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 ‫‪st‬‬
‫‪udy‬‬
‫‪.t‬‬‫‪heof‬‬

‫ﺔ‬
‫ﺍﺳ‬‫ﺭ‬
‫ﺪ‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﻠﺨ ﺺﺍ‬
‫ﻣ‬

‫ﻊ‬‫ﺍﺳ‬‫ﺮﻭ‬ ‫ﻴ‬‫ﻣ‬‫ﺪ‬‫ﺗ‬
‫‪،‬ﻭ‬ ‫ﺎﺕ‬‫ﻜ‬‫ﻠ‬‫ﺘ‬
‫ﻤ‬‫ﻤ‬‫ﻠ‬‫ﺭﻟ‬ ‫ﺍ‬
‫ﺮ‬‫ﺒﺐﻓﻲﺃﺿ‬ ‫ﺘﺴ‬ ‫ﻴﻞﺗ‬ ‫ﻨ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﺎﺕﺍ‬ ‫ﻧ‬
‫ﺎ‬‫ﻴﻀ‬ ‫ﻔ‬‫ﺔﺑ‬ ‫ﻧ‬‫ﻭ‬‫ﺮ‬‫ﻘ‬‫ﻮﻝﻣ‬ ‫ﻴ‬
‫ﻟﺴ‬‫ﺍ‬
‫‪،‬‬
‫ﻡ‪1988‬‬ ‫ﺍ‬‫ﻮ‬‫ﻡ(ﺧﻼﻝﺍﻷﻋ‬ ‫ﻮ‬‫ﺮﻃ‬‫ﻟﺨ‬ ‫ﻻﺔﺍ‬‫ﻌﺖﻓﻲﻭﻳ‬ ‫ﻗ‬‫ﺭﻭ‬ ‫ﺍ‬
‫ﺮ‬‫ﺮﻣﻦﺍﻷﺿ‬ ‫ﻴ‬‫ﺜ‬‫‪.‬ﻛ‬‫ﺔ‬‫ﺌ‬‫ﻴ‬
‫ﺒ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺍ‬‫ﺔﻭ‬ ‫ﺍﻋ‬‫ﺭ‬‫ﺰ‬
‫ﻠ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺮ‬‫ﺜ‬‫ﻛ‬
‫ﺎﻃﻖﺍﻷ‬ ‫ﻨ‬‫ﻤ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﻧﺖﺍ‬‫ﺎ‬‫ﻛ‬‫‪.‬ﻭ‬ ‫ﺎﺕ‬‫ﻧ‬‫ﺎ‬
‫ﻴﻀ‬ ‫ﻔ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺍ‬‫ﻮﻝﻭ‬ ‫ﻴ‬‫ﻟﺴ‬ ‫ﺍ‬
‫ﺭ‬‫ﺍ‬‫ﺮ‬‫ﻤ‬‫ﺘ‬‫ﺘﺠﺖﻣﻦﺃﺳ‬ ‫)ﻧ‬‫‪2001،‬ﻭ‪2007‬‬ ‫‪1998‬‬
‫ﻮ‬‫ﺪﻑﻫ‬ ‫ﻬ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﺓ‪.‬ﺍ‬‫ﺭ‬‫ﺪ‬‫ﻨﺤ‬‫ﻤ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺔﺍ‬ ‫ﻳ‬‫ﺩ‬‫ﻭ‬‫ﺎﻃﻖﺍﻷ‬ ‫ﻨ‬‫ﻣ‬‫ﻴﻞﻭ‬ ‫ﻨ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺮﻯﺍ‬ ‫ﻭﻣﺠ‬ ‫ﺭﻕﺃ‬ ‫ﺯ‬
‫ﺃﺍﻷ‬‫ﻴ ﺾﻭ‬ ‫ﺑ‬‫ﻴﻞﺍﻷ‬‫ﻨ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺎﺍ‬‫ﻬ‬‫ﺎﻟ‬‫ﺮﺿ‬ ‫ﻌ‬‫ﺗ‬
‫ﻴﻞ‬‫ﻠ‬‫ﻘ‬
‫ﺘ‬‫ﻟ‬‫‪,‬ﻭ‬‫ﺔ‬‫ﺛ‬
‫ﺭ‬‫ﺎ‬‫ﻜ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺓﺍ‬‫ﺭ‬‫ﺍ‬‫ﺩ‬‫ﺇ‬
‫ﺎﻥﻭ‬ ‫ﻜ‬‫ﻟﺴ‬‫ﻴﻦﺍ‬ ‫ﻮﻋﻲﺑ‬ ‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺓﺍ‬ ‫ﺩ‬‫ﺎ‬‫ﻳ‬‫ﻮﻝﻭﺯ‬ ‫ﻴ‬
‫ﻟﺴ‬‫ﺮﺍ‬ ‫ﺎﻃ‬‫ﺓﻣﺨ‬ ‫ﺭ‬‫ﺍ‬
‫ﺩ‬‫ﺔﻹ‬‫ﻴ‬‫ﻠ‬‫ﻤ‬
‫ﻌ‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﻮﻝﺍ‬ ‫ﻠ‬‫ﻟﺤ‬‫ﺍ‬
‫‪.‬‬‫ﺔ‬‫ﻴ‬‫ﻟﺴﻄﺤ‬ ‫ﺍ‬ ‫ﻩ‬
‫ﺎ‬‫ﻴ‬‫ﻤ‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﺍ‬‫ﻳﻒ‬ ‫ﺮ‬‫ﻴﻦﺗﺼ‬ ‫ﺗﺤﺴ‬ ‫ﺎ‪،‬ﻭ‬
‫ﻧﺕ‬ ‫ﺎ‬‫ﻴﻀ‬ ‫ﻔ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﺍ‬
‫ﻮﻝﻭ‬ ‫ﻴ‬‫ﻟﺴ‬‫ﺍ‬ ‫ﺮ‬‫ﺧﻄ‬
‫ﻤﺴﺢ‬ ‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺍ‬‫‪،‬ﻭ‬‫ﺔ‬‫ﻳ‬‫ﺪ‬‫ﻴ‬‫ﻠ‬
‫ﻘ‬‫ﺘ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﻴﺐﺍ‬ ‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺎ‬‫ﻣﺍﻷﺳ‬‫ﺪﻊ‬ ‫ﻌ‬‫ﺭﻋﻦﺑ‬ ‫ﺎ‬‫ﻌ‬‫ﺘﺸ‬ ‫ﻡﺍﻻﺳ‬ ‫ﺎ‬‫ﻡﻧﻈ‬ ‫ﺪ‬‫ﺘﺨ‬ ‫ﺔﺇﺳ‬ ‫ﺍﺳ‬‫ﺭ‬‫ﺪ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﻩﺍ‬‫ﺬ‬‫ﻓﻲﻫ‬
‫ﺮ‬‫ﺎﻃ‬‫ﻜﻢﻓﻲﻣﺨ‬ ‫ﺗﺤ‬‫ﺃ‬‫ﻴﻢﻭ‬ ‫ﻴ‬‫ﻘ‬‫ﺘ‬‫ﻠ‬
‫ﺓﻟ‬ ‫ﺪ‬‫ﺎﻋ‬‫ﻤﺴ‬ ‫ﻟ‬‫ﺎﺕﺍ‬ ‫ﻧ‬
‫ﺎ‬‫ﻴ‬‫ﺒ‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﺍ‬
‫ﺔﻭ‬ ‫ﻴ‬‫ﻓ‬‫ﺍ‬‫ﺮ‬‫ﻮﻏ‬‫ﺒ‬‫ﻟﻄ‬‫ﺋﻂﺍ‬ ‫ﺍ‬
‫ﺮ‬‫ﻟﺨ‬‫ﺍ‬
‫ﻧﻲ‪،‬ﻭ‬ ‫ﺍ‬‫ﺪ‬‫ﻴ‬‫ﻤ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﺍ‬
‫ﺎﺕ‬‫ﻳ‬‫ﻮ‬‫ﺘ‬‫ﻌﻒﻓﻲﻣﺴ‬ ‫ﻟﻀ‬ ‫ﺔﺃﻥﺍ‬ ‫ﺍﺳ‬‫ﺭ‬‫ﺪ‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﻔﺖﺍ‬ ‫‪.‬ﻛﺸ‬ ‫ﺔ‬‫ﺍﺳ‬ ‫ﺭ‬
‫ﺪ‬ ‫ﻟ‬‫ﺔﺍ‬ ‫ﻘ‬
‫ﻨﻄ‬ ‫ﺎﺕﻓﻲﻣ‬ ‫ﻧ‬
‫ﺎ‬‫ﻴﻀ‬‫ﻔ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺍ‬‫ﻮﻝﻭ‬ ‫ﻴ‬‫ﻟﺴ‬‫ﺍ‬
‫ﺔ‬‫ﺮﺿ‬ ‫ﻌ‬
‫ﻤ‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﺎﻃﻖﺍ‬ ‫ﻨ‬
‫ﻤ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﻛﻦﻓﻲﺍ‬ ‫ﺎ‬‫ﻤﺴ‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﺀﺍ‬ ‫ﺎ‬
‫ﻨ‬‫ﻊﻓﻲﺑ‬ ‫ﻮﺳ‬ ‫ﺘ‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﺓﺍ‬‫ﺩ‬ ‫ﺎ‬
‫ﻳ‬‫ﻊﺯ‬ ‫ﺎﻥﻣ‬ ‫ﺭﻛ‬ ‫ﺎ‬‫ﻣﻄ‬‫ﻩﺍﻷ‬‫ﺎ‬‫ﻴ‬‫ﻳﻒﻣ‬ ‫ﺮ‬‫ﺗﺼ‬
‫ﺪﺕ‬ ‫ﻴ‬
‫ﺘﻲﺷ‬ ‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺔﺍ‬‫ﻴ‬‫ﺘ‬‫ﻠ‬
‫ﻔ‬‫ﺭﻉﺍﻹﺳ‬ ‫ﺍ‬
‫ﻮ‬‫ﻟﺸ‬‫ﻠﻰﺍ‬ ‫ﺔﻋ‬ ‫ﻌ‬‫ﻗ‬‫ﺍ‬‫ﻮ‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﺭﺍ‬‫ﻮ‬ ‫ﻟﺠﺴ‬ ‫ﻌﻈﻢﺍ‬ ‫ﻋ‪.‬ﻣ‬‫ﻡ‬‫ﻮﻝﻛﻞﺎ‬ ‫ﻴ‬‫ﻟﺴ‬‫ﺍ‬
‫ﺎﺕﻭ‬ ‫ﻧ‬‫ﺎ‬
‫ﻴﻀ‬ ‫ﻔ‬
‫ﻠ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﻴﻢ‬‫ﻴ‬‫ﻘ‬‫ﺘ‬
‫ﺔﻟ‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﺎ‬‫ﻌ‬
‫ﺓﻓ‬ ‫ﺍ‬
‫ﺩ‬‫ﺪﺃ‬‫ﻌ‬‫ﺭﻋﻦﺑ‬ ‫ﺎ‬‫ﻌ‬‫ﺘﺸ‬‫ﻡﺍﻻﺳ‬ ‫ﺎ‬‫ﺎﻥﻧﻈ‬ ‫ﺪﻛ‬ ‫‪.‬ﻗ‬‫ﺔ‬ ‫ﻘ‬‫ﻠ‬
‫ﻐ‬‫ﺪﺕﻣ‬ ‫ﺭﻭﺟ‬ ‫ﺎ‬‫ﻣﻄ‬‫ﻩﺍﻷ‬‫ﺎ‬‫ﻴ‬
‫ﻳﻒﻣ‬ ‫ﺮ‬‫ﺘﺼ‬ ‫ﻟ‬
‫‪.‬‬‫ﺔ‬‫ﺍﺳ‬ ‫ﺭ‬‫ﺪ‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﺍ‬‫ﺔ‬ ‫ﻘ‬
‫ﻨﻄ‬ ‫ﻠﻰﻣ‬ ‫ﺎﺕﻋ‬ ‫ﻧ‬
‫ﺎ‬‫ﻴﻀ‬ ‫ﻔ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺍ‬‫ﻮﻝﻭ‬‫ﻴ‬‫ﻟﺴ‬‫ﺍ‬‫ﺮ‬‫ﺎﻃ‬ ‫ﻣﺨ‬
‫ﻡﺇ‬ ‫ﻳﻒ‪2007‬‬ ‫ﺮ‬‫ﺔﺧ‬ ‫ﻳ‬‫ﺍ‬
‫ﺪ‬‫ﺔﻓﻲﺑ‬ ‫ﻘ‬‫ﻠ‬‫ﻐ‬‫ﻧﺖﻣ‬ ‫ﺎ‬
‫ﺭﻛ‬ ‫ﻮ‬‫ﻟﺠﺴ‬ ‫ﻌﻈﻢﺍ‬ ‫ﻟﻰﺃﻥﻣ‬ ‫ﺔﺇ‬ ‫ﺍﺳ‬‫ﺭ‬‫ﺪ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﻠﺖﺍ‬‫ﻮﺻ‬ ‫ﺗ‬
‫ﻳﻒ‬‫ﺮ‬‫ﺘﺼ‬ ‫ﻟ‬
‫ﻊﺣﺠﻢﺍ‬ ‫ﺎﺳﺐﻣ‬ ‫ﻨ‬‫ﺘ‬‫ﻳ‬‫ﺭﻻ‬‫ﻮ‬‫ﻟﺠﺴ‬ ‫ﻠﻲﺍ‬‫ﺔﻋ‬ ‫ﻠ‬
‫ﻜ‬ ‫ﻤﺸ‬ ‫ﻟ‬
‫ﻗﻢﺍ‬ ‫ﺄ‬‫ﻩﻓ‬‫ﺎ‬‫ﻴ‬‫ﻤ‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﻓﻖﺍ‬ ‫ﺪ‬‫ﺎﺃﻥﺣﺠﻢﺗ‬ ‫ﻨ‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﺘﻀﺢ‬ ‫ﺗ‬
‫ﻟﻚ‬‫ﺬ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﻩﻭ‬ ‫ﺎ‬‫ﻴ‬‫ﻤ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﺎﺕﺍ‬‫ﻌ‬‫ﻤ‬‫ﺘﺠ‬‫ﻮﻝﻣﺴ‬ ‫ﻠﻰﻃ‬ ‫ﺪﺕﻋ‬ ‫ﻴ‬‫ﺮﻯﺷ‬ ‫ﻘ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﻌﻈﻢﺍ‬ ‫ﻤﻦﻓﻲﺃﻥﻣ‬ ‫ﻜ‬
‫ﺓﺗ‬ ‫ﺭ‬
‫ﻮ‬‫ﻟﺨﻄ‬ ‫ﺎﺍ‬‫ﻳﻀ‬ ‫ﺃ‬
‫ﻭ‬
‫ﺍ‬
‫ﺎﺕﻭ‬ ‫ﻜ‬‫ﻠ‬‫ﺘ‬‫ﻤ‬‫ﻤ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﺮﻓﻲﺍ‬ ‫ﺎﻃ‬‫ﺒﺐﻓﻲﻣﺨ‬ ‫ﺓﺗﺴ‬ ‫ﺪ‬
‫ﻳ‬‫ﺪ‬ ‫ﺔﺷ‬ ‫ﺮﻋ‬‫ﺎﻃﻖﺑﺴ‬ ‫ﻨ‬
‫ﻤ‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﻮﻝﺍ‬ ‫ﺎﻭﺣ‬ ‫ﻮﻫ‬‫ﺔﻧﺤ‬‫ﻳ‬‫ﺩ‬‫ﻭ‬‫ﻓﻖﺍﻷ‬ ‫ﺪ‬‫ﺗ‬
‫ﻴﺠﺐ‬ ‫‪.‬ﻓ‬‫ﺔ‬‫ﺍﺳ‬‫ﺭ‬‫ﺪ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺔﺍ‬‫ﻘ‬‫ﻨﻄ‬‫ﺎﻥﻓﻲﻣ‬ ‫ﻴﻀ‬‫ﻔ‬ ‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺔﺍ‬ ‫ﺛ‬
‫ﺭ‬ ‫ﺎ‬
‫ﻭﺙﻛ‬ ‫ﺪ‬‫ﻠﻰﺣ‬ ‫ﺪﺕﻋ‬ ‫ﺎﻋ‬‫ﻣﻞﺳ‬ ‫ﺍ‬‫ﻮ‬‫ﻌ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﻩﺍ‬‫ﺬ‬‫ﺍﺡﻛﻞﻫ‬ ‫ﻭ‬ ‫ﺭ‬
‫ﻷ‬
‫ﺔﺍﻻ‬ ‫ﻤ‬
‫ﻧﻈ‬‫ﺃ‬‫ﺔﻭ‬ ‫ﻴ‬‫ﻓ‬
‫ﺍ‬‫ﺮ‬‫ﻐ‬‫ﻟﺠ‬‫ﺎﺕﺍ‬ ‫ﻣ‬‫ﻮ‬‫ﻠ‬‫ﻌ‬‫ﻤ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺔﺍ‬ ‫ﻤ‬‫ﻧﻈ‬‫ﻡﺃ‬ ‫ﺍ‬
‫ﺪ‬ ‫ﺘﺨ‬ ‫ﻤﻦﻓﻲﺇﺳ‬ ‫ﻜ‬‫ﺔﺗ‬ ‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺎ‬‫ﻌ‬‫ﺪﻓ‬ ‫ﺓ ﺭﺻ‬ ‫ﺍ‬‫ﺩ‬‫ﺩﺃ‬ ‫ﻮ‬‫ﻭﺟ‬
‫ﻊ‬‫ﻭﺿ‬ ‫ﺎﺕﻭ‬ ‫ﻧ‬
‫ﺎ‬‫ﻴﻀ‬‫ﻔ‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﺍ‬
‫ﻮﻝﻭ‬ ‫ﻴ‬‫ﻟﺴ‬‫ﺮﺍ‬‫ﺎﻃ‬‫ﻴﻢﻣﺨ‬ ‫ﻴ‬‫ﻘ‬‫ﺗ‬‫ﻴﻞﻭ‬ ‫ﻠ‬
‫ﻜﻦﻣﻦﺗﺤ‬ ‫ﻤ‬‫ﺘ‬‫ﺘﻰﻧ‬ ‫ﺪﻭﺣ‬ ‫ﻌ‬‫ﺭﻋﻦﺑ‬ ‫ﺎ‬
‫ﻌ‬ ‫ﺘﺸ‬‫ﺳ‬
‫ﻡ‬‫ﺪ‬‫ﻟﻚﻓﻲﻋ‬ ‫ﺫ‬‫ﺭ ﺽﻭ‬ ‫ﻡﺍﻷ‬ ‫ﺍ‬
‫ﺪ‬‫ﺘﺨ‬ ‫ﺎﺳﺐﻻﺳ‬ ‫ﻨ‬‫ﻤ‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﻴﻂﺍ‬ ‫ﺘﺨﻄ‬ ‫ﻟ‬‫ﻩﺍ‬‫ﺎ‬‫ﺍﻋ‬‫ﺮ‬‫ﻴﺠﺐﺃﻥﻳ‬ ‫ﺔﻓ‬‫ﺒ‬‫ﺎﺳ‬‫ﻨ‬
‫ﻤ‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﻮﻝﺍ‬ ‫ﻠ‬‫ﻟﺤ‬‫ﺍ‬
‫ﺔ‬‫ﺎﺻ‬‫ﺍﺕﻭﺧ‬ ‫ﻮ‬ ‫ﻨ‬
‫ﻘ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﻡﺇﻏﻼﻕﺍ‬ ‫ﺪ‬‫ﺓﻋ‬ ‫ﺎ‬‫ﺍﻋ‬
‫ﺮ‬ ‫ﻊﻣ‬ ‫ﺔﻣ‬ ‫ﻴ‬‫ﻤ‬‫ﻨ‬‫ﺘ‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﺭﻓﻲﺍ‬ ‫ﺍ‬‫ﺮ‬‫ﻤ‬‫ﺘ‬‫ﺍﺳ‬‫‪.‬ﻭ‬ ‫ﺔ‬‫ﻳ‬‫ﺩ‬‫ﻭ‬‫ﺭﻱﺍﻷ‬‫ﺎ‬‫ﻠﻰﻣﺠ‬ ‫ﺀﻋ‬ ‫ﺎ‬
‫ﻨ‬‫ﺒ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﺍ‬
‫ﻩﺍﻷ‬‫ﺎ‬‫ﻴ‬
‫ﻭﻣ‬ ‫ﻴﻦﺃ‬‫ﺭﻋ‬‫ﺍ‬‫ﺰ‬
‫ﻤ‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﻳﻖﺍ‬‫ﺮ‬ ‫ﺎﻋﻦﻃ‬ ‫ﻬ‬‫ﻨ‬
‫ﻓ‬ ‫ﺘﻢﺩ‬ ‫ﻜﻦﺃﻥﻳ‬ ‫ﻤ‬‫ﺘﻲﻳ‬ ‫ﻟ‬‫ﺔﺍ‬‫ﻴ‬‫ﺍﻋ‬‫ﺭ‬‫ﺰ‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﻊﺍ‬‫ﻳ‬‫ﺭ‬‫ﺎ‬
‫ﻤﺸ‬ ‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺎﻃﻖﺍ‬‫ﻨ‬‫ﻮﻝﻣ‬ ‫ﺣ‬
‫ﺔ‬‫ﻴ‬‫ﺪﺳ‬‫ﻨ‬‫ﺩﺧﻄﻂﻫ‬ ‫ﻮ‬
‫ﻡ ﻭﺟ‬ ‫ﺪ‬‫ﺣﺔﻋ‬ ‫ﻟ‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﺎ‬ ‫ﺮﺕﻭ‬ ‫ﻛ‬‫ﺘﻲﺫ‬ ‫ﻟ‬
‫ﻣﻞﺍ‬ ‫ﺍ‬
‫ﻮ‬‫ﻌ‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﺎﻫﻞﺍ‬ ‫ﺔ‪،‬ﺗﺠ‬ ‫ﻘ‬‫ﻨﻄ‬‫ﻤ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺭﻓﻲﺍ‬ ‫ﺎ‬
‫ﻣﻄ‬
‫ﻊ‬‫ﻗ‬‫ﻮ‬‫ﺎﻡ ‪2007‬ﻓﻲﻣ‬ ‫ﺎﺕ ﻋ‬ ‫ﻧ‬‫ﺎ‬‫ﻴﻀ‬ ‫ﻮﻓ‬ ‫ﻳ‬‫ﺭ‬‫ﺎ‬‫ﻨ‬‫ﻴ‬‫ﻟﻚ ﺳ‬ ‫ﺪﺫ‬ ‫ﻴ‬‫ﻌ‬‫ﺪﻳ‬ ‫ﻟﻲﻗ‬ ‫ﺎ‬‫ﻟﺤ‬‫ﻊﺍ‬‫ﻮﺿ‬ ‫ﻠ‬
‫ﺔﻟ‬ ‫ﻟﺠ‬ ‫ﺎ‬‫ﻌ‬
‫ﻣ‬
‫‪.‬‬
‫ﺔ‬‫ﺍﺳ‬
‫ﺭ‬‫ﺪ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺍ‬

‫‪cont‬‬
‫‪ent‬‬
‫‪sofTabl‬‬
‫‪es‬‬
‫‪N0‬‬ ‫‪Subj‬‬
‫‪ect‬‬ ‫‪Page‬‬

‫‪Ti‬‬
‫‪t‬‬‫‪l‬‬
‫‪e‬‬

‫‪V‬‬
 Dedi
cat
ions I
Acknowl
edgement
s I
I
Abst
ractEngl
i
sh I
II
abst
ractAr
abi
c I
V
Cont
ent
sofTabl
e V
Fi
gur
esofLi
st VI
II
Tabl
esofLi
st I
X
ONECHAPTER
1 I
NTRODUCTI
ON 1
1.
1 f
loodsf
lashofDef
ini
ti
on 1
1.
2 gener
ati
onf
loodsFl
ash 1
1.
3 Pr
obl
em t
heofSt
atementThe 2
1.
3 Obj
ect
iveGener
alThe 3
1.
4 Obj
ect
ivesSpeci
fi
cThe 3
1.
5 st
udyofi
mpor
tance 3
TWOCHAPTER
2 REVI
EW LI
TERATURE 4
2.
1 Concept
sManagementDi
sast
er 4
2.
1.1 Hazar
d 4
2.
1.2 Vul
ner
abi
l
ity 4
2.
1.3 Ri
sk 5
2.
1.4 Di
sast
er 6
2.
1.5 Fl
ood 7
2.
2 Pr
ocessManagementDi
sast
er 7
2.
3 ManagementDi
sast
erFl
oodofPhases 8
2.
3.1 Mi
ti
gat
ionFl
ood 8
2.
3.2 pr
epar
ednessFl
ood 9
2.
3.3 ResponseFl
ood 10
VI
2.
3.4 Recov
eryFl
ood 11
2.
4 Fl
oodofCauses 12
2.
4.1 Hazar
dFl
oodsUr
ban 13
2.
4.2 f
loodnat
ural
aggr
avat
ingf
act
orsHuman 13
hazar
ds
2.
4.3 f
loodi
ngandchangeCl
i
mat
e 13
2.
4.3.
1 Fl
oodsUr
banofI
mpact 14
2.
4.3.
2 Ex
posur
e 14
2.
4.3.
3 Vul
ner
abi
l
ity 15
2.
4.4 Fl
oodsUr
banofManagementI
ntegr
ated 15
2.
4.4.
1 Appr
oachesandAi
ms 15
2.
4.4.
2 AssessmentRi
sk 16
2.
5. measur
escont
rol
Sour
ce 17
2.
5.1 har
vest
ingRai
nwat
er 18
2.
5.2 exposur
ePr
event
ing 18
2.
6. f
loodf
lashi
nGI
Sandsensi
ngRemot
eofRol
e 20
2.
7. Sudani
ndi
sast
ersFl
ood 22
THREECHAPTER
3 METHODSANDMATERI
ALS 24
3.
1 Ar
eaSt
udyThe 24
3.
1.1 Locat
ionThe 24
3.
1.2 Topogr
aphyThe 24
3.
1.3 Cl
i
mat
e 24
3.
1.4 Cov
erVeget
ati
on 25
3.
1.5 Soi
l 25
3.
1.6 Geol
ogyThe 25
3.
2 Met
hodsandMat
eri
als 26
3.
3 met
hodsWor
king 27
VI
I
3.
4 dat
asat
ell
i
tef
rom usel
andt
heofobt
aini
ngThe 28
3.
5. Sof
twar
e 29
FOURCHAPTER
4 DI
SCUSSI
ONSANDRESULT 30
4.
1 MapsThemat
ic 30
4.
2 Sy
stem Dr
ainage 31
4.
3 useLand 33
4.
3.1 Condi
ti
onsVi
l
lages 33
4.
3.2 St
reetNewt
heofI
mpactThe 34
4.
4 AssessmentBr
idges 35
4.
4.1 AssessmentuseLand 37
4.
5 St
udyofSur
roundi
ngTr
eat
mentEngi
neer
ing 43
Ar
ea
4.
5.1 Dy
keLocat
ionThe 43
4.
5.2 cour
sewat
erAr
ti
fi
ci
al 44
4.
6 sol
uti
onTr
eat
mentEngi
neer
ingNewThe 45
4.
6.1 r
iver
sandwat
ercour
sesofMai
ntenance 46
FI
VECHAPTER
5 RECOMMENDATI
ONANDCONCLUSI
ON 48
5.
1 Concl
usi
on 48
5.
2 Recommendat
ions 50
5.
3 Ref
erences 52

Fi
gur
esofLi
st
No Subj
ect Page
(
1)Fi
gur
e (
2006(
APFM,
reduct
ioni
tsandr
iskf
loodofConst
ruct 5

VI
II
(
2)Fi
gur
e Pr
ocessManagementRi
skt
heofSt
eps 15
(
3)Fi
gur
e physi
cal
thei
nGISmi t
igat
iondi
sastertheofroleThe 21
process.pl
anning
(
4)Fi
gur
e Ni
leBl
uetheofEastt
heinAreaStudyofLocationthe 26
(
5)Fi
gur
e Ummdubani
ncol
orgreenwi
thsl
opeofst
eepedthe 30
Vi
l
lages
(
6)Fi
gur
e Vil
l
agesUmmdubanincaursesWater 31
(
7)Fi
gur
e flowt hef rom t raceddr ainagesmaj ort he 32
accummul ation
(
8)Fi
gur
e onar eacat chment sandsy stem dr ainagesThe 32
Vil
lages.Ummduban
(
9)Fi
gur
e ofdi r
ect i
ont heonconst r uctionst reetnewofef f
ectt he 34
fl
owwat er
(
10)Fi
gur
e thet or el
ati
oni nar east udyt hei nbr idgest he 35
waterway s
(
11)Fi
gur
e asbr i
dgeexcel enttheofl ocat i
onsel ectedt heI ndicates 39
hi
ghl i
ght edwi thshown
(
12)Fi
gur
e asbr idgesv .goodofl ocat i
onsel ectedt heI ndicates 39
col orhighl i
ght edwi thshown
(
13)Fi
gur
e asbr idgesgoodofl ocat i
onsel ectedt heI ndicates 40
col orhighl i
ght edwi thshown
(
14)Fi
gur
e asbr idgespoorofl ocat i
onsel ectedt heI ndicates 40
colorhighl i
ght edwi thshown
(
15)Fi
gur
e asbr idgesv .poorofl ocat ionsel ectedt heI ndi cates 41
colorhighl i
ght edwi thshown
(
16)Fi
gur
e t
or elationi nbridgescl osedofl ocat i
onsspat ialthe 41
onesopen
(
17)Fi
gur
e whichst reett helongaBr i
dgescl osedofl ocationt he 42
cour seswat ercr ossing
(
18)Fi
gur
e theonDy keLocat i
onsofTr eatmentEngi neer i
ngThe 43
Ar eaSt udy
(
19)Fi
gur
e oncour sewat erartif
icial oft reatmentEngi neer i
ngThe 44
Area.St udyt he
(
20)Fi
gur
e Studyt heonsol uti
onTr eat mentEngi neer i
ngNewThe 45
Ar ea

(
21)Fi
gur
e i
nreconst
ruct
ionbr
idgesf
orl
ocat
ionsofpr
ior
it
ryt
he 47
ar
eastudyt
he

I
X
 Tabl
esofLi
st
No Subj
ect Page
(
1)Tabl
e (
2004-1965)Sudani
ndi
sast
ersnat
ural
the 23
(
2)Tabl
e Sudani
n2007i
nfl
oodf
lashofdamageThe 23
(
3)Tabl
e Br
idges.(
wor
king)OpenofChar
act
eri
sti
cst
he 36
(
4)Tabl
e wor
king)
Bri
dges.(
notCl
osedofChar
act
eri
sti
cst
he 38
(
5)Tabl
e andnumber
st ot
alt
hei
randBri
dgesofrankingt he 42
percentages.
(
6)Tabl
e t
oopenofpercent
ageandbri
dgesofconditi
ont he 42
closed.

Chapt
erone
I
ntr
oduct
ion
1.Def
ini
ti
onoff
lashf
loods

Afl
ashf
loodi
s,i
nshor
t,asuddenl
ocalf
loodofgr
eatv
olumeandshor
t

dur
ati
onwhi
chf
oll
owswi
thi
naf
ew (
usual
l
ylesst
hansi
x)hour
sofheav
yor
excessi
ver
ainf
all
,orduet
odam orl
eveef
ail
ure,
ort
hesuddenr
eleaseofwat
er
i
mpoundedbyani
cel
ogj
am.A f
lashf
loodcanbecausedbyi
ntenser
ain,
par
ti
cul
arl
ywheni
ttakespl
acei
nasat
urat
edar
eawher
erai
nhaspr
evi
ousl
y
f
all
enort
hegr
oundi
sfr
ozen.I
nthesecondi
ti
onst
headdi
ti
onalr
ainr
unsof
f
ov
ert
hesur
faceandaccumul
atesi
nst
reamsandr
iver
satamuchaccel
erat
ed
pace.Heav
yrai
ns,mostf
requent
lyconnect
edwi
thconv
ect
ioncl
ouds,cov
er
smal
lregi
onsandar
eshor
t-
li
ved(
from af
ewmi
nut
est
oaf
ewhour
s),butv
ery
i
ntensesuchas100mm (
or100Li
tr
espersquar
emet
er)i
nthespanofanhour
ormor
e.Vi
olentr
ainf
allcausi
ngf
lashf
loodscanbeaccompani
edbyst
rong

X
wi
ndsandheav
yhai
lfor
mat
ion.Theycanal
soappearl
ocal
l
yinal
argear
ea
cov
eredbyr
ainf
all
.Insummar
yther
ear
evar
iousf
act
orscont
ri
but
ingt
ofl
ash
f
loodr
isk,somebei
ngi
nfl
uencedbyhumani
nter
vent
ionandot
her
sent
ir
ely
r
atheri
ndependentf
rom humanact
ion.

1.
1.Fl
ashf
loodsgener
ati
on
Thephenomenonoft
hef
lashf
loodi
soneoft
hemostdi
ff
icul
tnat
uralhazar
ds
t
opr
edi
cti
nter
msoft
imeandpl
aceofoccur
rence.Asar
esul
t,i
tischal
l
engi
ng
f
ort
heconcer
nedaut
hor
it
iesandcommuni
ti
est
orespondappr
opr
iat
elyand
r
esponsepl
ansar
eindi
spensabl
etool
s.Recor
dsofl
ossofl
i
feanddamage
caused byf
lashf
loodswor
ldwi
deshow t
hatt
hesehav
econt
inued t
ori
se
st
eadi
l
ydur
ingr
ecenty
ear
s.Under
standabl
y,t
her
esponsehasbeent
ocal
lfor
i
ncr
easedef
for
tst
opr
otectl
i
feandpr
oper
ty.Apar
adi
gm shi
fti
nappr
oacht
o
nat
uraldi
sast
ers,f
lashf
loodsi
ncl
usi
ve,i
sexpr
essedbyadepar
tur
efr
om t
he
“
fl
ash f
lood pr
event
ion”f
ormul
a and a mov
etowar
ds “
fl
ash f
lood r
isk
management
”.Theessenceoft
hischangei
sthepr
esent
ingoft
he(
howev
er
obv
ious)t
rut
hoft
hei
mpossi
bil
i
tyofel
i
minat
ingf
lashf
lood-
rel
atedr
isk.The
new appr
oachemphasi
zest
henecessi
tyofmov
ingf
rom conf
inedway
sof
t
hinki
ngt
oint
erdi
sci
pli
nar
yones,i
nwhi
chf
lood-
li
mit
ati
onact
ivi
ti
esshoul
dbe
i
ncl
udedi
ntot
heent
ir
etyofnotonl
ywat
ermanagementwor
k,butt
hewhol
e
spher
eofspat
ialpl
anni
ng.Pr
epar
ednessi
sacent
ralcomponentoff
lashf
lood
r
iskmanagement-andkeyt
argetgr
oupsf
ort
heseact
ivi
ti
esar
ether
esi
dent
s
anduser
soff
lashf
loodpr
onear
easSudani
sthel
argestcount
ryi
nAf
ri
cawi
th
anar
eaof2.
5mi
l
li
onkm²
.Sudanhasadi
ver
sif
iedcl
i
mat
erangi
ngf
rom a
deser
tint
heNor
tht
oequat
ori
ali
ntheSout
h.Annualr
ainf
allamount
sexceed
1500mm i
nthesout
handbel
ow100mm i
ntheext
remenor
th.

The st
udyar
ea i
s a par
tfr
om Khar
toum St
ate(
wher
e 1/
3 oft
he Sudan
popul
ati
onl
i
ves)
.Thel
astdecadeshowedat
rendofr
ainf
alli
ncr
ement
.Ol
der
andst
abi
l
izedsanddunesar
ethedomi
nant
,whi
l
eol
derNi
l
edeposi
tsandWadi
deposi
tsar
ethemostf
ert
il
ecl
aysoi
l
s.Thegeol
ogi
cal
uni
tsav
ail
abl
eint
hear
ea
ar
eGr
ani
tesbasementi
nthenor
theast
,Omdur
manf
ormat
ion(
Lowerpar
t)and
Ol
derandst
abi
l
izedsanddunesar
ethedomi
nat
ingt
hecent
ralpar
t.Umr
awaba
XI
f
ormat
ionandcr
etaceouswi
thQuat
ernar
ycov
erdomi
nat
ingt
hesout
her
npar
t.
Di
git
alEl
evat
ionModeloft
hear
eashowsat
rendofgr
aduat
edsl
oppi
ngf
rom
nor
tht
osout
hasshowni
nasshowni
n(f
ig5)
.

1.
2.TheSt
atementoft
hePr
obl
em
Sur
facewat
erf
loodi
ngoccur
swhenahi
ghv
olumeofr
ainf
allf
all
sonanar
eai
n
ashor
tti
mebuti
tisunabl
etodr
ainawayef
fect
ivel
y.I
tisapar
ti
cul
arpr
obl
em i
n
ur
banar
eas(
thest
udyar
ea)
,wher
emuchoft
hel
andi
simper
meabl
e.Sur
face
wat
erf
loodi
ngof
tenhappensqui
ckl
yandi
sdi
ff
icul
ttopr
edi
ctbecausei
tis
dependenton t
he par
ti
cul
arf
eat
ures ofcer
tai
n st
reet
s,dr
ains,and t
he
t
opogr
aphyofur
banar
eas.I
tisexpect
edt
obecomeamor
ecommont
ypeof
f
loodi
ngev
entt
hanwehav
eseeni
nthepastpar
tl
ybecausemor
elandhasbeen
pav
edov
erwi
thi
mper
meabl
emat
eri
alsandal
sobecauseoft
hemor
eint
ense
r
ainf
all
expect
edasar
esul
tofcl
i
mat
echange.
EastKhar
toum (
Ummduban)i
saccust
omedt
ohi
ghr
ainf
alli
naut
umnasshown
i
n(f
ig4)
.So,t
hesur
facef
loodst
hatoccur
redacr
osssev
eralar
easoft
he
v
ici
nit
yin2007shockedt
henat
ion.Thegeogr
aphi
calscopeoft
hef
lashf
loods,
andt
hephy
sicalandeconomi
cdamagei
tcaused,
wer
eonascal
enotseenf
or
manymont
hs.Someoft
hepl
acesi
taf
fect
edhadnotbeent
houghtt
obeat
speci
alr
iskf
rom f
lashf
loodi
ngandwer
ether
efor
enotwel
lpr
epar
ed.

Thehumanef
fectwasv
erydi
str
essi
ngsomepeopl
elostt
hei
rli
ves;t
housands
ofpeopl
elostt
hei
rpower
,thei
rheal
thywat
ersuppl
yorbot
h;andt
housandsof
homeswer
efl
ooded.Theeconomi
cimpactwasal
sov
erysev
ere:
atl
eastSDG3
bi
l
li
onwor
thofdamagewascaused.Thoseaf
fect
ed,andmanyot
her
s,now
suf
fert
hewor
ryt
hatsuchdamagi
ngf
lashf
loodscoul
dhappenagai
n.

1.
3.TheGener
alObj
ect
ive
Anoper
ati
onalsol
uti
onf
ort
hemanagementofi
nundat
ionr
isksi
stor
einf
orce
awar
enessamongi
nhabi
tant
sandcr
isi
sint
erv
ent
ionf
orcesi
nthear
eaoff
lash
f
loodr
isk,
andi
mpr
ovesur
facewat
erdr
ainageandt
omoni
torchangesi
nst
udy
ar
ea.

XI
I
1.
4.TheSpeci
fi
cObj
ect
ives:
-

Theseobj
ect
ivesar
e:-

i
.Toev
aluat
ethegeomor
phol
ogi
ccondi
ti
onsr
elat
edt
olastf
lashf
loodhazar
ds
andenv
ironment
alconsequencesi
nthear
eaasf
oll
ow:
-
i
i
.Toev
aluat
ether
oleofr
emot
esensi
ngandGI
Stechnol
ogi
esi
nassessi
ng,
ev
aluat
ing,
mappi
ngandmodel
i
ngt
hegeomor
phol
ogi
cal
hazar
dsr
elat
edar
eas.
i
i
i.Todet
ermi
net
heenv
ironment
all
yri
skar
easi
nrel
ati
ont
ofl
ashf
loodpr
one
ar
eas.

1.
5.I
mpor
tanceofst
udy
:-
Anpr
oceedt
hei
mpor
tanceofst
udyf
rom t
akencl
eari
maget
oshapest
o
consi
stt
heear
thsur
facedesi
gni
ngsy
stemi
cpl
an f
lashf
loodt
oUmmduban
ar
eai
tisv
eryi
mpor
tantbecause maybe r
epet
it
iont
ofl
ashf
loodmaybe
occur
ri
ngi
nyear
scomi
ngi
nfut
ure.
Thef
lashf
loodmanagementpl
ani
tisv
ery
i
mpor
tantt
ofaci
ngt
hel
argepr
obl
em.Remot
esensi
ngandGI
Stechni
quehas
successf
ull
y est
abl
i
shed i
ts appl
i
cat
ion I
nfol
l
owi
ng ar
eas off
lash f
lood
managementsuchasf
loodi
nundat
ionmappi
ng,Fl
oodpl
ainzoni
ngandr
iver
mor
phol
ogi
calst
udi
escanpr
ovi
degr
eatcapabi
l
iti
esi
ncr
eat
ingsui
tabl
edat
a
andmodel
sforbestdeci
sionmaki
ng.

Chapt
ert
wo

Li
ter
atur
eRev
iew

-
Concept
s:2.
1Di
sast
erManagement
Theyar
emanyt
echni
cal
concept
sshoul
dbecl
eari
ndi
sast
ermanagement
.The
mosti
mpor
tantoft
hem wi
l
lbement
ionedasf
oll
ow:
-

XI
II
2.
1.1Hazar
d
Ahazar
disar
areorext
remeev
enti
nthenat
uralorhuman-
madeenv
ironment
adv
ersel
yaf
fect
shumanl
i
fe,pr
oper
tyoract
ivi
tyt
otheext
entofcausi
nga
di
sast
er(
UNDP,1992)
.Theyv
aryaccor
dingt
othei
rnat
ure,accor
dingt
oUNDP
(
1992)t
heycanbecl
assi
fi
edt
o:
1.Sudden onset haz
ards such as (
geol
ogi
cal and cl
i
mat
ic hazar
ds)
ear
thquakes,t
sunami
s,f
loods,t
ropi
calst
orms,v
olcani
c er
upt
ions,l
and
sl
i
des.
2.Sl
ow onsethazar
ds such as (
env
ironment
alhazar
ds)dr
ought
,fami
ne,
env
ironment
aldegr
adat
ion,
deser
ti
fi
cat
ion,
def
orest
ati
on,
pesti
nfest
ati
on.
I
ndust
ri
alt
echnol
ogi
cal
syst
em f
ail
ures,
acci
dent
s,spi
l
lages,
expl
osi
ons,
fir
es.
War
sandci
vi
lst
ri
fear
medaggr
essi
on,
insur
gence,
ter
ror
ism,
andot
heract
ions
l
eadi
ngt
odi
spl
acedper
sonsandr
efugees.

2.
1.2Vul
ner
abi
li
ty

Vul
ner
abi
l
ityi
stheext
entt
owhi
cht
hecommuni
tyort
hei
ndi
vi
dual
sar
eli
kel
yto
bedi
srupt
edbyt
hei
mpactofapar
ti
cul
arhazar
d(Cobur
n,1995)
.Vul
ner
abl
e
el
ement
smaysuf
fera damagei
tsext
entmaybeaf
fect
ed bya dy
nami
c
pr
ocesscombi
nesbet
weendev
elopmentandchanges.

Accor
dingt
oUNDP (
1992)v
ulner
abi
l
ityi
sseenast
hepr
ogr
essi
onoft
hree
st
ages,under
lyi
ngcauseswhi
char
edeep-
root
edsetoff
act
orst
oget
herf
orm
andmai
ntai
nsv
ulner
abi
l
ity
.Thosef
act
orsl
ayunderdy
nami
cpr
essur
esduet
o
l
ackofbasi
cser
vicesorpr
ovi
sion.Thi
spr
essur
eit
sel
fishappeni
ngwi
thi
n
unsaf
econdi
ti
onsl
i
ket
hecont
extwher
ethecommuni
tyi
sexposedt
other
isk
ofdi
sast
er,
thef
ragi
l
ephy
sical
env
ironmentandunst
abl
eeconomy
.

2.
1.3Ri
sk
I
tisexpect
edl
osses(
loseofl
i
fe,
inj
uri
es,
damaget
opr
oper
ty,
anddi
srupt
ionof
economi
candsoci
alact
ivi
ti
esorl
i
vel
i
hood)duet
oapar
ti
cul
arhazar
d(Cobur
n,
1995)
.Iti
saf
utur
esi
tuat
iont
hatr
efl
ect
sthemagni
tudeofhazar
dandt
he
ext
entofv
ulner
abi
l
ityofal
lel
ement
sexposedt
oiti
naspeci
fi
cpoi
ntoft
ime
XI
V
(
Hai
ti
,2003)
.Theel
ement
soft
her
iskar
eani
nvent
oryoft
hosepeopl
eort
hings
whi
char
eexposedt
othehazar
d.(
UNDP,
1992)
.“Ri
ski
sthepr
obabi
l
ityofal
oss,
andt
hisdependsont
hreeel
ement
s:hazar
d,v
ulner
abi
l
ity
,andexposur
e.I
fany
oft
heset
hreeel
ement
sinr
iski
ncr
easesordecr
eases,t
hent
her
iski
ncr
eases
ordecr
easesr
espect
ivel
y.
”(
Cri
cht
on,
D.,
1999)asshowni
n(f
ig1)
.

Ri
sk=f
unct
ion(
Hazar
dxExposur
exVul
ner
abi
l
ity
)

Fi
gur
e1:
Const
ructoff
loodr
iskandi
tsr
educt
ion(
APFM,
2006)

2.
1.4t
heDi
sast
er:
-
Theoccur
renceofasuddenormaj
ormi
sfor
tunedi
srupt
sthebasi
cfabr
icand
nor
malf
unct
ioni
ngofasoci
etyorcommuni
ty.Anev
entorser
iesofev
ent
s
whi
chgi
vesr
iset
ocasual
ti
esand/
ordamageorl
ossofpr
oper
ty,
inf
rast
ruct
ure,
essent
ialser
vicesormeansofl
i
vel
i
hoodonascal
ewhi
chi
sbey
ondt
henor
mal
capaci
tyoft
heaf
fect
edcommuni
ty’
sabi
l
ityt
ocopewi
thoutai
d(UNDP,
1992)
.

XV
I
tisofgr
eatdealt
ounder
standt
hedi
ff
erencebet
weenhazar
dsanddi
sast
ers,
andt
orecogni
zet
hatt
heef
fectoft
hef
ormerupont
hel
att
eri
sessent
ial
l
ya
measur
eoft
hesoci
ety
’sv
ulner
abi
l
ity
.

Di
sast
erscanbecl
assi
fi
edi
ntocat
egor
iesdependi
ngoni
tscausesori
tsonset
speed.Accor
ding t
o causes di
sast
ers can be:Man-
made di
sast
ers ar
e
di
sast
ers oremer
gencysi
tuat
ions wher
ethe pr
inci
pal
,di
rectcause(
s)ar
e
i
dent
if
iabl
ehumanact
ions,del
i
ber
ateorot
her
wise(
UNDP,1992)
.Someof
t
hem ar
eindust
ri
aldi
sast
ers,
war
s,ci
vi
lwar
s,t
ri
balconf
li
ctsanddef
orest
ati
on.
Nat
uraldi
sast
ersar
edi
sast
erst
hathappenaccor
dingt
onat
uralphenomenon
wi
thoutanyr
oleofhumans.Whi
chaccor
dingt
oKent(
1994)canbe:
 Geophy
sical
:ear
thquakes,
vol
canoes,
landsl
i
des,
icesl
i
desandt
sunami
.
 Met
eor
ologi
cal
:cy
clones,
drought
,heatwav
es,
snowst
ormsandf
ir
es.
 Bi
ologi
cal
:epi
demi
cs,
plantdi
seasesandi
nsect
s.

Fr
om somephi
l
osophi
cper
spect
ivei
twasdi
scussedanev
enbr
oaderdef
ini
ti
on
ofhuman-
madedi
sast
eracknowl
edgest
hatal
ldi
sast
ersar
ecausedbyhumans
because t
hey hav
e chosen,f
or what
ever r
eason,t
o be wher
e nat
ural
phenomenaoccur
sthatr
esul
tinadv
ersei
mpact
sonpeopl
e(UNDP,1992)
.
Accor
dingt
oKent(
1994)di
sast
ersdependi
ngont
hespeedofonsetcanbe:
i
. Speedonsetdi
sast
ersar
esuddenev
ent
sthatmayoccurwi
thout
war
ningi
nseconds(
ear
thquakes)
,mi
nut
es(
hur
ri
canes)orhour
s
(
fl
ash f
loods)
.They ar
e usual
l
yvi
olentand cause ext
ensi
ve
damage.
i
i
. Sl
ow onsetdi
sast
ersext
endf
oral
ongt
ime.Theygr
adual
l
ybut
per
sist
ent
lydegr
adet
heabsor
pti
vecapaci
tyofsoci
etyt
othe
poi
ntwher
e sur
viv
ali
s ul
ti
mat
elyj
eopar
dized.They i
ncl
ude
dr
ought
,fami
nes,
landsubsi
denceandenv
ironment
aldegr
adat
ion.

2.
1.5.Fl
ood

Accor
dingt
otheMuni
chRei
nsur
ance(
1997)Fl
oodi
shi
gh-
wat
erst
agei
nwhi
ch
wat
erov
erf
lowsi
tsnat
uralorar
ti
fi
cialbanksont
onor
mal
l
ydr
yland,suchasa
XVI
r
iveri
nundat
ingi
tsf
loodpl
ain.Theef
fect
soff
loodsonhumanwel
l
bei
ngr
ange
f
rom unqual
i
fied bl
essi
ngst
o cat
ast
rophes.Butt
hemaj
ori
tyoff
loodsar
e
har
mfult
ohumanset
tl
ement
s.Fl
oodsemanat
ingf
rom sur
facewat
er,whi
ch
accor
dingt
otheMuni
chRei
nsur
ance(
1997)i
ncl
ude:
Ri
verf
loodduet
oexcessi
ver
ainf
allr
unni
ngof
f,Backwat
erorf
ail
ureofdams
anddy
kes.Cost
alf
loodandl
i
kest
orm sur
geandt
sunami
andSeel
evel
rise.
Localf
loodsof
tennotl
i
nkedwi
thl
argebodi
esofwat
erorf
lowi
ngwat
erl
i
ke
f
lashf
loodanddebr
isf
lood.

2.
2 Di
sast
erManagementPr
ocess:
-

Di
sast
ermanagementi
saf
undament
alact
ivi
tygear
edt
owar
ds,i
dent
if
yingt
he
r
isk,under
standi
ngi
tsnat
ure,dev
elopi
ngpl
ansandst
rat
egi
est
oreducei
ts
i
mpactandcr
eat
ingmet
hodsandmeasur
est
oimpl
ementr
esponsest
rat
egi
es
asef
fi
cient
lyandef
fect
ivel
yaspossi
ble(
Kent
,1994)
.Iti
sthebodyofpol
i
cy
andadmi
nist
rat
ivedeci
sionsandoper
ati
onalact
ivi
ti
eswhi
chper
tai
ntot
he
v
ari
ousst
agesofadi
sast
eratal
ll
evel
s(UNDP,
1992)
.

I
n gener
al, any Emer
gency management (
whi
ch al
so cal
l
ed di
sast
er
management
)ist
hecont
inuouspr
ocessbywhi
chal
lindi
vi
dual
s,gr
oups,and
communi
ti
esmanagehazar
dinanef
for
ttoav
oidoramel
i
orat
ethei
mpactof
di
sast
ersr
esul
ti
ng f
rom t
hehazar
ds.Emer
gencyManagementi
soneofa
numberoft
ermswhi
ch,
sincet
heendoft
hecol
dwarhav
elar
gel
yrepl
acedCi
vi
l
def
ense,whoseor
igi
nalf
ocuswaspr
otect
ingci
vi
li
ansf
rom mi
l
itar
yat
tack.
Moder
nthi
nki
ng f
ocuses on a mor
e gener
ali
ntentt
o pr
otectt
he ci
vi
li
an
popul
ati
oni
nti
mesofpeaceaswel
lasi
nti
mesofwar(
Wiki
pedi
a).

2.
3.PhasesofFl
oodDi
sast
erManagement
:

Di
sast
ermanagementcanbeor
der
edt
ofouri
nter
act
ingandov
erl
appi
ng
Phasest
heyar
e:

:
2.3.
1.Fl
oodMi
ti
gat
ion

XVI
I
I
tist
hecol
l
ect
ivet
erm usedt
o encompassal
lact
ionst
akenpr
iort
othe
occur
renceofadi
sast
er(
pre-
disast
ermeasur
es)i
ncl
udi
ngpr
epar
edness,and
l
ong-
ter
mri
skr
educt
ionmeasur
es(
UNDP,
1992)
.
Mi
ti
gat
ionef
for
tsat
temptt
opr
eventhazar
dsf
rom dev
elopi
ngi
ntodi
sast
ers
al
toget
her
,ort
oreducet
heef
fect
sofdi
sast
erswhent
heyoccur
.Themi
ti
gat
ion
phase f
ocuses on l
ong-
ter
m measur
es f
orr
educi
ng orel
i
minat
ing r
isk
(
Wiki
pedi
a).
Tor
educer
iskal
otofmeasur
escanbet
akenl
i
keMappi
ngoft
hef
loodpl
ain
wher
ethebasi
cmapi
scombi
nedwi
thot
hermapsanddat
atof
orm acompl
ete
pi
ctur
eoft
hef
loodpl
ain.Ot
heri
nput
sincl
udeFr
equencyanal
ysi
s,I
nundat
ion
maps,Fl
ood f
requency and damage,Sl
ope maps,l
and use,v
eget
ati
on,
popul
ati
ondensi
tyandi
nfr
ast
ruct
ural
maps.

Landusecont
rolt
oreducedangert
oli
fe,pr
oper
tyanddev
elopmentwhenhi
gh
wat
ersi
nundat
ethef
loodpl
ainsort
hecoast
alar
eas.Somebasi
cel
ement
s
shoul
dbeaddr
essedl
i
keReduct
ionofdensi
ti
es,Pr
ohi
bit
ingspeci
fi
cfunct
ions
wi
thhi
ghdamagepot
ent
ial
suchashospi
tal
andal
l
owi
ngf
unct
ionswi
thal
ower
r
iskpot
ent
ialsuchasnat
urer
eser
ves,
spor
tsf
aci
l
iti
esandpar
ks.El
ement
sthat
bl
ockt
hef
loodwaymustber
elocat
edbecauset
hey
’l
lbet
hef
ir
stt
owashaway
,
and maycausedamagebyt
rappi
ng f
loodwat
erswhi
ch t
hen ov
erf
low i
nto
f
ormer
lyf
loodf
reezones.Regul
ati
onofbui
l
dingmat
eri
alsmustbef
orcedand
escaper
out
esmustbepr
oved.

Landusecont
rol
swi
l
lbeofl
i
mit
edusei
nal
readydev
elopedf
loodpl
ains.Yet
,
changesmustbei
mpl
ement
edt
oreduceacommuni
ty’
svul
ner
abi
l
ityt
ofl
ood
damage.
Agr
icul
tur
alpr
oduct
ionmustbedi
ver
sesuchaspl
ant
ingf
loodr
esi
stantcr
ops
oradj
ust
ingt
hepl
ant
ingseason;est
abl
i
shi
ngcashandf
loodr
eser
ves.Ani
mal
gr
azi
ngmustbecont
rol
l
edt
oincr
easeabsor
pti
oni
nfl
oodpl
ain.

Asmeasur
eswer
etakent
oreducer
isksomet
hingal
soshoul
dbedonef
orf
lood
cont
rol
.Suchmeasur
esdecr
easet
heamountofr
unof
f,usual
l
ybyal
ter
ingt
he

XVI
II
wat
ershed,andt
heymostef
fect
ivewhenempl
oyedov
ermostoft
hedr
ainage
basi
n.Thosemeasur
escanbeRef
orest
ati
onandr
eseedi
ng,Cont
ourpl
owi
ng,
Pr
otect
ion ofv
eget
ati
on f
rom f
ir
e,ov
ergr
azi
ng and cl
earcut
ti
ng,Cl
ear
ing
sedi
mentanddebr
isf
rom st
reams,
andpr
eser
vingf
arm pondsandot
herwat
er
hol
dingar
eas.

Fl
ooddi
ver
sioncanbedoneusi
ngLev
ees,embankment
sanddi
kesr
est
ri
ct
f
loodwat
erst
olow v
alueandont
hef
loodpl
ainandar
erel
ati
vel
ycheapt
o
const
ruct
.Damsar
ecapabl
eofst
ori
ngwat
ersot
hati
tcanber
eleasedata
manageabl
erat
e.Al
soexi
sti
ngchannel
scanbei
mpr
ovedbydeepeni
ngand
wi
deni
ngt
her
iver
bedand.t
husr
educi
ngt
hear
eaoft
hef
loodpl
ain.
Ther
ear
eal
sot
empor
arymeasur
esf
orf
lood-
proof
ingl
i
keBl
ocki
ngorseal
i
ng
ent
rances orwi
ndows.Usi
ng sandbags t
o keep f
lood wat
ers away and
st
abi
l
izi
ngst
reambedswi
thst
onemasonr
yorv
eget
ati
onespeci
alnearbr
idges.

:
2.3.
2.Fl
oodpr
epar
edness

Pr
epar
edness consi
sts ofact
ivi
ti
es desi
gned t
o mi
nimi
ze l
oss ofl
i
fe and
damage,or
gani
ze t
he t
empor
aryr
emov
alofpeopl
e and pr
oper
tyf
rom a
t
hreat
ened l
ocat
ion,and f
aci
l
itat
eti
mel
y and ef
fect
iver
escue,r
eli
efand
r
ehabi
l
itat
ion(
UNDP,
1992)
.
I
tref
erst
oal
lmeasur
esandact
ivi
ti
esunder
takent
oensur
ethecapabi
l
ityt
o
pr
edi
ctandt
akepr
ecaut
ionar
ymeasur
esi
nadv
anceofanemi
nentt
hreat
.It
essent
ial
l
ypl
ans t
o ensur
efast
,ef
fi
cientand ef
fect
iver
esponse t
o gi
ven
di
sast
eroremer
gency(
Kent
,1994)
.

Fl
ooddet
ect
ionsy
stemspr
ovi
det
hebasi
sforf
loodf
orecast
s,war
ningand
pr
epar
ednesssy
stemsr
angef
rom i
nexpensi
venet
wor
ksi
nvol
vi
ngv
olunt
eer
s
whoobser
ver
ainf
allandst
ream st
agest
osophi
sti
cat
ednet
wor
ksofgauges
and comput
eri
zed model
s.Way
sto di
ssemi
nat
e war
nings i
ncl
ude r
adi
o,
t
elev
isi
on,war
ningsi
rensorbel
l
s,publ
i
caddr
esssy
stems,andatv
il
lagel
evel
bybi
cycl
eandonf
oot
.Nat
ionalwar
ningsy
stemsar
emor
evul
ner
abl
etof
ail
ure
becauseofpr
obl
emsdi
ssemi
nat
ingwar
ningsl
ocal
l
yinacl
earmannerwhi
ch

XI
X
r
eacht
het
argetcommuni
tyi
nti
mef
oract
iont
otakepl
ace.Nat
ionalwar
ning
sy
stemsar
emor
eef
fect
ivei
nwar
ningur
banpopul
ati
ons.Rur
alsy
stemsr
equi
re
r
espect
edl
ocall
eader
stoi
ssuecl
eari
nst
ruct
ionandpr
iorar
rangement
sfor
pr
otect
ingasset
sandr
eachi
ngev
acuat
ionsi
tes.(
Shel
i
a,1997)
.Li
vi
ngwi
th
Fl
oods,Pr
ogr
ams t
o pr
omot
e publ
i
c awar
eness oft
he f
lood hazar
d ar
e
essent
ialandmaycont
ainExpl
anat
ionsoft
hef
unct
ionoff
loodpl
ains,l
ocat
ion
ofl
ocalf
loodpl
ainsanddr
ainagepat
ter
ns,I
dent
if
icat
ionoff
loodhazar
dsand
war
ningsi
gns,Encour
agi
ngi
ndi
vi
dual
stof
loodpr
ooft
hei
rpossessi
onsand
dev
elopper
sonal
escapepl
ans,
Expl
anat
ionofcommuni
tyev
acuat
ionpl
ansand
war
ning sy
stems,and appr
opr
iat
e post
-di
sast
eract
ivi
ti
es and Encour
agi
ng
per
sonalr
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
orf
lood pr
event
ion/
mit
igat
ion i
n dayt
o dayl
i
ving
pr
act
ices.Thi
swoul
dincl
udeuseofpr
operf
armi
ngpr
act
ices,pr
event
ionof
def
orest
ati
onandmai
ntenanceofdr
ainageway
s(Kent
,1994)
.Mast
erpl
ancan
bedesi
gnedt
obet
hebasi
cgui
det
hatpr
ovi
desl
ocalof
fi
cial
sanddev
eloper
sor
l
andowner
swi
thi
nfor
mat
ionaboutt
hef
loodpl
ain(
Shel
i
a,1997)
.

:
2.3.
3.Fl
oodResponse

Responser
efer
stoact
ivi
ti
est
hati
mmedi
atel
yfol
l
owt
heonsetofadi
sast
er.I
n
f
actr
esponsedependsonwhathasbeenachi
evedi
nter
msofdi
sast
err
isk
assessment and pr
epar
edness. Response act
ivi
ti
es i
ncl
ude emer
gency
assi
stancei
ncasesofcausal
i
ties,
evacuat
ion,
shel
ter
,wat
erandf
oodpr
ovi
sion,
sani
tat
ionf
ir
stai
dandmedi
cal
assi
stance,
househol
dneedset
c(Hai
ti
,2003)
.

Responsecanbei
ntwocat
egor
ies.Thei
nit
ialr
esponset
ofl
oodi
ngbyl
ocal
aut
hor
it
iesandt
hatshoul
dincl
udesear
chandr
escue,medi
calassi
stance,
di
sast
erassessment
,shor
tter
mfl
oodandwat
erpr
ovi
sion,wat
erpur
if
icat
ion,
epi
demi
ologi
cal
sur
vei
l
lanceandt
empor
aryshel
ter
.(Shei
l
a,1997)
.

Thesecondar
yresponseshoul
dincl
uder
epai
rorr
econst
ruct
ion,r
eest
abl
i
shor
cr
eat
e empl
oyment
,assi
st wi
th r
ecov
ery of agr
icul
tur
ethr
ough l
oans,
di
str
ibut
ionoff
arm equi
pmentandt
ool
sandani
mal
sandassi
stwi
thr
ecov
ery
ofsmal
lbusi
nessesandf
isher
ies.(
UNDP,
1992)

XX
:
2.3.
4.Fl
oodRecov
ery

Act
ionst
akendur
ingt
heper
iodf
oll
owi
ngt
heemer
gencyphasei
sof
ten
def
inedast
her
ecov
eryphase,
whi
chencompassesf
oll
owas:
-
i
. Rehabi
l
itat
ionr
efer
stot
heact
ionst
akeni
ntheaf
ter
mat
hofadi
sast
ert
o
enabl
ebasi
cser
vicest
oresumef
unct
ioni
ng,assi
stv
ict
ims’sel
f-
hel
p
ef
for
tst
orepai
rphy
sicaldamage and communi
tyf
aci
l
iti
es,r
evi
ve
economi
cact
ivi
ti
esandpr
ovi
desuppor
tfort
hepsy
chol
ogi
calandsoci
al
wel
lbei
ng oft
he sur
viv
ors.I
tfocuses on enabl
i
ng t
he af
fect
ed
popul
ati
ont
oresumemor
e-or
-l
essnor
mal(
pre-
disast
er)pat
ter
nsofl
i
fe
(
Aysan&Dav
is,1993)
.Reconst
ruct
ionr
efer
stot
hef
ullr
est
orat
ionofal
t
ser
vices,and l
ocali
nfr
ast
ruct
ure,r
epl
acementofdamaged phy
sical
st
ruct
ures,t
her
evi
tal
i
zat
ionofeconomyandt
her
est
orat
ionofsoci
al
andcul
tur
all
i
fe.
i
i
. Reconst
ruct
ion mustbe f
ull
yint
egr
ated i
ntol
ong-
ter
m dev
elopment
pl
ans,t
aki
ngi
ntoaccountf
utur
efl
ooddi
sast
err
isksandpossi
bil
i
tiest
o
r
educe such r
isks by i
ncor
por
ati
ng appr
opr
iat
e measur
es.Pol
i
tical
commi
tment i
s cr
it
ical t
o t
he success of r
ehabi
l
itat
ion and
r
econst
ruct
ionef
for
ts(
Aysan&Dav
is,1993)
.Accor
dingt
oShel
i
a(1997)
t
he pr
ocesses ofr
ehabi
l
itat
ion and r
econst
ruct
ion ar
e compl
exand
dependl
argel
yont
heanal
ysi
soft
hef
looddi
sast
eri
tsel
f,i
tscauses,
l
ocat
ion,scal
e oft
he damage and t
he par
ti
cul
arsect
ors af
fect
ed.
Pl
anni
ngf
orr
ehabi
l
itat
ionandr
econst
ruct
ionwi
l
ldependont
hel
osses
sust
ainedbyt
hecommuni
ty.Thesear
ety
pical
l
ybui
l
dings,
inf
rast
ruct
ure,
economi
casset
s,admi
nist
rat
iveandpol
i
ticalsy
stems,psy
chol
ogi
cal
,
cul
tur
al,soci
alandenv
ironment
all
oses.Av
ail
abl
eresour
cesmustbe
i
ncor
por
ated i
ntot
he pl
anni
ng f
orRehabi
l
itat
ion and r
econst
ruct
ion.
Thesear
ety
pical
l
y,f
unds,mat
eri
als,equi
pmentandt
ool
s,ener
gyand
powersour
ces,l
and (
forbui
l
ding)
,human r
esour
ces,adequat
e and
r
elev
anti
nfor
mat
ionandadmi
nist
rat
ivest
ruct
ures(
Aysan&Dav
is,
1993)
.

XXI
CausesofFl
ood2.
4.

Causesf
orf
loodcanbeei
thernat
ural
oraccor
dingt
ohumancont
ri
but
ion.
Nat
ural
causesf
orf
loodaccor
dingt
oShel
i
a(1997)maybe:
 Excessi
ver
ainf
allwhi
ch maybeei
therseasonalr
ainf
allorl
ocal
i
zed
st
ormswhi
chpr
oducet
hehi
ghesti
ntensi
tyr
ainf
all
.
 Somear
eat
tri
but
edt
oat
mospher
icandoceani
cpr
ocessessuchast
he
El
NiñoSout
her
nOsci
l
lat
ion(
ENSO)orst
rongj
etst
reams.
 Fl
oodsar
enat
uralhazar
ds,t
hecat
ast
rophi
cef
fectoccurandenl
arge
becauseoft
hehumancont
ri
but
ion.Andt
hatcanbe:
 Set
tl
ementonf
loodpl
ainscont
ri
but
esbyendanger
inghumansandt
hei
r
asset
s.Pr
essur
esf
rom popul
ati
ongr
owt
handshor
tagesofl
andal
so
pr
omot
eset
tl
ementonf
loodpl
ains(
Shel
i
a,1997)
.
 Ur
bani
zat
ioncont
ri
but
esmanyway
s:
o Roadsandbui
l
dingscov
ert
hel
andpr
event
ingi
nfi
l
trat
ion
sot
hatr
unof
ffor
msar
ti
fi
cial
str
eams.
o Thenet
wor
kofdr
ainsi
nur
banar
easmaydel
i
verwat
erand
f
il
lnat
uralchannel
smor
erapi
dlyt
hannat
ural
l
yoccur
ri
ng
dr
ainage.Thenet
wor
kofdr
ainsi
nur
banar
easmaybe
i
nsuf
fi
cientandov
erf
low.
o Thenat
ural
orar
ti
fi
cial
channel
sbecomeconst
ri
ctedduet
o
debr
is,orobst
ruct
edbyr
iverf
aci
l
iti
es,i
mpedi
ngdr
ainage
andov
erf
lowi
ngt
hecat
chmentar
eas.
 Def
orest
ati
onandr
emov
alofr
ootsy
stemsi
ncr
easesr
unof
f.Subsequent
er
osi
oncausessedi
ment
ati
oni
nri
verchannel
swhi
chdecr
easest
hei
r
capaci
ty(
Shel
i
a,1997)
.
 Fai
l
uret
omai
ntai
normanagedr
ainagesy
stems,damsandl
eveebank
pr
otect
ioni
nvul
ner
abl
ear
eaal
socont
ri
but
est
ofl
oodi
ng(
Shei
l
a,1997)
.

XXI
I
2.
4.1.Ur
banFl
oodsHazar
d
 Fl
oodsr
esul
tfr
om acombi
nat
ionofmet
eor
ologi
calandhy
drol
ogi
cal
ext
remes.I
nmostcasesf
loodsar
eaddi
ti
onal
l
yinf
luencedbyhuman
f
act
ors.Al
thought
hesei
nfl
uencesar
ever
ydi
ver
se,
theygener
all
ytendt
o
aggr
avat
efl
ood haz
ards by accent
uat
ing f
lood peaks.Thus f
lood
hazar
dsi
nbui
l
tenv
ironment
shav
etobeseenast
heconsequenceof
nat
uralandman-
madef
act
ors{
WMO/
GWPAssoci
atedPr
ogr
ammeon
Fl
oodManagement
,2008}
.

2.
4.2.Humanf
act
orsaggr
avat
ingnat
uralf
loodhazar
ds
Land-
usechanges(
e.g.sur
faceseal
i
ng duet
o ur
bani
zat
ion,def
orest
ati
on)
i
ncr
easer
un-
offandmaybesedi
ment
ati
on
 Occupat
ionoft
hef
loodpl
ainobst
ruct
ingf
lows
 I
nef
fi
ciencyornon-
mai
ntenanceofi
nfr
ast
ruct
ure
 Tooef
fi
ci
entdr
ainageofupst
ream ar
easi
ncr
easesf
loodpeaks
 Cl
i
mat
echangeaf
fect
smagni
tudeandf
requencyofpr
eci
pit
ati
onsand
f
loods
 Ur
banmi
crocl
i
mat
emayenf
orcepr
eci
pit
ati
on{
WMO/
GWPAssoci
ated
Pr
ogr
ammeonFl
oodManagement
,2008}
.

2.
4.3.Cl
imat
echangeandf
loodi
ng
Duet
ogl
obalwar
mingmanysubsy
stemsoft
hegl
obalwat
ercy
clear
eli
kel
yto
i
ntensi
fy,
resul
ti
ngi
nmanyr
egi
onsi
nani
ncr
easeoff
loodmagni
tudeaswel
las
f
loodf
requency(
Int
ergov
ernment
alPanel
,2007)
.Cl
i
mat
echangei
smaki
ng
weat
herl
esspr
edi
ctabl
e,r
ainsmor
euncer
tai
nandheav
yst
ormr
ainf
all
smor
e
l
i
kel
y.Heav
ythunder
stor
mrai
nsappeart
ohav
eincr
easedi
nfr
equency
.Ur
ban
ar
eas may hel
ptoi
ncr
ease t
hunder
stor
m act
ivi
ty because t
hei
rbui
l
t-up

XXI
II
sur
facesat
tai
nhi
ghert
emper
atur
est
hansur
roundi
ngar
easandcr
eat
eal
ocal
ai
rci
rcul
ati
ont
hatpr
oducesan’
urbanheati
sland’
.Dustpar
ti
clescaughtupi
n
t
hatci
rcul
ati
onactasnucl
eionwhi
chmoi
stur
eincl
oudscondenses,f
ormi
ng
r
aindr
opl
etst
hatev
ent
ual
l
ymaydev
elopi
ntot
hel
arger
aindr
opsofamaj
or
t
hunder
stor
m.
Sea-
lev
elr
isei
ncr
easest
her
iskofcoast
alf
loods,par
ti
cul
arl
yincaseofst
orm
sur
ges.Manymi
l
li
onmor
epeopl
ear
epr
oject
edt
obef
loodedev
eryy
earduet
o
sea-
lev
elr
ise by 2080s.Those densel
y popul
ated l
ow-
ly
ing ar
eas wher
e
adapt
ivecapaci
tyi
srel
ati
vel
ylowar
eespeci
all
yatr
isk(
IPCC,
2007)
.
2.
4.3.
1.I
mpactofUr
banFl
oods
Ur
banf
loodshav
elar
gei
mpact
spar
ti
cul
arl
yint
ermsofeconomi
clossesbot
h
di
rectandi
ndi
rect
.Fl
oodr
isksar
eaf
unct
ionofexposur
eoft
hepeopl
eandt
he
economi
cact
ivi
ti
esal
ongwi
tht
hev
ulner
abi
l
ityofsoci
alandeconomi
cfabr
ic.
Assucht
hei
mpactofsuchf
loodsont
hel
i
vesandl
i
vel
i
hoodsofpeopl
e,a
f
unct
ionoft
hei
rvul
ner
abi
l
ity
,needst
obeunder
stood.A numberofur
ban
char
act
eri
sti
cs par
ti
cul
arl
yinl
ow and mi
ddl
eincome count
ri
es t
hathav
e
r
elev
ancet
othei
ncr
easedf
loodr
isksar
e:
 Concent
rat
ed popul
ati
on due t
o concent
rat
ed i
ncome ear
ning
oppor
tuni
ti
es;
 Lar
gei
mper
meabl
esur
facesandconst
ruct
ionofbui
l
dings;
 Concent
rat
ionofsol
i
dandl
i
qui
dwast
ewi
thoutanyf
ormaldi
sposal
sy
stems;
 Obst
ruct
eddr
ainagesy
stems;
 I
ntensi
veeconomi
cact
ivi
ti
es;
 Hi
ghv
alueofi
nfr
ast
ruct
ureandpr
oper
ti
es;
 For
cingoutofpoorf
rom of
fi
ciall
andmar
ket
sgi
vi
ngr
iset
oinf
ormal
set
tl
ement
s;
 Housi
ngwi
thoutanyheal
thandhy
gienest
andar
ds;
 Changesi
nregi
onsar
oundci
ti
es
www.
par
li
ament
.uk/
par
li
ament
ary
_of
fi
ces/
post
/pubs2007.

2.
4.3.
2.Exposur
e

XXI
V
Exposur
eref
ersher
eexcl
usi
vel
ytot
hequest
ionofwhet
herornotpeopl
eor
v
aluesar
einr
angeoff
loodwat
ers.Oneoft
hemaj
orf
act
orsf
ort
her
isei
n
ur
banf
looddamagesi
ssi
mpl
ythei
ncr
easi
ngnumberofpeopl
eandasset
sthat
ar
ephy
sical
l
yexposedt
ofl
oodsi
nci
ti
es.Thef
astandunpl
annedgr
owt
hof
ci
ti
esr
esul
tsi
nal
argernumberofpeopl
eli
vi
ngi
nar
easpot
ent
ial
l
yli
abl
eto
f
loodi
ng.I
ndev
elopedcount
ri
es,
duet
oaest
het
icr
easons,
ther
eisapr
efer
ence
t
oli
vecl
osur
etor
iver
s,seaandot
herwat
erbodi
es.Thenumberofpeopl
eli
vi
ng
wi
thi
n1met
erofhi
ght
idel
evel
exceeds150mi
l
li
ons[
Ant
hof
f,D.etal
.
,2006]
.

2.
4.3.
3.Vul
ner
abi
li
ty
Vul
ner
abi
l
ityi
sthemostcr
uci
alcomponentofr
iski
nthati
tdet
ermi
neswhet
her
ornotexposur
etoahazar
dconst
it
utesar
iskt
hatmayact
ual
l
yresul
tina
di
sast
er.I
fthepot
ent
ialexposur
etof
loodsbecomesr
eal
i
ty,i
.e.whenf
lood
wat
ersphy
sical
l
yencr
oachonpeopl
eandi
nfr
ast
ruct
ure,t
hent
hev
ulner
abi
l
ity
ofpeopl
eandi
nfr
ast
ruct
urei
sdeci
siv
efort
hedegr
eeofhar
m anddamage.
Thr
eet
ypesofv
ulner
abi
l
itycanbedi
sti
ngui
shed:
 Phy
sical
vul
ner
abi
l
ityofpeopl
eandi
nfr
ast
ruct
ure;
 Unf
avor
abl
eor
gani
zat
ional
andeconomi
ccondi
ti
ons;
 At
ti
tudes and mot
ivat
ions.
a{WMO/
GWP Associ
ated Pr
ogr
amme on
Fl
oodManagement
,2008}
.

2.
4.4.I
ntegr
atedManagementofUr
banFl
oods
2.
4.4.
1Ai
msandAppr
oaches
Theul
ti
mat
eai
m ofi
ntegr
atedur
banf
loodr
iskmanagementi
stomi
nimi
ze
humanl
ossandeconomi
cdamages,
whi
l
emaki
nguseoft
henat
uralr
esour
ces
f
ort
hebenef
itandwel
lbei
ngoft
hepeopl
e.Howev
eri
tisr
eal
i
zedt
hatabsol
ute
f
loodsecur
it
yisi
nmostcasesut
opi
an.Fl
oodr
iskscannotbeent
ir
elyav
oided,
t
hust
heyhav
etobemanaged.Consequent
ly,f
loodmanagementdoesnot

XXV
st
ri
vet
oel
i
minat
efl
oodr
isksbutt
omi
ti
gat
ethem.Thi
smaybeachi
evedei
ther
byr
educi
ng f
lood r
isks t
o an accept
abl
elev
elorbyr
etai
ning,shar
ing or
t
ransf
err
ingf
loodr
iskst
hroughr
espect
ivemeasur
es.Thesemeasur
esshoul
d
f
orm par
tofani
ntegr
atedr
iskmanagementpr
ocess.Thebasi
cst
epsofan
i
ntegr
ated management pr
ocess ar
e Ri
sk assessment
, Pl
anni
ng and
i
mpl
ement
ati
onofmeasur
es,Ev
aluat
ionandr
iskr
eassessment{
WMO/
GWP
Associ
atedPr
ogr
ammeonFl
oodManagement
,2008}
.

 Fi
gur
e(2)
:St
epsoft
heRi
skManagementPr
ocess{
WMO/
GWP
Associ
atedPr
ogr
ammeonFl
oodManagement
,2008}
.

Thi
sfi
rst st
ep i
nthe r
isk management pr
ocess i
s a compr
ehensi
ve
under
standi
ng,anal
ysi
sandassessmentoff
loodr
isks,bef
oref
loodmi
ti
gat
ion
measur
esar
epl
annedori
mpl
ement
ed.I
tist
heonl
ypossi
bil
i
tyt
opr
ovi
deci
ty
pl
anner
swi
thi
nfor
mat
ionaboutwhatcomponentofr
iski
spr
evai
l
ingi
nwhi
ch
ar
ea.I
tcanhel
panswerquest
ionsont
het
ypeofmeasur
est
hatar
eli
kel
yto
r
educef
loodr
isksmostef
fi
cient
lyi
naspeci
fi
ednei
ghbor
hood.I
nor
dert
o
const
ant
lyi
mpr
ovef
loodr
iskmanagementpl
ansandr
espect
ivemeasur
esi
tis
ev
ent
ual
l
ymandat
oryt
oev
aluat
etheper
for
manceofi
mpl
ement
edmeasur
es
and t
oreassess r
esi
dualr
isks and i
ntur
n dealwi
tht
hem {
WMO/
GWP
Associ
atedPr
ogr
ammeonFl
oodManagement
,2008}
.

2.
4.4.
2.Ri
skAssessment

Ri
skassessmenthast
obecar
ri
edouti
nani
ntegr
atedmanner
,i.
e.i
dent
if
ying
al
lthepossi
blewat
err
elat
edhazar
ds,
incl
udi
nghowt
heyar
eli
kel
ytodev
elopi
n
t
hef
utur
easaconsequenceofur
bani
zat
ionorot
herdev
elopmentact
ivi
ti
es.To
beusef
uli
nland-
usepl
anni
ngt
her
iskassessmentshal
lbecar
ri
edoutwi
thi
na

XXVI
mul
ti
-hazar
dconcept
.Thehy
drol
ogi
candhy
draul
i
cchar
act
eri
sti
csoft
hese
hazar
dshast
omodel
edi
nthecont
extoft
her
iverbasi
n,andt
heeconomi
c,
pol
i
tical
,soci
o-cul
tur
alandecol
ogi
calenv
ironmentoft
hef
loodpr
onear
ea.
Suchanassessmentshoul
dgi
vei
nfor
mat
ionaboutt
hepr
obabi
l
ityofahazar
d’s
occur
renceandt
her
espect
ivepot
ent
ialofl
oss.Hencet
hequant
if
icat
ionof
r
isks has t
o st
artwi
tht
he anal
ysi
s ofhy
dro-
met
eor
ologi
caldat
a and t
he
hy
draul
i
csi
mul
ati
on off
loods.A numberofdi
ff
erentscenar
iosshoul
d be
model
edi
nor
dert
ofact
ori
ntheconsequencesofl
i
kel
yfut
urechangeson
ur
banf
loods(
fut
uredev
elopmentofur
bani
zat
ion,
cli
mat
evar
iabi
l
ityandchange,
l
andusechangeset
c.)
.Ther
esul
tsofsuchmodel
spr
ovi
dei
nfor
mat
ionabout
t
heexpect
edf
loodf
requenci
esandmagni
tudes(
ext
ent
,dept
h,dur
ati
onand
f
lowv
eloci
ti
es)
,ther
ebymar
kingt
hosear
easandsubj
ect
s,whi
char
eexposed
t
ofl
oods.
Usi
ngt
hegeogr
aphi
caldef
ini
ti
onofexposedar
eas,
iti
spossi
blet
omakeaf
ir
st
assessmentoft
hepot
ent
ialdamages.Mostcommonl
ythi
sisachi
evedby
under
taki
ngsur
veyoft
heeconomi
cval
uesandasset
slocat
edi
nthesear
eas.I
n
combi
nat
ionwi
thdat
aaboutf
loodf
requencyandmagni
tudet
heeconomi
cri
sk
canbecal
cul
atedandex
pressed,
e.g.i
nter
msofdamagepersquar
emet
erper
y
ear(
$/m²
/a)ori
ndamagecur
ves[
APFM,
2007]
.

2.
5.Sour
cecont
rolmeasur
es
Thesear
emeantt
oei
therr
etai
norr
educest
ormwat
err
unof
finor
dert
opr
event
t
heexceedanceoft
hedr
ainagesy
stem andt
omi
ti
gat
ethegener
ati
onoff
lood
hazar
dsdownst
ream.Ther
esul
ti
nghy
drogr
aphsi
l
lust
rat
ehow t
her
educt
ion
andr
etent
ionofst
ormwat
err
unof
finasour
cecont
roldr
ainagesy
stemscan
cutdi
schar
gepeaks.
Ther
educt
ionofsur
facer
unof
fcanbeachi
evedbyav
ari
etyofmeasur
est
hat
i
ncr
easei
nfi
l
trat
ion,
evapor
ati
onand/
ort
ranspi
rat
ionf
rom t
hecat
chmentar
eas
t
hatcont
ri
but
etol
ocalf
loodi
ng.Theeasi
estwayt
o do so i
sto pr
eser
ve
unseal
edandgr
eenedspacesi
ntheci
ty.Suchspacesar
eofmul
ti
funct
ional
pur
poset
hey
:
XXVI
I
  Reducesur
facer
unof
fbyi
ncr
easi
ngi
nfi
l
trat
ionandev
apot
ranspi
rat
ion;
 Ret
ainwat
ert
hroughi
nter
cept
ion;
 Fi
l
tert
heper
col
ati
ngwat
er;
 Rechar
gegr
oundwat
err
esour
ces;
 Reduceai
rpol
l
uti
onandi
mpr
ovet
heur
banmi
crocl
i
mat
e;and
 Canbeusedf
orr
ecr
eat
ionalpur
posesi
nthef
orm ofpar
ksandgar
dens
[
DeGr
oot[
Ed.
],
1982.
].

Si
ncet
heav
ail
abi
l
ityofspacei
shi
ghl
yli
mit
edi
nci
ti
es,
lessext
ensi
vemeasur
es
t
hatenabl
eef
fect
ivei
n-t
owni
nfi
l
trat
ioncanal
sobeused.Amongt
hem ar
e:
1.I
nfi
l
trat
iont
renches;
2.Soak-
away
s;
3.Measur
est
hati
ncr
easet
heper
meabi
l
ityofl
argersur
faces.
Essent
ial
l
y,i
nfi
l
trat
iont
renchesandsoakway
sconsi
stofat
renchorapi
tfi
l
led
wi
that
opl
ayerofper
meabl
emat
eri
all
i
kecr
ushedst
onesorgr
avelanda
bot
tom l
ayerofsand.I
deal
l
y,t
heyar
ewal
l
edbyf
il
terf
abr
ics.Par
kingsur
faces
shal
lbemadeofper
meabl
emat
eri
alscanal
socont
ri
but
esi
gni
fi
cant
lyt
othe
r
educt
ionofr
unof
f[DeGr
oot[
Ed.
],
1982.
].

Si
ncet
hepot
ent
ialf
ori
n-t
owni
nfi
l
trat
ionandev
apot
ranspi
rat
ioni
sli
mit
ed,
especi
all
yin ci
ti
eswher
econv
ect
ivepr
eci
pit
ati
on and non-
absor
pti
vesoi
l
s
pr
evai
l
,measur
esofst
ormwat
err
etent
ionar
evi
talf
ort
hemi
ti
gat
ionofur
ban
f
loods as wel
las f
ort
he pr
event
ion ofdownst
ream f
loods.St
ormwat
er
r
etent
ioncanbeachi
evedorf
aci
l
itat
edbyconst
ruct
ingbasi
nsorpondst
hat
t
empor
ari
l
yst
oresur
facer
unof
fandr
eleasei
tsubsequent
lyatacont
rol
l
edr
ate.
Ther
eisav
ari
etyofr
etent
ionbasi
nsandponds-openorcov
ered,wetordr
y,
onl
i
ne orof
fl
ine – t
hatmay ser
vev
ari
ous pur
poses.The adv
ant
age of
mul
ti
pur
pose dr
y ponds i
sthe maxi
mizat
ion ofl
and use.They can al
so
cont
ri
but
etoi
nfi
l
trat
ionandt
other
emov
alofpol
l
utant
s.
Ther
ear
emanycr
eat
ivepossi
bil
i
tiest
ouset
hesamespacef
orev
eryday

XXVI
II
act
ivi
ti
esaswel
lasf
oroccasi
onalf
loodi
ng.Fur
ther
mor
e,wetpondsi
nthef
orm
ofar
ti
fi
ciall
akescanbeofaest
het
icv
alue.Tempor
aryst
ormwat
err
etent
ion
can be made i
n spor
tcour
ts,par
king si
tes,pl
aygr
oundset
c.I
n al
lcases
sedi
ment
ati
onhast
obeconsi
der
edal
i
kel
ypr
obl
em i
nbasi
nsandponds.
Theser
etent
ionbasi
nsr
equi
ref
lowequal
i
zat
ionf
aci
l
iti
est
opr
eventf
loodi
ngof
anddamaget
osuchf
aci
l
iti
es[
DeGr
oot[
Ed.
],
1982.
].

2.
5.1.Rai
nwat
erhar
vest
ing
Thi
sispar
ti
cul
arl
yusef
uli
n semi
-ar
id ar
east
hatexper
iencewat
erst
ress.
Consi
der
ing economi
c and env
ironment
aladv
ant
ages and i
ts pot
ent
ialf
or
mi
ti
gat
ionofur
banf
loods,r
ainwat
erhar
vest
ingi
snotonl
yappl
i
cabl
einci
ti
es
wher
efr
eshwat
err
esour
cesar
escar
cebutconst
it
utesar
easonabl
emeasur
e
i
nal
mostal
lci
ti
es.Al
thoughunf
il
ter
edst
ormwat
eri
snor
mal
l
ynotofdr
inki
ng
wat
erqual
i
ty,i
tis amenabl
efornon-
pot
abl
e pur
poses such as washi
ng,
i
rr
igat
ion,
toi
l
etf
lushi
nget
c.St
ormwat
eri
susual
l
ycol
l
ect
edonr
oof
sandst
ored
i
ntanksori
nunder
groundci
ster
ns[
UNHABI
TAT,
2005]
.

2.
5.2.Pr
event
ingexposur
e
Basedont
hedef
ini
ti
onofexposur
east
hef
actt
hatpeopl
eandi
nfr
ast
ruct
ure
ar
eli
kel
ytogeti
ncont
actwi
thf
loodwat
ersbecauseoft
hei
rlocat
ion,
exposur
e
mi
ti
gat
ionr
efer
stomeasur
esofur
banpl
anni
ngwhi
char
esupposedt
opr
event
t
hel
ocat
ionofset
tl
ement
sandi
nfr
ast
ruct
urei
nar
easexposedt
ofl
oodhazar
ds.
To t
his end t
he abi
l
ity of pl
ans t
oreconci
l
ethe spat
ialdemands of
wat
ercour
sesanddev
elopmenti
scr
uci
al.I
deal
l
y,f
loodsensi
ti
veur
banpl
anni
ng
shoul
d av
oidt
hei
ntensi
fi
cat
ion off
lood r
isksasa r
esul
tto dev
elopment
act
ivi
ti
es.Howev
er,
thi
sisonl
ypr
act
icabl
einaf
ewci
ti
est
hatgr
owatmoder
ate
r
ates.I
n ci
ti
es wi
th hi
gh r
ates ofpopul
ati
on gr
owt
h and/
orhi
gh spat
ial
demandsf
oreconomi
cdev
elopmenti
tisdi
ff
icul
ttoav
oidi
ncr
easi
ngf
lood
exposur
e.Ty
pical
l
y,whenconf
li
ctsar
iseabouthow t
ouseur
banl
and,t
he
pot
ent
ialf
orshor
tter
m pr
ofi
tsf
rom dev
elopmentpr
evai
l
sov
erar
gument
sof
t
heneedf
or“
spacef
orwat
er”i
nthecont
extoff
loodpr
event
ion.Ont
heot
her
hand,t
hough,spat
ialpl
anni
ngi
sincr
easi
ngl
yrecogni
zedast
hecent
ralmeans

XXI
X
t
opr
eventur
banf
looddi
sast
ersbecauseoft
hef
actt
hati
tcanl
eadi
nthel
ong
r
un t
o mor
e ef
fect
ive and economi
cal
l
ymor
e ef
fi
cientsol
uti
ons t
han t
he
t
radi
ti
onalmeansofdev
elopi
ngexposedar
easandt
henpr
otect
ingt
hem by
dy
kes(
Mol
l
,R.
,2005)
.

Pr
erequi
sit
efort
heconsi
der
ati
onoff
loodr
isksasani
ntegr
alpar
tofl
ong-
ter
m
ur
banpl
anni
ngi
stheknowl
edgeandawar
enessofpr
esentandf
utur
efl
ood
r
isksamongpl
anner
s.Suchknowl
edgecanbegener
atedbycombi
ningf
lood
model
swi
thscenar
iosofur
bani
zat
ioni
nter
msofdemogr
aphi
candeconomi
c
dev
elopment
,techni
calpr
ogr
ess,al
ter
ing l
i
fe st
yles et
c.Gi
ven t
hatsuch
changesar
ecl
osel
yli
nkedt
otheuseofspace,scenar
iomodel
i
ngcanpr
ovi
de
i
nsi
ghti
ntohowt
hespat
ialdemandsofur
bandev
elopmentandwat
ercour
ses
wi
l
lov
erl
ap i
nfut
ureand whatt
hismeansf
ort
hedegr
eeoff
utur
efl
ood
exposur
e.Suchconsi
der
ati
onsenabl
epl
anner
stodesi
gnpl
ansi
nani
ntegr
ated
manner
.Inpr
act
icalt
ermst
hismeanst
hedel
i
neat
ionofzoneswhi
chdef
inet
he
degr
eeofexposur
eandt
her
espect
ivet
ypeofl
anduseal
l
owedi
nor
dert
o
mi
nimi
zet
hei
ncr
easeofexposur
eint
hepr
ocessofur
bandev
elopment
.
I
mpl
ement
ati
on ofl
and use pl
ans f
orms a maj
orbot
tl
eneck i
nreduci
ng
exposur
e.Themet
hodsf
ori
mpl
ement
ing l
and usepl
anscan basi
cal
l
ybe
st
ruct
uredi
nfourcat
egor
ies(
Bur
by,
R.J.
,2000)
:

 Rest
ri
cti
veRegul
ati
on(
prohi
bit
ions,
penal
ti
es,
reset
tl
ement
)

 Economi
cIncent
ives(
pref
erent
ialt
axat
ionf
ordesi
redl
anduse;ext
ra
t
axat
ionf
orundesi
redl
anduses)

 Knowl
edge Enhancement(
Inf
ormat
ion aboutf
lood r
isks,awar
eness
campai
gns)

 Bui
l
ding codes pl
ay an i
mpor
tantr
olei
n decr
easi
ng t
he phy
sical
v
ulner
abi
l
ityofhousesandi
nfr
ast
ruct
ure.
Basedont
hedel
i
neat
ionofr
iskzones,bui
l
dingcodesshoul
dgi
vemandat
ory
gui
dancet
otheconst
ruct
ionoff
loodr
esi
l
ienthousi
ngandi
nfr
ast
ruct
ure.They
pr
ovi
der
egul
ati
onswi
thr
efer
encet
othet
ypeofconst
ruct
ionmat
eri
al,t
he
st
ruct
uralf
eat
uresoft
heconst
ruct
ionandi
nsomecasesal
sot
heoccupancy
anduseofhouses.Howev
er,enf
orcementofbui
l
dingcodesi
nmanyci
ti
esi
s

XXX
weakatbest
.Iti
sal
mostnon-
exi
stenti
nthei
nfor
malset
tl
ement
sindev
elopi
ng
count
ri
es.
Ther
ear
evar
iouspossi
bil
i
tiest
opr
otecthousesandpr
oper
tyagai
nstf
lood
wat
ers usi
ng r
etr
ofi
tt
ing t
echni
ques.These r
ange f
rom si
mpl
elow-
cost
sol
uti
ons(
e.g.el
evat
edst
ori
ngofv
aluabl
eswi
thi
nhouses)t
osophi
sti
cat
edand
cost
-i
ntensi
vet
echni
ques (
e.g.f
lood pr
oof
ing ofwal
l
s)(
htt
p:/
/fl
ows.
wb.
tu-
har
bur
g.de/
index.
php?
id=340)
.

2.
6.RoleofRemotesensi
ngandGI
Sinf
lashf
loodandHazar
d
Managementconcept
s:-
Adv
ancement
sin t
he r
emot
e sensi
ng t
echnol
ogy and t
he Geogr
aphi
c
I
nfor
mat
ionSy
stems(
GIS)hel
pinr
ealt
imemoni
tor
ing,
ear
lywar
ningandQui
ck
damageassessmentoff
lood di
sast
ers.Geogr
aphi
cInf
ormat
ion Sy
stem i
s
t
ool
sthatcanassi
stf
loodpl
ainmanager
sini
dent
if
yingf
lashf
loodpr
oneAr
eas
i
nthei
rcommuni
ty.Wi
thaGI
S,geogr
aphi
cal
inf
ormat
ioni
sst
oredi
naDat
abase
t
hatcanbequer
iedandgr
aphi
cal
l
ydi
spl
ayedf
oranal
ysi
s.ByOv
erl
ayi
ngor
i
nter
sect
ing di
ff
erentgeogr
aphi
call
ayer
s,f
lash f
lood pr
one ar
eas can be
i
dent
if
ied and t
arget
ed f
ormi
ti
gat
ion orst
ri
cterf
loodpl
ain management
Pr
act
ices.Remot
eSensi
ngcanbev
eryef
fect
ivef
orf
lashf
loodmanagementi
n
t
heFol
l
owi
ngway
:
 Det
ail
ed mappi
ng t
hat i
srequi
red f
or t
he pr
oduct
ion of hazar
d
assessmentmapsandf
ori
nputt
ovar
ioust
ypesofhy
drol
ogi
cal
model
s.
 Dev
elopi
ngal
argerscal
evi
ewoft
hegener
alf
lashf
loodsi
tuat
ionwi
thi
n
ar
iverBasi
nwi
tht
heai
m ofi
dent
if
yingar
easatgr
eat
estr
iskandi
nthe
needofi
mmedi
ateassi
stance[
Erl
i
ngsson,
Ulf
,2001]
..
Remot
esensi
ngandGI
Stechni
quehassuccessf
ull
yest
abl
i
shedi
tsappl
i
cat
ion
i
nfol
l
owi
ng ar
eas off
lash f
lood managementsuch as f
lood i
nundat
ion
mappi
ng,
Floodpl
ainzoni
ngandr
ivermor
phol
ogi
cal
studi
es.
GI
Ssuppor
tmaybeusedf
oral
lthedi
sast
erpr
event
ionphases,
butwhatwear
e
concer
nedwi
thher
eist
heuseofGI
Sforphy
sicalpl
anni
ngi
nthemi
ti
gat
ion
phase,soast
otaket
hedi
sast
err
iski
ntoconsi
der
ati
onasaf
undament
al
pr
oper
tyoft
hel
and.Thi
sincl
udesassi
gni
ng appr
opr
iat
elanduse,def
ini
ng
bui
l
dingcodesf
ort
hatl
anduse,andpr
ovi
dingshel
terf
aci
l
iti
esandev
acuat
ion

XXXI
r
out
esasThecasemaybe[
Erl
i
ngsson,
Ulf
,2001]
.

Fi
gur
e(3)
:.Ther
oleoft
hedisast
ermiti
gati
onGISinthephy
sical
planni
ng
pr
ocess[Er
li
ngsson,
Ulf,
2001].

Themapsandr
epor
tsonhazar
ds,v
ulner
abi
l
iti
esandr
isksconst
it
uteoneset
ofi
nput
stot
heact
ualpr
ocessofdr
aft
ingt
hepl
an,whi
cht
akespl
acei
nthe
l
ower
most t
rapezoi
dint
his di
agr
am.Ot
her set
s of i
nput
,rel
ati
ng t
o
env
ironment
aland economi
calpar
amet
ers,ar
e notshown.The r
ect
angl
es
i
l
lust
rat
ethedesi
redaut
omat
edcal
cul
ati
onsi
nthesy
stem.Tosuccessf
ull
y
mi
ti
gat
enat
uralhazar
dst
her
isksmustbeknown,
sot
hatt
hecost
-ef
fi
ciencyof
t
hemi
ti
gat
ioncanbeassessed.TheGI
Smustt
her
efor
ebeabl
etocal
cul
atet
he
r
iskf
oranyar
ea,
foral
lnat
ural
hazar
ds,
andasaf
unct
ionofmi
ti
gat
ion.
The f
orecast
ing and ear
ly-
war
ning sy
stem i
s desi
gned t
o ant
ici
pat
ethe
occur
rence off
loodi
ng,war
ning t
he popul
ati
on and Taki
ng t
he measur
es
necessar
ytor
educel
ossesduet
ofl
oodi
ng.

XXXI
I
•Ar
eal
-t
imef
orecast
ingandwar
ningsy
stem i
nvol
vest
hef
oll
owi
ng:
•Sy
stem f
orcol
l
ect
ingandt
ransmi
tt
ingweat
herandhy
drol
ogi
cali
nfor
mat
ion;
moni
tor
ing sy
stem ov
er comput
eri
zed net
wor
k,sat
ell
i
te or r
adar and
t
ransmi
ssi
onoft
hati
nfor
mat
iont
othef
orecast
ingcent
re;
• For
ecast
ing cent
re:r
ecept
ion and pr
ocessi
ng ofi
nfor
mat
ion;modelf
or
f
orecast
ing(
seepr
evi
ousi
tem)
,ev
aluat
ionandwar
ning;
•Ci
vi
ldef
ence:pr
event
ionpr
ogr
ammes:educat
ion,
war
ningmap,
cri
ti
calpl
aces,
et
c.;War
ningt
opubl
i
csy
stems:school
s,hospi
tal
s,i
nfr
ast
ruct
ure,et
c.;war
ning
ofpopul
ati
onatr
isk,r
emov
alandpr
otect
ionofpopul
ati
onaf
fect
eddur
ingt
he
emer
gencyorbyf
loodi
ng[
Erl
i
ngsson,
Ulf
,2001]
.

-
2.6.
1Fl
oodDi
sast
eri
nSudan:

Fl
oodi
sthesecondmostexper
iencednat
ural
hazar
dinSudanasshowni
nTab.
(
7).Thecount
ryexper
iencedaser
iesofdest
ruct
ivedur
ingt
he20t
hcent
uryi
n
1925,1946,1988,1998,2001and2003.Thedi
sast
rousf
loodt
hathi
tSudani
n
1988i
sagoodexampl
eofanext
remef
loodev
ent
.200mm ofr
ainf
elli
n
august4t
h,1988;
thi
swasf
oll
owedbyt
wopeaksi
n12t
hand13t
hofaugust
.In
f
actt
het
otalamountofr
ainf
alli
nthatmont
hwas301mm.t
hisi
sav
eryhi
gh
amountcompar
edt
otheav
erageofaugustr
ainsi
ntheper
iod1983-1987
whi
chwasonl
y11.
7mm (
Hai
ti
,2003)
.

Thesudden and unexpect

ed f
low oft
heWhi
teNi
l
eand Bl
ueNi
l
eduet
o
unpr
ecedent
ed t
orr
ent
ialr
ain caused ser
iouspr
oper
tydamage and human
sor
row.I
nKhar
toum st
atef
oodpr
oduct
ionf
ellbyatl
east60%,anddamage
i
ncl
udedi
rr
igat
ioncanal
ssewagesy
stem,el
ect
ri
cit
ysuppl
i
es,wat
ersy
stems
andr
oads.Thesi
tuat
ioni
nthenor
thwasequal
l
ybadandsev
erel
osseswer
e
r
epor
tedi
ntheagr
icul
tur
alsect
or,
whi
chi
sconsi
der
edt
obet
hemai
neconomi
c
act
ivi
tyoft
hepopul
ati
on.Thef
loodwashedaway60% ofdat
etr
ees,50% of
ci
tr
ust
reesand90%oft
hebananapl
ant
ati
ons.Thet
otall
osseswer
eest
imat
ed
t
obe765mi
l
li
onSudanesepoundsand1.
7mi
l
li
onpeopl
ewer
eaf
fect
ed(
Hai
ti
,
2003)
.

XXXI
II
  The st
udi
es oft
he t
opogr
aphyoft
he ar
ea i
sver
yimpor
tantwhen
i
nfr
ast
ruct
urei
sconst
ruct
ed(
Mier
ag2009)
 Engi
neer
ingt
reat
mentmustbedonet
opr
efectUmmdubunar
ea(
Mier
ag
2009)

Tabl
e.(
3)Thenat
ural
disast
ersi
nSudan(
1965-2004)
Ev
ent
s No.ofev
ent Ki
l
led I
njur
ed Af
fect
ed
Dr
ought 11 150.
000 0 25.
500.
000
Ear
thquake 2 31 15 10.
000
Epi
demi
c 22 5451 0 47.
957
Fami
ne 1 0 0 2.
600.
000
Fl
ood 17 383 18.
556 6.
614.
962
I
nsecti
nfest 5 0 0 0
Wi
ldFi
re 1 47 0 0
Wi
ndSt
orm 1 33 0 0

Tabl
e(4)t
hedamageoff
lashf
loodi
n2007i
nSudan
Ti
tl
e No Uni
t
Tot
alhousescol
lapse 76597 house
Par
ti
alhousescol
lapse 80272 House
Numberofdeat
h 157 per
son
Number
sofi
njur
es 302 Per
son
Ar
eascul
ti
vat
ionl
ose 1011573 cr
op
Roads 11 r
oad
Dams 7 dam
Publ
icsect
ors 1748 Uni
t
Fami
li
esdamages 150653 Fami
ly
Number
soff
ami
li
esdamages 751775 Fami
ly
Ani
malr
out
es 24305 Ani
maluni
t
t
otalcostt
odi
sast
er 320265500 dol
lar
s
management

XXXI
V
Sour
cet
hemachi
sm t
odi
sast
ermanagementoff
lashf
loodi
n2007f
rom ci
vi
l
def
ence.

XXXV
 Chapt
ert
hree
Mat
eri
alsandMet
hods

TheSt
udyAr
ea3.
1
3.
1.1.TheLocat
ion
Thest
udyar
eai
slocat
edabout40Km f
rom t
heCapi
talKhar
toum t
otheeast
.
I
t’
slocat
edbet
weenl
ati
tudeof1515andl
ongi
tudesof1555and3245and32
15.

3.
1.2TheTopogr
aphy
Thet
opogr
aphyoft
hear
eai
schar
act
eri
zedhi
ghandl
ow l
andswher
est
eep
sl
opet
owar
dnor
th–sout
hdi
rect
ion.Manyv
all
eysdomi
nat
ethe
Ar
ea.

3.
1.3.Cl
imat
e
Ter
ri
tor
yoft
henat
ionalcapi
tali
scl
assi
fi
edundert
hecl
i
mat
iccat
egor
yoft
he
sout
her
nSahar
a.Khar
toum r
egi
oni
scat
egor
izedwi
thi
nthescopeofsemi
-ar
id
deser
t,whi
chi
schar
act
eri
zedbyt
hehi
ght
emper
atur
edegr
eedur
ingt
hedayal
l
ov
ert
hey
ear
.Ther
ainf
all
sfl
uct
uat
efr
om y
eart
oyearandt
heannualav
erage
r
angesf
rom 200mm i
nthenor
tht
o250mm i
nthesout
h.
Temper
atur
esar
ehi
ghesti
ntheendoft
hedr
yseasonduet
ocl
oudl
essski
es
anddr
y.Thef
arsout
h,howev
er,
wit
honl
yashor
tdr
yseason,
hasuni
for
mlyhi
gh
t
emper
atur
es t
hroughoutt
he y
ear
.In Khar
toum (
studyar
ea)
,the war
mest
mont
hsar
eMayandJune,whent
heav
eraget
emper
atur
eis41°
Candpeak
t
emper
atur
escanr
eachupt
o48°
C.

XXXVI
 3.
1.4.Veget
ati
onCov
er
Thev
eget
ati
oncov
eri
spooratt
henor
ther
npar
tsoft
hear
ea,andbecomes
r
elat
ivel
ydensesout
hwar
ds,
obv
iousl
ywi
tht
hewat
ercour
ses.Thet
rees;t
hor
ny
shr
ubs,acaci
aar
ewi
despr
eadi
nthear
eawher
east
heygr
assesar
econf
ined
t
oti
meofv
all
eysf
ull
ofwat
er.

3.
1.5.Soi
l
I
ngener
alt
hesoi
lisasandysoi
l
.Ol
derandst
abi
l
izedsanddunesar
ethe
domi
nant
,whi
l
eol
derNi
l
edeposi
tsandWadideposi
tsar
ethemostf
ert
il
ecl
ay
soi
l
s.Thesef
ert
il
esoi
l
smai
nlyf
oundatf
loodpr
onear
eas.

3.
1.6.TheGeol
ogy

Thegeol
ogi
caluni
tsav
ail
abl
eint
hear
eaar
eGr
ani
tesbasementi
nthenor
th
east
,Omdur
manf
ormat
ion(
Lowerpar
t)andOl
derandst
abi
l
izedsanddunes
ar
ethedomi
nat
ingt
hecent
ralpar
t.Umr
awabaf
ormat
ionandcr
etaceouswi
th
Quat
ernar
ycov
erdomi
nat
ing t
he sout
her
n par
t.These geol
ogi
calf
eat
ures
combi
nedt
oget
herwi
thmov
ingsandsandgr
aduat
edsl
oppi
ngt
owar
dtheNi
l
e,
combi
nedt
ofor
m at
ypeofext
endedbr
oadWadi
s.Cont
ourdat
aoft
hear
ea
showsat
rendofgr
aduat
edsl
oppi
ngf
rom eastt
owestwher
eNi
l
eisspr
ead.
Manyout
cropswer
escat
tedal
ongt
hear
eat
hatwat
ershedl
i
necomi
ngt
hrough.
Thi
swhyWadi
sfl
owi
sdest
ruct
ivewhenr
ainf
all
isheav
y.

XXXVI
I
Fi
g(4)
:TheLocat
iononSt
udyAr
eai
ntheEastoft
heBl
ueNi
l
e

3.
2.Mat
eri
alsandMet
hods
LandsatTM dat
afort
hey
ear
s1984,1988,
2000,
respect
ivel
y,wer
eused.Dat
a
hav
ebeeni
nter
pret
ed,pr
ocessedandanal
yzedusi
ngdi
git
ali
magepr
ocessi
ng
andGI
Ssof
twar
e.Ot
hert
opogr
aphi
calmapsofscal
e1:
250,
000and1:100,
000,
pr
oducedbySudanSur
veyDepar
tment
,wer
eal
sousedt
oget
herwi
tht
hedat
a
col
l
ect
edf
rom f
iel
dvi
sit
sandot
heranci
l
lar
ydat
asour
ces.Sev
eralt
hemat
ic
mapswer
eext
ract
ed.

AnumberofRi
skAssessmentmet
hodol
ogi
escoul
dbei
nvent
ed.Ef
for
tshoul
d
bemadet
oident
if
ythebest(
bet
ter
)appr
opr
iat
eonet
obeusedf
orspeci
fi
c
obj
ect
ives,t
argetar
ea,messagest
obet
ransf
err
ed,et
c.Ri
skAssessmenti
s
i
mpor
tant
,howev
erensur
ing appr
opr
iat
e Ri
skCommuni
cat
ion coul
d be as
i
mpor
tantasr
iskassessment
.Mapsar
enor
mal
l
yusedasmostappr
opr
iat
e
way
sforr
iskcommuni
cat
ionRi
skAssessment(
Sci
ence,
Academy
,Gov
ernment
,
et
c.UN agenci
es,et
c.)Ri
skCommuni
cat
ionHi
gh-
lev
elf
orPol
i
cyf
ormul
ati
on,
pl
anni
ng,et
c.I
nter
nat
ionalSoci
etyGov
ernment(
nat
ional
,local
)Pol
i
cymaker

XXXVI
II
Ri
skCommuni
cat
ionGr
assr
oot
slev
elf
orr
iskawar
eness,emer
gencyLocal
r
esponseCommuni
ti
es,
Local
Communi
ti
es,
Local
resi
dent
’set
c.

3.
3.Wor
kingmet
hods
Thei
nfor
mat
ionqual
i
tyandpr
ocessi
ngi
smosti
mpor
tanti
nfl
ashf
loodef
fi
cient
management
.Thi
sincl
udes:acqui
sit
ion,v
ali
dat
ions,f
astpr
ocessi
ng,di
agnose
/pr
ognosesel
abor
ati
onandt
hemeasur
est
akenf
ort
hedi
minut
ionoft
he
ef
fect
sand/
orpostmanagementev
ent
.

Gener
all
y,f
iel
ddat
athatconcer
ningwat
ercour
sei
sver
yessent
iali
nthehy
dro
sy
stem (
treat
mentont
heconst
ruct
edst
reet
)whi
chi
sav
ail
abl
ethati
snot
enoughf
oracr
isi
sfl
oodmanagement
.

Di
git
alsat
ell
i
tei
magepr
ovi
desust
hesy
nopt
icv
iew oft
hear
eaunderst
udy
,
wi
thav
erygoodspat
ialandt
empor
alr
esol
uti
on.Theobser
vat
ionsar
emade
cont
inuous al
ong t
he st
reet and t
he dat
a about br
idge l
ocat
ions and
char
act
eri
sti
csar
eimmedi
atel
yobt
ained.
Theobj
ect
iveoft
hisst
udyi
sthepr
ocessi
ngoft
hesedat
ainor
dert
omoni
tor
ize
andt
ouseoper
ati
vel
ythei
nfor
mat
ion,byusi
ngGPSandGI
Stechni
ques.Land
satETM+i
magedat
awasobt
ainedf
rom Gl
obalLandCov
erFaci
l
iti
esWebsi
te
(
GLCF)
.

TheDEM oft
hest
udyar
eaasshowni
n(Fi
gur
e2)pr
esent
sdi
ff
erentel
evat
ions
wi
thv
eryst
eepsl
opei
nthest
udyar
ea.Ther
efor
e,wat
erquant
it
iesaccumul
ated
i
nappr
oxi
mat
elyi
nthel
owar
eas.
Fi
rstst
agei
stoi
mpr
ovet
heDEM i
nfor
mat
ion byusi
ng hy
dro met
hod t
o
cal
cul
atet
he f
low accumul
ati
ons and del
i
neat
e st
ream net
wor
k.Then t
he
super
posi
ti
on ofhy
drol
ogi
calt
hemesov
ert
heETM+ char
tthathast
o be
geor
ect
if
icat
ed.Thi
swasmadebyGI
Sappl
i
cat
ion.

TheETM+char
twasaddedgener
all
ayer
s(r
eli
ef,
subbasi
ns,
riv
erst
reamset
c.)

XXXI
X
t
o show t
he r
elat
ive posi
ti
ons oft
he ar
eas wi
thl
arge amountofwat
er
accumul
ati
on.
Ther
esul
tsoft
hef
ir
stst
agecanpr
ovi
det
oamapoft
hesubbasi
nswi
thl
arge
amount
sofdr
ainageest
imat
edwi
thi
nacer
tai
nar
eat
hatcanl
eadt
other
api
d
i
ncr
easeofr
iver
sdi
schar
ge.

Thi
sGI
Spr
ojectmaybeusef
ulf
ormoni
tor
ingnear
lyear
lywar
ningsy
stem f
or
f
lashf
loodsmanagementi
nthi
sregi
on.

3.
4.Theobt
aini
ngoft
hel
andusef
rom sat
ell
it
edat
a
Secondst
ageconsi
stsi
nusi
ngGI
Sappl
i
cat
iont
oev
aluat
etheposi
ti
onofl
and
usei
nrel
ati
on t
ofl
ash f
loodssuscept
ibi
l
ity
. Few pr
eli
minar
yimagedat
a
t
reat
mentmet
hods(
li
mit
ati
oni
nter
medi
atecol
ors,r
educi
ngshade)wer
eused.
Ther
ewasal
sonecessar
ytomakemanual
l
yadj
ust
ment
stoel
i
minat
eorr
educe
r
edundancyofi
mageel
ement
ssuchaspr
inci
plecomponentandenhancement
t
odel
i
neat
etheshar
pboundar
yofwat
erbodi
es.

Besi
des,i
n some ar
eas t
hey est
imat
ed smal
lmov
ementspeeds oft
he
conv
ect
ivecel
l
sthatcanl
eadt
olocalaccumul
ati
onofl
argeamount
sofwat
er
and possi
blyt
ofl
ash f
loods.Br
idges l
ocat
ions and at
tr
ibut
es hone been
r
ecor
dedf
rom t
hesat
ell
i
tei
mageandf
iel
dcheckwher
eGPSdev
isewer
eused
i
ncal
cul
ati
ons.Onedayf
iel
dvi
sitwascar
ri
edouti
n10-
10-
2009i
nor
dert
o
col
l
ecti
nfor
mat
ionaboutt
heexi
sti
ngbr
idges.
Accor
dingl
y,br
idgeshav
ebeenr
ankedbasedont
hedi
amet
eroft
heopeni
ng
channel
,number
s,hei
ght
sandwi
dthofchannel
sasf
oll
ows:
1.Excel
l
entwasgi
vent
obr
idgeswi
thopeni
nghei
ghti
sequalor
gr
eat
ert
han30met
er.
2.Ver
ygoodwasgi
vent
obr
idgeswi
thopeni
nghei
ghti
sequalor
gr
eat
ert
han5met
er.
3.Goodwasgi
vent
obr
idgeswi
thopeni
nghei
ghti
sequalorgr
eat
er
t
han1.
5met
er.
4.Poorwasgi
vent
obr
idgeswi
thopeni
nghei
ghti
sequalorgr
eat
er

XL
 t
han1.
0met
er.
5.Ver
ypoorwasgi
vent
obr
idgeswi
thopeni
nghei
ghti
sequalor
gr
eat
ert
han0.
5met
er.

Thenspat
ialquer
ieshav
ebeenappl
i
edt
ocal
cul
atet
hel
ocat
iondi
str
ibut
ionof
eachr
ank.Thi
smet
hodofanal
ysi
sisv
eryef
fect
ivet
oev
aluat
etheef
fi
ciencyof
br
idgessepar
atel
ywhenusi
ngmaps.Excel
l
entr
esul
tswer
eobt
ainedwhi
chhas
beendi
scussedi
nthef
oll
owi
ngchapt
er.
I
nthesecondst
age,t
heamount
sandl
ocat
ionsofweaknessofmostoft
he
br
idgeswer
eest
abl
i
shed.Thear
easwi
thdi
ff
erentpr
ior
it
iesf
orr
econst
ruct
ion
ordev
elopmentwer
emeasur
ed
3.
5.Sof
twar
e

Di
ff
erentpr
ogr
amsusedi
nthi
sst
udyt
heyar
e:
•ERDASI
magi
ne8.
5.
•Ar
cGI
S9.
2andext
ensi
ons.
•Hy
dro

XLI
XLI
I
 Chapt
erf
our
Resul
tsandDi
scussi
ons
Thi
schapt
erpr
esent
edt
heaf
fect
edoff
lashf
loodat t
hest
udyar
eat
hrough
pr
ocessi
ngLandsatEnhancedThemat
icMapperPl
us(
ETM+)i
mageoft
hey
ear
2000andEar
thGoogl
emapoft
hey
ear2007.Usef
uli
nfor
mat
ionwasext
ract
ed
f
rom t
hesedat
a.

Themat
icMaps4.
1.
Thei
ndi
cat
ivet
hemat
icmapswasbei
ng pr
oduced,wher
eur
gent
lyi
dent
if
y
ar
easathi
ghestr
iskf
orsur
facewat
erf
loodi
ngwher
eknown,i
nfor
m Local
Resi
l
ienceFor
umsandt
akest
epst
otowar
dshi
ghr
iskar
easandov
ercomi
ng
t
hem "Lear
ningt
hel
essonsf
rom t
he2007f
loods"
.

Fi
gur
e(5)
:Showst
hest
eepedofsl
opewi
thgr
eencol
oronUmmdubanVi
l
lages

XLI
II
 4.
2.Dr
ainageSy
stem
The Maj
orper
manentwat
ercour
se i
nthe ar
ea i
sthe Bl
ue Ni
l
e.Seasonal
channel
sar
ecal
l
ed(
Wadi
s).Al
lWadi
sint
hest
udyar
eaf
lowt
owar
dst
heNi
l
e.
Mostoft
hedr
ainaget
ypesi
nthear
eaar
edendr
it
esasshowni
n(Fi
g6,7,8)
.
Themor
phol
ogyofWadi
sint
hear
eai
sthat
,theyhav
eonewayatupst
ream.
Mostoft
hesecour
sesar
enar
row andi
ntensi
vel
ydi
str
ibut
edandr
epr
esent
goodsuppl
i
esf
ort
hemai
nchannel
.Whi
l
eWadi
satdownst
ream ar
eonemaj
or
shal
l
owbr
oad.
I
ntegr
ated Wat
erManagementi
sgener
all
yconsi
der
ed t
o cov
eri
ntegr
ati
on
acr
oss cat
chment
s, bet
ween f
unct
ions, and bet
ween l
and and wat
er
management
.Funct
ionali
ntegr
ati
on weakened and i
ntegr
ati
on ofl
and and
wat
ermanagementhasf
oundt
obeweaken.I
tshal
lbet
hedut
yofev
ery
sewer
ageunder
takert
opr
ovi
de,
impr
oveandext
endasy
stem ofpubl
i
csewer
s
(
whet
heri
nsi
dei
tsar
eaorel
sewher
e)andsot
ocl
eanseandmai
ntai
nthose
sewer
sast
oensur
ethatar
eai
sandcont
inuest
obeef
fect
ual
l
ydr
ained.

Fi
gur
e(6)
:fl
owaccumul
ati
onoft
heDEM onUmmdubanVi
l
lages.

XLI
V
Fi
gur
e(7)
:Thedi
git
izedmaj
ordr
ainagest
racedf
rom t
hef
lowaccumul
ati
on.

XLV
Fi
gur
e(8)
:Thedr
ainagessy
stem andcat
chmentar
eaonUmmdubanVi
l
lages.

4.
3.Landuse:
Mostoft
hear
eai
sdev
otedf
orr
angel
ands.Veget
ati
ont
ypei
ssemiar
idand
cl
assi
fi
edasspar
se.Somedensespot
swer
enot
edi
nWadi
s,someoft
hem
coul
dbecl
assi
fi
edasshr
ubs(
fi
eldobser
vat
ion)
.TheAr
eai
sdomi
nat
edby
set
tl
ementandcul
ti
vat
ion.Thest
udyt
oexpr
esst
hatt
her
esi
dent
ialar
eawas
expansi
on att
he expense oft
he cul
ti
vat
ed ar
eas compar
ed t
o publ
i
shed
l
anduseoft
hisar
eaasshowni
n(f
ig8&9)
.Cul
ti
vat
ionwasmai
nlydi
str
ibut
ed
f
ert
il
esoi
lwasdeposi
tsi
nthear
ea.Thi
ssoi
lty
pedomi
nat
est
hisar
easand
i
nsi
deWadi
sbasi
ns.Thi
swhymostofcul
ti
vat
ionv
ulner
abl
etodamagesand
dest
ruct
ion.The same coul
d be sai
dto some r
ecentagr
icul
tur
alscheme
const
ruct
ions.Recent
ly,set
tl
ement
sint
he ar
ea ar
evul
ner
abl
etot
he
env
ironment
alhazar
dse.
i.wat
erf
lashasshowni
n(Fi
g10)
.

4.
3.1.Vi
ll
agesCondi
ti
ons
Somev
il
lagesi
nthenor
ther
npar
toft
hear
eawer
elocat
edi
nsi
deWadicour
ses
andot
her
sar
efar
.Thesev
il
lagesr
arel
yst
ruckbyr
ainwat
erf
lashf
loods,
bef
ore
XLVI
t
heexi
stenceoft
hest
reet
.Thi
sisbecauset
her
ewer
enot
hingt
racest
he
wat
erway
s.Vi
l
lagescl
osedt
othewat
ercour
sesar
ethemostsuscept
ibl
ear
eas
f
orf
lashi
ng f
loods.Pr
evi
ous st
udi
es emphasi
zed t
hatt
he ar
ea wi
tnessed
sev
eredest
ruct
ionofbui
l
dingsandset
tl
ement
s.Thi
swasduet
onew st
reet
const
ri
cti
oncr
ossest
hewat
ercour
sesf
rom eastt
owestasshowni
n(Fi
g9)
.

Fi
gur
e(9)
:Theef
fectofnewasphal
troadconst
ruct
ionont
hedi
rect
ionofwat
erf
low

4.
3.2.TheI
mpactoft
henewasphal
troad
Thenewasphal
troadwasconst
ruct
edonanenv
ironment
all
yri
skyar
ea.I
twas
est
abl
i
shedont
hedownst
ream oft
heWadi
esi
tisal
sov
ulner
abl
etosev
ere
f
lashf
loodsat
tackandmi
ghtbesubj
ect
edt
owat
erer
osi
onov
ert
ime.Thenew
asphal
troadbl
ockedsomedr
ainaget
hatmi
ghtcauseadest
ruct
iont
oiti
nthe
f
utur
ewhi
chmayl
osemoneyandef
for
tst
oway
s.Howev
er,somet
reat
ment
s
hav
ebeendoneaf
tert
hel
astf
lashf
loodr
iskwhi
chhasbeencr
ossi
ngt
hear
ea.
Manybr
idgeshav
ebeenconst
ruct
edal
ongt
hest
reeti
nor
dert
opassr
ainy
wat
eri
nrai
nyseasonasshowni
n(Fi
g10)
.
I
nthi
sinv
est
igat
ioni
thasbeenf
oundt
hatt
hedev
elopmentoft
heexi
stence

XLVI
I
br
idgesal
ongt
hest
reeti
sver
yessent
ial
.Fi
eldobser
vat
ionsr
eveal
edt
hatt
her
e
wer
emor
ethan50br
idgesexi
stedwi
thdi
stanceabout60km al
ongt
hest
reet
wi
thi
ntheboundar
yoft
hest
udyar
eaasshowni
n(f
ig10)
.

Fi
gur
e(10)
:Thebr
idgesi
nthest
udyar
eai
nrel
ati
ont
othewat
erway
s.

4.
4.Br
idgesAssessment
Someoft
hosebr
idgesl
ocat
edcl
osedt
owat
ercour
sesandt
heot
herwer
enot
,
al
though,
mostoft
hebr
idgesar
einef
fi
cientt
oer
adi
cat
ethi
spr
obl
em.Fr
om t
he
r
esul
tofev
aluat
ionpr
ocess,t
hest
udyi
ndi
cat
edt
hatf
iver
ankswer
efound
basedonbr
idgechar
act
eri
sti
cs(
tabl
e5,6)
.(1)Excel
l
ent
.(2)V.
good.(
3)Good.
(
4)Poor(
5)v
.poorbr
idges.Thet
otalnumberofbr
idgeswas53,
wher
ethef
ir
st
r
ankf
oundt
obe3.
7%f
rom t
het
otal
.Thesecondr
ankswer
e18.
8%,t
het
hir
d
oneswer
e1.
82%andt
hef
our
thwer
e35.
8%andt
hel
astr
ankwas39.
6%as
showni
ntabl
e7andf
ig11,12,13,14and15)
.Sel
ect
ivel
ocat
ionswer
e
suggest
edf
orr
econst
ruct
ion.I
t’
scl
eart
hatpoorandv
.poorbr
idgesr
epr
esent
t
hehi
ghestper
cent
agesi
nthi
sst
udy
,ev
enwi
thi
nthi
scondi
ti
on43.
3%f
rom t
he
t
otalbr
idgeswer
ecl
assi
fi
ed ascl
osed asshown i
n(t
abl
e8 and f
ig 16)
.

XLVI
II
Ther
efor
e,t
her
iskmapshownt
hespat
ialdi
str
ibut
ionoft
hosecl
osedbr
idges
hasbeenhi
ghl
i
ght
edasshowni
n(f
ig17)
.

Tabl
e(5)
:TheChar
act
eri
sti
csofOpen(
wor
king)Br
idges.
Br
idges_
Id Br
idge_
Wed(
Cm) No_
of_
Channel
s Condi
ti
on Ranki
ng
49 50 1 open V.
poor
48 150 1 open Good
47 50 1 open V.
poor
46 100 2 open Poor
45 50 2 open V.
poor
44 500 3 open Excel
l
ent
43 3000 8 open Excel
l
ent
36 50 1 open V.
poor
35 50 1 open V.
poor
34 50 1 open V.
poor
30 50 1 open V.
poor
29 50 1 open V.
poor
28 50 1 open V.
poor
19 100 1 open Poor
18 100 1 open Poor
17 100 1 open Poor
14 100 1 open Poor
12 100 1 open Poor
11 100 1 open Poor
9 100 1 open Poor
8 150 1 open Good
7 150 1 open Good
6 150 1 open Good
5 150 1 open Good
4 150 1 open Good

XLI
X
3 150 1 open Good
2 150 1 open Good
1 150 2 open Good

4.
4.1.LanduseAssessment
Obser
vat
ionsFi
l
edr
eveal
edt
hatmanyagr
icul
tur
alact
ivi
ti
esandset
tl
ement
s
wer
einahi
ghf
loodr
iskar
eaasshowni
n(f
ig9,10)
.TheBui
l
dingont
he
f
loodpl
aini
sani
ssuet
hatof
tenr
ecei
vespubl
i
cat
tent
ion,par
ti
cul
arl
yatal
ocal
l
evel
,andv
iat
hemedi
a.Thi
sisper
hapsunsur
pri
singgi
vent
hatsur
facef
lood
r
iskar
eascov
ermor
ethan10per
centofl
andandpopul
ati
oni
nthest
udyar
ea.
Manynewhomesperannum hav
ebeenbui
l
tinsur
facef
loodr
iskar
easi
nthe
l
astf
ew y
ear
s.Thev
astmaj
ori
tyoft
hesear
edeemedt
obei
nadequat
ely
pr
otect
ed,of
tenbyf
looddef
enses,andar
esubj
ect
edt
owat
erf
lashi
ng,so,
t
hosev
il
lagesl
ocat
edont
heot
hersi
temayassoci
atedwi
tht
hecl
osesofmost
ofbr
idgesi
nor
dert
opr
otectt
hei
rar
easf
rom f
lashf
loodr
isk.Ther
efor
e,i
tis
har
dtosayt
hatt
heunsust
ainabl
edev
elopmenti
nther
egi
onof
teni
ncr
easet
he
pr
essur
eonexi
sti
ngbr
idgesanddr
ainagesy
stems.Wesuppor
ttheabol
i
tionof
t
her
ightt
oconnectnewsur
facewat
erdr
ainsandsewer
stot
hemai
nsy
stem
wi
thoutany env
ironment
alconsequences,and gr
eat
eruse ofsust
ainabl
e
dr
ainagesy
stemsf
ornewpr
oper
ti
es.
Manywi
tnesses t
o ouri
nqui
ryst
ressed t
he need f
orst
rong dev
elopment
cont
rolt
opr
eventt
hebui
l
dingofhomesi
nthosear
easofhi
ghestf
loodr
isk.A
numberofwi
tnessesdi
rect
lyi
nvol
vedwi
tht
hepl
anni
ngsy
stem,gi
vent
ime,
shoul
dbesuf
fi
ci
entt
opr
eventi
nappr
opr
iat
edev
elopmenti
nthest
udyar
ea.
The
st
udydescr
ibedweakenoft
hedr
ainagesy
stem i
nthear
eaasaf
ir
stst
ep
f
orwar
d,si
gni
fi
cantt
ight
eni
ngandi
mpr
ovementoft
hel
egi
slat
ion,
andi
mpr
oved
t
hem i
nanumberofway
sar
e:

 Fi
rst
,thest
udywasnow f
orwar
dssuggest
ionsf
ordev
elopmentf
lash
f
loodr
iskar
eas.
 Second,t
hest
udyhad i
ndi
cat
ed t
hatt
hei
mpor
tanceoft
her
oleof

L
 communi
ti
esandl
ocal
aut
hor
it
yandshoul
dnotbei
gnor
edt
hei
radv
ice.
 Thi
rd,i
twasa“
lotcl
ear
erandt
ight
er”t
hani
tspr
edecessor
sinst
eer
ing
dev
elopmentawayf
rom hi
ghr
iskar
eas.

Webel
i
evedt
hatf
ocusshoul
dbeonadequat
elypr
otect
ingpr
oper
ti
esi
nthi
s
ar
eaal
sof
ocusedonensur
ingnewpr
oper
ti
esi
nfl
oodr
iskar
eas.

Tabl
e(6)
:TheChar
act
eri
sti
csofCl
osed(
notwor
king)Br
idges.
Br
idges_
Id Br
idge_
Wed(
Cm) No_
of_
Channel
s Condi
ti
on Ranki
ng
52 50 1 cl
osed V.
poor
51 50 1 cl
osed V.
poor
42 50 1 cl
osed V.
poor
41 50 1 cl
osed V.
poor
40 50 1 cl
osed V.
poor
39 300 1 cl
osed V.
good
38 50 1 cl
osed V.
poor
37 50 1 cl
osed V.
poor
33 50 1 cl
osed V.
poor
32 50 1 cl
osed V.
poor
31 50 1 cl
osed V.
poor
27 50 1 cl
osed V.
poor
26 100 1 cl
osed Poor
25 100 1 cl
osed Poor
24 100 1 cl
osed Poor
23 100 1 cl
osed Poor
22 100 1 cl
osed Poor
21 100 1 cl
osed Poor
20 100 1 cl
osed Poor
16 100 1 cl
osed Poor
15 100 1 cl
osed Poor

LI
13 100 1 cl
osed Poor
10 100 1 cl
osed Poor

Fi
gur
e(11)
:TheI
ndi
cat
est
hesel
ect
edl
ocat
ionoft
heexcel
l
entbr
idgeasshown
wi
thhi
ghl
i
ght
edcol
or

LI
I
Fi
gur
e(12)
:TheI
ndi
cat
est
hesel
ect
edl
ocat
ionofv
.goodbr
idgesasshownwi
th
hi
ghl
i
ght
edcol
or

Fi
gur
e(13)
:TheI
ndi
cat
est
hesel
ect
edl
ocat
ionofgoodbr
idgesasshownwi
th
hi
ghl
i
ght
edcol
or

LI
II
Fi
gur
e(14)
:TheI
ndi
cat
est
hesel
ect
edl
ocat
ionofpoorbr
idgesasshownwi
th
hi
ghl
i
ght
edcol
or

Fi
gur
e(15)
:TheI
ndi
cat
est
hesel
ect
edl
ocat
ionofv
.poorbr
idgesasshownwi
th
hi
ghl
i
ght
edcol
or

LI
V
Fi
gur
e(16)
:Thespat
ial
locat
ionsofcl
osedbr
idgesi
nrel
ati
ont
oopenones.

LV
 Fi
gur
e(17)
:Thel
ocat
ionofcl
osedBr
idgesal
ongt
hest
reetwhi
chcr
ossi
ng
wat
ercour
ses.

Tabl
e(7)
:Ther
anki
ngofBr
idgesandt
hei
rtot
alnumber
sand
per
cent
ages.
Br
idges_
Cond/
Rank Excel
l
ent V.
good Good Poor V.
poor Tot
al
Open 2 9 1 8 10 30
Cl
osed 0 1 0 11 11 23
Tot
al 2 10 1 19 21 53
Per
cent
age 3.
77358 18.
868 1.
886792 35.
84906 39.
62264 100%

Tabl
e(8)
:Thecondi
ti
onofbr
idgesandper
cent
ageofopent
ocl
osed.
Br
idges_
Condi
ti
on Open Cl
osed Tot
al
Fr
equency 30 23 53
Per
cent
age 56.
60377 43.
39623 100%

LVI
4.
5.Engi
neer
ingTr
eat
mentSur
roundi
ngofSt
udyAr
ea:
-
Theengi
neer
ingt
reat
mentsur
roundi
ngofst
udyar
ea.
hasbeendonebyt
wo
Met
hods:
-
1-Locat
ionDy
ke.
2-Ar
ti
fi
cial
Wat
erCour
se.
4.
5.1TheLocat
ionDy
ke:
-
-Thel
ocat
iondy
keest
abl
i
shedbef
oret
hef
lashf
loodi
n2007byLocalPeopl
e,
butaf
tert
hef
lashf
loodt
heGov
ernmentmai
ntai
nedt
hedy
kesur
roundi
ngt
he
St
udyAr
eaasshowni
n(Fi
g18)
.
-Ther
oleoft
hedy
ket
odecr
easet
hehazar
doff
lashf
loodont
hebui
l
dings
i
nsi
det
heUmdubanAr
ea.
-Thedy
kemadeofsoi
laccumul
ati
ons,butnow t
hedy
keaf
fect
edbyr
ainf
all
andneedst
orenewt
hedy
ke.
-ToAchi
eveSaf
etyoff
lashf
loodhazar
dinsi
deummdoubanbyi
ncr
easi
ngt
he
numberandsi
zeofbr
idges.Al
soneedst
heannual
l
ymai
ntenanceoft
hedy
ket
o
achi
evesust
ainabl
epr
otect
ionf
rom f
lashf
loodhazar
d.

LVI
I
 Fi
gur
e(18)
:TheEngi
neer
ingTr
eat
mentofLocat
ionsDy
keont
heSt
udyAr
ea

4.
5.2Ar
ti
fi
cialwat
ercour
se:
-
Est
abl
i
shedaf
terFl
ashFl
oodof2007byt
hel
ocal
Aut
hor
it
y(gov
ernment
).
Thebenef
itoft
hear
ti
fi
cialwat
ercour
sei
stot
rapt
hewadeswat
erwhi
ch
comesf
rom Nor
thEastandPassedt
otheBl
ueNi
l
easshowni
n(Fi
g19)
.
It
hinkt
heEngi
neer
ingTr
eat
mentSur
roundi
ngSt
udyAr
eai
snotsat
isf
ied.

Fi
gur
e(19)
:TheEngi
neer
ingt
reat
mentofar
ti
fi
cial
wat
ercour
seont
heSt
udy
Ar
ea.

LVI
II
4.
6.TheNewEngi
neer
ingTr
eat
mentsol
uti
on:
-
Tosol
vet
hepr
obl
em off
lashf
loodofummdubanar
ea,t
oincr
easeandext
end
t
hear
ti
fi
cialwat
ercour
seandext
ernaldy
keSur
roundt
hev
il
lages,f
rom t
he
nor
theastdi
rect
iont
opr
eventt
hef
lashf
loodpenet
rat
edummdubanar
eaand
al
lvi
l
lages ar
ound st
udy ar
ea,t
o enhance t
he dr
ainage sy
stem i
nthe
ummdubanar
eaIsuggest
edanumberofsmal
lbr
idgesonasphal
troadsas
showni
n(Fi
g20)
.

Fi
gur
e(20)
:TheNewEngi
neer
ingTr
eat
mentsol
uti
onont
heSt
udyAr
ea

LI
X
4.
6.1Mai
ntenanceofwat
ercour
sesandr
iver
s
Thest
ateGov
ernmenti
sresponsi
blef
ort
hemai
ntenanceof“
mai
nri
ver
s”anda
mi
xtur
e ofl
ocalaut
hor
it
ies,I
nter
nalDr
ainage Boar
ds and owner
s hav
e
r
esponsi
bil
i
ties f
orot
herwat
ercour
ses.Many submi
ssi
ons t
o ouri
nqui
ry
hi
ghl
i
ght
edi
nadequat
ebr
idgesanddr
edgi
ngofdr
ainagesascont
ri
but
ingt
o
l
ocalf
loods,especi
all
yfr
om newsi
tt
ingagr
icul
tur
alschemeandv
il
lager
sthem
sel
ves.asshowni
nFi
gur
es(
17)ar
eev
idenceofbl
ockedwat
ercour
sesei
ther
manual
l
y,sands ormachi
ner
yforagr
icul
tur
alpur
poses.Some wi
tnesses,
howev
er,bel
i
evedi
twasnecessar
ytomakesomechangest
otheexi
sti
ng
sy
stem.

The suggest
ed l
ocat
ion f
orbr
idges'dev
elopmenti
s essent
ial
.The spat
ial
di
str
ibut
ionoft
hosebr
idgeshav
ebeensel
ect
edf
orchangebasedont
hei
r
hi
ghestenv
ironment
all
y sensi
ti
vi
ty ar
eas t
o sur
face f
lood r
isk.Ther
efor
e,
l
ocat
ionpr
ior
it
ieswer
efoundt
obeef
fect
ivet
oov
ercomet
heuncer
tai
nti
es,
the
f
ir
stonef
oundt
obecl
osedt
oUmmdubanv
il
lageandt
heot
herwer
esof
art
o
t
heeastoft
hisv
il
lage.Pr
ior
it
iesoft
wo,t
hreeandf
ourwer
edi
str
ibut
edi
nthe
st
udyar
eaasshowni
n(Fi
g21)
.

LX
Fi
gur
e(21)
:Thepr
ior
it
ylocat
ionofbi
gbr
idgesconst
ruct
ionsont
hest
udyar
ea.

I
n cr
it
icaldr
ainage ar
eas,wher
ethe r
isk f
rom sur
face wat
erdr
ainage i
s
si
gni
fi
cant
,thel
ocalaut
hor
it
yshoul
dpr
epar
eaSur
faceWat
erManagement
Pl
an.Thi
swoul
d bean act
ion pl
an,agr
eed byal
llocalst
akehol
der
swi
th
dr
ainager
esponsi
bil
i
ties,
tocl
ari
fyr
esponsi
bil
i
tiesandmanaget
heser
isks.

LXI
 Chapt
erf
ive
Concl
usi
onandRecommendat
ions
5.
1.Concl
usi
on
 Fl
ashFl
oodhazar
disdest
ruct
iveandf
requent
lyoccur
ri
ngphenomenon
i
nthest
udyar
ea.Duet
olackofpr
operwar
ningi
nfor
mat
ionaboutt
he
f
lashf
loodhazar
dtot
hepeopl
eli
vi
ngi
nthef
lashf
loodpr
onear
eai
snot
communi
cat
edef
fect
ivel
y.Duet
owhi
chaf
fect
ersr
ecei
vemor
edamages.
Duet
osev
erel
ackofl
andusepl
anni
ngi
nthest
udyar
ea.

 The pot
ent
ialbenef
it
s ofGI
S exper
tsy
stems f
ornat
uraldi
sast
er
mi
ti
gat
ionar
ethr
eef
old:Fi
rst
,ital
l
owsf
oranopt
imi
zed,cost
-ef
fect
ive
mi
ti
gat
ionst
rat
egy
.Second,i
tal
l
owsf
ort
hei
dent
if
icat
ionofv
eryr
are
butpot
ent
ial
l
yex
tremel
ydi
sast
roushazar
ds,bypr
ovi
dinganav
enuef
or
speci
ali
zedr
esear
cht
oent
ert
hedeci
sionpr
ocess.Thi
rd,
ifi
mpl
ement
ed
i
nast
andar
dizedwayi
nmanyr
egi
ons,i
tal
l
owsi
nvest
orst
ocompar
e
r
isks,and t
o mi
nimi
ze t
hei
rown exposur
e.Thi
sis an i
mpor
tant
economi
calf
act
or,si
nce a saf
ercount
ry at
tr
act
sinv
est
ment
s and
decr
easest
hei
nter
estr
atewhi
chi
ntur
nst
imul
atesmor
emi
ti
gat
ion,
ina
posi
ti
vef
eedbackl
oop.

 Sat
ell
i
tedat
a,ut
il
izedi
nthest
udy
,wer
evi
sual
l
yanddi
git
all
ypr
ocessed
andi
nter
pret
ed.Thegeomor
phol
ogi
calhazar
dswi
thr
efer
encet
ofl
oods
hav
ebeenassessed.Thest
udyshowedt
hatanar
eaext
endsasabel
t
al
ongUmmdubanVi
l
lagesi
ssubj
ectt
ofl
ashf
loodsr
isk.Wat
eri
nrai
ny
season’
sfl
owsf
rom t
henor
theastt
owar
dst
heBl
ueNi
l
eincor
por
ati
ng
f
lood atUmmduban Vi
l
lages.Maj
orLanduses such as set
tl
ement
s,
cul
ti
vat
ion,
andot
herbui
l
dingswer
econst
ruct
edatt
hef
loodpr
onear
eas,
whi
char
ecl
assi
fi
edasenv
ironment
all
yri
skar
eas.Remot
esensi
ngand
GI
S ar
e v
ery ef
fi
cient t
ool
s f
or assessi
ng and ev
aluat
ing
geomor
phol
ogi
cal
hazar
dsi
sofgr
eatbenef
it
.

LXI
I
 I
twer
eal
soconcl
udet
hati
ntensi
veut
il
izat
ionofGI
SandRSaugment
ed
wi
thot
herenv
ironment
aldat
awi
l
lhel
pinpr
oduci
ngandupdat
eri
sk
maps.Thosemapscoul
dhel
pinpr
oduci
ngasoundr
escuemapf
ort
he
ar
eat
hatdef
ini
tel
yatr
isk.Someoft
hear
eascl
assi
fi
edashi
gh-
ri
sk
ar
eascoul
dbet
reat
edaccor
dingt
opr
ior
it
y.Moni
tor
ingofenv
ironment
al
hazar
dsi
nthear
eai
sessent
ial
,ast
hesev
eredest
ruct
ioncoul
dbe
expect
eddur
ingev
eryr
ainyseason.

 Ei
thert
heexi
sti
ngsy
stem ofbr
idgesdut
iesneedst
obemadet
owor
k
mor
eef
fect
ivel
yori
tneedst
ober
epl
aced.TheGov
ernmentshoul
d
expl
oret
hepr
act
ical
i
ty,cost
sandbenef
it
sofpur
sui
ngbot
hcour
sesof
act
ion.Wor
kshoul
dbegi
nassoonaspossi
ble.

LXI
II
 Recommendat
ions:
-
Manyr
ecommendat
ionscanbedr
awnf
rom t
hisst
udyar
e:-

1. Landusepl
anni
ngcanpl
ayv
eryi
mpor
tantr
olet
oreducet
headv
erse
ef
fect
soff
loodi
ng.I
tisr
ecommendedt
oadoptanappr
opr
iat
elanduse
pl
anni
ngi
nfl
oodpr
onear
ea.Thei
dealf
orm ofpl
anni
ngwoul
dbet
o
ev
acuat
ethef
loodpr
onecompl
etel
ybutpr
act
ical
l
yiti
snotpossi
bleas
t
oinv
olv
ehi
ghcost
sandsomesoci
alpr
obl
emsar
eassoci
ated.I
tis
possi
blet
ochanget
hef
unct
ionalchar
act
eri
sti
csoft
hef
loodpl
ainar
ea
andt
oappl
ybanont
hef
utur
eencr
oachmenti
nthef
loodpr
onear
eas.
The i
dealappl
i
cat
ion i
sthe zoni
ng cont
roli
nthe f
lood pl
ains.As
suggest
edbyKat
esandWhi
tei
nthei
rbooki
n1961.
Theyputf
orwar
d
t
hreezonedi
vi
sionswhi
char
easf
oll
owi
ng:
 Zone1:
(Pr
ohi
bit
iveZone)
:Compl
etebanonf
urt
herencr
oachment
.
 Zone2:(
Rest
ri
cti
veZone)
:Cer
tai
nact
ivi
ti
esl
i
ker
ecr
eat
ionalpar
ksand
pl
aygr
oundsal
l
owed.
 Zone3:(
War
ningZone)
:Incaseofemer
gencyshoul
dbeabl
etor
epl
ace
t
heef
fect
ivesandbewar
nedbyt
hef
loodsi
tuat
iont
imebyt
ime.

2.Hazar
d assessmentand r
iskmappi
ng i
nmostoft
hecount
ri
es,t
he
concer
nedaut
hor
it
iesar
epr
epar
ingr
iskassessmentmapsbyappl
yi
ng
GI
SandRSast
ool
snow.I
nthi
sregar
d,pr
epar
edGI
Sbasedhazar
dmaps
byi
ndi
cat
ingv
il
lages,whi
char
epr
onet
ofl
ashf
loodhazar
d.I
tisv
ery
muchi
mpor
tantnow t
oregul
arl
yupdat
ingandpr
opermai
ntenanceof
spat
ialdat
a.Theseki
ndsofmapswi
l
lhel
ptheaut
hor
it
iesf
orqui
ck
assessmentdur
ingpr
eandpostdi
sast
ersi
tuat
ion.

3.Need ofa comput

eri
zed GI
S dat
abase t
her
eisi
ntense need f
or
comput
eri
zedGI
Sdat
abasesf
ort
hest
udyar
ea.Suchdat
awi
l
lhel
pthe
pl
anner
sanddeci
sion-
maker
stot
akeposi
ti
veandi
nti
mest
epsdur
ing
pr
e-di
sast
ersi
tuat
ion.I
twi
l
lal
sohel
pthepl
anner
sanddeci
sion-
maker
s
dur
ing post
-di
sast
eract
ivi
ti
es f
ort
he assessmentofdamages and
l
ossesoccur
redduet
ofl
oodi
ng.
4.TheGov
ernmentshoul
dincl
udeanassessmentoff
loodr
iskwi
thi
nthe

LXI
V
 i
nfor
mat
iont
obei
ncl
udedi
nHomeI
nfor
mat
ionPacks.

5. I
mpr
ovi
ngsur
facewat
ert
hatt
hest
rengt
henedf
ramewor
k,shoul
dal
l
ow
f
ort
her
esol
uti
onofexi
sti
ngsur
facewat
erpr
obl
ems,
aswel
lasensur
ing
t
hatnew dev
elopmentdoesnoti
ncr
easef
lashf
loodr
iskandshoul
dbe
t
arget
edt
oresol
veexi
sti
ngpr
obl
ems.

6.Local
aut
hor
it
iesshoul
dhav
east
atut
orydut
yforsur
facewat
erdr
ainage.
I
tshoul
dbet
hedut
yofal
ocalaut
hor
it
ytoensur
eit
sar
ea,
andcont
inues
t
obeef
fect
ivel
ydr
ainedofpr
eci
pit
ati
ont
oanagr
eednat
ionalst
andar
d
ofser
vice.

7. Thel
ocalaut
hor
it
iesber
equi
redt
ocompi
l
ear
egi
sterofal
lthemai
n
f
loodr
iskmanagementanddr
ainageasset
s(ov
erl
andandunder
ground)
,
i
ncl
udi
nganassessmentoft
hei
rcondi
ti
onanddet
ail
soft
her
esponsi
ble
owner
s.The r
egi
stershoul
d al
so det
ermi
ne phy
sical
l
y wher
e one
or
gani
zat
ion’
sresponsi
bil
i
tyendsandanot
herone’
sbegi
ns.I
tshoul
dbe
av
ail
abl
etot
hepubl
i
casaweb-
basedr
esour
ce.

8. Localaut
hor
it
iesshoul
dber
esponsi
blef
ort
heul
ti
mat
eowner
shi
pand
mai
ntenanceofsust
ainabl
edr
ainagesy
stems(
SUDs)
,al
lov
ert
hest
ate.

9.Localpeopl
ehav
etobei
nvol
ved,andconsul
ted,i
nthef
ormul
ati
onof
deci
sionsaboutwat
ercour
seandr
ivermai
ntenance.TheAgency
,and
l
ocalaut
hor
it
ies,mustopenupdi
aloguewi
thmember
soft
hepubl
i
c,
t
hroughappr
opr
iat
elocal
fort
oensur
ethatt
heyar
epar
toft
hispr
ocess.

10.
Localaut
hor
it
iesshoul
dber
esponsi
blepr
epar
ingt
hepl
ant
heur
ban
dr
ainagemast
erpl
ancanbepr
epar
edi
nli
ne.

11.
Localaut
hor
it
iesshoul
d ber
esponsi
blet
o mai
ntai
ntot
hedr
ainage
sy
stem.

LXV
Ref
erences:
APFM Associ
atedPr
ogr
ameonFl
oodManagement
,2006.Soci
alAspect
sand
St
akehol
der I
nvol
vement i
n I
ntegr
ated Fl
ood Management
,
ht
tp:
//www.
apf
m.i
nfo/
pdf
/if
m_soci
al_
aspect
s.pdf
.

APFM Associ
atedPr
ogr
ameonFl
oodManagement
,2007.Economi
caspect
sof
I
ntegr
ated Fl
ood Management
,
ht
tp:
//www.
apf
m.i
nfo/
pdf
/if
m_economi
c_aspect
s.pdf
.

Associ
atedPr
ogr
ammeonFl
oodManagement
,December2007,Gui
danceon
Fl
ashFl
oodManagement
,www.
apf
m-cee-
synt
hesi
s_web.
pdf
.

Ant
hof
f,D.etal
.,2006,Gl
obalandRegi
onalExposur
etoLar
geRi
sesi
nSea-
Lev
el:A Sensi
ti
vi
tyAnal
ysi
s.Ty
ndal
lCent
ref
orCl
i
mat
e Change Resear
ch,
Wor
kingPaper96.

Bur
by,R.
J.,2000.Land-
usepl
anni
ngf
orFl
oodHazar
dReduct
ion:t
heUni
ted
St
atesExper
ience.I
n:Par
ker
,D.
J.[
Ed.
].Fl
oods,
Vol
umeI
I.Rut
ledge.
An i
nfor
mal i
nter
view wi
th t
he di
rect
or of mer
ag space t
echnol
ogy
co.
10/
12/
2009.

Cobur
n,A.
W.,
Spence,
R.J.
S.,
Pomoni
s,A.
,1994.Vul
ner
abi
l
ityandRi
sk
Assessment
.

Cr
icht
on,D.
,1999.
TheRi
skTr
iangl
e.I
n:I
ngl
eton,J.[
Ed.
].Nat
uralDi
sast
er
Management
.TudorRose.
102-
103.

DeGr
oot[
Ed.
],1982.St
orm wat
erDet
ent
ion Faci
l
iti
es.ASCE Conf
erence
Pr
oceedi
ngs.Henni
ker
.

LXVI
Ay
san,Y.andDav
is,I
.(1993)Rehabi
l
itat
ionandr
econst
ruct
ion.Uni
tedNat
ions
Dev
elopmentPr
ogr
amme(
UNDP)
,pp.1–49.

Er
li
ngsson,Ul
f,Mapeo de Ri
esgos Nat
ural
es en Ni
car
agua.Vol
umen I
II
:
Descr
ipt
ionDelSI
G Ger
enci
al‘
HazMi
t’
,Hy
droconsul
tNrHC01-
1031,Uppsal
a,
2002.

Er
li
ngsson,Ul
f,and Pér
ez,Enr
ique,(
eds.
),Mapeo de Rei
gns Nat
ural
s en
Ni
car
agua.Vol
umen I
I:Mar
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