Autmated Charge Controller Standalone PV Systems

By
1. Leake Enquay
2. G/hiwot Abraha
3. Kifle Berhane Zem.
4. Yaecob Girmay
Yaecob kifle Leake G/hiwot
Project Advisors
1. Dr. Prashant Kumar soori
2. Mr. Massami Okano
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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, EEE
MEKELLE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLGY, MIT

JUNE, 1999 E.C
AUTOMATED CHARGE CONTROLLER FOR STAND‑
ALONE PHOTOVOLTAIC LIGHTING SYSTEM
Dissertation
Submitted in fulfillment of the Requirement
For Degree of Bachelors of Science, B. Sc
in
Electrical and Electronics Engineering.
By
1. Leake Enquay
2. G/hiwot Abraha
3. Kifle Berhane Zem.
4. Yaecob Girmay
Under the guidance of
1. Dr. Prashant Kumar Soori
2. Mr. Massami Okano
Electrical and Electronics Engineering, EEE
Mekelle Institute of Technology, MIT
June 30, 1999 e.c
i
Dissertation of approval sheet
Dissertation entitled “An Automated Charge Controller for Standalone PV Lighting
Systems” by Leake Enquay, G/hiwot Abraha, Kifle Berhane Zem. And Yaecob Girmay is
approved for Degree of Bachelors of Science in Electrical and Electronics Engineering.
Examiner(s)

Academic head

Advisor(s)

Dean of Mekelle Institute of Technology
Date:
Place:
ii
Dedication:
We dedicate this project paper to Mr. Araya Zerihun who was the
beloved chairperson of MIT boards, chair person of TDA and all in all
the father of Tigreans. He was left a legacy of fighting against poverty
and educating children. He had dreams of seeing prosperous Tigray,
healthy Tigrean people and technologically top Ethiopia. He had sown
a lot of seeds at every corners of Tigray. They will never decay but will
come out holding his name in the atmosphere of prosperity and
success. He was a great person to be remembered at all times. His
deeds and visions will remain in our hearts.
“To live in hearts we leave behind is not to die.”
iii
Abstract
Photovoltaic (PV) systems are the most reliable sources of electrical energy available for
remote locations especially rural areas where grid supply has not yet reached, like
Ethiopia. The only way of providing at least domestic lighting is by the effective use of
solar energy. PV system is one of the promising ways to have a clean, pollution free
domestic lighting instead of kerosene lamps. Solar energy is available at free cost,
abundantly and at any time, especially in Ethiopia throughout the thirteen months of
sunshine.
The initial cost of PV lighting systems is costly and thus for effective utilization of solar
energy, the remedial measures for root causes of the failures that may occur are taken into
account along with the design aspect of an automated charge controller circuit. The detail
of the design includes:
 Battery overdrainage detector and protection circuit
 Battery overcharge detector and protection circuit
 Realtime Charging indicator circuit
 Reverse polarity protection circuit
 Inverter circuit
 Electronic ballast
 DuskDawn detector circuit
 Preheat or starter circuit
iv
Acknowledgements
First and for most, we would like to express our hearts gratitude to MIT, which is a non
governmental and nonprofitable institute for providing us with a free sponsored higher
education for five years keeping the quality of education at its best level. We also wish to
thank the MIT boards for their indispensable efforts they have made from the very
beginning.
Although the extent of our debts can’t be fully acknowledged here, it is nevertheless a joy
to record our gratitude to the dean of MIT, Dr. Prashant Kumar Soori, who recommended
us to do this project realizing how useful to our nation it would be. Beyond and above, he
was always with us helping every necessary thing to make this project handable beyond
his outstanding curricular and extra curricular activities for the betterment of MIT.
We wish to specially extend our special thanks to our distinguished advisors: Dr.
Prashant Kumar Soori and Mr. Massami Okano for pioneering the concept of PV systems
with respect to our country, for providing encouragements and constructive criticisms, for
helping us a lot with this project giving fruitful comments and also worked well beyond
the call of the duty discussing the project with us from its outset. Over and above, we
thank very much to Mr. Okano who was the basic source of most of the materials we
have used.
Appreciation is also extended to our departmenthead; Prof. Ballal for delivering us some
reference books, simulator software and for giving us literatures on how to write a project
paper beyond his crucial advices in all rounds.
We also thank to Mr. Awet Mana, the lab technician of MIT, for his full support and who
was generous enough to let us use many of the materials and equipments he had.
Many thanks also go to the Wheaton College for their full financial supports to this
project in addition to their continual academic supports to MIT at every year.
Furthermore, we appreciate Dr. Paul Isihara and Mr. Josh, lecturers of Wheaton college,
for their crucial literatures they gave us related to the project, for the roles they have
played in the achievements of putting this project on an international paper and for the
chance we have obtained to present it at an international conference held in Canada on
June 06, 1999E.C.
We want to thank those of our colleagues at MIT in general and the graduates of this
millennium in particular for their good attitude they had toward this project.
We also want to acknowledge our debts to those teaching and nonteaching staffs of MIT
who have had profound influence on our project.
Last but certainly not least, we acknowledge to all who have visited our project and gave
us good comments, spiritual strengths and courage and showed special interests on it.
v
Contents
Project title …………………………………………………………………………..i
Dissertation of Approval Sheet ……………………………………………………..ii
Dedication ………………………………………………………………………….iii
Abstract …………………………………………………………………………….iv
Acknowledgment …………………………………………………………………...v
Paper contents ……………………………………………………………………...vi
Symbols and abbreviations………………………………………………………..viii
List of figures………………………………………………………………………ix
I. INTRODUCTION …….………………………………………………………..1
i. Specifications of the Project………………………………………………..1
ii. Structures of the report……………………………………………………...1
1. CHAPTER ONEINTRODUCTION TO SOLAR ENERGY ………………..3
1.1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………3
1.2. Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays…………………………………………...3
1.3. Generation of electricity……………………………………………………4
1.4. Economics of PV systems…………………………………………………..4
1.5. Advantages and disadvantages of Solar Power…………………………….5
1.6. Applications of PV systems………………………………………………...6
2. CHAPTER TWO AN AUTOMATED CHARGE CONTROLLER FOR
STANDALONE PHOTOVLTAIC LIGHTING SYSTEMS………………...9
2.1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………9
2.2. Objectives…………………………………………………………………..9
2.3. Motivations…………………………………………………………………9
2.4. Background on the Working of PV Systems……………………………...11
2.4.1. PV Array……………………………………………………………..11
2.4.2. Storing Battery……………………………………………………….11
2.4.3. Charge Controller…………………………………………………….11
2.4.3.1. Battery Overdrainage Indicator and Controller…………………13
2.4.3.2. DuskDawn Indicator and Controller…………………………….14
2.4.3.3. Battery Realtime Charging Indicator……………………………15
2.4.3.4. Battery Overcharge Indicator and Controller……………………15
2.4.3.5. Reverse Polarity Protection………………………………………16
2.4.3.6. Inverter…………………………………………………………...17
2.4.3.7. Electronic Ballast………………………………………………...18
2.4.3.8. Preheat/ Starter………………………………………………….19
2.4.4. Advantages of Charge Controller……………………………………..20
2.4.5. Load…………………………………………………………………...20
3. CHAPTER THREE THE WORKING, BLOCK AND CIRCUIT

DIAGRAMS OF PV SYSTEMS…………………………………………….21
3.1. General Working Principle of Standalone PV systems…………………..21
vi
3.2. Simplified block diagram for standalone PV systems……………………21
3.3. Detailed Schematic diagram for standalone PV systems………………...22
3.4. Circuit Diagram for standalone PV systems……………………………..23
4. CHAPTER FOUR TEST AND RESULTS………………………………...24
4.1. Project Tests………………………………………………………………24
4.2. Test Results……………………………………………………………….24
4.2.1. Test Results for the PV Panel Performance…………………………..24
4.2.2. Graphs showing Performance Characteristics of PV systems………...25
4.2.3. Test Results of the Controller Part…………………………………27
4.3. Limitations and Possible solutions………………………………………..27
4.3.1. Obstacles with PV systems……………………………………………27
4.3.2. Limitations while doing the project…………………………………...28
4.3.3. Measures taken to tackle the problems………………………………..28
5. CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSION………………………………………….29
5.1. Scope of the project……………………………………………………….29
5.2. Conclusion………………………………………………………………...29
5.3. Enhancements and Recommendations…………………………………….29
Cost Analysis………………………………………………………………………31
Bibliography /References ……………………………………………………...31
Appendix…………………………………………………………………………..32
Datasheet …………………………………………………………………………32
Glossary…………………………………………………………………………...33
vii
Symbols and abbreviations used in this paper
Symbol/abbreviation meaning Symbol/abbreviation meaning
AC Alternating Current PV Photovoltaic
AH Ampere Hour Q Symbol for Transistor
Amps Amperes RPV Resistance of PV
FBTT Feedback Transformer Turns SBLTTSecondary Ballast Transformer Turns
FL Fluorescent Lamp T Temperature
BHI Battery High Indicator V Symbol for Voltage
BLI Battery Low Indicator VBE BaseEmitter Voltage
BLT Ballast Transformer VBHD Battery High Disconnect Voltage
BRIBattery Real Charging Indicator VBLD Battery Low Disconnect Voltage
C Common terminal for relay VBT Battery Terminal Voltage
c Symbol for Capacitor VBT1 Battery Terminal Voltage after diode
CFL Compact Fluorescent Lamp VBT2Battery Terminal Voltage after switch
D Symbol for Diode VBT+ Battery Positive Terminal Voltage
DC Direct Current VBT Battery Negative Terminal Voltage
DDI DuskDawn Indicator Vc1 Voltage Across Comparator1
FBT Feedback Transformer Vc2 Voltage Across Comparator2
GJ Giga Joule Vc3 Voltage Across Comparator3
I Current VIN Ballast Input Voltage
Ic Charging Current Voc Open Circuit Voltage
Isc Short Circuit Current VOUT Ballast Output Voltage
KHz Kilo Hertz VPV PV voltage
KVL Kelvin’s Voltage Law VPV_PV array Negative Terminal Voltage
LED Light Emitting Diode VREFReference Voltage
MIT Mekelle Institute of Technology Vs Versus
NC Relay Normally Closed W Watts
O
NO Relay Normally Opened C Degree Celsius
O
F Degree Fahrenheit
ⁿ Symbol for Efficiency o
Symbol for Degree
Opamp Operational Amplifier
viii
List of figures and Tables
Sr.
No Title of the figure/table T Page
1. Solar cells, modules and PV array 3
2. Generation of electricity from sunlight 4
3. Solar energy for house lighting and cooking in rural areas 9
4. Solar energy for education purpose in rural areas 10
5. Solar for communication in rural areas 10
6. Solar for irrigation purpose 10
7. Solar for getting information in rural areas 10
8. Rechargeable leadacid battery 11
9. Battery over drainage indicator and controller circuit 13
10. DuskDawn controller and indicator circuit 14
11. Battery Realtime charging indicator circuit 15
12. Battery overcharge controller and indicator circuit 15
13. Reverse leakage current and reverse polarity protection circuits 17
14. Inverter circuit 18
15. Electronic ballast 19
16. Preheat circuit 19
17. CFL load 20
18. Simplified block diagram of standalone PV lighting system 21
19. Detailed schematic diagram of automated charge controller for stand
alone PV lighting system 22
20. Circuit diagram for alone PV lighting system 23
T1. Data and Test results for the PV panel performance 25
21: PV panel performance characteristic graphs at different tilt angles and
day temperature 26
T2. Test results of the controller part 27
T3: List of materials used and their price 31
ix
An Automated Charge Controller for Stand‑alone PV Lighting Systems 1
INTRODUCTION
Photovoltaic is an empowering technology that allows us to do very new things, as well as, do
old things better. It allows us to look completely new modes of supplying electricity to
different markets around the world and out of the world (in outer space). It also allows us to do
what we already do (generate electricity, which is distributed over the transmission grid), but to
do it in a sustainable, pollutionfree, equitable fashion. Why is PV equitable? It is because
nearly everyone has access to sunlight.
i. Specifications of the Project
The project, which is done, had the following project specifications.
 Battery Low Voltage Disconnect, VBLD = 10.8 V
 Battery Overdrainage Indicator LED must be ON only if VBT < 10.8 V.
 Battery High Voltage Disconnect, VBHD = 14.4 V
 Battery Overcharge Indicator LED must be ON only if VBT > 14.4 V.
 DuskDawn Controller has to sense daytime from PV panel output voltage.
 DuskDawn Indicator LED goes ON only during nighttime.
 Load should be automatically cut OFF during daytime even if the main switch is turned
ON (be it knowingly/unknowingly).
 Battery Realtime Charging Circuit must charge of the battery during the daytime if and
only if the battery has not been fully charged.
 The Realtime Charging Indicator LED must be ON only if
 There is sunshine
 The battery is not disconnected from the PV array
 The battery is not fully charged
 Design should include both reverse leakage current protection and reverse battery
polarity protection.
 Design must include preheat circuit for staring the load.
 The controller together with the other features must power a load (CFL) of 7 – 12 Watts.
 Other important features can be included.
ii. Structures of the Project Report
This project report paper includes many parts. Solar cells, modules, PV arrays, the generation of
electricity, the merits and demerits of solar power together with some of the applications PV
systems are highlighted in the first chapter, INTRODUCTION TO SOLAR POWER.
The second chapter deals mainly on the main body of the project exclusively on AN
AUTOMATED CHARGE CONTROLLER FOR STANDALONE PHTOVOLTAIC
LIGHTING SYSTEMS. It answers why we have gone for this project, what the objectives are,
how the working and design of all the controller elements are achieved and what advantages can
we get from the controllers.
The simplified and detailed block diagrams and the circuit diagram of the project together with
the general working principle of standalone PV lighting systems are given in chapter three.
Chapter four deals with the lists of project tests conducted, the test results, limitations and
Mekelle Institute of Technology, MIT 1
The Ethiopian Millennium Graduating Batch, June 1999 E.C
obstacles faced/facing and the possible measures we have taken.
For questions like what has been done? What is the scope of the project? What enhancements
can be made? etc, chapter five has the answer in this project report paper.
At the last few pages the data sheets for the materials we used, the reference books and glossary
to some important terms can be referred from the appendix part.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO SOLAR ENERGY
1.1. Introduction
Sun is the vital source of energy called as solar energy. Energy from the sun travels to the earth in the
form of electromagnetic radiation similar to radio waves, but in a different frequency range. Available
solar energy is often expressed in units of energy per time per unit area, such as watts per square
meter (W/m 2 ). The amount of energy available from the sun outside the Earth’s atmosphere is
approximately 1367 W/m 2 ; that is nearly the same as a high power hair drier for every square meter of
sunlight! Some of the solar energy is absorbed as it passes through the Earth’s atmosphere. As a
result, on a clear day the amount of solar energy available at the Earth’s surface in the direction of the
sun is typically 1000 W/m 2 . At any particular time, the available solar energy is primarily dependent
upon how high the sun is in the sky and current cloud conditions. On a monthly or annual basis, the
amount of solar energy available also depends upon the location. Furthermore, useable solar energy is
depends upon available solar energy, other weather conditions, the technology used, and the
application.
There is no shortage of solarderived energy on Earth. Indeed the storages and flows of energy on the
planet are very large relative to human needs. Different studies depict the reallity about the availability
of solar energy as follows.
 The amount of solar energy intercepted by the Earth every minute is greater than the amount of
energy the world uses in fossil fuels each year
 Tropical oceans absorb 560 trillion gigajoules (GJ) of solar energy each year, equivalent
to1,600 times the world’s annual energy use
 Annual photosynthesis by the vegetation is 50 billion GJ, equivalent to nearly 60% of the
world’s annual fossil fuel use
In general, the energy from the sun has not been used as much as its availability and the number of
applications it has
1.2. Solar Cells, Modules and Arrays
We can get electricity from sunlight directly or indirectly using solar cells. A solar cell or

photovoltaic cell is a device that converts light
energy into electrical energy. Sometimes the term
solar cell is reserved for devices intended
specifically to capture energy from sunlight, while
the term photovoltaic cell is used when the light
source is unspecified.Solar cells can be found on
many small appliances, like calculators, and even
on spacecraft. They are made of silicon, a special
type of melted sand. These individual solar cells are
arranged together into a PV module and the
modules are grouped together into an array. Some Fig 1: Solar Cells, Modules and PV Array
of the arrays are set on special tracking devices to
follow sunlight all day long. Solar panels are directed at solar south in the northern hemisphere and
solar north in the southern hemisphere at an angle dictated by the geographic location and latitude
of where they are to be installed. Typically, the angle of the solar array is set within a range between
sitelatitude plus 15 degrees and sitelatitude minus 15 degrees, depending on whether a slight winter
or summer bias is desirable in the system. Some solar arrays are placed at an angle equal to the site
latitude with no bias for seasonal periods.
The electrical energy from solar cells can then be used directly. It can be used in a home for lights and
appliances. It can be used in a business. Solar energy can be stored in batteries to light a roadside
billboard at night. Alternatively, the energy can be stored in a battery for an emergency roadside
cellular telephone when no telephone wires are around.
When more power is required than a single cell can deliver, cells are generally grouped together to
form “PV modules”, or solar panels, that may in turn be arranged in arrays. Such solar arrays have
been used to power orbiting satellites and other spacecraft and in remote areas as a source of power
for applications such as roadside emergency telephones, remote sensing, and cathodic protection of
pipelines. The continual decline of manufacturing costs (dropping at 3 to 5% a year in recent years)
is expanding the range of costeffective uses including roadsigns, home power generation and even
gridconnected electricity generation
1.3. Generation of Electricity
When sunlight strikes the solar cell, electrons (circular) are knocked loose. They move toward the
treated front surface (rectangular). An electron
imbalance is created between the front and
back. When a connector, like a wire, joins the
two surfaces, a current of electricity occurs
between the negative and positive sides. The
greater the intensity of the light, the greater is
the flow of electricity.
Electricity from sunlight can also be obtained
indirectly in AC form and fed to different loads.
This AC form can be achieved by using an
inverter such that the DC voltage stored in the
Fig 2: Generation of electricity
battery is changed into a very high frequency
(in the order of 10 KHZs) pulsating DC or AC
and passed through a ballast transformer
1.4. Economics of PV systems
Photovoltaic systems are generally considered an expensive method of producing electricity.
However, in offgrid situations Photovoltaic systems are very often the economic solution to
provide the required electricity service. The growing market all over the world indicates that
solar electricity has entered many areas in which its application is economically viable.
Additionally, the rapidly growing application of Photovoltaic systems in gridconnected
situations shows that Photovoltaic systems are very attractive for a large number of private
people, companies and governments who want to contribute to the establishment of a new and
more environmentally benign electricity supply system. In parallel, considerable cost reductions
are envisaged with the mass production of photovoltaic systems, leading to further attractiveness
of this technology and its extension to other fields of applications.
1.5. Advantages and Disadvantages of Solar Power
1.5.1. Advantages
Solar energy has the following advantages over conventional energy:
 The energy from the sun is virtually free after the initial cost has been recovered.
 Depending on the utilization of energy, paybacks can be very short when compared to the cost
of common energy sources used.
 Solar and other renewable energy systems can be standalone; thereby not requiring connection to
a power or natural gas grid.
 The sun provides a virtually unlimited supply of solar energy
 The use of solar energy displaces conventional energy; which usually results in a proportional
decrease in green house gas emissions.
 The use of solar energy is an untapped market.
 Solar electric generation has the highest power density among renewable energies
 Solar power is pollution free during use. Production end wastes and emissions are manageable
using existing pollution controls. Endofuse recycling technologies are under development.
 Facilities can operate with little maintenance or intervention after initial setup
 Solar electric generation is economically competitive where grid connection or fuel transport is
difficult, costly or impossible
Examples include satellites, island communities, remote locations and ocean vessels.
 When grid connected, solar electric generation can displace the highest cost electricity during
times of peak demand (in most climatic regions), can reduce grid loading, and can eliminate the
need for local battery power for use in times of darkness and high local demand; such application
is encouraged by net metering. Timeofuse net metering can be highly favorable to small
photovoltaic systems
 Grid connected solar electricity can be used locally thus minimizing transmission/distribution
losses.
 Once the initial capital cost of building a solar power plant has been spent, operating costs are
low when compared to existing power technologies.
1.5.2. Disadvantages
o Polysilicon Solar cells are costly, requiring a large initial capital investment, and silicon shortages
raise prices. Costs are expected to come down, however, due to increased manufacturing,
economies of scale and Balance of System planning. Thin film technology uses less silicon; and
Lease/Rental options are currently being introduced
o Limited power density: Average daily insolation is 39 kW∙h/m 2 usable by718% efficient solar
panels.
o To get enough energy for larger applications, a large number of photovoltaic cells is needed. This
increases the cost of the technology and requires a large plot of land.
o Like electricity from nuclear or fossil fuel plants, it can only realistically be used to power
transport vehicles by converting light energy into another form of stored energy (e.g. battery
stored electricity or by electrolysing water to produce hydrogen) suitable for transport).
o Solar cells produce DC which must be converted to AC when used in currently existing
distribution grids. This incurs an energy loss of 412%.
o Does not work at night and can be unreliable unless you are in a very sunny climate.
1.6. Applications of PV Systems
The first PV system applications developed were applied as an energy source for satellites and later for
orbital stations in space. Nowadays, photovoltaic systems are applied as an energy source in many
cases. Most commonly applied photovoltaic systems can be found in remote and rural areas where no
public grid is available. However, quite often gridconnected systems are constructed in urban areas.
Photovoltaic systems are an excellent solution to electricity production regardless of your
whereabouts. According to loads connected to the system and to the basic design principles, the f
photovoltaic systems used direct coupled photovoltaic systems (systems without batteries water
pumping systems for example), standalone photovoltaic systems, gridconnected photovoltaic systems,
hybrid systems (e.g. PV wind or PV diesel systems), concentrator photovoltaic systems. The
applications below depict use of photovoltaic systems as an energy source in many interesting ways.
1.6.1. Facility of Electricity
Buildings ingeneral and those at the rural areas,where the government has not reached yet, in
particular can get electricity easily from solar energy. In these gridconnected systems, PV system
supplies electricity to the building and any daytime excess may be exported to the grid. Batteries are
not necessarily required because the grid supplies any extra demand. However, if you want to be
independent of the grid supply you will need battery storage to provide power outside daylight hours.
Apart from offgrid homes, other remote buildings such as schools, community halls, and clinics can
all benefit from electrification with Solar Energy. Rather than base Solar power generation on
individual dwellings, it is also possible to configure central village power plants that can either power
homes via a local wired network, or act as a battery charging station where members of the community
can bring batteries to be recharged.
1.6.2: Solar Energy for Water Pumping
PV Systems can be used to pump water in remote areas e.g. as part of a portable water supply system.
The water obtained by pumping can be used for different uses such as gardening, livestock drinks,
human being drinks, watering different types of houseplants etc. Especially in our country, Ethiopia
where our economy is mainly based on agriculture, this application in water pumping facilitates the
modern way of irrigation and thereby enhancing the economical development. Specialized solar water
pumps are designed for submersible use (in a borehole) or to float on open water. Usually, the ability
to store water in a tank means that battery power storage is unnecessary. Largescale desalination
plants can also be PV powered.
1.6.3. Telecommunication devices Supplied by PV Systems
Many telecommunications systems can be found in impassable areas making them difficult to reach by
ground. The locations can be most difficult to reach during winter with snowfalls increasing the
possibilities of systems malfunctions. However, these systems are required a 100% operation time (no
malfunctions). Many of the systems are used in critical applications, such as railway signaling,
telecom facilities for rural areas, marine lights, TV transmitters to name but a few. Despite of the grid
connection, a photovoltaic system is used as a backup power supply source in case of grid
malfunctions, which are caused by storms, snowfalls, ice and so on. PV systems can be used in
communication areas such as Powering repeater stations for microwave, TV and radio, telemetry and
radiotelephones. Solar energy is also frequently used on transportation signaling
1.6.4. Solar Energy for Traffic Safety and Control
Nowadays with the increase in population density and civilization of the people, the traffic density at
the streets is also increasing dramatically. Sun wise solar power products provide high reliability and
low maintenance required by traffic safety and transportation equipment. For that critical replacement
part, sun wise traffic safety carries a large inventory of solar modules and components available for
same day shipping. Specialty modules integrated into Battery Operated Products, such as traffic
counters, are now being manufactured to extend the products life cycle. They include the following
features.
 Message boards
 Warming signals
 Traffic counters
 Emergency call boxes
 Intelligent transportation systems
 Navigation aids, etc.
Solar has become a viable option for traffic warning applications, where electricity may be difficult or
expensive to acquire as in rural areas. Solar power warningflasher systems provide a reliable, cost
effective, alternative solution. SC Solar custom system designs turnkey solutions, site specific, to fit
your specific traffic management, warning flasher, or IT application.
1.6.5. Solar Heater
Solar heat from the sun is used to heat water in glass panels. To heat the water at home, we do not
need to use much gas or electricity. Solar heating is worthwhile in places where you get lots of
sunshine. Solar heaters heat water for use inside home or businesses. Also for swimming pools, panels
are commonly placed on the roof of a building containing water pipes. When the sun hits the panels
and the pipes, the sunlight warms them. The warmed water can then be used in swimming pool.
Solarheating systems are reliable, adaptable, and pollutionfree.
Solar ventilation air heating
Many industrial buildings contain contaminantproducing processes, where the contaminated air must
be removed and replaced with large volumes of fresh outdoor air. In addition, most other buildings
require large quantities of fresh outdoor air to maintain adequate indoor air quality for occupants.
Examples include offices, apartments, and institutional buildings.
Using solar energy to provide hot water for the commercial sector
Hot water for a wide variety of commercial applications can be provided with liquid solar collectors.
These systems should be designed by an engineer or expert; and have a collector area of 10100m 2 .
There are many potential applications, but the more common are for Apartment buildings, Senior
citizen residences, Hotels, Car washes, Restaurants, Recreation centers, Hospitals and the likes.
1.6.6. Alarm and control systems power supply
Numerous fire alarms, burglar alarms and other alarm systems could be powered by photovoltaic
systems. Usually an alarm system is connected with a remote monitoring communication system
and solar cells power it. Such systems operate independently of a grid power supply; therefore, they
can be used in remote areas or in situations, where high reliability is required. Remote monitoring is
conducted via modem, GSM or ISDN communication. Another option is a radio link. The other
important group of systems, that could gain a lot from photovoltaic systems, are light signs, marine
lights, airport landing lights, heliport lights etc.
1.6.7. Street Lighting
PV street lighting is the most applicable in rural areas, where no public grid is available. Solar
power is ideal for providing energy for street lighting. These units can be quickly installed and will
provide many years of troublefree service before any maintenance are necessary. Ideal for street
lighting, roadway lighting and security lighting. These standalone units will operate in the absence
of power from the main grid and from each other. Many ‘street lights’ come equipped with
fluorescent lamps but these are quite ineffective mounted on high poles providing only low levels of
light. Producing electricity from solar energy is expensive. In order to provide the most cost
effective solution they must use the most efficient lighting technology. Solar Street lights need to
provide high levels of lighting.
1.6.8. Electricity Source for Environmental Protected Areas
An example of application would be a natural park or other environmentally protected area.
Negative influence on the environment is avoided by application of photovoltaic systems in such
areas, which cannot be achieved by use of public grid.
1.6.9. Use of PV Systems in Medical Applications
Application of photovoltaic systems has proved very suitable for power supplying medical clinics
in rural areas. Photovoltaic systems power lighting, sterilization equipment, vaccine refrigerators,
air conditioning etc. This can power TV, video, telephony and a range of refrigeration equipment,
which is available to meet World Health Organization standards for vaccine refrigeration, for
instance. Installation of such systems is most widespread in different African countries. The systems
are usually designed as complements to small wind systems or diesel generators, which are used for
backup power supply at night or in emergency, such as emergency surgeries, and for xray power
supply.
1.6.10. Other interesting application examples
Photovoltaic systems can also be used as an energy source in oil drilling platforms or for parking
meters to name but a few. Often photovoltaic systems are realized in combination with wind or
diesel generators wherever a 24 hours functioning of power supply system is necessary. Some other
very important application examples are: PV systems for caravans and boats, rural electrification,
solar powered vehicles (cars, boats) etc.
Solar energy can also power area lighting to enable more outdoor activities after dark or improve
security, and to illuminate signs or advertising boards.
CHAPTER TWO
AN AUTOMATED CHARGE CONTROLLER FOR STAND‑ALONE
PHOTOVLTAIC LIGHTING SYSTEMS
2.1. Introduction
Photovoltaic system is technological symbol for the future sustainable energy supply system in
many countries. A considerable amount of money is invested in research, development and
demonstration; several governments are setting up substantial market introduction programs and
industry invests in larger production facilities. No other renewable energy technology receives
such a strong appreciation by the public and to an increasing extent, also by the politicians and
the industrial and financial sectors. This is a remarkable situation since at the same time PV
electricity is regarded as too much expensive compared to conventional grid electricity. The high
and justified recognition of PV systems may be understood based on a description of the positive
features of this kind of solar electricity conversion.
2.2. Objectives
It is worth embracing to see that an expanded vision of the role that solar power can play in improving
lives in developing countries like Ethiopia, reaching beyond home electrification to village enterprises
such as solarpowered health clinics, schools, and microenterprises.
The initial cost of PV lighting systems is costly and thus for effective utilization of solar energy, the
remedial measures for root causes of the failures that may occur are taken into account along with the
design aspect of an automated charge controller circuit.
The main objectives of the project are:
 To design an automated charge controller for standalone PV systems which improves the:
 Durability of the battery by effectively controlling its charging, undercharging and
overcharging conditions.
 Efficiency of utilization of solar energy in such a way that load gets power only during
night time(automatically selfcontrolled)
 To install the over all photovoltaic lighting system at a place and
 Show the possibility of getting electricity from sun light
 Help our society get electricity, especially rural people and get benefits to our selves
 Improve our practical creativity, troubleshooting and apply the theoretical
knowledge we gained at MIT
2.3. Motivations
Our country, Ethiopia, is one of the underdeveloped
countries in Africa. The cover of electricity is very
small. The government may not reach at all or take
it a very long time to reach all places and distribute
electricity. People are using kerosene lamps that
cause serious problems to their health. Fumes from
kerosene lamps in poorly ventilated houses are
serious health problems in much of our country
where electricity is unavailable. It is estimated that Fig 3: Solar for house lighting and cooking in rural areas
people who rely on kerosene inhale the equivalent
of two packs of cigarette smoke per day. In
addition, kerosene lamps are a serious fire hazard in the developing world, killing and maiming
tens of thousands of people each year. Solar electric light is
entirely safe, and improves the indoor air quality of rural
households that previously relied upon kerosene.
Electric light helps to increase literacy because people can read
after dark more easily than they can by candlelight or a
kerosene lamp. Schoolwork improves and eyesight is
safeguarded.
Solar energy can electrify rural schools, not just for lighting
purposes, but also to power computers and other electronic
equipment. The implications of bringing computers into rural Fig 4: Solar for education purpose in rural areas
classrooms, and wirelessly linking those classrooms to the rest
of the world, are profound. A new universe of information and
educational resources opens up. Students and teachers become
excited as new programs in distance learning are introduced.
Electronic friendships are established with people from far
away lands. Music and dance are shared. Cultural diversity is
strengthened, even as the world becomes smaller.
From economic point of view, solar lighting empowers rural
families by allowing them to engage in productive activities at
home during evening hours. In addition, solar electricity can be
used to power various types of village microenterprise. Solar
Fig 5: Solar for communication in rural areas
powered water pumping and irrigation lead to increased
agricultural productivity. Electric sewing machines, ice making and storage, battery charging,
and a wide variety of cottage industries can be powered
with modest amounts of solar electricity. With the
introduction of wireless telephony, rural villages are further
empowered economically. Uptodate knowledge of
farming techniques and market prices helps farmers to
obtain higher value for their produce. Access to the Internet
offers even more farreaching possibilities. By taking
digital photographs of locally made arts and crafts, and
uploading these images onto a website, village artisans can
make their goods directly available to a worldwide Fig 6: Solar for irrigation
audience. Cultural products such as music are especially
well suited to villagebased ecommerce since they can be transmitted electronically without
having to deal with the cost, logistics, and delay of physical
transportation. Solarpowered connectivity provides a
conduit through which information as well as trade and
commerce may flow to/from rural parts of the world
previously isolated and cut off.
In general, solar lighting undoubtedly increases all activities
and their work efficiencies by large. Especially in Ethiopia
where solar energy available abundantly and at any time
throughout the thirteen months of sunshine, such projects
may bring great changes when implemented in collaboration
Fig 7: Solar for getting information in rural areas.
with the government and other nongovernmental
organizations.
2.4. Background on the Working of PV Systems
2.4.1. PV Array
An array consists of two or more PV panels wired to achieve a desired voltage and current. It is
usually mounted at a fixed tilt angle from the horizontal facing due South (in the Northern
Hemisphere). The array will receive varying amounts of sunlight since the Sun’s position in the
Sky changes throughout the day and year. PV arrays are more affected by shading. The location
must be oriented toward the Sun and be free of shading obstacles throughout the Sun’s daily and
seasonal paths.
2.4.2. Storing Battery
Batteries store direct current electrical energy in chemical form for later use. In standalone PV
system, the energy is used at night and during periods of cloudy weather. Since a PV system’s
output power varies throughout any given day, a battery storage system can provide a relatively
constant source of power when the PV system is producing minimal power during periods of
reduced insolation. Batteries can even power the loads when the PV array is disconnected for
repair and maintenance.
Batteries are not one hundred percent efficient. Some energy is lost, as heat and in chemical
reactions, during charging and discharging. Therefore, additional PV modules must be added to a
system to compensate for battery losses.
Many battey types and sizes are available. The most
commonly available battery types for PV system applications
are:
1. leadacid batteries
2. alkaline batteries
The most commonly used type of batteries for residential PV
applications is the leadacid battery. It resembles an
automotive battery. Automotive batteries, however, are not
recommended for PV applications because they are not Fig 8: Rechargeable lead‑acid battery
designed to be “deepcycled”. They are designed to discharge
large amounts of current for a short duration to start an
engine and then be immediately recharged by the vehicle’s alternator or generator. PV systems
often require a battery to discharge small amounts of current over long durations and to be
recharged under irregular conditions. Deep cycle batteries can be discharged down as much as
80% state of charge.They are widely used because these batteries are rechargable, widely
available, relatively inexpensive, and available in a variety of sizes and options. They are also
easly maintained and reasonably long lived.
Rechargable nickelcadmium batteries are commonly used, among alkaline batteries, for large
standby loads, such as industrial applications, daily loads in cold climates, and small portable
appliances. These batteries may be recharged using a solar or AC battery charger. Manufacturers
of nicad batteries claim that nicads will last through more chargedischarge cycles than lead–acid
batteries. These batteries are often expensive and may have voltage window compatibility issues
with certain inverters and chrge controls. An advantage is that they are not as affected by
temperature as other types of batteries. For this reason, alkaline batteries are usually only
recommended for commerial or industrial applications in locations where extremly cold
temperatures (50 o F or less) are anticipated.
In residential PV systems, typically liquid leadacid batteries are the wisest choice since the
majority of PV systems and compenents are designed to use leadacid batteries. They usually
constitute a significant part of the total system cost. A battery is charging when energy is being
put in and discharging when energy is being taken out. The life of batteries is measured in
cycles. A cycle is considered one chargedischarge sequence, which often occurs over a period of
one day in residential PV systems.
Despite the safety, environmental, and maintenance issues, batteries are necessary to provide the
needed flexibility and reliability to a home PV system.
Battery sizing worksheet
AC average ÷ Inverter + DC average ÷ DC system = Average Amp

Daily load effeciency Daily load voltage hours/day
Average × Days of ÷ Discharge limit ÷ Battery AH = Batteries in

Amphours/day autonomy capacity parallel
DC system ÷ Battery = Batteries × Batteries = Total
Voltage Voltage in series in parallel batteries
Battery specification: Make: Model:
2.4.3. Charge Controller
Although photovoltaic systems can be used without charge controllers and this practice can be found
very often in small PV systems, it has to be stated that while planning the longterm operation of a
standalone photovoltaic system that it is necessary to avoid overcharge and deep discharge. Battery
costs over the lifetime of a PV system take the major share of the cost of the system.
For an efficient utilization of the solar energy and enhance the life of the overall system in general and
the battery in particular, an automatically controlled electronic circuit is developed. This circuit
includes:
 Battery over drainage indicator and protection circuit
 Battery overcharge indicator and protection circuit
 Realtime charging indicator circuit
 Duskdown indicator and controller circuit
 Reverse Polarity Protection Circuit
 Inverter circuit
 Electronic ballast
 Preheat circuit/ starter
2.4.3.1. Battery Over‑drainage Indicator and Controller circuit
As a battery of the leadacid type discharges, lead sulphate forms. Sulphation is the formation of lead
sulphate on the plates. There can be no discharge of such a battery without the formation of lead
sulphate, which is the natural product of the chemical reactions by virtue of which current may be
drawn from the battery. This sulphate gradually replaces the lead peroxide of the positive plate, and
the spongy lead of the negative plate. When a battery has been discharged until the voltage per cell has
fallen to the voltage limits, considerable portions of the lead peroxide and spongy lead remain on the
plates. The sulphate, which is then present, is in a finely divided, porous condition, and can readily be
changed back to lead peroxide and spongy lead by charging the battery.
If the discharge is continued after the voltage has fallen to the voltage limits, an excessive amount of
sulphate forms. It fills up the pores in the active materials, and covers up much of the active material
that remains, so that it is difficult to change the sulphate back to active material. Moreover, the
expansion of active material, which takes place as the sulphate forms, is then so great that it causes the
active material to break off from the plate. If discharge is carried too far, the expansion of the active
material on account of the formation of lead sulphate will bend the grids out of shape, and may even
break them; resulting a lower life of the battery. Thus, a protection circuit is very important.
In this project, the protection and indicator circuit employs a comparator with suitable feedback and
temperature compensation circuit that compares the voltage available at the terminals of a battery VBT
with the reference voltage across the zener diode VREF. It disconnects the load from the battery
whenever the battery terminal voltage falls below a limit voltage, in this case VBLD, preventing the
battery from further discharging. To indicate this, an LED is used in such a way that it glows ON
whenever the battery is in its undercharged state and remains OFF otherwise. By doing this, the
difficulty of recharging the battery will be reduced and the life of the battery is improved.
Design and description
The comparator C1 must go HIGH only when the
voltage VC1 is smaller than VREF and the LED1 can
only glow ON. This happens when:
VC1 = R2/ (R1 + R2) × VBT+ <VREF when VBT+=VLBD
Simplifying this gives
R1 = [(VBT+/VREF) – 1]) × R2
Values of R1 and R2 can be selected appropriate

values when VBT+ is substituted with VBLD value and
VREF with the zener diode voltage value, and the
Low Battery Controller can be designed.
Fig 9: Battery overdrainage indicator and controller circuit Resistors R5 and R6 are used to reduce hysteresis of
the opamp.
2.4.3.2. Dusk‑Dawn Indicator and Controller circuit
In this project, it is aimed to install offgrid photovoltaic lighting systems in remote areas where
electricity has not reached yet. The people at those remote areas do not have well knowledge about the
usage of electricity. It will not be advisable for loads to get power during the daytime. Intentionally or
unintentionally, somebody may turn ON the main switch during daytime; which results in
inappropriate utilization of the energy if load is taking power.
To alleviate such problems and operate the system automatically, a duskdown detector and controller
circuit is designed. It automatically switches ON and OFF the lighting load according to the dusk and
dawn of the day sensed at the PV array terminals. This is attained by using a comparator to sense the
PV output voltage and allows switching ON the load only in the absence of the PV voltage. It also
automatically switches OFF the load when the PV voltage is available. This facility is incorporated to
isolate the load when during the daytime while the battery is charging.
The comparator C2 must go HIGH only when the
voltage VC2 is greater than VREF, and the LED2
glows OFF showing that it is daytime and ON
when VC2 < VREF as the opamp out put is going
LOW. VC2 < VREF :
V C2 = R9/ (R8 + R9) × VPV+ < VREF
Simplifying this gives
R8 = [(VPV+/VREF) – 1]) × R9
Values of R1 and R2 can be selected

appropriately when VPV+ is substituted with the
minimum daytime panel terminal voltage value
and VREF with the zener diode voltage value, and
the DuskDawn controller can be designed.
Resistors R11 and R12 are used to reduce
Fig 10: DuskDawn controller and indicator circuit hysteresis of the opamp.
2.4.3.3. Battery Real‑time Charging Indicator circuit
When a healthy rechargeable battery is
connected across a solar panel
correctly, it charges as the solar panel
gets sunshines over its solar cells. To
ensure that the battery is correctly
connected to the PV panel and deduce
if the battery is charging or not, a real
battery charging indicator circuit is
incorporated in our project. This is
achieved by sensing the realtime
charging current flowing from the PV
module to the battery through the
charge controller. An LED is
connected to show the correct
charging condition by glowing only in
the presence of the charging current
(i.e. during day time). In the absence Fig 12: Battery Realtime charging indicator circuit
of this current, the charging indicator
LED does not glow even though the
voltage of the PV module is available. This mode of a realtime charging indicator helps the user to
utilize the PV energy effectively. Resistors R17 and R18 are used to adjust the required gain of the op
amp.
2.4.3.4. Battery Overcharge Indicator and Controller circuit
The most common cause of premature battery failure is overcharging. Most commonly “rapid
chargers” are the type of chargers that cause overcharging and it is because they do not have charge
control mechanism. Most of them are simple designs, which charge at their full charge rate for a fixed
period, typically 58 hours, and then shut off or switch to a lower “trickle” charge rate.
Vc3
Fig 12: Battery overcharge controller and indicator circuit
The over charge protection and indication circuit employed here utilizes a comparator with a
suitable feedback and temperature compensation circuits that compares the voltage available at the
battery terminal VBT with the reference voltage across the zener diode VREF. When this voltage
exceeds VBHD, it disconnects the battery from further charging. In other words, this circuit protects the
battery from overcharging by changing to a trickle mode of charging when its terminal voltage
exceeds the preset upper limit voltage. To indicate this situation, an LED is used. When the battery
tends to charge beyond the upper limit voltage, the LED glows ON otherwise the LED remains OFF.
The comparator C4 must go HIGH only when the voltage VC3 tries to exceed VREF at the minimum
Battery High Disconnect Voltage, VBHD and the LED4 glows ON showing that the battery is fully
Charged/Overcharged otherwise remains OFF. This gives rise to:
VC3 = R23/ (R22 + R23) × VBT+ > VREF
Simplifying this gives:
R22 = [(VBT+/VREF) – 1]) × R23
Values of R22 and R23 can be selected appropriately at VBT+ equals to VBHD and VREF replaced by

the zener diode voltage controller can be designed. When V7 is HIGH, the transistor Q3 is
designed to get its get signal through R28 and R29 as:
[R29/ (R28 + R29)] × V7 ≥ VBE leading to the reduced equation:

Where VBE is base to emitter voltage drop of
R28 ≤ [(V7/VBE) 1] × R29 the transistor Q3. When Q3 gets base signal, battery is
overcharged, it will be grounded leading to the OFF state
of transistor Q2 connected to the RELAY1 taking to the
trickle mode of charging
Controller sizing worksheet
Module short × Modules × Safety Factor = Array short controller Listed desired
Circuit current in parallel (usually 1.25) circuit amps array amps features
DC total ÷ DC system = Maximum DC controller

Connected watts Voltage Load Amps Load Amps
Controller specification: Make: Model:
2.4.3.5. Reverse Polarity and reverse leakage current Protection Circuit
During situations when the battery terminal voltage is greater than the panel terminal voltage,
such as during nighttime and cloudy weather, there might be a possibility for a reverse leakage
current path from the battery bank to the PV module. When this happens, battery stored energy is
being lost futile and the PV cells may be affected. In this project, a blocking diode is placed
between the PV panel array and the battery to prevent the battery from discharging through the
array in times of total/partial darkness and zero/toosmall panel output.
While installing the system, one might have installed the battery in its reverse polarity. This
situation is very dangerous especially during the daytime, as it can be understood from KVL
equation, there is large current flow, which might result in fast deterioration and hence decrease
in the battery life. To alleviate this problem, we have designed a reverse polarity protection diode
in series with a resistor placed across the PV module just after the reverse leakage current
protection diode.
Description
Assuming that the battery is installed with reverse polarity,
the KVL equation gives:
VPV IRpv VD1 + VBT = 0
Rearranging this, we get
I = (VPV + VBT – VD1)/Rpv
During daytime, VPV and VBT have large values resulting

very large current that may harm the battery.
With the reverse polarity protection circuit, the current is
allowed to flow through D2 and R35. The KVL equation, this
time, gives us:
VBT – VD2 – IR35 = 0
Rearranging this, we get
I = (VBT – VD2)/R35
This time (VBT – VD2) is small and the value of R35 can be
Fig 13: Reverse leakage current and reverse polarity
appropriately selected so that I to be limited very small.
protection circuit
2.4.3.6. Inverter circuit
Alternating current is easier to transport over a long distance and has become the conventional
modern electrical standard. Consequently, most common appliances or loads are designed to
operate on alternating current. As we know, PV modules generate only direct current power in
addition; batteries can store only direct current power. Alternating current and direct current are,
by nature, fundamentally incompatible. Therefore, a “bridge” –an inverter is needed between the
two.
The fundamental purpose of a PV system inverter is to change direct current electric city from
PV modules (when connected with the utility grid) and batteries (in standalone or grid
tied/battery backup) to alternating current electricity, and finally to power alternating current
loads. Inverters can also feed electricity back into the grid. The inverters designed to feed into
the utility grid are referred to as gridtied, linetied or utilityconnected inverters. These inverters
are used in largescale PV power plants owned by utility companies that generate electricity for
the greed, as well as in residential systems that feed electricity to the grid. The advent of
sophisticated integrated circuits, field effect transistors, and high frequency transformers has
allowed the creation of lighter, more efficient inverters.
In this project, this is achieved using power transistors, which rectify the input power and then chop it
at a high frequency (in the order of 10 KHZs). This high freqeuncy pulsating voltage is now
fed to a ballast transformer to stepup the voltage into the required value and given to different
loads.
During daytime, the voltage V2 is high and if battery is
undercharged, the voltage V1 is high. In either/both of these
situations, the transistor Q1 is designed to get its base signal
through resistors R14 and R15 as:
[R15/ (R14 + R15)] × V3 ≥ VBE
This can be reduced to:
R14≤ [(V3 / VBE)1] × R15
Knowing values of V3 and VBE, the values of R14 and R15

can be selected appropriately. At this time Q1 shorts and
base signal of Q4 is grounded thereby the load is
disconnected when battery is undercharged and/or it is
daytime.
If V1 and V2 are both LOW, when battery is normally
charged and nighttime/toocloudy weather, Q1 will not get
base signal, Q4’s base will not be connected to the ground,
and gets base signal through FBT and thus our load can get
Fig 14: Inverter circuit
power.
Inverter sizing worksheet
AC total ÷ DC system = Maximum DC Estimated surge Listed desired
Connected watt Voltage continuous Amps watt (37 times) features
Inverter specification: Make: Model:
2.4.3.7. Electronic Ballast
Ballast is a device used to obtain the necessary circuit conditions (voltage, current and waveform) for
starting and operating high output fluorescent lamps, like Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL).
Electronic ballast is a ballast that uses semiconductor components to increase the frequency of
fluorescent lamp operation (typically in the 2040 KHz range).
For solar energy application of lighting loads like Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL), the controlled
voltage across the battery terminal is not high enough to glow the CFL though there are CFLs working
in DC. This voltage is chopped at a high frequency and steppedup using this ballast transformer
whose principle of operation is based on a saturable ferrite core relaxaton oscillator.
The complexity of the circuit varies over a wide range and depends on the number of turns of the
ferrite core transformer and the design of the capacitorbased, harmonic filter circuit.Fluorescent
system efficiency is increased due to high frequency lamp operation. Results are increased lamp
efficacy, reduced ballast losses and lighter, smaller
ballasts compared to electromagnetic ballasts.
EXPLANATION
As discussed above, only when Q4’s base is
getting base signal through FBT, there will be
voltage across the input ballast and thus load gets
power. The feedback transformer is designed and
used here for giving continuous and high
frequency base signal to the power transistor Q4.
the number of turns of the feedback, primary and
secondary transformer are decided based on the
load and output voltage or based on the
specification requirements.
Fig 15: Electronic ballast
2.4.3.8. Pre‑heat/ Starter circuit
The heating of the filament of the CFL is necessary to reduce the ionization voltage required for the
CFL. The low ionization voltage avoids the sputtering of the cathode material. Preheat circuit reduces
the blackening of the CFL and enhances its life. In this project, a starter circuit working with a relay is
employed to make the preheat current flow through the filament of the CFL for a short time. The time
interval can be fixed as per the specifications of the CFL manufacturer.
Description
When the main switch is turned ON or if the battery was
undercharged initially and reached normal working state of
charge the main switch being ON and/or if the daytime
finishes and nighttime comes while the main switch was
ON, a preheat is required to start the CFL by reducing the
ionization required for the CFL. Here, this is achieved
using RELAY2 which was normally open and when either
of the above situations happens, RELAY2 can go to
normally closed state after Q5 gets base signal. As most of
the voltage VBT2 appears across R3 at the start C4 acting as
short circuit, the Zener diode conducts and Q5 gets base
signal through current path R31, C4, ZD2, Q5 to ground and
RELAY2 goes to normally closed state. Meanwhile, the
capacitor charges up and when the voltage VC4 reaches to
VBT2(almost) after some times decided by the values of C4
and R36, the zener diode ZD2 is OFF; Q5 not getting base
signal and RELAY2 once again going to the normally open
Fig 16: Preheat circuit
state.
2.4.4. Advantages of Charge Controller
Although photovoltaic systems can be used without charge controllers, the controller part plays
the very prominent role to keep the PV system healthy and work alive lengthy. Battery costs over
the lifetime of a PV system take the major share of the cost of the system. Battery lifetime again
depends to a large degree on its operation strategy. The following table shows some of the
advantages of using controllers and the effects when applied.
Rules for battery management and Advantages Effect when applied
obtained
Avoid high voltages during charging on the battery Less corrosion and loss of water
Avoid low voltages during discharge of the battery Less corrosion
Avoid extended periods without full charging of the battery Less sulphation
Avoid reverse charging of the cells Less sulphation and growth of dendrites
Avoid high battery temperatures Frequent full charging is assured
Avoid stratification of the electrolyte Less sulphation
Overcharge the battery slightly once a month Slower ageing processes
Avoid deep discharge Less degradation of negative electrodes
2.4.5. Load
PV systems can be used for different application. The loads connected can be DC or AC types of
appropriate rating in accordance with the controller. DC operating loads don’t require inverters
and AC operating loads do.
With PV lighting systems, the most fluorescent lamps or compact fluorescent lamps can be used.
However, using compact fluorescent lamps is more advantageous than using other types.
Description
The load can be any type of lamp; but here
the system design is for a Compact
Fluorescent Lamp, CFL with capacity
ranging 712 Watts. The two terminals of
the CFL are connected to the two
secondary transformer terminals and the
other two terminals of the CFL are
connected to the preheat for starting. As the
load increases, it tends to draw more
current in the input supply and if the load is
large watt rating, it may not start at all.
Compact Fluorescent Lamps, CFL has the
following advantages over the other types:
 Space saving, high luminous lamps.
Fig 17: CFL load  Light equivalent: five times of
traditional bulbs.
 Up to 80% less energy consumption.
 Long life, good color quality, low heat
and aesthetically designed luminaries
CHAPTER THREE
THE WORKING, BLOCK AND CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS OF PV SYSTEMS
3.1. General Working Principle of Stand‑alone PV systems
The PV panel, which absorbs solar energy, is placed at an area where it can get more solar irradiation
and inclined at an appropriate angle called tilt angle of the PV. A rechargeable battery connected to the
PV module charges when the PV module gets solar shines. However, the battery should neither
discharge below a limit (undercharge protected) nor charge beyond another limit (overcharge
protected) because the life of the battery shortens and efficiency of the system decreases. Over and
above, the realtime charging circuit indicates a realtime charging of the battery to the users and an
automatic duskdawn controller circuit is necessary to disconnect the load during daytime even if the
main switch is switched ON (be it knowingly or unknowingly). Different appliances and equipments
working in AC require stored DC voltage to be converted into AC form and this is done by the
designed inverter circuit and steppedup by the ballast transformer which works at very high frequency
and requires a deep knowledge to 'the complex design of ferrite core type'.
3.2. Simplified block diagram for stand‑alone PV systems
The simplified bock diagram of the PV lighting system includes the PV array, Battery storage, charge
controller and the load. Each of these elements includes subelements, which are not shown in this
simplified block diagram. The PV array captures DC power directly from the sun. For the utilization
of this energy during times of nighttime and cloudy weather, the rechargeable storing battery is
required. To enhance the battery life, the battery storing condition has to be controlled and the
controller comes into picture. PV lighting systems are used with different types of loads such as
fluorescent lamp, FL and compact fluorescent lamp, CFL. If the load is working with AC, an inverter
circuit is utilized.
Charge
Contro ller
PV Array
Co ntrol signal
Load
Con trol sig na l
Battery
Tracking
Facility
Fig 18: Simplified block diagram of a standalone PV lighting system
3.3. Detailed Schematic diagram for stand‑alone PV systems
The detailed block diagram shows the details of the system and the general connection of each
subsystem. The following shows what elements the PV system requires, and how each element
is related to each other.
Fig 19: Detailed schematic diagram of an automated charge controller circuit for stand alone photovoltaic lighting systems
3.4. Circuit Diagram for stand‑alone PV systems
.
Fig 20: Circuit diagram of automated charge controller for standalone PV systems
CHAPTER FOUR‑
TEST AND RESULTS
4.1. Project Tests
Having designed the controller, it was allowed for set of tests. The set of tests recommended
and conducted are:
 Testing for the PV panel performance
 Testing each of the controller parts and overall efficiency of the system
4.2. Test Results
4.2.1. Test Results for the PV Panel Performance
Data taken for PV panel Performance
On a panel with the following ratings given on the name plate of the panel
Nominal Charging current Ic = 3.05 A
Nominal open Circuit Voltage V = 17.4 V
Power Output P = 53 W
Tempe Charing Short Open Tilt Re

Time, rature, current circuit circuit angle ma
t T ( O C) Ic(A) current voltage (Degree) rk
Isc(A) Voc(V)
1.07 1.09 20.0 15

7:45 24 1.35 1.37 20.2 30
1.49 1.5 20.3 45
2.0 2.02 19.8 15
8:45 26 2.24 2.26 19.8 30
2.33 2.35 19.9 45
2.86 2.91 19.0 15
9:45 40 2.35 2.55 19.3 30
2.3 2.2 18.5 45
3.5 3.53 18.5 15
10:45 36 3.7 3.74 18.6 30
3.73 4.18 18.5 45
3.55 3.61 18.3 15
11:45 44 3.39 3.82 18.3 30
3.72 3.84 18.5 45
3.41 3.45 18.3 15
12:45 43 3.0 3.62 18.3 30
3.55 3.61 18.3 45
2.99 3.05 19.15 15
13:45 42 3.21 3.23 19.2 30
3.23 3.29 19.13 45
1.52 0.56 18.82 15
14:45 38 2.62 1.52 19.5 30
2.88 2.94 20.2 45
2.12 2.13 19.6 15
15:45 36 2.32 2.33 19.7 30
2.36 2.38 19.72 45
1.03 1.05 19.92 15
16:45 28 1.26 1.27 20.1 30
1.24 1.41 20.2 45
1 0.07 0.08 17.5 15
7:30 22 0.07 0.08 17.5 30
0.07 0.08 17.5 45
Table 1: Data and Test Results for the PV Panel Performance
4.2.2. Graphs showing Performance Characteristics of PV systems
From the sets of data taken, the different performance characteristics of a PV panel are drawn
as shown below. Some of the characteristics are variation of the day temperature with time,
variation of short and charging currents with time and day temperature, variations of the open
circuit voltage with time and day temperature. The changes of open circuit voltage with the
short circuit current can also be observed as in the graphs below. The PV characteristics vary
with the tilt angle of the PV panel facing to South and thus data are taken for 15 o , 30 o and 45 o
tilt angles for better understandings. The graphs for the PV performance characteristics are also
give for these angles. The performance of the PV panels varies with the daily weather as can be
noted from the data table and graphs.
Fig 21.1: Isc Vs t 15 o tilt angle Fig 21.2: Voc Vs t 15 o tilt angle Fig 21.3: T Vs t 15 o tilt angle
Charging current(Ic) VS Open circuit Charging Current(Ic) VS Open Circuit Voltage(Vo) of PV at
voltage(Vo) 0f PV at 30 o tilt angle 45 o tilt angle
4
4
3.5
3.5
3 3
2.5
Ic(A)
2.5
2
Ic ( A )
2
1.5
1.5
1
0.5 1
0 0.5
20.2
19.8
19.3
18.6
18.3
18.3
19.2
19.5
19.7
20.1
17.5
0
2 0 .3
1 9 .9
1 8 .5
1 8 .5
1 8 .5
1 8 .3
1 9 .1 3
2 0 .2
1 9 .7 2
2 0 .2
1 7 .5
Vo(v)
Vo(v)
Fig 21.4: Ic Vs Voc of PV panel tilted at 30 o . Fig 21.5: Ic Vs Voc for 45 o tilt angle.
Charging Current(Ic) of PV at 15 ,30 and 45

o o o Short Circuit Current(Isc) of PV at 15 o , 30 o and 45 o
tilt angles VS time tilt angles VS time
Is c (A )
4 4.5
Ic(A)
3.5 4
3
Ich (15°)
3.5
2.5 3 Isc(for 15°)
Ich (30°)
2 2.5 Isc(for 30°)
Ich (45°)
2 Isc(for 45°)
1.5
1 1.5
0.5
1
0
0.5
17:45
7:45
8:45
9:45
10:45
11:45
12:45
13:45
14:45
15:45
16:45
time
0
7 :4 5
8 :4 5
9 :4 5
1 0 :4 5
1 1 :4 5
1 2 :4 5
1 3 :4 5
1 4 :4 5
1 5 :4 5
1 6 :4 5
1 7 :4 5
time
Fig 21.6: Ic Vs time for tilt angles 15 o , 30 o and 45 o Fig 21.7: Isc Vs time for tilt angles 15 o , 30 o and 45 o
Open Circuit Voltage(Vo) of PV at 15 o ,30 o and 45 o tilt angles VS time

21
Temperature(T) VS time
Vo(v)
50
20.5
20
40
19.5
19
30
T( C)
18.5
o
18 Vo(15°)
20
17.5 Vo (30°)
17 Vo(45°)
10
16.5
16
0
7:45
8:45
9:45
10:45
11:45
12:45
13:45
14:45
15:45
16:45
17:45
time
7:45
8:45
9:45
10:45
11:45
12:45
13:45
14:45
15:45
16:45
17:45
tim e
Fig 21.8: Voc Vs time for tilt angles 15 o , 30 o and 45 o Fig 21.9: T Vs time for 15 o , 30 o and 45 o tilt angles
Fig 21: PV panel performance characteristic graphs at different tilt angles and day temperature
4.2.3. Test Results of the Controller Part
Controller Results with a 9W CFL load
Sr. VBT VPV I1 BLI BHI BRT DDI PIN CFL ⁿ
No (V) (V) (A) LED LED LED LED (w) (%)
Night time/toocloudy weather
1 9 0.5 0.04 ON OFF OFF ON 0.36 OFF
2 10 0.5 0.06 ON OFF OFF ON 0.6 OFF
3 10.8 1.5 0.07 OFF OFF OFF OFF 0.75 OFF
4 12 1.5 0.76 OFF OFF OFF ON 9.12 ON 97
5 13 0.5 0.78 OFF OFF OFF ON 10.2 ON 88
6 14.4 0.5 0.8 OFF OFF OFF ON 11.5 ON 78
7 15 1.5 0.94 OFF ON OFF ON 14.1 ON 64
Day time
8 9 15 0.09 ON OFF ON OFF 0.81 OFF
9 10 15 0.09 ON OFF ON OFF 0.9 OFF
10 10.8 15 0.09 OFF OFF ON OFF 0.97 OFF
11 12 15 0.09 OFF OFF ON OFF 1.08 OFF
12 13 15 0.09 OFF OFF ON OFF 1.17 OFF
13 14.4 15 0 OFF OFF ON OFF 0 OFF
14 15 15 0.07 OFF ON ON OFF 1.05 OFF
Table 2: Test results of the Controller part
4.3. Limitations and Possible solutions
4.3.1. Obstacles with PV systems
Although the PV system is long lasting and user friendly, it has some obstacles facing to the
users especially in rural areas. Some of them are:
Cost wise, that is, PV arrays are costly due to limited knowledge and manufacturer
companies cost policy being unreasonable.
Huge taxation is loaded while it is importing.
Though running cost of PV system is negligible, its initial cost is profound. Therefore,
that huge money is a big problem for the poor society at the time of starting.
The little knowledge people have, especially those at the rural areas in developing
counties like Ethiopia, toward this promising technology.
With these and the like big problems, the distribution of PV systems has not been satisfactorily
utilized.
Different countries and people may provide different possible solutions. Some of them could be:
 PV array manufacturing companies should exercise a Standardized and reasonable
costing system and all people, especially in developing countries, should stand
together for this issue.
 Governments have to motivate this technology by removing the load of big taxation
on importing the PV arrays and create a new era of technology (creating big research
explicitly for PV systems).
 Governmental and nongovernmental organizations have to work cooperatively for
making the technology open to everyone.
 Governmental and nongovernmental organizations have to put their efforts and
provide loanmoney system, which is of free/toolittle charge that would be repaid
back after certain periods for those who do not have it, etc.
4.3.2. Limitations while doing the project
There were many problems facing to us while working with this project. To mention some:
o Some materials were not easily available and, if by chance you came across with them,
you would not get them at the right time.
Examples: Heat sink, ferrite core, cases, different sized transformer wires, trainers
for testing, multimeters, oscilloscope.
o There were room problems in which we could have dedicatedly, safely and easily
performed our works.
4.3.3. Measures taken to tackle the problems
To cope up with these problems the following remedy measures were take on the course.
 Old fashioned and useless personal Computers materials and components were utilized.
 By sharing some materials (like multimeters, trainers, etc) and components
 By repairing thrown materials and making use of them, was the other possibility.
 By borrowing some materials, was also tried.
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION
5.1. Scope of the project
The scope of this project is to design an intelligent automated electronic charge controller circuit
for the lighting of standalone photovoltaic systems so that solar energy can be efficiently
utilized and the life of the overall proposed system in general and the energy storing battery in
particular can be enhanced
.
5.2. Conclusion
PV systems constitute a new form of producing electric energy that is environmentally clean and
modular. In standalone installation, it must use storage or another type of generator to provide
electricity when the sun is not shining. In gridconnected installations, storage is not necessary:
in the absence of the sunlight, electricity is provided from other (conventional) source.
PV electricity is highly appreciated by the public. It is unique for many applications of high
social value such as providing electricity to people who lack it in the remote areas. Often,
international donor agencies are providing the funding, as many of users are very poor. PV is
very suitable as the power supply for remote communication equipment. Its use is increasing
rapidly to produce electricity in gridconnected houses and buildings in industrialized countries.
For the best efficient utilization of solar energy, PV charge controllers are unquestionably
helpful. A very nice automated charge controller for the standalone PV lighting systems is
designed and tested for the outcomes. As can be observed from the controller results in table 2
above, the controller has fulfilled the requirements and specifications given. Every part of the
controller is tested and found working satisfactorily. Electronic ballast transformers were tried to
be done by hand and they worked though their efficiency was very small. Over and above, to
study the performance PV panel characteristics, many data were taken on different days though
only asingleday’s data are shown in table 1 above. The performance graphs are also shown to
reveal you the variations of PV voltage and currents with the different characteristics.
In summary, it is very likely that PV will become the next halfcentury important source of

world electricity. Public support and global environmental concerns will keep PV viable, visible
and vigorous both in new technical developments and in user applications. Nations which
encourage PV will be leaders in this shining new technology, leading the way to a cleaner, more
equitable 21 st century, while those that ignore or suppress PV, will be left behind in the green
economic energy revolution.
5.3. Enhancements and Recommendations
Enhancements
Many enhancements can be added to this project so that the solar energy can be utilized much
more efficiently than ever. Undergoing further studies on the performance characteristics of PV
panels in Ethiopia, Tigray, the panels can be dictated to the most appropriate tilt angle and
mounted to the best level to achieve more daily as well as seasonal solar insolation. Further
more, a way of continuous tracking to the solar illumination and path can be designed and
installed to give the maximummost solar insolation. The dusts being accumulated on the PV
panel surfaces through time also lead to the decrease PV performance. A PV screen cleaner or
wiper can be designed to get ride of such dust problems may be weekly, monthly or yearly
depending on our preferences. Since the battery internal reactions also chance with temperature,
it will be a nice idea to design and install a battery temperature sensor so that we can manage to
what temperature extent our battery can work with.
Recommendations
Our recommendations go to every ones. The MIT board together with the dean and other responsible
persons has to give special attention to the projects that are going to be done. Appropriate materials
should not only be provided but also at the most right time. With these good facilities, then, good
working areas, like special project rooms, are necessary.
Governmental and nongovernmental organizations have to stretch their hands to the poor rural people
in helping them to use this clean and environment friendly solar electricity. First, the rural people have
to widen their knowledge toward this promising technology. They need supports like loans for the
initial installations. International public and foundation support can also play a useful role by
providing seed capital and credit enhancement (such as loan guarantees). Taking the initiative, the
government should remove the taxes on the importing PV panels. To maximize potential penetration
levels, country leaders should make every effort to encourage sustainable private markets for these
costly solar panels. Governments should clarify and publicize grid extension plans in order to
minimize the consumers charge if not so.
Cost of energy from photovoltaic systems remains higher than most alternatives. To continue the
progress made so far by solar engineers and entrepreneurs, it will be necessary to drive up production
and expand markets still more through aggressive marketing and commercialization. Some analysts
express the problem as a "Mountain of Death," which characterizes the high costs of producing first
ofakind products.
Cost Analysis
The list of the materials used in this project together with their prices is given in the following table. It
should be noted that the price of the materials may vary from time to time and place to place.
However, there will be no much difference.
Sr. Material and its specification Quantity Price, Birr Per

Total price,
No Birr
1 Resistors 35 0.05 Each 1.75
2 Electrolyte Capacitors 2 1.20 Each 2.40
3 Paper type Capacitors 4 1.00 Each 4.00
4 Zener diode Vref = 2.5 V 1 2.00 Each 2.00
5 Zener diode Vref = 3.3 V 1 1.00 Each 1.00
6 Quad opamp 1 10.00 Each 10.00
7 Rechargeable 10AH leadacid battery 1 380.00 Each 380.00
8 Silicon Diode 13 1.00 Each 13.00
9 LED 4 1.00 Each 4.00
10 Dual NAND gate 1 4.00 Each 4.00
11 Relay 12 V 2 5.00 Each 10.00
12 PV panel 53 W,3.05 A and 17.5 V 1 1000.00 Each 1000.00
13 NPN Transistors, C1815 4 0.50 Each 2.00
14 NPN Power transistor, BD243 1 2.00 Each 2.00
15 Ballast transformer 1 25.00 Each 25.00
16 9 W CFL load 1 18.00 Each 18.00
17 Switch 1 3.00 Each 3.00
18 Connecting wires lampsome lampsome 10.00
19 IC holders 3 3.00 Each 9.00
20 Heat sink 1 10.00 Each 10.00
Total 1511.15
Taking 10 % more for price changes with time and other things into account, +151.12
Total sum 1662.30
Table 3: List of materials used and their price
Bibliography /References
[1] Antonio Luque and Steven Hegedues, Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering,
Wiley, 2005
[2] Solar Energy International, Photovoltaic Design and Installation Manual, New Society
Publisher, Jan 2006
[3] Prasanta Kumar Panda, 2axis tracking of photovoltaic arrays under maximum power
condition, Energy System Engineering, IITB, 2003
[4] Sun wise Ready Syatem, Barston California
[5] http://www.solarbuzz.co/Applications.com, 2007, Solarbuz, LLC
[6] http://www.sandia.gov/pv/docs/glossary.htm
[7] Denis Lenardic, Photovoltaic application examples, 20012007
Appendix
DATASHEETS FOR SOME OF THE COMPONENTS USED
Glossary
Alternating Current (ac) an electric current that reverses direction periodically
Ampere (A) Unit of electric current. The rate of flow of electrons in a conductor equal to one coulomb per second.
AmpereHour (Ah) The quantity of electrical energy equal to the flow of current of one ampere for one hour. The term is
used to quantify the energy stored in a battery
Array A collection of electrically connected photovoltaic (PV) modules.
Array Current The electrical current produced by a PV array when it is exposed to sunlight.
Array Operating Voltage The voltage produced by a PV array when exposed to sunlight and connected to a load.
Battery A device that converts the chemical energy contained in its active materials directly into electrical energy by
means of an electrochemical oxidationreduction (redox) reaction.
Battery Capacity The total number of amperehours that can be withdrawn from a fully charged battery. See AmpereHour
& Rated Battery Capacity.
Battery Cell The smallest unit or section of a battery that can store electrical energy and is capable of furnishing a current
to an external load. For leadacid batteries, the voltage of a cell (fully charged) is about 2.2 volts dc.
Battery Cycle Life The number of times a battery can be discharged and recharged before failing. Battery manufacturers
specify Cycle Life as a function of discharge rate and temperature.
Battery State of Charge (SOC) Percentage of full charge or 100 percent minus the depth of discharge. See Depth of
Discharge
DeepCycle Battery A battery with large plates that can withstand many discharges to a low SOC.
LeadAcid Battery A general category that includes batteries with plates made of pure lead, leadantimony, or lead
calcium immersed in an acid electrolyte
Nickel Cadmium Battery A battery containing nickel and cadmium plates and an alkaline electrolyte.
Blocking Diode A diode used to prevent undesired current flow. In a PV array, the diode is used to prevent current flow
towards a failed module or from the battery to the PV array during periods of darkness or low current production.
Capacity (C) The total number of amperehours that can be withdrawn from a fully charged battery at a specified
discharge rate and temperature. See Battery Capacity.
Charge The process of adding electrical energy to a battery.
Charge Controller A device that controls the charging rate and/or state of charge for batteries.
High Voltage Disconnect The voltage at which the charge controller will disconnect the array from the batteries to prevent
overcharging.
High Voltage Disconnect Hysteresis The voltage difference between the high voltages disconnects set point and the
voltage at which the full PV array current will be reapplied.
Low Voltage Disconnect The voltage at which the charge controller will disconnect the load from the batteries to prevent
overdischarging.
Low Voltage Disconnect Hysteresis The voltage difference between the low voltages disconnects set point and the voltage
at which the load will be reconnected.
Low Voltage Warning A warning buzzer or light that indicates the low battery voltage set point has been reached.
Maximum Power Tracking or Peak Power Tracking Operating the array at the peak power point of the array's IV curve
where maximum power is obtained.
Reverse Current Protection Any method of preventing unwanted current flow from the battery to the PV array (usually at
night). See Blocking Diode.
Charge Rate The current used to recharge a battery. Normally expressed as a percentage of total battery capacity. For
instance, C/5 indicates a charging current equal to onefifth of the battery's capacity.
Conversion Efficiency The ratio of the electrical energy produced by a photovoltaic cell to the solar energy impinging on
the cell.
Crystalline Silicon A type of PV cell made from a single crystal or polycrystalline slice of silicon.
Current (Amperes, Amps, A) The flow of electric charge in a conductor between two points having a difference in
potential (voltage).
Cutoff Voltage The voltage levels (activation) at which the charge controller disconnects the array from the battery or the
load from the battery
Cycle The discharge and subsequent charge of a battery.
Deep Cycle Type of battery that can be discharged to a large fraction of capacity many times without damaging the
battery.
Depth of Discharge (DOD) The percent of the rated battery capacity that has been withdrawn.
Diode Electronic component that allows current flow in one direction only. See Blocking Diode & Bypass Diode.
Direct Current (dc) Electric current flowing in only one direction.
Discharge The withdrawal of electrical energy from a battery.
Discharge Rate The current that is withdrawn from a battery over time. Expressed as a percentage of battery capacity. For
instance, a C/5 discharge rate indicates a current equal to onefifth of the rated capacity of the battery.
Duty Cycle The ratio of active time to total time. Used to describe the operating regime of appliances or loads in PV
systems
Efficiency The ratio of output power (or energy) to input power (or energy). Expressed in percent.
Electrolyte The medium that provides the ion transport mechanism between the positive and negative electrodes
of a battery.
Energy Density The ratio of the energy available from a battery to its volume (wh/m3) or weight (wh/kg).
Frequency The number of repetitions per unit time of a complete waveform, expressed in Hertz (Hz).
Grid Term used to describe an electrical utility distribution network.
Insolation The solar radiation incident on an area over time. Equivalent to energy and usually expressed in kilowatthours
per square meter. See also Solar Resource.
Inverter (Power Conditioning Unit, PCU, or Power Conditioning System, PCS) In a PV system, an inverter converts dc
power from the PV array/battery to ac power compatible with the utility and ac loads.
Frequency Most loads in the United States require 50/60 Hz. Highquality equipment requires precise frequency
regulationvariations can cause poor performance of clocks and electronic timers
Input Voltage This is determined by the total power required by the ac loads and the voltage of any dc loads. Generally,
the larger the load, the higher the inverter input voltage. This keeps the current at levels where switches and other
components are readily available.
Power Conversion Efficiency The ratio of output power to input power of the inverter
Square Wave A waveform that has only two states, (i.e., positive or negative). A square wave contains a large number of
harmonics.
Surge Capacity The maximum power, usually 35 times the rated power that can be provided over a short time.
Voltage Regulation This indicates the variability in the output voltage. Some loads will not tolerate voltage variations
greater than a few percent.
Voltage Protection Many inverters have sensing circuits that will disconnect the unit from the battery if input voltage limits
are exceeded.
Irradiance The solar power incident on a surface. Usually expressed in kilowatts per square meter. Irradiance multiplied
by time equals Insolation
IV Curve The plot of the current versus voltage characteristics of a photovoltaic cell, module, or array. Three important
points on the IV curve are the opencircuit voltage, shortcircuit current, and peak power operating point.
Life The period during which a system is capable of operating above a specified performance level.
Load The amount of electric power used by any electrical unit or appliance at any given time.
Load Circuit The wire, switches, fuses, etc. that connect the load to the power source.
Low Voltage Disconnect (LVD) The voltage level at which a controller will disconnect the load from the battery
Maximum Power Point or Peak Power Point That point on an IV curve that represents the largest area rectangle that
can be drawn under the curve. Operating a PV array at that voltage will produce maximum power.
Module The smallest replaceable unit in a PV array. An integral, encapsulated unit containing a number of PV cells.
Open Circuit Voltage The maximum voltage produced by an illuminated photovoltaic cell, module, or array with no load
connected. This value will increase as the temperature of the PV material decreases.
Operating Point The current and voltage that a module or array produces when connected to a load. The operating point
is dependent on the load or the batteries connected to the output terminals of the array.
Orientation Placement with respect to the cardinal directions, N, S, E, W; azimuth is the measure of orientation from
north.
Overcharge Forcing current into a fully charged battery. The battery will be damaged if overcharged for a long period
Panel A designation for a number of PV modules assembled in a single mechanical frame.
Parallel Connection Term used to describe the interconnecting of PV modules or batteries in which like terminals are
connected together. Increases the current at the same voltage.
Peak Load The maximum load demand on a system.
Peak Power Current Amperes produced by a module or array operating at the voltage of the IV curve that will produce
maximum power from the module. See IV Curve.
Peak Sun Hours The equivalent number of hours per day when solar irradiance averages 1,000 w/m2. For example, six
peak sun hours means that the energy received during total daylight hours equals the energy that would have been
received had the irradiance for six hours been 1,000 w/m2.
Peak Watt The amount of power a photovoltaic module will produce at standard test conditions (normally 1,000 w/m2 and
25° cell temperature).
Photovoltaic Cell The treated semiconductor material that converts solar irradiance to electricity.
Photovoltaic System An installation of PV modules and other components designed to produce power from sunlight
and meet the power demand for a designated load.
Polycrystalline Silicon A material used to make PV cells that consist of many crystals as contrasted with single crystal
silicon.
Rated Battery Capacity The term used by battery manufacturers to indicate the maximum amount of energy that can be
withdrawn from a battery under specified discharge rate and temperature. See Battery Capacity.
Rated Module Current (A) The current output of a PV module measured at standard test conditions of 1,000 w/m2 and
25°C cell temperature.
Remote Site A site not serviced by an electrical utility grid.
Resistance (R) The property of a conductor that opposes the flow of an electric current resulting in the generation of heat
in the conducting material. The measure of the resistance of a given conductor is the electromotive force needed for a unit
current flow. The unit of resistance is ohms.
SelfDischarge The loss of useful capacity of a battery due to internal chemical action.
Semiconductor A material that has a limited capacity for conducting electricity. The silicon used to make PV cells is a
semiconductor.
Series Connection Connecting the positive of one module to the negative of the next module. This connection of PV
modules or batteries increases the voltage while the current remains the same.
Short Circuit Current (Isc) The current produced by an illuminated PV cell, module, or array when its output terminals
are shorted.
Silicon A semiconductor material used to make photovoltaic cells.
SingleCrystal Silicon Material with a single crystalline formation. Many PV cells are made from single crystal silicon.
Solar Cell See Photovoltaic Cell.
Solar Irradiance See Irradiance.
StandAlone PV System A photovoltaic system that operates independent of the utility grid.
State of Charge (SOC) The instantaneous capacity of a battery expressed at a percentage of rated capacity.
Subsystem Any one of several components in a PV system (i.e., array, controller, batteries, inverter, load).
Sulfating The normal result of battery discharge when leadsulfate forms on the surface and in the pores of the active plate
material
Sulfation becomes a problem when large crystals of lead sulfate form on the active material because of inadequate
charging and battery
neglect or misuse. The large sulfate crystals are difficult to decompose under charge and return sulfates back to the
electrolyte. This effectively reduces
battery capacity and life. Large sulfate crystals may be detectable by a hard rough surface on the active plate material or a
low specific gravity
after an equalization charge. This is called excessive sulfation or "hard" sulfation.
Surge Capacity The ability of an inverter or generator to deliver high currents momentarily required when starting
motors.
System Operating Voltage The array output voltage under load. The system operating voltage is dependent on the load or
batteries connected to the output terminals.
Thin Film PV Module A PV module constructed with sequential layers of thin film semiconductor materials. See
Amorphous Silicon.
Tilt Angle The angle of inclination of a solar collector measured from the horizontal`
Tracking Array A PV array that follows the path of the sun. This can mean oneaxis, east to west daily tracking, or two
axis tracking where the array follows the sun in azimuth and elevation.
Trickle Charge A small charge current intended to maintain a battery in a fully charged condition.
Volt (V) The unit of electromotive force that will force a current of one ampere through a resistance of one ohm.
Watt (W) The unit of electrical power. The power developed when a current of one ampere flows through a potential
difference of one volt; 1/746 of a horsepower.
Watt Hour (Wh) A unit of energy equal to one watt of power connected for one hour.

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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, EEE

MEKELLE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLGY, MIT

3. CHAPTER THREE­ THE WORKING, BLOCK AND CIRCUIT

We can get electricity from sunlight directly or indirectly using solar cells. A solar cell or

AC average ÷ Inverter + DC average ÷ DC system = Average Amp

Average × Days of ÷ Discharge limit ÷ Battery AH = Batteries in

Battery specification:­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­ Make:­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­ Model:­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­

Values of R1 and R2 can be selected appropriate

Values of R1 and R2 can be selected

Fig 12: Battery overcharge controller and indicator circuit

R22 = [(VBT+/VREF) – 1]) × R23

Values of R22 and R23 can be selected appropriately at VBT+ equals to VBHD and VREF replaced by

[R29/ (R28 + R29)] × V7 ≥ VBE leading to the reduced equation:

DC total ÷ DC system = Maximum DC controller

Controller specification: ­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­ Make:­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­ Model:­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­

2.4.3.5. Reverse Polarity and reverse leakage current Protection Circuit

During daytime, VPV and VBT have large values resulting

Knowing values of V3 and VBE, the values of R14 and R15

Inverter specification:­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­ Make:­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­ Model:­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­

Fig 15: Electronic ballast

Tempe Charing Short Open Tilt Re

1.07 1.09 20.0 15

Fig 21.1: Isc Vs t 15 o tilt angle Fig 21.2: Voc Vs t 15 o tilt angle Fig 21.3: T Vs t 15 o tilt angle

Fig 21.4: Ic Vs Voc of PV panel tilted at 30 o . Fig 21.5: Ic Vs Voc for 45 o tilt angle.

Charging Current(Ic) of PV at 15 ,30 and 45

Fig 21.6: Ic Vs time for tilt angles 15 o , 30 o and 45 o Fig 21.7: Isc Vs time for tilt angles 15 o , 30 o and 45 o

Open Circuit Voltage(Vo) of PV at 15 o ,30 o and 45 o tilt angles VS time

Fig 21.8: Voc Vs time for tilt angles 15 o , 30 o and 45 o Fig 21.9: T Vs time for 15 o , 30 o and 45 o tilt angles

In summary, it is very likely that PV will become the next half­century important source of

Sr. Material and its specification Quantity Price, Birr Per

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3. CHAPTER THREE THE WORKING, BLOCK AND CIRCUIT

Battery specification: Make: Model:

Controller specification: Make: Model:

Inverter specification: Make: Model:

In summary, it is very likely that PV will become the next halfcentury important source of