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Vernal Pools
1. Marshes, Swamps, Bogs, Fens
2. Vernal Pools
Swamps and marshes are open systems, whose water sources are rivers or
streams.
Bogs and fens are closed systems. Bogs receive water from rainfall while
fens are sustained by groundwater seeping upward.
The source of water affects the hydraulic residence time of water within
these habitats open systems (marshes and swamps) have a shorter hydraulic
residence time than bogs (the longest) or fens. Hydraulic residence time is
that required to refill an empty lake with its natural inflow. It is calculated
by dividing the volume by the inflow or outflow rate.
Marshes
Marshes are dominated by emergent aquatic herbaceous plants such as
cattails, bulrushes and sedges, and have submerged or floating
macrophytes such as pondweeds and water lilies (a floating leaf
plant).
A major feature distinguishing marshes from swamps is the absence
of trees and shrubs; marshes accumulate peat (organic material which
builds up on the bottom) and have an external source of water
overflow from rivers and streams.
Hydraulic residence time = 4 days; open system (river); productivity
to biomass ratio (P:B) = 1.2 (greater than other types); %organic
material is intermediate; pH 5.1 – 7.0 (fairly neutral)
Swamps
Swamps contain trees and shrubs (woody emergent plants), but also a
variety of macrophytes in open areas (usually limited).
They accumulate little peat because the trees are not deciduous and
there are not large areas of herbaceous vegetation to contribute
organic detritus, as is the case in marshes.
They usually have an external source of water, such as a river,
therefore are considered to be open systems (water flows in, water
flows out).
Hydraulic residence time = 0.4 days; open system (river); productivity
to biomass ratio (P:B) = 0.07 (shorter than other types); % organic
matter is smallest; pH 3 – 7 (variable)
Bogs
Bogs accumulate peat and are dominated by acidophilic mosses
(notably Sphagnum moss, an acidtolerant moss) and sedges. Because
of the acidity of their water, bogs have few vascular plants present and
few aquatic macrophytes. Since they are sustained by rainfall, bogs
are dependent on replenishment by rainwater.
In Canada they are called muskegs and in Europe they are called
moors or mires.
Hydraulic residence time = 70 days; closed system – surface water
depressional wetlands; productivity to biomass ratio (P:B) = 0.1
(greater than swamps); % organic matter is greatest (lots) pH 3.6 – 4.7
(consistently acidic)
Fens
Fens have some of the characteristics of both bogs and marshes. They
are distinguished by a mineral rich groundwater source and have a
more alkaline (higher) pH than bogs.
Because they have an external source of water (from the water table –
they are ground water depressional wetlands) their hydraulic residence
time is short (5 days) when compared with the residence time of bogs
(70 days) that are dependent upon occasional rainfall.
Hydraulic residence time = 5 days; closed system; productivity to
biomass ratio (P:B) = unknown; % organic material is highly variable
( 10 – 95) and can be very low or quite high; pH 5.1 – 7.6 (fairly
neutral)
General Characteristics of these wetland types
The essence of all these wetlands is shallow water a shallow water
column allows ready access of oxygen to the sediments, where
heterotrophic, oxygendemanding processes often dominate over
oxygen producing, photosynthetic ones.
Seasonal wetlands dry out during most summers.
Permanent wetlands have seasonal high peaks of usable productivity;
they may become dry during the summer like the San Joaquin Marsh
on campus. There is a great deal of sediment decomposition (organic
material) and nutrient recycling in permanent wetlands; it is a
reducing environment because of the small amount of oxygen present
in the bottom sediments due to decomposition; in acidic conditions
(bogs) organic breakdown is slow so there is extensive formation of
peat.
Wetlands are extremely productive, and can be ranked by P:B ratios
as marshes>swamps>bogs>fens in productivity. In terms of
hydraulic retention time (how long it takes to refill through natural
means, so this is the most to least hydraulic residence time)
bogs>fens> marshes>swamps
Swamps are not as productive as marshes and there is not as much
organic material deposited in them (the trees don't lose their leaves,
while cattails or other herbaceous emergents die back each year).
Three factors are often used to classify wetlands:
1. the presence and kind of dominant plants
2. the amount of peat present
3. the source of water
How wetland plants deal with anoxic conditions
In saturated soils there is a rapid onset of anoxia (loss of oxygen) following
flooding. Many wetland plants have developed a lacunae system (hollow
veinlike structures filled with air) to deal with this problem. The lacunae are
a specialized tissue type called arenchyma, and the presence of lacunae in
many unrelated wetland plant groups is an example of convergent evolution.
The plants are buoyant and the internal airfilled system holds them upright
toward the water surface (therefore they don't have to form lignin or become
woody); the lacunae transfer oxygen to the roots, maintaining an oxygenated
environment around them. Water supports most of the weight of the
submerged plants, and smaller aquatic plants have shallow roots extending
only a few centimeters into the anoxic mud environment. Oxygen is exuded
from the lacunae, so that the true root environment is aerobic, despite the
anaerobic environment only millimeters away! Pneumatophores
(adventitious roots arising from the stems of woody plants in swamps) also
transport oxygen to the roots of trees.
Specifics on Wetland Productivity
Productivity varies greatly among different wetland types. The productivity
for marshes, swamps, bogs and fens follows the general pattern that we have
observed and discussed throughout this course—i.e., eutrophic conditions
are more productive than the average condition, and much more productive
than the oligotrophic condition. Nutrient rich seasonal wetlands are among
the most productive ecosystems on earth, while acid bogs and fens are like
aquatic deserts with low productivity.
Productivity rankings: marshes>swamps>bogs>fens.
Marshes are on the eutrophic end of the spectrum of wetlands.
A rough average for freshwater marshes is far more than that of most
lakes and they are most similar to a eutrophic lake.
Because the above ground parts of plants in a marsh die back each
winter, the productivity:biomass
ratio is high (photosynthesis far outweighs the small biomass in the
emergent herbaceous plants)
Swamps are about half as productive marshes.
Bogs and fens are at the low end of productivity for wetlands.
Highly fertile wetlands are not necessarily the most diverse in terms
of vascular plants the literature suggests the opposite rare species
occur most often at the infertile sites.
Invasive aquatic species (common and problematic in many wetlands)
include water hyacinth,
and alligator weed. Water hyacinth can double the area it covers in
two weeks!
Vernal Pools
"Seasonal pools are widespread in most parts of the world. Vernal pools are
a more narrowly defined subset of these wetlands and although widespread
in California, are not unique to this region. Vernal pools occur in most other
Mediterranean climate regions of the world and to a limited extent in other
climatic zones. Despite the widespread distribution of vernal pool habitat,
California appears to be the only region that evolved an extensive flora
endemic to vernal pools. The reasons for this are not entirely clear. The
spatial distribution of landscape features conducive to pool formation,
coupled with the climate, has resulted in a region where pools once were far
more extensive than most, if not all, other regions of the world. The
metapopulation consequences of this pattern may have been critical to the
evolution of the flora. Phylogenetic history may also be another important
factor since the annual habitat is highly favored in vernal pools and the
terrestrial California flora is dominated by many annualrich families that
appear to have been the source of many vernal pool endemic species."
From Witham, C.W., E.T. Bauder, D. Belk, W.R. Ferren, Jr., and R. Ornduff
(eds.). 1998. Ecology,
Conservation, and Management of Vernal Pool Ecosystems Proceedings
from a 1996 Conference.
California Native Plant Society, Sacramento, CA.
Vernal (spring) pools are wetlands that are restricted in distribution by
climate and topography. Our Mediterranean climate pools in North
America are unique in that upland plant species have evolved into
them, and also in the extent of their invertebrate endemism.
Mediterranean climates are characterized by cool, wet winters and
hot, dry summers with an extended drought. Thus, vernal pools are
filled and wet during the rainy season in the winter, then gradually dry
up as spring and summer progress.
Vernal pool sites are nearly level; but there is lots of variation within
them. Vernal pools have very small watersheds, and are typically very
shallow (often a few centimeters to less than half a meter in depth). To
be a vernal pool, it must be shallow enough to dry up each year.
In general they require a flat terrain underlain by an impermeable
substrate, so that water is held in shallow puddles on the surface and
doesn’t percolate down into the soil.
They receive their water from rain (no groundwater contribution)
thus have deionized water in them. Vernal pools are very poorly
buffered because of this and are ephemeral (only temporarily present)
surface water depression wetlands.
Vernal pools have an interesting and unique biodiversity both
taxonomically (genes; species) and ecologically (life histories,
morphologies and physiologies of plants). Vernal pools have
relatively few species of plants in them, but there is a very high rate of
endemism (restricted distribution) in those that do occur in them.
Vernal pool endemics are among the most recent in origin of our
flora. However, a few of the
endemics represent ancient times.
Directly and indirectly, vernal pools are related to climate change; the
Mediterranean climate along coastal California is a recent one only ca.
three million years old. Differences in temperature and growing
season of differently placed vernal pools have allowed speciation in
many groups.
Vernal pool soils are underlain by clay or hardpan, and are often rich
in iron silicates; 40% of the soils in CA have the potential to support
vernal pools. The hardpan or clay keeps water from just seeping into
the ground so that pools are formed.
Most vernal pools are in the Central Valley prior to development
there were vernal lakes; in our area there are vernal pools on the Santa
Rosa Plateau near Elsinore and in San Diego County almost all in
Orange County are gone due to urban and agricultural development.
Vernal pools exist on the raised marine terraces above San Diego, on
the basalt capped mesas of the Santa Rosa Plateau, and in several of
the major valley systems through the Coast Ranges from San Luis
Obispo Co. north to Lake County.
Agriculture, mineral extraction and urban sprawl have fragmented or
extirpated many pool areas.
Vernal pools are like islands; plants in them produce fruits with
limited dispersal ability (leading to a genetically depauperate or poor
situation) the pools themselves act as pitfall traps that capture and
retain seeds from plants within them.
Of the 200 plants restricted to or associated with vernal pools:
91% are native to California
69% are within the California Floristic Province (Southern Oregon,
California, and northern Baja
California)
55% are limited to California
Vernal pool habitats have not been dominated by exotics, like most
others. Very few nonnative plants occur in vernal pools the seeds of
the nonnative grasses that often occur adjacent to vernal pools cannot
germinate in standing water (thus are excluded from the pools).
Vernal pools occur in a wide latitudinal range (8 degrees); they have a
predominately annual flora (77% of the species are annuals) – and
they have a high endemism combined with a low species richness in
individual pools (1525 species) – thus they are species poor but rich
in endemics.
One of the unique evolutionary products of California vernal pools is
the development of aquatic tolerant vascular plant species derived
from terrestrial ancestors.
Vascular plant diversity is arranged in concentric circles or zones.
Vernal pools offer unique opportunities for biosystematic, ecological
and biogeographic study of evolution at the level of species, genera
and communities.
Crustaceans of vernal pools include: fairy shrimp, tadpole shrimp,
clam shrimp, copepods.
Evolution of vernal pool plant taxa:
Terrestrial or upland ancestors enhances endemism, while plants of aquatic
ancestry tend to be worldwide in distribution.
Specialization is a way vernal pool plants can avoid competition with
upland grassland species
existing immediately adjacent to a pool; for example, vernal pool
plants can germinate and grow under water grassland and other
upland species cannot. If a pool site is wet all year, vernal pool plants
are outcompeted by marsh species, and taxa like cattails, bulrushes,
and other emergent marsh species invade. If a vernal pool is not
refilled by rains and remains dry, often upland grasses and other
plants can colonize (until rain refills them).
Vernal pool taxa occupy zones according to the duration of water
presence (the more toward the middle of the pond, the longer water
will be present). Thus, there is a temporal avoidance of inundation.
Vernal pools have been a focus for wetland conservation because of
the great losses of pool systems throughout California. Overall, the
percentage of loss is near 90%, and in particular areas of California only a
few percent have survived. If a permit can be secured to develop at a pool
site (destroying it), stringent mitigation is required. Vernal pool creation has
been attempted, and in many cases vernal pool plants and invertebrates have
been produced in them. However, restoration (or creation) is no substitute
for preservation, and there can be no guarantee that created pools will
survive or in the long run be the equivalent of natural pools that took
thousands of years to develop. In general, vernal pools have few exotics in
them.
Vernal pools are protected, endangered habitats here in California. When
development is allowed,
mitigation ratios (created habitat to habitat destroyed) are very high for
vernal pools. Among the many websites about vernal pools, the ones below
might be of interest. They present additional information, images, and links.
A particularly nice site with many excellent photographs and simply but
well written information is:
Impact of Climate Change and Land Use in the Southwestern United States
http://geochange.er.usgs.gov/sw/impacts/biology/vernal/
Other good sites are:
California Vernal Pools – A collection of information and resources
http://www.vernalpools.org/
California Chaparral Institute – Vernal Pools: Liquid sapphire of the
chaparral http://www.californiachaparral.com/vernalpools.html
The Vernal Pool Association http://www.vernalpool.org/vernal_1.htm
California Wetlands Information System – many sites, including
http://resources.ca.gov/wetlands/ among others