BT-801: BT-801-MOD-I (NKJ Lecture) (2012)

Applicatiuon of Genetic Engineering:Human Genome projects (HGP)s and its application:

Because of the scale of the effort, the endeavor to sequence our DNA represents biology's
first 'big project'. The Human Genome Project is a truly international effort, the primary
aim of which is to deliver the complete nucleotide sequence of our DNA. The human mtDNA
sequence was established in 1981, so the genome in question is the nuclear genome.

The history, organization, goals and value of the Human Genome Project:
The Human Genome Project was conceived out of the need for a large-scale project
to develop new mutation detection methods: A workshop held in Alta, Utah, in December
1984 was a major catalyst in the development of the Human Genome Project, by the US
Department of Energy (DOE). The growing roles of novel DNA technologies were
discussed, notably the emerging gene cloning and sequencing technologies. A report on
Technologies for Detecting Heritable Mutations in Human Beings sparked the idea for a
dedicated human genome project by the DOE, and in March 1986 it sponsored an
international meeting in Santa Fe, New Mexico, to assess the desirability and feasibility
of ordering and sequencing DNA clones representing the entire human genome. Virtually
all participants concluded that such a project was feasible and would be an outstanding
achievement in biology.
After extensive discussions with the US scientific community, the DOE
responded to the Santa Fe meeting by issuing a Report on the Human Genome Initiative
in the spring of 1987. Three major objectives were to be implemented: the generation of
refined physical maps of human chromosomes, the development of support
technologies and facilities for human genome research, and expansion of
communication networks and of computational and database capacities. In 1988, US
National Institute of Health (NIH) set up an Office of Human Genome Research (later
renamed the National Center for Human Genome Research) to coordinate NIH
genome activities in cooperation with other US organizations. In the same year, the US
congress officially gave approval to a 15-year US human genome project commencing in
1991. The required funding was estimated to be about $3 billion.
What is the Human Genome Project?
Begun formally in 1990, the U.S. Human Genome Project was a 13-year effort
coordinated by the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Institutes of Health. The
project originally was planned to last 15 years, but rapid technological advances
accelerated the completion date to 2003.
Project goals were to
 identify all the approximately 20,000-25,000 genes in human DNA,
 determine the sequences of the 3 billion chemical base pairs that make up human
DNA,
 store this information in databases,
 improve tools for data analysis,
 transfer related technologies to the private sector, and
 address the ethical, legal, and social issues (ELSI) that may arise from the project.

1
 To help achieve these goals, researchers also studied the genetic makeup of several
nonhuman organisms. These include the common human gut bacterium Escherichia coli, the fruit
fly, and the laboratory mouse.
A unique aspect of the U.S. Human Genome Project is that it was the first large scientific
undertaking to address potential ELSI implications arising from project data.
Another important feature of the project was the federal government's long-standing
dedication to the transfer of technology to the private sector. By licensing technologies to private
companies and awarding grants for innovative research, the project catalyzed the multibillion-
dollar U.S. biotechnology industry and fostered the development of new medical applications.
Sequence and analysis of the human genome working draft was published in February
2001 and April 2003 issues of Nature and Science.
Communication between the network of genome centers and interacting laboratories is
very largely based on electronic communication. This has evolved because of the need to
manage and store the huge amount of data that are being produced. The data are entered
into large electronic databases which, at least for publically funded mapping and
sequencing efforts. Depending on the source of input data, there are two types of
database:
Central repositories for storing globally produced mapping and sequence
data (Table 13.1). Genome database (GDB) is a mapping database which is aimed
specifically at storing human data (note that there is a specific nomenclature for naming
DNA segments and genes in different species - see Further reading and Box 13.1 for the
human nomenclature).
Databases for storing locally produced data. In order to improve their own
efficiency, the big genome mapping and sequencing centers have stored data produced in
their own laboratories in dedicated databases.

2
Figure 1. Major scientific strategies and approaches being used in the Human Genome
Project. (The major scientific thrust of the Human Genome Project begins with the
isolation of human genomic and cDNA clones (by cell-based cloning or PCR-based
cloning). These are then used to construct high-resolution genetic and physical maps prior
to obtaining the ultimate physical map, the complete nucleotide sequence of the 3300 Mb
nuclear genome. Inevitably, the project interacts with research on mapping and
identifying human disease genes. In addition, ancillary projects include studying genetic
variation; genome projects for model organisms and research on ethical, legal and social
implications. The data produced are being channeled into mapping and sequence
databases permitting rapid electronic access and data analysis. Abbreviations: EST,
expressed sequence tag; STS, sequence tagged site.)
Table -1. Examples of databases relevant to the human genome project which store globally
produced data
Database Description and electronic addresses
GenBank DNA and protein sequences. One of many databases distributed by the US
National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), NIH
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
EMBL DNA sequences. Distributed by the European Bioinformatics Institute (EBI) at
Cambridge, UK, together with 30 other molecular biology databases
http://www.ebi.ac.uk
DDBJ DNA database of Japan (Mishima)
http://www.nig.oc.jp/home.html
PIR (protein Protein sequences (single database distributed as a collaboration by: the US
information National Biomedical Research Foundation, Washington; the Martinsried Institute
resource) for Protein Sequences, Germany; the Japan International Protein Information
Database, Tokyo). Accessible at various centers including the US NCBI (see
above)
SWISS-PROT Protein sequences. Maintained collaboratively by the University of Geneva and
the EMBL data library. Distributed by several centers, such as the NCBI and EBI.
Access via NCBI or EBI (see above)
GDB (genome The major human mapping database. Permits interaction with the OMIM database
database) (see below) http://gdbwww.gdb.org/
OMIM (on-line Electronic catalog of Victor McKusick's Mendelian Inheritance in Man, listing all
Mendelian known inherited human disorders. Established at the Johns Hopkins University.
Access via various centers such as the US NCBI (see above) or the UK Human
Genome Mapping Project Resource Centre (http://www.hgmp.mrc.ac.uk/omim/)

Human gene and DNA segment nomenclature: The nomenclature used is decided by the
HUGO nomenclature committee. Genes and pseudogenes are allocated symbols of usually two to
six characters; a final P indicates a pseudogene. For anonymous DNA sequences, the convention
is to use D (= DNA) followed by 1 22, X or Y to denote the chromosomal location, then S for a
unique segment, Z for a chromosome-specific repetitive DNA family or F for a multilocus DNA
family, and finally a serial number. The letter E following the number for an anonymous DNA
sequence indicates that the sequence is known to be expressed.

Human gene and DNA segment nomenclature

Symbol Interpretation
CRYBA1 Gene for crystallin, beta A1 polypeptide

3
GAPD Gene for glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase
GAPDL7 GAPD-like gene 7, functional status unknown
GAPDP1 GAPD pseudogene 1
AK1 Gene for adenylate kinase, locus 1
AK2 Gene for adenylate kinase, locus 2
PGK1*2 Second allele at PGK1 locus
B3P42 Breakpoint number 42 on chromosome 3
DYS29 Unique DNA segment number 29 on the Y chromosome
D3S2550EUnique DNA segment number 2550 on chromosome 3, known to be expressed
D11Z3 Chromosome 11-specific repetitive DNA family number 3
DXYS6X DNA segment found on the X chromosome, with a known homolog on the Y
chromosome, and representing the 6th XY homolog pair to be classified
DXYS44Y DNA segment found on the Y chromosome, with a known homolog on the X
chromosome, 44th XY homolog pair
D12F3S1 DNA segment on chromosome 12, first member of multilocus family 3
DXF3S2 DNA segment on chromosome X, second member of multilocus family 3
FRA16A Fragile site A on chromosome 16

Human Genome Project Goals and

Completion Dates
Area HGP Goal Standard Date Achieved
Achieved
Genetic Map 2- to 5-cM 1-cM resolution September 1994
resolution map map (3,000
(600 – 1,500 markers)
markers)
Physical Map 30,000 STSs 52,000 STSs October 1998
DNA Sequence 95% of gene- 99% of gene- April 2003
containing part of containing part of
human sequence human sequence
finished to 99.99% finished to 99.99%
accuracy accuracy
Capacity and Cost Sequence 500 Sequence >1,400 November 2002
of Finished Mb/year at < $0.25 Mb/year at <$0.09
Sequence per finished base per finished base
Human Sequence 100,000 mapped 3.7 million mapped February 2003
Variation human SNPs human SNPs
Gene Identification Full-length human 15,000 full-length March 2003
cDNAs human cDNAs
Model Organisms Complete genome Finished genome April 2003
sequences of sequences of

4
 E. coli, E. coli,
S. cerevisiae, S. cerevisiae,
C. elegans, C. elegans,
D. melanogaster D. melanogaster,
plus whole-genome
drafts of several
others, including C.
briggsae, D.
pseudoobscura,
mouse and rat
Functional Analysis Develop genomic- High-throughput 1994
scale technologies oligonucleotide
synthesis
DNA microarrays 1996
Eukaryotic, whole-
genome knockouts 1999
(yeast)
Scale-up of two- 2002
hybrid system for
protein-protein
interaction

The Human Genome Project was completed in 2003. Papers analyzing the genome continue
to be published, but all individual chromosome papers were completed in 2006.

Preliminary Findings of The Human Genome Projects:

Shortly after their press conferences, the two groups that had been striving for several years to
map the human genome published their findings:
 the International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium (IHGSC) in the 15
February 2001 issue of Nature;
 Celera Genomics, a company in Rockville, Maryland, in the 16 February issue of
Science.

These achievements were monumental, but before we examine them, let us be clear as to what
they were not.

What was not found

 Neither group had determined the complete sequence of the human genome.

Each of our chromosomes is a single molecule of DNA. Some day the sequence of base
pairs in each will be known from one end to the other. But in 2001, thousands of gaps
remained to be filled.

What they had done was present a series of draft sequences that represented about 90%
(probably the most interesting 90%) of the genome.

5
  Even taken together, the results did not provide an accurate count of the number of
protein-encoding genes in our genome (in contrast to such genomes as those of
o mitochondrial DNA;
o the Epstein-Barr virus;
o many of the bacterial genomes.)

One reason: the

o large number and

o large size

of the introns that split these genes make it difficult to recognize the open reading frames
(ORFs) that encode proteins.

What was found

1. The number of genes turned out to be much smaller than once predicted.
The two groups came up with slightly different estimates of the number of protein-encoding
genes, but both in the range of 30 to 38 thousand:
 only two to three times larger than the genomes of
o Drosophila (~13,500 genes)
o C. elegans (~19,000 genes)
 and representing only 1– 2% of the total DNA in the cell;
 and a third of the 100,000 genes that many had predicted would be found.
 (By the end of 2004, the number had been reduced to some 20,000–25,000.)

Are we only twice as complex as the tiny roundworm and fruit fly?
Probably not, although we share many homologous genes (called "orthologs") with both these
animals.
But,
 many of our protein-encoding genes produce more than one protein product (e.g., by
alternative splicing of the primary transcript of the gene). On average, each of our ORFs
produces 2 to 3 different proteins.

So the human "proteome" (our total number of proteins) may be 10 or more times larger
than that of the fruit fly and roundworm.

 A larger proportion of our genome

o encodes transcription factors
o is dedicated to control elements (e.g., enhancers) to which these transcription
factors bind.

The combinatorial use of these elements probably provides much greater flexibility of
gene expression than is found in Drosophila and C. elegans.

2. Gene diversity and density: Although there are some giants such as

 dystrophin with its 79 exons spread over 2.4 million base pairs of DNA;
 titin whose exons (Celera identified 234; IHGSC only 178) encode a single polypeptide
of ~27,000 amino acids;

6
the average human gene contains 4 exons totaling 1,350 base pairs and thus encodes an average
protein of 450 amino acids.
The density of genes on the different chromosomes varies from
 23 genes per million base pairs on chromosome 19 (for a total of 1,400 genes) to
 only 5 genes per million base pairs on chromosome 13.

3. Humans have many genes not found in invertebrates: Humans, and presumably most
vertebrates, have genes not found in invertebrate animals like Drosophila and C. elegans.

These include genes encoding

 antibodies and T cell receptors for antigen (TCRs)
 the transplantation antigens of the major histocompatibility complex (HLA, the MHC
of humans)
 cell-signaling molecules including the many types of cytokines
 the molecules that participate in blood clotting.
 mediators of apoptosis. Although these proteins occur in Drosophila and C. elegans, we
have a much richer assortment of them.

4. Gene Duplication: Both groups added to the list of human genes that have arisen by repeated
duplication (e.g., by unequal crossing over) from a single precursor gene; for examples,

 the genes (several hundred) for olfactory receptors

 the various globin genes.

5. Repetitive DNA: Both groups verified the presence of large amounts of repetitive DNA. In
fact, this DNA — with similar sequences occurring over and over — is one of the main
obstacles to assembling the DNA sequences in proper order.

 LINES (long interspersed elements)

o 16–19% of our genome
 SINES (short interspersed elements) including Alu elements
o about 12%
 Retrotransposons
o 5 to 8%
 DNA transposons
o about 3%

All told, repetitive DNA probably accounts for over 50% of our total genome.

What remains to be done?

 Fill in the gaps.

This will make the human genome truly complete. On October 21, 2004, the IHGSC
announced that they had pretty much (99%) completed the job with only 341 gaps
remaining. However, they still could not determine the exact number of our genes
(probably 20,000–25,000 of them).

 Determine the human proteome; that is, the total complement of proteins we synthesize.

7
  Analyze how clusters of genes are coordinately expressed
o in various types of cells
o at different times in the life of a cell.

Such analysis will benefit greatly from the availability to gene chip technology and will
also help us to understand how such a modest increase in gene number from Drosophila
to humans could produce such a different outcome!

 Determine the genomes of other vertebrates, e.g., mouse and the chimpanzee.

This will not only help us recognize more human genes but will give us insight into what
makes us unique.

Already we know that large sections of our genome have closely-related homologs in the
mouse.

Examples:

o The collection of genes — and even their order — on human chromosome 17

matches closely those of mouse chromosome 11. The same is true of human
chromosome 20 and mouse chromosome 2.
o Humans and mice (also rats) share several hundred absolutely identical stretches
of DNA extending for 200–800 base pairs.
 Some are present in the exons of genes, especially genes involved in
RNA processing.
 Some are found in or near the introns of genes, especially genes
encoding proteins involved in DNA transcription.
 Some are found between genes — especially those, like Pax6, essential
to embryonic development — and may serve as enhancers.

To have avoided any mutations for 60 million years since humans and rodents went their separate
evolutionary ways suggest that these regions perform functions absolutely essential to
mammalian life.

Research Milestones

 Human Chromosome 1 Completed, May 2006.

 Human Chromosome 3 Completed, April 2006.
 Human Chromosome 17 Completed, April 2006.
 Human Chromosome 11 Completed, March 2006.
 Human Chromosome 12 Completed, March 2006.
 Human Chromosome 15 Completed, March 2006.
 Human Chromosome 8 Completed, January 2006.
 Human Chromosome 4 Completed, April 2005.
 Human Chromosome 2 Completed, April 2005.
 Human Chromosome X Completed, March 2005.
 Human Chromosome 16 Completed, December 2004.
 Human Gene Count Estimates Changed to 20,000 to 25,000, October 2004.
 Human Chromosome 5 Completed, September 2004.
 Human Chromosome 9 Completed, May 2004.

8
  Human Chromosome 10 Completed, May 2004.
 Human Chromosome 18 Completed, March 2004.
 Human Chromosome 19 Completed, March 2004.
 Human Chromosome 13 Completed, March 2004.
 Human Chromosome 6 Completed, October 2003.
 Human Chromosome 7 Completed, July 2003.
 Human Chromosome Y Completed, June 2003.
 Human Genome Project Completion: 1990-2003 (April 2003)
 Human Chromosome 14 Completed, January 2003.

Figure-8. Status of human chromosome 22 sequencing in May 1999. (The figure represents
the map status for chromosome 22 accessed from the Sanger Centre's website
(http://www.sanger.ac.uk) during May 1999. Because of heterochromatic regions on 22p, the
major effort is going into sequencing 22q. The format is a graphical display constructed using the
acedb database system. The cytogenetic map on the left is referenced against a kilobase linear
DNA map at extreme left. DNA markers are to the right and dark blue boxes indicate sequenced
clone contigs).

9
Potential Benefits of Human Genome Project Research:
Rapid progress in genome science and a glimpse into its potential applications have
spurred observers to predict that biology will be the foremost science of the 21st century.
Technology and resources generated by the Human Genome Project and other genomics research
are already having a major impact on research across the life sciences. The potential for
commercial development of genomics research presents U.S. industry with a wealth of
opportunities, and sales of DNA-based products and technologies in the biotechnology industry
are projected to exceed $45 billion by 2009.

Some current and potential applications of genome research include

 molecular medicine
 microbial genomics
 risk assessment
 bioarchaeology, anthropology, evolution, and human migration
 DNA forensics (identification)
 agriculture, livestock breeding, and bioprocessing

Molecular Medicine
 improved diagnosis of disease
 earlier detection of genetic predispositions to disease
 rational drug design
 gene therapy and control systems for drugs
 pharmacogenomics "custom drugs"

Technology and resources promoted by the Human Genome Project are starting to have
profound impacts on biomedical research and promise to revolutionize the wider spectrum of
biological research and clinical medicine. Increasingly detailed genome maps have aided
researchers seeking genes associated with dozens of genetic conditions, including myotonic
dystrophy, fragile X syndrome, neurofibromatosis types 1 and 2, inherited colon cancer,
Alzheimer's disease, and familial breast cancer.
On the horizon is a new era of molecular medicine characterized less by treating symptoms and
more by looking to the most fundamental causes of disease. Rapid and more specific diagnostic
tests will make possible earlier treatment of countless maladies. Medical researchers also will be
able to devise novel therapeutic regimens based on new classes of drugs, immunotherapy
techniques, avoidance of environmental conditions that may trigger disease, and possible
augmentation or even replacement of defective genes through gene therapy.

Microbial Genomics
 new energy sources (biofuels)
 environmental monitoring to detect pollutants
 protection from biological and chemical warfare
 safe, efficient toxic waste cleanup
 understanding disease vulnerabilities and revealing drug targets

In 1994, taking advantage of new capabilities developed by the genome project, DOE
initiated the Microbial Genome Program to sequence the genomes of bacteria useful in energy
production, environmental remediation, toxic waste reduction, and industrial processing.
Despite our reliance on the inhabitants of the microbial world, we know little of their number
or their nature: estimates are that less than 0.01% of all microbes have been cultivated and

10
characterized. Programs like the DOE Microbial Genome Program help lay a foundation for
knowledge that will ultimately benefit human health and the environment. The economy will
benefit from further industrial applications of microbial capabilities.
Information gleaned from the characterization of complete genomes in MGP will lead to
insights into the development of such new energy-related biotechnologies as photosynthetic
systems, microbial systems that function in extreme environments, and organisms that can
metabolize readily available renewable resources and waste material with equal facility. Expected
benefits also include development of diverse new products, processes, and test methods that will
open the door to a cleaner environment. Biomanufacturing will use nontoxic chemicals and
enzymes to reduce the cost and improve the efficiency of industrial processes. Already, microbial
enzymes are being used to bleach paper pulp, stone wash denim, remove lipstick from glassware,
break down starch in brewing, and coagulate milk protein for cheese production. In the health
arena, microbial sequences may help researchers find new human genes and shed light on the
disease-producing properties of pathogens.
Microbial genomics will also help pharmaceutical researchers gain a better understanding of how
pathogenic microbes cause disease. Sequencing these microbes will help reveal vulnerabilities
and identify new drug targets.
Gaining a deeper understanding of the microbial world also will provide insights into the
strategies and limits of life on this planet. Data generated in this young program already have
helped scientists identify the minimum number of genes necessary for life and confirm the
existence of a third major kingdom of life. Additionally, the new genetic techniques now allow us
to establish more precisely the diversity of microorganisms and identify those critical to
maintaining or restoring the function and integrity of large and small ecosystems; this knowledge
also can be useful in monitoring and predicting environmental change. Finally, studies on
microbial communities provide models for understanding biological interactions and evolutionary
history.

Risk Assessment
 assess health damage and risks caused by radiation exposure, including low-dose
exposures
 assess health damage and risks caused by exposure to mutagenic chemicals and
cancer-causing toxins
 reduce the likelihood of heritable mutations

Understanding the human genome will have an enormous impact on the ability to assess risks
posed to individuals by exposure to toxic agents. Scientists know that genetic differences make
some people more susceptible and others more resistant to such agents. Far more work must be
done to determine the genetic basis of such variability. This knowledge will directly address
DOE's long-term mission to understand the effects of low-level exposures to radiation and other
energy-related agents, especially in terms of cancer risk.

Bioarchaeology, Anthropology, Evolution, and Human Migration

 study evolution through germline mutations in lineages
 study migration of different population groups based on female genetic inheritance
 study mutations on the Y chromosome to trace lineage and migration of males
 compare breakpoints in the evolution of mutations with ages of populations and
historical events

Understanding genomics will help us understand human evolution and the common biology
we share with all of life. Comparative genomics between humans and other organisms such as

11
mice already has led to similar genes associated with diseases and traits. Further comparative
studies will help determine the yet-unknown function of thousands of other genes.
Comparing the DNA sequences of entire genomes of differerent microbes will provide new
insights about relationships among the three kingdoms of life: archaebacteria, eukaryotes, and
prokaryotes.

DNA Forensics (Identification)

 identify potential suspects whose DNA may match evidence left at crime scenes
 exonerate persons wrongly accused of crimes
 identify crime and catastrophe victims
 establish paternity and other family relationships
 identify endangered and protected species as an aid to wildlife officials (could be used
for prosecuting poachers)
 detect bacteria and other organisms that may pollute air, water, soil, and food
 match organ donors with recipients in transplant programs
 determine pedigree for seed or livestock breeds
 authenticate consumables such as caviar and wine

Any type of organism can be identified by examination of DNA sequences unique to that
species. Identifying individuals is less precise at this time, although when DNA sequencing
technologies progress further, direct characterization of very large DNA segments, and possibly
even whole genomes, will become feasible and practical and will allow precise individual
identification.
To identify individuals, forensic scientists scan about 10 DNA regions that vary from person
to person and use the data to create a DNA profile of that individual (sometimes called a DNA
fingerprint). There is an extremely small chance that another person has the same DNA profile for
a particular set of regions.

Agriculture, Livestock Breeding, and Bioprocessing

 disease-, insect-, and drought-resistant crops
 healthier, more productive, disease-resistant farm animals
 more nutritious produce
 biopesticides
 edible vaccines incorporated into food products
 new environmental cleanup uses for plants like tobacco

Understanding plant and animal genomes will allow us to create stronger, more disease-
resistant plants and animals --reducing the costs of agriculture and providing consumers with
more nutritious, pesticide-free foods. Already growers are using bioengineered seeds to grow
insect- and drought-resistant crops that require little or no pesticide. Farmers have been able to
increase outputs and reduce waste because their crops and herds are healthier.
Alternate uses for crops such as tobacco have been found. One researcher has genetically
engineered tobacco plants in his laboratory to produce a bacterial enzyme that breaks down
explosives such as TNT and dinitroglycerin. Waste that would take centuries to break down in the
soil can be cleaned up by simply growing these special plants in the polluted area.

Ethical, Legal, and Social Issues:

12
Societal Concerns Arising from the New Genetics
Fairness in the use of genetic information by insurers, employers, courts, schools,
adoption agencies, and the military, among others.
Who should have access to personal genetic information, and how will it be used?
Privacy and confidentiality of genetic information.
Who owns and controls genetic information?
Psychological impact and stigmatization due to an individual's genetic differences.
How does personal genetic information affect an individual and society's perceptions
of that individual?
How does genomic information affect members of minority communities?
Reproductive issues including adequate informed consent for complex and potentially
controversial procedures, use of genetic information in reproductive decision making, and
reproductive rights.
Do healthcare personnel properly counsel parents about the risks and limitations of
genetic technology?
How reliable and useful is fetal genetic testing?
What are the larger societal issues raised by new reproductive technologies?
Clinical issues including the education of doctors and other health service providers, patients,
and the general public in genetic capabilities, scientific limitations, and social risks; and
implementation of standards and quality-control measures in testing procedures.
How will genetic tests be evaluated and regulated for accuracy, reliability, and
utility? (Currently, there is little regulation at the federal level.)
How do we prepare healthcare professionals for the new genetics?
How do we prepare the public to make informed choices?
How do we as a society balance current scientific limitations and social risk with
long-term benefits?
Uncertainties associated with gene tests for susceptibilities and complex conditions (e.g.,
heart disease) linked to multiple genes and gene-environment interactions.
Should testing be performed when no treatment is available?
Should parents have the right to have their minor children tested for adult-onset
diseases?
Are genetic tests reliable and interpretable by the medical community? Conceptual
and philosophical implications regarding human responsibility, free will vs genetic
determinism, and concepts of health and disease.
Do people's genes make them behave in a particular way?
Can people always control their behavior?
What is considered acceptable diversity?
Where is the line between medical treatment and enhancement?
Health and environmental issues concerning genetically modified foods (GM) and microbes.
Are GM foods and other products safe to humans and the environment?
How will these technologies affect developing nations' dependence on the West?
Commercialization of products including property rights (patents, copyrights, and trade secrets)
and accessibility of data and materials.
Who owns genes and other pieces of DNA?
Will patenting DNA sequences limit their accessibility and development into useful
products?

13
14