WATER QUALITY

Pure water is tasteless, colorless and odorless liquid made up of hydrogen and nitrogen with a
chemical formula of H2O. Because water is almost universal solvent, most natural as well as man-made
substances are soluble in it to some extent. Consequently, water in nature contains dissolved substances.
In addition as a result of hydrologic cycle, it contains various other substances as well as gases. These
substances are often identified as the impurities found in water. The impurities are classified as ionic and
dissolved, nonionic and undissolved and gases.

MEASURES OF WATER QUALITY

1. DISSOLOVED OXYGEN
It is a major parameter in water quality in stream lakes, and other watercourse. It is measured with
an oxygen probe and meter. A high DO in the water creates a driving force to get through the
membrane, while a low DO would force only limited oxygen through the reaction and thereby create
electric current.
Rapidly moving water, such as in a mountain stream or large river, tends to contain a lot of dissolved
oxygen, while stagnant water contains little. The organic matter degradation carried out by water
microorganism consumes oxygen. Thus, excess organic material in lakes and rivers, a situation known
as eutrophication, can cause an oxygen-deficient situation to occur.
Aquatic life can suffer in stagnant water that has a high content of rotting, organic material in it,
especially in summer, when dissolved-oxygen levels are at a seasonal low. Adequate dissolved oxygen
is necessary for good water quality. Oxygen is a necessary element to all forms of life. Natural stream
purification processes require adequate oxygen levels in order to provide for aerobic life forms. As
dissolved oxygen levels in water drop below 5.0 mg/l, aquatic life is put under stress. The lower the
concentration, the greater the stress. Oxygen levels that remain below 1-2 mg/l for a few hours can
result in large fish kills.
Sufficient D.O. is also essential for the proper operation of many wastewater treatment processes.
Activated sludge tanks often have their D.O. monitored continuously. Low D.O values may be set to
trigger an alarm or activate a control loop which will increase the supply of air to the tank.

2. BIOCHEMICHAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD)

It is a major parameter indicating the pollution potential of various discharges to watercourse. It is a
measure of the amount of oxygen required by aerobic bacteria and other microorganisms while
stabilizing decomposable matters. A low rate of oxygen use indicates either the absence of
contamination or that the microorganisms are uninterested in consuming the available organic. A third
possibility is that the microorganisms are dead or dying.
 The standard BOD test is run in the dark at 20 degree centigrade for five days. The bottle is filled
completely with sample, which must be near neutral pH and free of toxic materials. After an initial
measurement of the D.O., the bottle is sealed and stored in a dark incubator at 20 °C for five days. The
D.O. is measured again after this incubation period. The difference is the BOD. (The bottles are kept in
the dark because algae which may be present in the sample will produce oxygen when exposed to
light). .
The BOD test is almost universally run using standard BOD bottle, about 300 mL volume. It is made
of special non reactive glass and has round stopper with a lip that is used to create a water seal so no
oxygen can get in or out of the bottle.
The BOD test is almost universally run using standard BOD bottle, about 300 mL volume. It is made of
special non reactive glass and has round stopper with a lip that is used to create a water seal so no
oxygen can get in or out of the bottle.
In the case of wastewater analysis, since most of them have BOD's which are much higher than the
limited solubility of oxygen in water, it is necessary to make a series of dilutions containing varying
amounts of sample in a nutrient-containing, aerated "dilution water." The measured BOD's are then
multiplied by the appropriate dilution factors. A variation of this test, called the carbonaceous BOD, adds
an inhibitor which prevents the oxidation of ammonia, so that the test is a truer measure of the amount
of biodegradable organic material present. Samples which do not contain enough bacteria to carry out
the BOD test can be "seeded" by adding some from another source.
SEEDING is a process in which the microorganisms responsible for oxygen uptake are added to
BOD bottle with the sample for the oxygen uptake to occur.

3. SOLID
It is the residue on evaporation at 103 degree centigrade. Solid can be divided into two fractions:
dissolved solid and suspended solid. A Gooch crucible is used to separate suspended solid from
dissolved solid. It has a holes on the bottom on which a glass fiber filter is placed. Suspended solid can
be classified as volatile solid that can be volatilized at 600 degree centigrade, and fixed solid.
Total solids (TS) are determined by drying a known amount of a sample at a temperature of 103 to
105 °C. Results can be expressed in mg/l or percent by weight.
If the sample is then burned in a furnace at about 500 C, cooled, and weighed, the fixed (FS) or
volatile solids (VS) can be determined.
If the original sample is filtered through a tared glass-fiber filter, which is then dried, the weight of the
material captured on the filter is used to figure the total suspended solids (TSS). Burning the filter in
the furnace allows measurement of volatile suspended solids (VSS) or fixed suspended solids (FSS).
The dissolved solids (DS) can be estimated from the difference between the total solids and the
total suspended solids, but the official method calls for drying the filtrate (the liquid which passes
through the filter) in a dish at 180C. Of course, there are TDS, FDS and VDS.
Suspended material can decrease the depth of the body of water. If there is a lot of biodegradable
organic material in the sediment, it will become anaerobic and contribute to oxygen depletion. Toxic
 materials can also accumulate in the sediment and affect the organisms which live there and can build
up in fish that feed on them, and so be passed up the food chain, causing problems all along the way .
Also, some of the particulate matter may be grease-- or be coated with grease, which is lighter than
water, and float to the top, creating an aesthetic nuisance

4. NITROGEN
It is a useful measure of water quality in streams and lakes. It can be tied up in high energy
compounds such as amino acids and amines and this form of nitrogen is known as organic nitrogen.
One of the intermediate compounds formed during biological metabolisms is ammonia nitrogen.
Ammonia can be measured using nessler reagent, which is a solution of potassium mercuric acid, and
reacts with ammonium ions to form a yellow brown colloid.
Water with nitrite levels exceeding 1.0 mg/l should not be used for feeding babies. Nitrite/nitrogen
levels below 90 mg/l and nitrite levels below 0.5 mg/l seem to have no effect on warm water fish

5. BACTERIOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS are necessary to determine the potential presence of

infectious agent such as pathogenic bacteria and viruses. A number of diseases can be transmitted
by water. Pathogens are disease causing organisms such as shigella that caused shigellosis,
salmonella caused salmonellosis, giardia lamblia caused amoebiasis, and cryptosporidium
caused cryptosporidiosis. Because of the numbers of pathogenic organisms present in waste and
polluted waters are relatively few and difficult to isolate and identify, the coliform organisms which is
more numerous and more easily tested for is commonly used as an indicator organisms. The
presence of coliform organisms is taken as an indication that pathogenic organisms may also
present and the absence of coliform organisms is taken as an indication that water is free from
disease producing organisms

WATER QUALITY STANDARD

1. DRINKING WATER STANDARD- two types of standard are primary and secondary. Primary
standards relate to human health, includes physical, chemical, and bacteriological standard,
while secondary standard are for constituents (chloride, copper, hydrogen sulfide, iron and
manganese) that make water disagreeable to use. The principal physical characteristic of water are
total suspended and dissolved solid, turbidity, color, taste and odor, and temperature
Chemical standard includes inorganic( arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury. Selenium), volatile
organics (benzene, carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethylene, vinyl chloride), synthetic organics
(pesticides, endrin, lindane, methoxychlor), disinfection by product and radioactive.
 Turbidity is a measure of the cloudiness of water. It is measured by passing a beam of light through the
water and measuring photometrically the light scattered at right angles to the beam. Results are
expressed in nephelometric turbidity units (NTU). Water cloudiness is caused by material suspended in
water. Therefore, turbidity is an indirect measure of total suspended solids (TSS), even if the correlation
will hold only for the particular sample from which it was derived.

Temperature. Human activities should not change water temperatures beyond natural seasonal
fluctuations. To do so could disrupt aquatic ecosystems. Good temperatures are dependent on the type
of stream. Lowland streams, known as warmwater streams, are different from mountain or spring fed
streams that are normally cool. In a warm water stream temperatures should not exceed 32 °C. Cold
water streams should not exceed 20 °C. Often summer head can cause fish kills in ponds because high
temperatures reduce available oxygen in the water.

pH is the logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration [H + ] in the solution. For pure
water the hydrogen concentration is 10-7 moles per liter and the solution can be characterized as pH 7.
The pH can range from 0 to 14, but most potable water will range from 6.5 to 8.5. Any solution with a pH
below 7 is acidic; any solution with a pH above 7 is alkaline. pH can be determined using indicator
solutions which change color in different pH ranges. "pH paper", impregnated with such indicators, are
commonplace in testing laboratories. however for accurate measurements and dealing with dilute
solutions, electrochemical measurement (a pH-meter) is required.

2. EFFLUENT STANDARD
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) oversees and states operate programs designed to
reduce the flow of pollutants into natural watercourses. Typical effluent standards for a domestic
wastewater treatment plant may range from 5 to 20 mg/L BOD, for example. The intent is to tighten
these limits as required to enhance water quality.
3. SURFACE WATER STANDARD
Classification Best Use DO(mg/ Coliforms(no/ Temp (°C)
L) mL)
A Drinking water, virgin source, no upstream >6 <10/100 <15
use permitted
B Drinking water, upstream use permitted >4 <100/100 <20
C Water contact sports, fishing >3 <1000/100 NA
D Non-contact sports, agriculture >3 NA NA
E Agricultural and industrial use, water >2 NA NA
transport

CATEGORIES OF WATER POLLUTION- Dead organic matter, pathogens, organic chemicals,

nutrients, heavy metals, acids, sediments, heat(thermal pollution), radioactivity
 WATER SUPPLY AND TREATMENT
Hydrologic cycle is a continuous circulation of water between the oceans, atmosphere, biosphere,
and the soils and rocks of the geosphere. Over 1.4 billion cu km of water exist on Earth. The vast majority
of this water (96.5%) is saline (salty) water in the oceans. Of the remaining 3.5% that is fresh water, most
(59%) is held in long term storage in cold regions as polar ice sheets, glaciers, and snow, while 30% lies
beneath the earth’s surface as groundwater. Lakes account for a further 0.25%, rivers a tiny 0.006%, and
the atmosphere contains just 0.04%.
The water cycle begins when water evaporates from oceans into the atmosphere. Atmospheric
water returns to the earth’s surface as precipitation in the form of drizzle, rain, glaze, hail, rime, snow,
sleet. Precipitation is often typed according to the factor mainly result from the lifting of air converging into a
low pressure area, or cyclone (cyclonic precipitation), ascending due to atmospheric instability
(convective precipitation), or being forced to rise due to air movement over high ground (orographic
precipitation). Cloud droplets then grow to form raindrops, snowflakes, or hailstones by the accretion of
further water vapor or by colliding with one another.
When precipitation reaches the ground it usually seeps (infiltrates) into the soil, either percolating
down to the water table to become groundwater, or flowing slowly downhill as run-off. A large proportion
of the precipitation received in an area returns directly to the atmosphere by evaporation from moist
surfaces, puddles, ponds, and lakes. This water return to the atmosphere via the leaves and bark by
process termed transpiration. The water cycle is completed when the run-off from a drainage basin flows
along a river to the ocean or a lake in order to replace that has evaporated.
 Condensation

Precipitation
Zone of aeration
Infiltration
Run off transpiration
Water table 
Percolation 
Zone of saturation  evaporation
Lake
River 
Ocean

HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

Sources of water
1. Water on the surface of the earth that is exposed to the atmosphere is called surface water
2. Groundwater- water that lies beneath the surface of the earth
Where does groundwater come from?

Ground water comes from rain, snow, sleet, and hail

Is all groundwater clean?

No, not all groundwater is clean, it can become polluted due to pesticides,landfills, oil spills, ect.

Processes of Hydrologic cycle

Evaporation: is when the sun heats up bodies of water,the water turns into vapor or steam. The vapor or
steam leaves the body of water and goes into the air, where it becomes a cloud.

Where does evaporated water come from? It comes from oceans, lakes, streams, ponds, and rivers.

The rate of
evaporation
depends on three
things: 1)
Temperature of
the air and the
water body. 2) Absoulte humidity of the air above the free surface of the water body. 3) The wind speed-
high winds keeps absoulte humidity low and stirs up the free surface.

How does water evaporate from humans and animals?

Lets take a look and see how water evaporates from humans and animals. Evaporation causes us to lose
heat energy by removing water from our skin and converting it to water vapor. When we sweat, evaporation
has occured.

How does water escape from plants? Through transpiration and evapotranspiration.

Transpiration: is a process by which a plant loses water through its leaves.

Evapotranspiration: is the loss of water from the surface of a landscape by evaporation and transpiration.

As you can see Evaporation is an important process in the water cycle

Condensation

Clouds are categorized into five groups. Each cloud type is sectioned into a certain group depending on
their appearance and the cloud base height. English scientist, Luke Howard,in 1803 devised a system to
organize all types of clouds. The classification of clouds is based on Latin translation of each clouds
appearance. Here is a chart with the Latin name and it's meaning.
Latin Root

cumulus

nimbus
stratus

cirrus
Translation heap layer curl of hair rain

The highest level of clouds, with the prefix "cirr,"

are located at heights above 20,000 feet. These
clouds are thin and white but at sunset they can
appear in beautiful color shades. These clouds
are mainly made of ice crystals due to their
height.

Mid level clouds are between 6500 - 20,000 feet

and have the prefix of "alto." These clouds are
composed of droplets of water, but if the
temperature is cold enough, the clouds will then
be made of ice crystals
Once again, if the temperature is cold enough,
low level clouds may contain ice particles and
snow. Yet these clouds are normally composed
of water droplets at a level of 6500 feet.

The most recognized cloud, the cumulus

cloud, is classified under vertically developed
clouds. These clouds can release water
through condensation and reach heights of
39,000 feet.

There are also a variety of clouds that do not fit into any of these categories. For example, there is a type
called a contrail, or condensation trail. This type of cloud occurs when the exhaust from a jet engine meets
with water vapor in the atmosphere and will make a cloud line in the air.

Precipitation What is precipitation? Precipitation is water

particles that form either rain, snow, sleet, or hail. Precipitation forms when air rises, expands, and
becomes colder, and since air can't hold as much moisture as warm air the water condenses
to form clouds and sometimes even forms rain or snow. This is caused by a combination of many different
processes that cause air to rise. To see more on the different properties of water check out this cool link.
Why do we need precipitation? At times, different forms of precipitation, may seem to do more damage
than good. For example, extreme rain causing flooding or snow storms that keep us locked up in our
houses. But did you ever think of the positive aspects of precipitation? Rain helps keep our crops growing
so we have food and ice acts as an shield for the fish living in the waters during the winter. Precipitation has
it's advantages and disadvantages..

What are the different forms of precipitation?

Rain: Rain are the tiny droplets of water that fall

from the clouds when it is a dark and cloudy day
outside. Sometimes we have lots of rain, which
can cause floods, and sometimes we just have a
little bit of rain.

This is what it looks like when it is raining.

This picture
shows a man trying to dig out of all that snow
Snow: Snow is formed when ice crystals form
from water vapor that is in the clouds directly
above our heads! The process called, sublimation,
is when the solid form of snow occurs from the
water vapor stage without passing the liquid water
stage first.
Most snow occurs between the months of
December and early March

Hail: Hail is formed when updrafts

carry raindrops upwards into
extremely cold areas of the
atmosphere where they freeze
and merge into lumps of ice.
When the lumps become to heavy
they fall to the earth. Hail can vary
in size, from the size of a small
 stone to that of a baseball. It can
be very dangerous too, so watch
out if you here that you may be
having a hailstorm! Here's a really
good site on hail, take a look!

The picture on the left shows a

hail storm taking place in a
small downtown. You can see
the huge drops the hail is
making. The picture on the right
shows a few different sizes that
hail can be. Those things are
huge!

Sleet: Sleet is frozen raindrops.

Sleet begins as rain and falls
through a deep layer of cold air that
contains temperatures below
freezing that exist near the surface.
Rain that falls through this extremely
cold layer has enough time to freeze
into soft pellats of ice

This is a picture of sleet hitting a truck!

 Freezing Rain: Freezing rain is normal rain, or liquid
water droplets, that fall from the atmosphere. Only
these droplets have been supercooled as they fall
and when they hit the ground they freeze. Freezing
rain has many similar properties as sleet only sleet
falls from the atmosphere already frozen

This is a picture of freezing rain that has fall onto the

ground! Look at that fence!!

You see, precipitation comes in all different types of forms, it isn't just rain and snow, it also includes hail
and sleet. Sometimes precipitation can be dangerous, like when there is hailstorm and the hail is the size of
baseballs or when we have sleet and it causes the roads to become very slippery. We do need precipitation
for life here on earth though. It may cause a lot of problems, but it is something we just can live without.

Evaporation is the process of loss of water from the surface of the earth.
Precipitation is the term applied to all forms of moisture originating in atmosphere and falling to the ground
Transpiration is the process of loss of water from the plants
Condensation takes place as soon as the air contains more water vapor than it can receive from a free
water surface
Run-off is the portion of precipitation on the land that ultimately reaches streams
Percolation is the movement of water through the soil
Infiltration is the movement of water from the surface of the soil to the soil
Meteorological factors that affects evaporation: Solar radiation; air temperature; wind speed;
humidity; available soil moisture to the plants

Water table is the locus point in unconfined material where the hydrostatic pressure is equal to
atmospheric pressure

GROUNDWATER SUPPLY
Zone of aeration is above the water table where the soil pores is filled with either water and air
Zone of saturation is below the water table where the soil pores is filled with water

Types of soil- sand, clay, silt

Nature of evaporating surface: vegetation, building, paved street
Types of plants: Mesophytes; xerophytes; phreatophytes; hydrophytes

Permeability is the property of soil which allow water to move through soil mass
Porosity is the ratio of the pore volume to the total volume of the formation
Specific yield is the ratio of the volume of water that will drain freely from a soil to the total volume of water
in the soil.

GEOLOGIC FORMATION
Aquifer is a geologic formation which contain water and transmits it from one point to another
Aquiclude is a formation which contains water but cannot transmit it rapidly enough to furnish significant
supply to a well or spring.
Aquifuge has no interconnected openings and cannot hold or transmit water
Artesian is a groundwater that is overlain by two impervious layers that is usually under pressure because
of the weight of the overburden

raw chlorine


water sand

  finished water
  to the community

A TYPICAL WATER TREATMENT PLANT

Key 1. Chemical Mixing basin (coagulation), 2. Flocculation basin (flocculation), 3. Settling tank, 4. Rapid
sand filter,
5. Disinfection with chlorine, 6 Clean water storage (clear well), 7. Pump
WATER TREATMENT PROCESS
1. Coagulation is the chemical alteration of colloidal particles to make them stick together forming a larger
particles called flock. When aluminum sulfate is added to the water containing colloidal material, the alum
initially dissolves to form aluminum ion and sulfate ion. But the aluminum ion is unstable and forms various
types of charged species of aluminum oxides and hydroxides. The specific forms of these compounds are
dependent on the pH of the water, the temperature and method of mixing.
Two mechanisms important in the process of coagulation
Charge neutralization is the mechanism whereby the aluminum ions are used to counter the
charge on the colloidal particles
Bridging involves the sticking together of the colloidal particles by virtue of the macromolecules
formed by the aluminum hydroxides
2. Flocculation is a physical process that assists the growth of particles. The intent of the process of
flocculation is to produce differential velocities within the water so that particles can come into contact.
3. Settling simply allow the heavier-than water particles to settle to the bottom. Settling tank is designed to
approximate a plug flow reactor.
Variables that influence the movement of particles in settling tank- particle size, particle shape,
particle density, fluid density, fluid viscosity
Factors that cause non-uniform flow in settling- wind, density, temperature currents, inadequate
baffling at the tank entrance.
4. Filtration and backwashing- water from the settling basins enters the filter and seeps through the sand
and gravel bed, through a false floor and out into a clear well that stores the finished water. Backwashing
is the process by which the solids that clogged at the rapid sand filters must be cleaned.
5. Disinfection - following filtration and before storage in the clear well, the water is disinfected to destroy
whatever pathogenic organisms might remain. Commonly, disinfection is accomplished with chlorine,
purchased as a liquid under pressure and released into the water as chlorine gas using a chlorine feeder
system. The presence of a residual of active chlorine in the water is an indication that no further organics
remain to be oxidized and that the water can be assumed to be free of disease-causing organisms.
6. Storage in a clear well
7. Distribution of water- water pumped into the distribution systems usually contains a residual of chlorine
to guard against any contamination in the distribution system. This is why water from drinking fountains or
faucets often has a slight taste of chlorine. From the clear well in the water treatment plant, the finished
water is pumped into the distribution systems. Such systems are under pressure, so that any tap into a
pipe, whether it is a fire hydrant or domestic service, will yield water.
SUSTAINABLE WATER USE
From a water supply use and management perspective, sustainable water use can be defined as the
use of water resources by people in a way that allows society to develop and flourish into an indefinite
future without degrading the various components of the hydrologic cycle or the ecological system that
depend on it. Some general criteria for water use sustainability are as follows:
 Develop water resources in sufficient volume to maintain human health and well-being.
 Provide sufficient water resources to guarantee the health and maintenance of ecosystems.
 Ensure minimum standards of water quality for the various users of water resources.
 Ensure that actions of humans do not damage or reduce long-term renewability of water
resources
 Promote the use of water-efficient technology and practice.
  Gradually eliminate water pricing policies that subsidize the inefficient use of water.
With groundwater resources, the length of time for effective management for sustainability is even
longer than for other renewable resources. Effects of pumping groundwater at rates greater than natural
replenishment rates may take years to be recognized. Similarly, effects of withdrawal of groundwater, such
as drying up of springs or reduction of stream flow, may not be recognized until years after pumping begins.
The long term approach to sustainability with respect to groundwater often involves balancing withdrawals
of groundwater resources with recharge of those resources, which is an important component of water
management.

WASTEWATER TREATMENT

Uses of Water: Drinking, Recreation; Commercial Navigation; Fish Propagation; Waste disposal
Types of Sewer
1. Sanitary sewers carry wastewater through large pipes flowing partially full using gravity feed
2. Collecting sewers collect wastewater from homes and industrial and converge at a central point.
3. Trunk sewers transport the wastewater from collecting sewers to wastewater treatment plant
4. Force main are inverted siphons and pipes from pumping stations, flow under pressure
5. Storm sewers carry storm water run-off away from developed area back to environment

Common contaminants in wastewater: organic material as measured by BOD, suspended solid,

nitrogen, phosphorous; and pathogenic organisms
Forms of wastewater
1. Domestic sewage results from people day to day activities such as bathing, body excretion, food
preparation, and recreation.
2. Industrial waste]
3. Inflow - storm water that seeps into sanitary sewer system through loose manhole covers
4. Infiltration occurs when sewer lines are placed below the water table or when rainfall percolates
down to the depth of the pipe.

AREAS OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT

 Preliminary treatment is the removal of larger particles to prevent damage to the remainder of the
unit operation
 Primary treatment is the removal of solid by settling, usually physical process as opposed to
biological or chemical. It removes 60% suspended solid, 30% BOD, and 20% phosphorous
  Secondary treatment is the removal of the demand for oxygen, commonly biological in nature.
 Tertiary treatment is the name applied to any number of polishing or clean-up processes, can be
physical, biological, or chemical.
 Solid treatment and disposal is the collection, stabilization and subsequent disposal of solid by
other processes.

WASTEWATER TREATMENT PROCESSES

 .

a.

A TYPICAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT

Influent air Effluent



1
2 4 5 6
3

Sludge

8
7

1. Bar screen
2. Grit chamber
3. Primary clarifier
4. Aeration tank
5. Final clarifier
6. Chlorine contact tank
7. Digestor
8. Dewatering