ingi
nthest
omachat
l
owpHandr esi
sti
ngthevari
ousdigest
iveenzy
mes.

Afewr
epresent
ati
vemember sfrom di
ff
erentgr
oupsofpat
hogeni
cor
gani
smsar
edi
scussed
her
eal
ongwitht
hediseasescausedbythem.

Sal
monel
l
aty
phi
isapat
hogeni
cbact
eri
um whi
chcausest
yphoi
dfev
eri
nhumanbei
ngs.

Thesepathogensgeneral
l
yentert
hesmall
intest
inet
hroughf
oodandwat
ercont
ami
nat
edwi
th
them andmigrat
etootheror
gansthr
oughblood.

Sustai
nedhighf
ever(
39°t
o40°
C),
weakness,
stomachpain,const
ipat
ion,
headacheandl
ossof
appeti
tear
esomeofthecommonsymptomsofthi
sdisease.

I
ntest
inal
per
for
ati
onanddeat
hmayoccuri
nsev
erecases.

Ty
phoi
dfev
ercoul
dbeconf
ir
medbyWi
dal
test
:

Bact
eri
ali
keStr
ept
ococcuspneumoni
aeandHaemophil
usinfl
uenzaearer
esponsi
blef
ort
he
di
seasepneumoni
ainhumanswhichi
nfect
stheal
veol
i(ai
rfi
l
ledsacs)oft
helungs.

Asar esul
toft
hei
nfect
ion,
theal
veol
igetf
il
ledwi
thf
lui
dleadi
ngt
osev
erepr
obl
emsi
n
respi
rati
on.

Thesy
mpt
omsofpneumoni
aincl
udef
ever
,chi
l
ls,
coughandheadache.

I
nsev
erecases,
thel
i
psandf
ingernai
l
smayt
urngr
ayt
obl
uishi
ncol
our
.

Ahealt
hypersonacqui
rest
heinfect
ionbyinhal
i
ngt hedropl
ets/
aerosol
srel
easedbyan
i
nfect
edpersonorevenbyshar
ingglassesandutensil
swithaninf
ectedper
son.

Dy
sent
ery
,pl
ague,
dipht
her
ia,
etc.
,ar
esomeoft
heot
herbact
eri
aldi
seasesi
nman.

Manyv
irusesal
socausedi
seasesi
nhumanbei
ngs.

Rhi
novi
rusesr
epr
esentonesuchgroupofv
iruseswhi
chcauseoneoft
hemosti
nfect
ious
humanai
lment
s–t hecommoncold.

Theyi
nfectt
henoseandr
espi
rat
ory
passagebutnott
hel
ungs.

Thecommoncol dischar
acter
isedbynasalcongest
ionanddi
schar
ge,
sor
ethr
oat
,hoar
seness,
cough,
headache,t
ir
edness,
etc.,whi
chusuall
ylastf
or3-7day
s.
Dropl
etsresult
ingf
rom coughorsneezesofaninf
ectedpersonareei
theri
nhal
eddi
rect
lyor
t
ransmitt
edt hr
oughcontaminat
edobjectssuchaspens,books,
cups,

door
knobs,
comput
erkey
boar
dormouse,
etc.
,andcausei
nfect
ioni
naheal
thyper
son.

Someoft hehumandiseasesar
ecausedbypr
otozoanstoo.Youmi
ghthav
ehear
dabout
malar
ia,
adi seasemanhasbeenfi
ghti
ngsi
ncemanyy ears.

Pl
asmodi
um,
ati
nypr
otozoani
sresponsi
blef
ort
hisdi
sease.

Di
ffer
entspeci
esofPlasmodi
um (
P.v
ivax,
P.mal
ari
aandP.f
alci
par
um)ar
eresponsi
blef
or
di
ff
erentt
ypesofmalaria.

Ofthese,
malignantmal
ari
acausedbyPl
asmodi
um f
alci
par
um i
sthemostser
iousoneandcan
evenbefatal
.

Li
fecy
cleofPl
asmodi
um.

Pl
asmodi
um ent
ersthehumanbodyasspor
ozoi
tes(
inf
ect
iousf
orm)t
hrought
hebi
teof
i
nfect
edf
emaleAnophel
esmosquit
o.

Theparasi
tesini
ti
all
ymulti
plywi
thi
nthel
i
vercel
l
sandt
henat
tackt
her
edbl
oodcel
l(RBCs)
resul
ti
nginthei
rrupt
ure.

Ther upt
ureofRBCsisassoci
atedwithrel
easeofatoxi
csubst
ance,haemozoi
n,whi
chi
s
responsi
blefort
hechil
landhi
ghf ev
errecurr
ingev
erythr
eetofourdays.

WhenafemaleAnophel
emosqui
tobit
esaninfect
edper
son,
thesepar
asi
tesent
ert
he
mosqui
to’
sbodyandunder
gofur
therdev
elopment.

Thepar
asi
tesmul
ti
plywi
thi
nthem t
ofor
m spor
ozoi
test
hatar
est
oredi
nthei
rsal
i
var
ygl
ands.

Whenthesemosquit
oesbi
teahuman,t
hespor
ozoi
tesar
eint
roducedi
ntohi
s/herbody
,
t
herebyi
nit
iat
ingt
heevent
smenti
onedabov
e.

I
tisi
nter
esti
ngtonot
et hatthemal
ari
alpar
asit
erequi
rest
wohost
s–humanandmosqui
toes–
t
ocompleteit
sli
fecy
cle,thefemal
eAnopheles

mosqui
toi
sthev
ect
or(
transmi
tt
ingagent
)too.

Ent
amoebahist
oly
ticai
saprotozoanpar
asi
tei
nthel
argei
ntest
ineofhumanwhi
chcauses
amoebi
asi
s(amoebicdysent
ery)
.
Sy
mpt omsoft
hisdi
seasei
ncl
udeconst
ipat
ion,
abdomi
nal
pai
nandcr
amps,
stool
swi
thexcess
mucousandbl
oodclot
s.

Housef
li
esactasmechani
calcarr
iersandser
vetotr
ansmi
tthepar
asi
tef
rom f
aecesofi
nfect
ed
per
sontofoodandf
oodproducts,ther
ebycontami
nati
ngt
hem.

Dr
inki
ngwat
erandf
oodcont
ami
nat
edbyt
hef
aecal
mat
terar
ethemai
nsour
ceofi
nfect
ion.

Ascari
s,t
hecommonroundwor m andWucher
eri
a,t
hef
il
ari
alwor
m,ar
esomeoft
hehel
mint
hs
whichareknownt
obepathogeni
ct oman.

Ascar
is,
ani
ntest
inal
par
asi
tecausesascar
iasi
s.

Symptomsofthesedi
seaseincl
udeint
ernal
bleedi
ng,
muscul
arpai
n,f
ever
,anemi
aand
bl
ockageoft
heintest
inal
passage.

Theeggsofthepar
asit
eareexcret
edal
ongwi
tht
hef
aecesofi
nfect
edper
sonswhi
ch
cont
aminat
esoil
,water
,pl
ants,
etc.

Aheal
thyper
sonacqui
rest
hisi
nfect
iont
hroughcont
ami
nat
edwat
er,
veget
abl
es,
frui
ts,
etc.

Wucher
eri
a(W.bancr
ofti
andW.mal
ayi)
,thef
ilar
ial
wor
mscauseasl owl
ydev
elopi
ngchr
oni
c
i
nfl
ammationoft
heorgansi
nwhi
chtheyli
veformanyyear
s,usual
l
y

t
hel
ymphat
icv
essel
soft
hel
owerl
i
mbsandt
hedi
seasei
scal
l
edel
ephant
iasi
sorf
il
ari
asi
s.

Thegeni
tal
organsar
eal
soof
tenaf
fect
ed,
resul
ti
ngi
ngr
ossdef
ormi
ti
es.

Thepathogensar
etr
ansmi
tt
edt
oaheal
thyper
sont
hrought
hebi
tebyt
hef
emal
emosqui
to
vect
ors.

Manyfungibel
ongingt
othegener
aMicr
ospor
um,Tr
ichophy
tonandEpidermophyt
onar
e
r
esponsi
bleforr
ingwor
mswhi chi
soneoft
hemostcommoni nf
ect
iousdiseasesi
nman.

Appear
anceofdr
y,scal
ylesi
onsonvar
iouspar
tsoft
hebodysuchasski
n,nai
l
sandscal
par
e
themai
nsymptomsofthedisease.

Heatandmoisturehel
pthesef
ungitogrow,
whi
chmakest
hem t
hri
vei
nski
nfol
dssuchas
t
hoseinthegroinorbet
weenthetoes.

Ri
ngwormsaregener
all
yacqui
redf
rom soi
lorbyusi
ngt
owel
s,cl
othesorev
ent
hecombof
i
nfect
edindi
vi
dual
s.
Mai
ntenanceofpersonalandpubl
i
chy
gienei
sver
yimpor
tantf
orpr
event
ionandcont
rol
of
manyinf
ecti
ousdiseases.

Measur
esforpersonalhygi
eneincl
udekeepi
ngt
hebodycl
ean;
consumpt
ionofcl
eandr
inki
ng
wat
er,f
ood,vegetabl
es,f
rui
ts,
etc.

Publ
ichygienei
ncludesproperdi
sposal
ofwasteandexcreta;
peri
odiccleani
nganddisinfect
ion
ofwaterr
eservoi
rs,pool
s,cesspool
sandtanksandobser
v i
ngstandardpract
icesofhygienei
n
publ
i
ccat eri
ng.

Thesemeasuresarepar
ti
cular
lyessent
ialwher
etheinf
ect
iousagent
sar
etr
ansmi
tt
edt
hrough
foodandwatersuchastyphoi
d,amoebiasi
sandascari
asi
s.

I
ncasesofair
-bor
nedi
seasessuchaspneumoniaandcommoncold,i
naddit
iont
otheabov
e
measur
es,cl
osecont
actwit
htheinf
ect
edpersonsorthei
rbel
ongi
ngsshoul
dbeavoi
ded.

Fordi
seasessuchasmalar
iaandfi
lari
asi
sthatar
etransmi
tt
edthroughinsectvector
s,t
hemost
i
mportantmeasurei
stocontr
oloreli
minat
ethevect
orsandthei
rbreedi
ngpl aces.

Thi
scanbeachievedbyavoi
dingstagnat
ionofwat
eri
nandaroundresi
dent
ial
areas,
regul
ar
cl
eani
ngofhouseholdcool
ers,useofmosquit
onet
s,i
ntr
oduci
ngfi
shesli
keGambusia

i
npondsthatf
eedonmosqui
tol
arv
ae,
spr
ayi
ngofi
nsect
ici
desi
ndi
tches,
drai
nagear
easand
swamps,
etc.

I
naddit
ion,door
sandwi
ndowsshoul
dbepr
ovi
dedwi
thwi
remesht
opr
eventt
heent
ryof
mosqui
toes.

Suchprecaut
ionshavebecomemoreimpor
tantespecial
lyint
heli
ghtofrecentwidespr
ead
i
ncidencesofthevect
or-
borne(
Aedesmosqui
toes)diseasesl
ikedengueandchikungunyai
n
manypar t
sofIndi
a.

Theuseofvacci
nesandi
mmuni
sat
ionpr
ogr
ammeshav
eenabl
edust
ocompl
etel
yer
adi
cat
ea
deadl
ydi
seaseli
kesmall
pox
.

Alargenumberofot
herinf
ecti
ousdi
seasesl
i
kepoli
o,di
pht
her
ia,
pneumoni
aandt
etanushav
e
beencontr
oll
edtoalar
geextentbyt
heuseofvacci
nes.

Di
scoveryofant
ibi
oti
csandv
ari
ousot
herdr
ugshashel
pedust
oef
fect
ivel
ytr
eati
nfect
ious
di
seases.
I
MMUNI
TY

Ev
ery
daywear
eexposedt
olar
genumberofi
nfect
iousagent
s.

Howev
er,
onl
yaf
ewoft
heseexposur
esr
esul
tindi
sease.

Thi
sisduet
othef
actt
hatt
hebodyi
sabl
etodef
endi
tsel
ffr
om mostoft
hesef
orei
gnagent
s.

Thisoveral
labi
li
tyoft
hehostt
ofi
ghtt
hedi
sease-
causi
ngor
gani
sms,
conf
err
edbyt
hei
mmune
system i
scall
edimmunit
y.

I
mmuni
tyi
soft
wot
ypes:

(
i)I
nnat
eimmuni
tyand

(
ii
)Acqui
redi
mmuni
ty.

I
nnat
eImmuni
ty

I
nnat
eimmuni
tyi
snon-
speci
fi
cty
peofdef
ence,
thati
spr
esentatt
het
imeofbi
rt
h.

Thi
sisaccompli
shedbypr
ovi
dingdi
ff
erentt
ypesofbar
ri
erst
otheent
ryoft
hef
orei
gnagent
s
i
ntoourbody.

I
nnat
eimmuni
tyconsi
stoff
ourt
ypesofbar
ri
ers.

Thesear
e—

(
i)Phy
sical
bar
ri
ers:

Ski
nonourbodyi
sthemai
nbar
ri
erwhi
chpr
event
sent
ryoft
hemi
cro-
organi
sms.

Mucuscoat
ingoftheepi
thel
i
um l
i
ningtherespi
rat
ory
,gast
roi
ntest
inal
andur
ogeni
tal
tract
s
al
sohel
pintrappi
ngmicr
obesent
eringourbody.

(
ii
)Phy
siol
ogi
cal
bar
ri
ers:

Aci
dint
hest
omach,
sal
i
vai
nthemout
h,t
ear
sfr
om ey
es–al
lpr
eventmi
crobi
algr
owt
h.

(
ii
i)Cel
l
ularbar
ri
ers:
Cert
ainty
pesofleukocy
tes(WBC)ofourbodyli
kepoly
morpho-
nuclearl
eukocy
tes(
PMNL-
neut
rophi
ls)andmonocytesandnat
ural
kil
ler(
typeofl
ymphocy
tes)inthebl
oodas

wel
lasmacr
ophagesi
nti
ssuescanphagocy
toseanddest
roymi
crobes.

(
iv)Cy
toki
nebar
ri
ers:

Vir
us-i
nfect
edcell
ssecret
epr
otei
nscal
l
edi
nter
fer
onswhi
chpr
otectnon-
inf
ect
edcel
l
sfr
om
fur
thervi
rali
nfect
ion.

Acqui
redI
mmuni
ty

Acqui
redi
mmuni
tyi
spat
hogenspeci
fi
c.I
tischar
act
eri
sedbymemor
y.

Thi
smeanswhenourbodyencount
ersapat hogenf
ort
hef
ir
stt
imepr
oducesar
esponsecal
l
ed
pri
mar
yresponsewhi
chi
soflowintensi
ty.

Subsequentencount
erwi
tht
hesamepat
hogenel
i
cit
sahi
ghl
yint
ensi
fi
edsecondar
yor
anamnesticr
esponse.

Thi
sisascr
ibedt
othef
actt
hatourbodyappear
stohav
ememor
yoft
hef
ir
stencount
er.

Thepr
imaryandsecondar
yimmuneresponsesar
ecar
ri
edoutwi
tht
hehel
poft
wospeci
alt
ypes
ofl
ymphocyt
espresenti
nourbl
ood,

i
.e.
,B-
ly
mphocy
tesandT-
ly
mphocy
tes.

TheB-l
ymphocy
tespr
oduceanar
myofpr
otei
nsi
nresponset
opat
hogensi
ntoourbl
oodt
o
fi
ghtwi
ththem.

Thesepr
otei
nsar
ecal
l
edant
ibodi
es.

TheT-
cel
l
sthemsel
vesdonotsecr
eteant
ibodi
esbuthel
pBcel
l
stopr
oducet
hem.

Eachanti
bodymolecul
ehasf
ourpept
idechai
ns,
twosmal
lcal
l
edl
i
ghtchai
nsandt
wol
onger
cal
ledheavychai
ns.

Hence,
anant
ibodyi
srepr
esent
edasH2L2.

Di
ff
erentt
ypesofant
ibodi
esar
epr
oducedi
nourbody
.IgA,
IgM,
IgE,
IgGar
esomeoft
hem.
Becauset
heseanti
bodi
esar
efoundi
nthebl
ood,
ther
esponsei
sal
socal
l
edashumor
al
i
mmuner esponse.

Thi
sisoneoft
het
wot
ypesofouracqui
redi
mmuner
esponse–ant
ibodymedi
ated.

Thesecondt
ypei
scal
l
edcel
l
-medi
atedi
mmuner
esponseorcel
l
-medi
atedi
mmuni
ty(
CMI
).

TheT-l
ymphocyt
esmediateCMI .Ver
yof
ten,
whensomehumanor
gansl
i
kehear
t,ey
e,l
i
ver
,
ki
dneyfai
ltof
uncti
onsati
sfact
oril
y,

t
ranspl
ant
ati
oni
stheonl
yremedyt
oenabl
ethepat
ientt
oli
veanor
mal
li
fe.

Tissuematchi
ng,bl
oodgr
oupmat chi
ngar
eessent
ial
bef
oreunder
taki
nganygr
aft
/tr
anspl
ant
andev enaf
tert
hist
hepat
ienthasto

takei
mmuno–suppresant
sal
lhis/
herli
fe.Thebodyisabl
etodi
ff
erent
iat
e‘sel
f’and‘
nonsel
f’
andthecel
l
-medi
atedimmuneresponseisresponsi
ble

f
ort
hegr
aftr
eject
ion.

Act
iveandPassi
veI
mmuni
ty

Whenahostisexposedtoant
igens,whi
chmaybeinthefor
m ofl
i
vingordeadmi
crobesor
ot
herpr
otei
ns,ant
ibodi
esareproducedi
nthehostbody
.

Thi
sty
peofi
mmuni
tyi
scal
l
edact
ivei
mmuni
ty.

Act
ivei
mmuni
tyi
ssl
owandt
akest
imet
ogi
vei
tsf
ull
eff
ect
iver
esponse.

I
nject
ingt
hemicrobesdeli
ber
atel
yduringi
mmunisat
ionori
nfect
iousor
gani
smsgai
ningaccess
i
ntobodydur
ingnatur
alinf
ect
ioninduceact
ivei
mmunity
.

Whenr
eady-
madeant
ibodi
esar
edi
rect
lygi
vent
opr
otectt
hebodyagai
nstf
orei
gnagent
s,i
tis
cal
l
edpassi
vei
mmunity
.

Theyell
owishfl
uidcol
ost
rum secret
edbymotherdur
ingt
hei
nit
ial
day
sofl
act
ati
onhas
abundantant
ibodi
es(I
gA)toprotectt
hei
nfant
.

Thef oet
usalsor
ecei
vessomeant
ibodi
esf
rom t
hei
rmot
her
,thr
ought
hepl
acent
adur
ing
pregnancy.
Thesear
esomeexampl
esofpassi
vei
mmuni
ty.

Vacci
nat
ionandI
mmuni
sat
ion

Thepr
inci
pleofi
mmuni
sat
ionorv
acci
nat
ioni
sbasedont
hepr
oper
tyof‘
memor
y’oft
he
i
mmunesy stem.

I
nvacci
nat
ion,aprepar
ati
onofanti
geni
cpr
otei
nsofpat
hogenori
nact
ivat
ed/
weakened
pat
hogen(
vaccine)ar
eint
roducedi
ntot
hebody.

Theanti
bodi
espr
oducedinthebodyagai
nstt
heseant
igenswoul
dneut
ral
i
set
hepat
hogeni
c
agent
sduri
ngact
uali
nfect
ion.

Thevaccinesalsogenerat
ememory–BandT-cell
sthatr
ecogni
set
hepathogenquickl
yon
subsequentexposureandover
whel
mthei
nvaderswithamassiv
eproduct
ionofant
ibodi
es.

Ifapersonisinf
ect
edwi
thsomedeadl ymicr
obestowhi
chqui
ckimmuner
esponsei
srequi
red
asintetanus,
weneedtodi
rect
lyi
njectthepr
efor
medanti
bodi
es,
or

anti
toxi
n(aprepar
ati
oncontai
ninganti
bodi
estot
hetoxi
n).Ev
enincasesofsnakebi
tes,
the
i
njecti
onwhichisgi
vent
ot hepati
ents,
cont
ainpr
efor
medantibodi
esagai
nstthesnakevenom.

Thi
sty
peofi
mmuni
sat
ioni
scal
l
edpassi
vei
mmuni
sat
ion.

RecombinantDNAtechnol
ogyhasal
l
owedt
hepr
oduct
ionofant
igeni
cpol
ypept
idesof
pathogeni
nbacter
iaoryeast
.

Vaccinespr
oducedusingthi
sapproachal
lowl
argescal
eproduct
ionandhencegr
eat
er
avai
labil
i
tyf
orimmunisati
on,e.
g.,
hepati
ti
sBvacci
neproducedfr
om yeast
.

Al
l
ergi
es

Someofusar
esensi
ti
vet
osomepar
ti
clesi
ntheenv
ironment
.

Theabove-
menti
onedreact
ioncoul
dbebecauseofal
l
ergyt
opol
l
en,
mit
es,
etc.
,whi
char
e
di
ff
erenti
ndif
fer
entpl
aces.

Theexagger
atedr
esponseoft
hei
mmunesy
stem t
ocer
tai
nant
igenspr
esenti
nthe
envi
ronmenti
scal
ledal
ler
gy.

Thesubst
ancest
owhi
chsuchani
mmuner
esponsei
spr
oducedar
ecal
l
edal
l
ergens.
Theant
ibodi
espr
oducedt
othesear
eofI
gEt
ype.

Commonexampl
esofal
l
ergensar
emi
tesi
ndust
,pol
l
ens,
ani
mal
dander
,et
c.

Symptomsofal
l
ergi
creact
ionsi
ncl
udesneezi
ng,
wat
eryey
es,
runni
ngnoseanddi
ff
icul
tyi
n
br
eathi
ng.

Al
l
ergyi
sduet
other
eleaseofchemi
cal
sli
kehi
stami
neandser
otoni
nfr
om t
hemastcel
l
s.

Fordetermi
ningthecauseofal
lergy
,thepati
enti
sexposedt
oori
nject
edwi
thv
erysmal
ldoses
ofpossibl
eall
ergens,
andthereacti
onsstudi
ed.

Theuseofdr
ugsl
i
keant
i-
hist
ami
ne,
adr
enal
i
nandst
eroi
dsqui
ckl
yreducet
hesy
mpt
omsof
al
ler
gy.

Somehow,moder
n-dayl
i
festyl
ehasresul
tedinloweri
ngofi
mmunit
yandmor
esensi
ti
vi
tyt
o
al
ler
gens–moreandmor echi
l
dreni
nmet rocit
iesofI
ndi
asuff
erf
rom

al
l
ergi
esandast
hmaduet
osensi
ti
vi
tyt
otheenv
ironment
.

Thi
scoul
dbebecauseoft
hepr
otect
edenv
ironmentpr
ovi
dedear
lyi
nli
fe.

Aut
oImmuni
ty

Memor y
-basedacqui
redimmuni
tyevol
vedinhi
ghervert
ebrat
esbasedont
heabi
l
ityt
o
di
ff
erenti
atefor
eignorgani
sms(
e.g.
,pat
hogens)f
rom sel
fcel
ls.

Hi
gherv
ert
ebr
atescandi
sti
ngui
shf
orei
gnmol
ecul
esaswel
lasf
orei
gnor
gani
sms.

Mostoft
heexper
iment
ali
mmunol
ogydeal
swi
tht
hisaspect
.

Two,
somet
imes,
duet
ogenet
icandot
herunknownr
easons,
thebodyat
tackssel
f-
cel
l
s.

Thi
sresul
tsi
ndamaget
othebodyandi
scal
l
edaut
o-i
mmunedi
sease.

Rheumat
oidar
thr
it
iswhi
chaf
fect
smanypeopl
einoursoci
etyi
sanaut
o-i
mmunedi
sease.

I
mmuneSy
stem i
ntheBody
Thehumanimmunesy
stem consi
stsofl
ymphoi
dor
gans,
tissues,
cel
l
sandsol
ubl
emol
ecul
es
l
ikeant
ibodi
es.

Thei
mmunesy st
em al
sopl
aysani
mpor
tantr
olei
nal
l
ergi
creact
ions,
aut
o-i
mmunedi
seases
andor
gant
ranspl
ant
ati
on.

Ly
mphoi
dor
gans:

Thesear
etheor
ganswher
eor
igi
nand/
ormat
urat
ionandpr
oli
fer
ati
onofl
ymphocy
tesoccur
.

Thepri
marylymphoi
dor gansarebonemarr
owandt
hymuswher
eimmat
urel
ymphocy
tes
di
ff
erent
iat
eintoant
igen-sensi
ti
vel
ymphocyt
es.

Aft
ermaturati
onthelymphocyt
esmigr
atetosecondar
yly
mphoidor
gansl
i
kespl
een,
lymph
nodes,
tonsil
s,Peyer
’spat
chesofsmal
lint
esti
neandappendi
x.

Thesecondar
ylymphoi
dorganspr
ovi
dethesi
tesfori
nter
act
ionofl
ymphocy
teswi
tht
he
ant
igen,
whichthenpr
oli
fer
atet
obecomeeff
ectorcel
l
s.

Thebonemarr
owi
sthemai
nly
mphoi
dor
ganwher
eal
lbl
oodcel
l
sincl
udi
ngl
ymphocy
tesar
e
produced.

Thet
hymusi
sal
obedor
ganl
ocat
edneart
hehear
tandbeneat
hthebr
east
bone.

Thethymusisqui
telargeatthet
imeofbi
rt
hbutkeepsr
educi
ngi
nsi
zewi
thageandbyt
het
ime
pubert
yisat
tai
neditreducestoaver
ysmallsi
ze.

Bot
hbone-mar
rowandthy
muspr
ovi
demi
cro-
env
ironment
sfort
hedev
elopmentand
matur
ati
onofT-
ly
mphocyt
es.

Thespl
eeni
sal
argebeanshapedor
gan.

I
tmai
nlycont
ainsl
ymphocy
tesandphagocy
tes.

I
tact
sasaf
il
teroft
hebl
oodbyt
rappi
ngbl
ood-
bor
nemi
croor
gani
sms.

Spl
eenal
sohasal
arger
eser
voi
rofer
ythr
ocy
tes.

Thelymphnodesar
esmal
lsol
i
dst
ruct
uresl
ocat
edatdi
ff
erentpoi
ntsal
ongt
hel
ymphat
ic
syst
em.

Ly
mphnodesser
vet
otr
apt
hemi
cro-
organi
smsorot
herant
igens,
whi
chhappent
ogeti
ntot
he
l
ymphandt
issuef
lui
d.

Anti
genst
rappedint
hel
ymphnodesareresponsi
blef
ort
heact
ivat
ionofl
ymphocy
tespr
esent
ther
eandcausethei
mmuneresponse.

Ther
eislymphoidti
ssuealsol
ocat
edwit
hinthel
i
ningofthemajort
ract
s(respi
rat
ory
,di
gest
ive
andurogeni
tal
tract
s)cal
l
edmucosaassoci
atedl
ymphoidti
ssue(MALT).

I
tconst
it
utesabout50percentoft
hel
ymphoi
dti
ssuei
nhumanbody
.

AI
DS

Thewor
dAI
DSst
andsf
orAcqui
redI
mmunoDef
ici
encySy
ndr
ome.

Thi
smeansdef
ici
encyofi
mmunesy stem,acqui
reddur
ingt
hel
i
fet
imeofani
ndi
vi
dual
i
ndi
cat
ingt
hati
tisnotacongeni
tal
disease.

‘
Syndr
ome’
meansagr
oupofsy
mpt
oms.

AI
DSwasfir
str
eport
edin1981andi
nthel
astt
went
y-f
ivey
ear
sorso,
ithasspr
eadal
lov
ert
he
worl
dki
l
li
ngmorethan25mill
i
onper
sons.

AIDSiscausedbytheHumanI
mmunodef i
ciencyVi
rus(HI
V),
amemberofagroupofvi
ruses
call
edret
rovi
rus,
whichhav
eanenv
elopeenclosi
ngtheRNAgenomeasshowninfi
gur
ebelow:

Tr
ansmi
ssi
onofHI
V-i
nfect
iongener
all
yoccur
sby
:

(
a)sexual
cont
actwi
thi
nfect
edper
son,

(
b)byt
ransf
usi
onofcont
ami
nat
edbl
oodandbl
oodpr
oduct
s,

(
c)byshar
ingi
nfect
edneedl
esasi
nthecaseofi
ntr
avenousdr
ugabuser
sand

(
d)f
rom i
nfect
edmot
hert
oherchi
l
dthr
oughpl
acent
a.

So,peoplewhoareathi
ghriskofgett
ingthi
sinf
ecti
onincl
udes-indi
vi
dual
swhohav
emul
ti
ple
sexualpart
ner
s,dr
ugaddict
swhot akedrugsint
rav
enously
,indi
vi
duals

whor
equi
rer
epeat
edbl
oodt
ransf
usi
onsandchi
l
drenbor
ntoanHI
Vinf
ect
edmot
her
.
HI
V/AI
DSi
snotspr
eadbymer
etouchorphy
sical
cont
act
;itspr
eadsonl
ythr
oughbodyf
lui
ds.

I
tis,hence,i
mperat
ive,forthephy
sicalandpsychol
ogi
cal
wel
l
-bei
ng,
thatt
heHI
V/AI
DSi
nfect
ed
personsarenoti
sol
at edfrom f
amilyandsociet
y.

Ther
eisal
way
sat
ime-
lagbet
weent
hei
nfect
ionandappear
anceofAI
DSsy
mpt
oms.

Thi
sper
iodmayv
aryf
rom af
ewmont
hst
omanyy
ear
s(usual
l
y5-
10y
ear
s).

Aft
ergetti
ngint
ot hebodyoft
heperson,
thev
irusent
ersint
omacrophageswhereRNAgenome
ofthevi
rusrepl
icatest
oformvir
alDNAwitht
hehelpoftheenzy
mer ever
setr
anscri
ptase.

Thisv
iral
DNAgetsi
ncor
por
atedi
ntohostcel
l
’sDNAanddi
rect
sthei
nfect
edcel
l
stopr
oduce
vi
ruspart
icl
es.

Themacr
ophagescont
inuet
opr
oducev
irusandi
nthi
swayact
sli
keaHI
Vfact
ory
.

Si
mul t
aneousl
y,HI
Vent
ersi
ntohel
perT-
ly
mphocy
tes(
TH)
,repl
i
cat
esandpr
oducepr
ogeny
vi
ruses.

Thepr
ogenyv
irusesr
eleasedi
nthebl
oodat
tackot
herhel
perT-
ly
mphocy
tes.

Thi
sisrepeatedleadi
ngtoaprogr
essi
vedecr
easei
nthenumberofhel
perTl
ymphocy
tesi
nthe
bodyoftheinfect
edperson.

Dur
ingt
hisper
iod,
theper
sonsuf
fer
sfr
om bout
soff
ever
,di
arr
hoeaandwei
ghtl
oss.

Duetodecr
easeinthenumberofhel
perTly
mphocyt
es,t
hepersonstar
tssuf
feri
ngfr
om
i
nfect
ionst
hatcoul
dhavebeenother
wiseover
comesuchasthoseduetobacter
ia

especi
all
yMy
cobact
eri
um,
vir
uses,
fungi
andev
enpar
asi
tesl
i
keToxopl
asma.

Thepati
entbecomessoi mmuno-
def
ici
entt
hathe/
shei
sunabl
etopr
otecthi
msel
f/her
sel
f
agai
nstthesei
nfect
ions.

Awi
del
yuseddi
agnost
ict
estf
orAI
DSi
senzy
mel
i
nkedi
mmuno-
sor
bentassay(
ELI
SA)
.

Tr
eat
mentofAI
DSwi
thant
i-
ret
rov
iral
drugsi
sonl
ypar
ti
all
yef
fect
ive.
Theycanonl
ypr
olongt
hel
i
feoft
hepat
ientbutcannotpr
eventdeat
h,whi
chi
sinev
itabl
e.

Pr
event
ionofAI
DS:

AsAI
DShasnocur
e,pr
event
ioni
sthebestopt
ion.

Moreover
,HIVinf
ecti
on,moreof
ten,spr
eadsduet
oconsci
ousbehav
iourpat
ter
nsandi
snot
somethi
ngthathappensi
nadver
tent
ly,l
i
kepneumoni
aorty
phoi
d.

Educat
epeopl
eaboutAI
DSandi
tspr
event
ion.

WHOhasst
art
edanumberofpr
ogr
ammest
opr
eventt
hespr
eadi
ngofHI
Vinf
ect
ion.

Makingblood(f
rom bl
oodbanks)safef
rom HI
V,ensuri
ngt
heuseofonl
ydi
sposabl
eneedl
es
andsyri
ngesinpubl
icandpri
vatehospi
tal
sandcli
nics,

fr
eedistr
ibuti
onofcondoms,cont
rol
l
ingdrugabuse,adv
ocat
ingsaf
esexandpr
omot
ingr
egul
ar
check-
upsf orHI
Vinsuscept
ibl
epopulat
ions,
aresomesuchstepst
akenup.

I
nfect
ionwi
thHIVorhav
ingAI
DSi
ssomethi
ngt
hatshoul
dnotbehi
dden–si
ncet
hen,
the
i
nfect
ionmayspr
eadtomanymor
epeopl
e.

Unl
esssoci
etyr
ecogni
sesitasaprobl
em tobedeal
twi
thi
nacol
l
ect
ivemanner–t
hechances
ofwi
derspr
eadofthediseasei
ncr
eases.

CANCER

Canceri
soneofthemostdr
eadeddi
seasesofhumanbei
ngsandi
samaj
orcauseofdeat
hal
l
overt
heglobe.

I
nourbody
,cel
lgr
owt
handdi
ff
erent
iat
ioni
shi
ghl
ycont
rol
l
edandr
egul
ated.

I
ncancercel
l
s,t
her
eisbr
eakdownoft
heser
egul
ator
ymechani
sms.

Nor
mal cell
sshowaproper
tycall
edcont
acti
nhi
bit
ionbyv
irt
ueofwhi
chcont
actwi
thot
hercel
l
s
i
nhi
bit
st hei
runcont
rol
l
edgrowth.

Cancercel
l
sappearstohav
elostt
hispr
opert
y.Asaresul
toft
his,
cancer
ouscel
l
sjustcont
inue
todi
videgi
vingr
iset
omassesofcell
scall
edtumor
s.
Tumor
sar
eoft
wot
ypes:
beni
gnandmal
i
gnant
.

Benignt
umorsnormal
lyremai
nconf
inedt
othei
ror
igi
nal
locat
ionanddonotspr
eadt
oot
her
part
softhebodyandcausel
it
tl
edamage.

Themal
i
gnantt
umor
s,ar
eamassofpr
oli
fer
ati
ngcel
l
scal
l
edneopl
ast
icort
umorcel
l
s.

Thesecel
l
sgr
owv
eryr
api
dly
,inv
adi
nganddamagi
ngt
hesur
roundi
ngnor
mal
tissues.

Asthesecel
l
sact
ivel
ydi
vi
deandgr
owt
heyal
sost
arv
ethenor
mal
cel
l
sbycompet
ingf
orv
ital
nut
ri
ents.

Cel
lssl
oughedfrom suchtumorsr
eachdi
stantsi
test
hroughbl
ood,
andwher
evert
heyget
l
odgedinthebody,t
heystartanewtumort
here.

Thi
spr
oper
tycal
l
edmet
ast
asi
sist
hemostf
ear
edpr
oper
tyofmal
i
gnantt
umor
s.

Causesofcancer:

Transf
ormationofnor
mal cel
lsi
ntocancer
ousneopl
ast
iccel
l
smaybei
nducedbyphy
sical
,
chemicalorbiol
ogi
calagent
s.

Theseagent
sar
ecal
l
edcar
cinogens.

I
onisi
ngr
adi
ati
onsl
ikeX-
ray
sandgammar aysandnon-
ioni
zi
ngr
adi
ati
onsl
i
keUVcauseDNA
damagel
eadi
ngtoneopl
ast
ict
ransf
ormat
ion.

Thechemicalcar
cinogenspr
esenti
ntobaccosmokehav
ebeeni
dent
if
iedasamaj
orcauseof
l
ungcancer.

Cancercausi
ngv
irusescal
l
edoncogeni
cvi
ruseshav
egenescal
l
edv
iral
oncogenes.

Fur
ther
more,
sever
algenescall
edcel
l
ularoncogenes(
c-onc)orpr
otooncogeneshav
ebeen
i
denti
fi
edi
nnormalcel
lswhich,

whenact
ivat
edundercer
tai
ncondi
ti
ons,
coul
dleadt
ooncogeni
ctr
ansf
ormat
ionoft
hecel
l
s.

Cancerdet
ect
ionanddi
agnosi
s:

Ear
lydet
ect
ionofcancer
sisessent
ial
asi
tal
l
owst
hedi
seaset
obet
reat
edsuccessf
ull
yin
manycases.

Cancerdetect
ionisbasedonbiopsyandhi
stopat
hol
ogical
studiesofthet
issueandbl
oodand
bonemar r
owt est
sforincr
easedcell
count
sinthecaseofleukemias.

Techniquesli
ker
adiogr
aphy(useofX-r
ays),
CT( comput
edtomography)andMRI(
magnet
ic
resonanceimagi
ng)arever
yusefult
odetectcancer
softhei
nter
nalorgans.

Computedt
omogr
aphyusesX-
ray
stogener
ateat
hree-
dimensi
onal
imageoft
hei
nter
nal
sofan
obj
ect
.

MRIusesstrongmagneticf
iel
dsandnon-
ioni
singr
adi
ati
onst
oaccur
atel
ydet
ectpat
hol
ogi
cal
andphysi
ological
changesi
ntheli
vi
ngti
ssue.

Ant
ibodi
esagai
nstcancer
-speci
fi
cant
igensar
eal
sousedf
ordet
ect
ionofcer
tai
ncancer
s.

I
denti
fi
cati
onofsuchgenes,
whichpr
edi
sposeani
ndi
vi
dual
tocer
tai
ncancer
s,maybev
ery
hel
pfuli
nprev
enti
onofcancers.

Suchindiv
idual
smaybeadv isedt
oav oi
dexposur
etopart
icul
arcar
cinogenst
owhi
cht
heyar
e
suscept
ible(e.
g.,
tobaccosmokeincaseofl
ungcancer
).

Tr
eat
mentofcancer:

Thecommonapproachesf
ort
reat
mentofcancerar
esur
ger
y,r
adi
ati
ont
her
apyand
i
mmunother
apy.

Inr
adiot
herapy,t
umorcel
l
sarei
rr
adi
atedl
ethal
l
y,t
aki
ngpr
opercar
eoft
henor
mal
tissues
sur
roundi
ngt het
umormass.

Sev
eral
chemot
her
apeut
icdr
ugsar
eusedt
oki
l
lcancer
ouscel
l
s.

Someoft
hesear
especi
fi
cforpar
ti
cul
art
umor
s.

Maj
ori
tyofdr
ugshav
esi
deef
fect
sli
kehai
rloss,
anemi
a,et
c.

Mostcancer
sar
etr
eat
edbycombi
nat
ionofsur
ger
y,r
adi
other
apyandchemot
her
apy
.

Tumorcel
l
shav
ebeenshownt
oav
oiddet
ect
ionanddest
ruct
ionbyi
mmunesy
stem.

Ther
efore,
thepati
entsaregi
vensubst
ancescal
ledbiol
ogi
calr
esponsemodi
fi
erssuchasa-
i
nter
feronwhichact
ivat
esthei
rimmunesystem andhel
psindest
royi
ngt
hetumor.
DRUGSANDALCOHOLABUSE

Thedr
ugs,
whicharecommonl yabusedar
eopi
oids,
cannabi
noi
dsandcocaal
kal
oids.Maj
ori
ty
oft
hesear
eobtai
nedfrom f
loweri
ngplant
s.

Somear
eobt
ainedf
rom f
ungi
.

Opioidsaret
hedrugs,whichbindtospeci
fi
copi
oidr
ecept
orspr
esenti
nourcent
ral
ner
vous
system andgast
roi
ntest
inalt
ract.

Heroi
n,
commonlycal
ledsmacki
schemi
cal
l
ydi
acet
ylmor
phi
newhi
chi
sawhi
te,
odour
less,
bi
tt
ercry
stal
l
inecompound.

Thi
sisobt
ainedbyacet
ylat
ionofmor
phi
ne,
whi
chi
sext
ract
edf
rom t
hel
atexofpoppypl
ant
Papav
ersomnifer
um.

Gener
all
ytakenbysnor
ti
ngandi
nject
ion,
her
oini
sadepr
essantandsl
owsdownbodyf
unct
ions.

Cannabi
noi
dsareagroupofchemi
cal
s,whi
chi
nter
actwi
thcannabi
noi
drecept
orspr
esent
pr
inci
pal
lyi
nthebr
ain.

Nat
ural
cannabi
noi
dsar
eobt
ainedf
rom t
hei
nfl
orescencesoft
hepl
antCannabi
ssat
iva.

Theflowert
ops,leavesandt
heresi
nofcannabi
spl
antar
eusedi
nvar
iouscombi
nat
ionst
o
producemari
juana,hashi
sh,
char
asandganja.

General
lytakenbyinhal
ati
onandoral
ingest
ion,
thesear
eknownf
ort
hei
ref
fect
son
car
diovascularsy
stem oft
hebody.

Cocai
ne,
commonl
ycal
l
edcokeorcr
acki
susual
l
ysnor
ted.

I
thasapotentst
imul
ati
ngact
iononcent
ral
ner
voussy
stem,
produci
ngasenseofeuphor
iaand
i
ncr
easedenergy
.

Excessi
vedosageofcocai
necauseshal
l
uci
nat
ions.

Drugsl
i
kebarbi
tur
ates,amphetamines,
benzodi
azepi
nes,
andot
hersi
mil
ardr
ugs,
thatar
e
normal
l
yusedasmedi cinest
ohelppati
entscopewit
h

ment
ali
l
lnessesl
i
kedepr
essi
onandi
nsomni
a,ar
eof
tenabused.
Morphi
neisaver
yef f
ecti
vesedati
veandpainki
l
ler
,andi
sver
yusef
uli
npat
ient
swhohav
e
under
gonesur
gery.Sever
alpl
ants,f
rui
tsandseeds

havi
nghall
uci
nogeni
cpropert
ieshavebeenusedforhundr
edsofy
ear
sinf
olk-
medi
cine,
rel
i
giouscer
emoniesandri
tualsal
lovert
heglobe.

Whenthesear
etakenforapurposeothert
hanmedi
cinaluseorinamount
s/f
requencyt
hat
i
mpair
sone’sphysi
cal
,physi
ologi
calorpsy
chol
ogi
calfunct
ions,
it

const
it
utesdr
ugabuse.

Adol
escenceandDr
ug/
Alcohol
Abuse

Adolescencemeansbot h‘
aperi
od’and‘
aprocess’dur
ingwhichachil
dbecomesmat
urei
n
ter
msofhi s/herat
ti
tudesandbel
ief
sforef
fect
ivepart
ici
pat
ioninsoci
ety
.

Theper
iodbet
ween12-
18y
ear
sofagemaybet
houghtofasadol
escenceper
iod.

Adol
escencei
saccompani
edbysev
eral
biol
ogi
cal
andbehav
iour
alchanges.

Adol
escence,
thusi
sav
eryv
ulner
abl
ephaseofment
alandpsy
chol
ogi
cal
dev
elopmentofan
i
ndiv
idual
.

Cur
iosi
ty,
needforadventur
eandexci
tement
,andexperi
ment
ati
on,
const
it
utecommoncauses,
whi
chmot i
vat
ey oungst
erstowar
dsdrugandal
coholuse.

Achi
l
d’snat
ural
cur
iosi
tymot
ivat
eshi
m/hert
oexper
iment
.

Thus,t
hefir
stuseofdrugsoral
coholmaybeoutofcur
iosi
tyorexper
iment
ati
on,
butl
atert
he
chi
ldstar
tsusi
ngthesetoescapefaci
ngpr
obl
ems.

Ofl
ate,
str
ess,f
rom pr
essurestoexceli
nacademicsorexami
nat
ions,
haspl
ayedasi
gni
fi
cant
r
olei
npersuadi
ngtheyoungster
stotryal
coholanddrugs.

Addi
cti
onandDependence

Becauseoft
heper
cei
vedbenef
it
s,dr
ugsar
efr
equent
lyusedr
epeat
edl
y.

Addict
ioni
sapsychol
ogi
calatt
achmenttocer
tai
neffect
s–suchaseuphor
iaandat
empor
ary
feel
i
ngofwell
-bei
ng–associ
atedwit
hdrugsandalcohol
.
Thesedr
ivepeopletot
aket hem ev
enwhent
hesear
enotneeded,
orev
enwhent
hei
ruse
becomessel
f-dest
ruct
ive.

Wit
hr epeat
eduseofdrugs,t
hetol
erancel
eveloft
herecept
orspr
esentinourbodyi
ncr
eases.
Consequentl
yther
eceptor
srespondonlyt
ohigherdosesofdr
ugsoralcohol

l
eadi
ngt
ogr
eat
eri
ntakeandaddi
cti
on.

Thus,theaddi
cti
vepotent
ial
ofdrugsandalcohol
,pul
ltheuseri
ntoavi
ciousci
rcl
eleadi
ngt
o
thei
rregul
aruse(abuse)f
rom whi
chhe/shemaynotbeabl etogetout
.

I
nt heabsenceofanygui
danceorcounsel
l
ing,
theper
songet
saddi
ctedandbecomes
dependentonthei
ruse.

Dependenceist
hetendencyofthebodytomani
festacharact
eri
sti
candunpl
easantwi
thdr
awal
syndr
omei fr
egul
ardoseofdrugs/al
coholi
sabr
uptl
ydisconti
nued.

I
nsomecases,
wit
hdr
awal symptomscanbesev
ereandev
enl
i
fet
hreat
eni
ngandt
heper
son
mayneedmedi
cal
super
vision.

Ef
fect
sofDr
ug/
Alcohol
Abuse

Excessi
vedosesofdr
ugsmayl
eadt
ocomaanddeat
hduet
orespi
rat
oryf
ail
ure,
hear
tfai
l
ureor
cerebr
alhemorr
hage.

Themostcommonwar ningsignsofdrugandal
coholabuseamongyout
hincl
udedr
opi
n
academi
cperf
ormance,unexplai
nedabsencef
rom school
/col
l
ege,

l
ackofint
eresti
npersonalhygi
ene,
withdrawal,
isol
ati
on,
depressi
on,fat
igue,
aggr
essi
veand
r
ebel
li
ousbehaviour
,deter
ior
ati
ngrel
ationshi
pswi t
hfami
lyandfri
ends,

l
ossofi
nter
esti
nhobbi
es,
changei
nsl
eepi
ngandeat
inghabi
ts,
fluct
uat
ionsi
nwei
ght
,appet
it
e,
et
c.

I
fanabuseri
sunabl
etogetmoneyt
obuydr
ugs/
alcohol
he/
shemayt
urnt
ost
eal
i
ng.

Att
imes,adrug/
alcoholaddi
ctbecomest
hecauseofment
alandf
inanci
aldi
str
esst
ohi
s/her
ent
ir
efamil
yandf r
iends.

Thosewhot
akedrugsint
ravenousl
y(dir
ectinj
ect
ionint
othevei
nusi
nganeedl
eandsy
ringe)
,
aremuchmorel
i
kelytoacquireser
iousinf
ecti
onsli
keAIDSandHepat
it
isB.
Thevi
ruses,
whichar
eresponsi
blef
ort
hesedi
seases,ar
etr
ansf
err
edf
rom oneper
sont
o
anot
herbyshar
ingofi
nfect
edneedl
esandsyr
inges.

Bot
hAI
DSandHepat
it
isBi
nfect
ionsar
echr
oni
cinf
ect
ionsandul
ti
mat
elyf
atal
.

Bot
hcanbet
ransmi
tt
edt
hroughsexual
cont
actori
nfect
edbl
ood.

Thechr
oni
cuseofdr
ugsandal
cohol
damagesner
voussy
stem andl
i
ver(
cir
rhosi
s).

Theuseofdr
ugsandal
cohol
dur
ingpr
egnancyi
sal
soknownt
oadv
ersel
yaf
fectt
hef
oet
us.

Thesi
de-
eff
ectsoftheuseofanaboli
cster
oidsi
nfemal
esi
ncl
udemascul
i
nisat
ion(
feat
ures
l
ikemal
es),
incr
easedaggressi
veness,

moodswings,depr
essi
on,abnor
mal menst
rualcycl
es,
excessi
vehai
rgr
owt
hont
hef
aceand
body
,enl
argementofcl
it
oris,
deepeni
ngofvoice.

Inmalesiti
ncl
udesacne,i
ncreasedaggr
essi
veness,
moodswi
ngs,
depr
essi
on,
reduct
ionof
sizeoft
hetest
icl
es,decr
easedsperm pr
oduct
ion,

pot
ent
ialf
orkidneyandl
i
verdy
sfunct
ion,
breastenl
argement
,pr
emat
urebal
dness,
enl
argement
oft
heprostat
egland.

Theseef
fect
smaybeper
manentwi
thpr
olongeduse.

Pr
event
ionandCont
rol

Weal
lknowt
hesay
ing‘
prev
ent
ioni
sbet
tert
hancur
e’.

Iti
sal
sotruethathabi
tssuchassmoki ng,
taki
ngdr
ugoral
cohol
aremor
eli
kel
ytobet
akenup
atayoungage,moreduri
ngadolescence.

Hence,
iti
sbesttoident
if
yt hesi
tuat
ionst
hatmaypushanadol
escentt
owar
dsuseofdr
ugsor
al
cohol
,andt
ot akeremedialmeasureswel
li
nti
me.

I
nthi
sregar
d,t
hepar
ent
sandt
het
eacher
shav
easpeci
alr
esponsi
bil
i
ty.

Parent
ingthatcombineswit
hhighlev
elsofnurt
uranceandconsist
entdisci
pli
ne,
hasbeen
associ
atedwithloweredr
iskofsubst
ance(al
cohol/dr
ugs/
tobacco)abuse.

Someoft hemeasur
esf
orpr
event
ionandcont
rol
ofal
cohol
anddr
ugsabuseamong
adol
escentsar
e:
(
i)Av
oidunduepeerpr
essur
e:

(
ii
)Educat
ionandcounsel
l
ing.

(
ii
i)Seeki
nghel
pfr
om par
ent
sandpeer
s.

(
v)Seeki
ngpr
ofessi
onal
andmedi
cal
hel
p