Professional Documents
Culture Documents
I. Harappan society
A. Background
1. Neolithic villages in Indus River valley by 3000 B.C.E.
2. Earliest remains inaccessible because of silt deposits and rising water table
3. Also little known because writing not yet translated
B. Foundations of Harappan society
1. The Indus River
a. Runs through north India, with sources at Hindu Kush and the Himalayas
b. Rich deposits but less predictable than the Nile
c. Wheat and barley were cultivated in Indus valley
d. Cultivated cotton before 5000 B.C.E.
e. Complex society of Dravidians, 3000 B.C.E.
2. No evidence about political system
3. Harappa and Mohenjo-daro: two main cities
a. Each city had a fortified citadel and a large granary
b. Broad streets, marketplaces, temples, public buildings
c. Standardized weights, measures, architectural styles, and brick sizes
C. Harappan society and culture
1. Social distinctions, as seen from living styles
2. Religious beliefs strongly emphasized fertility
3. Harappan society declined from 1900 B.C.E. onward
a. Ecological degradation led to a subsistence crisis
b. Another possibility: natural catastrophes such as floods or earthquakes
c. Population began to abandon their cities by about 1700 B.C.E.
d. Almost entirely collapsed by about 1500 B.C.E.
e. Some Harappan cultural traditions maintained
II. The Indo-European migrations and early Aryan India
A. The Aryans and India
1. The early Aryans
a. Depended heavily on a pastoral economy
b. No writing system, but had orally transmitted works called the Vedas
c. Sacred language (Sanskrit) and daily-use language (Prakit)
2. The Vedic Age: 1500-500 B.C.E.
I. Colliding worlds
A. The Spanish Caribbean
1. Indigenous peoples were the Taino
a. Lived in small villages under authority of chiefs
b. Showed little resistance to European visitors
2. Columbus built the fort of Santo Domingo, capital of the Spanish Caribbean
a. Taino conscripted to mine gold
b. Encomiendas: land grants to Spanish settlers with total control over local people
c. Brutal abuses plus smallpox brought decline of Taino populations
B. The conquest of Mexico and Peru
1. Hernan Cortés
a. Aztec and Inca societies wealthier, more complex than Caribbean societies
b. With 450 men, Cortés conquered the Aztec empire, 1519-1521
I. Patterns of industrialization
A. Foundations of industrialization
1. Coal critical to the early industrialization of Britain
a. Shift from wood to coal in eighteenth century; deforestation caused wood shortages
b. Abundant, accessible coal reserves in Britain
2. Overseas colonies provided raw materials
a. Plantations in the Americas provided sugar and cotton
b. Colonies also became markets for British manufactured goods
c. Grain, timber, and beef shipped from United States to Britain after 1830
3. Demand for cheap cotton spurred mechanization of cotton industry
a. John Kay invented the flying shuttle, 1733
b. Samuel Crompton invented the spinning "mule," 1779
c. Edmund Cartwright invented a water-driven power loom, 1785
4. James Watt's steam engine, 1765
a. Burned coal, which drove a piston, which turned a wheel
b. Widespread use by 1800 meant increased productivity, cheaper prices
5. Iron and steel also important industries, with continual refinement
a. Coke (purified coal) replaced charcoal as principal fuel
b. Bessemer converter (1856) made cheaper, stronger steel
6. Transportation improved with steam engines and improved steel
a. George Stephenson invented the first steam-powered locomotive, 1815
b. Steamships began to replace sailing ships in the mid-nineteenth century
c. Railroads and steamships lowered transportation costs and created dense transportation
networks
B. The factory system
1. The factory gradually replaced the putting-out system
a. Factory system required division of labor; each worker performed a single task
b. Required a high degree of coordination, work discipline, and close supervision
2. Working conditions often harsh
a. Workers lost status; not skilled, just wage earners
b. Harsh work discipline, fast pace of work, frequent accidents
3. Industrial protest
a. Luddites struck against mills and destroyed machines, 1811 and 1816
b. Fourteen Luddites hung in 1813, and the movement died
C. The early spread of industrialization
1. Industrialization in western Europe
a. British industrial monopoly, 1750 to 1800, forbade immigration of skilled workers
b. Napoleon abolished internal trade barriers in western Europe, dismantled guilds
c. Belgium and France moved toward industrialization by mid-nineteenth century
d. After German unification, Bismarck sponsored heavy industry, arms, shipping
2. Industrialization in North America slow to start, few laborers, little capital
a. British craftsmen started cotton textile industry in New England in 1820s
b. Heavy iron and steel industries in 1870s
c. Rail networks developed in 1860s; integrated various regions of United States
D. Industrial capitalism
1. Mass production provided cheaper goods
a. Eli Whitney promoted mass production of interchangeable parts for firearms
b. Later (1913), Henry Ford introduced assembly line to automobile production
2. Industrialization expensive; required large capital investment
a. Encouraged organization of large-scale corporations with hundreds of investors
b. New laws protected investors from liability
I. Foundations of empire
A. Motives of imperialism
1. Modern imperialism
a. Refers to domination of industrialized countries over subject lands
b. Domination achieved through trade, investment, and business activities
2. Two types of modern colonialism
a. Colonies ruled and populated by migrants
b. Colonies controlled by imperial powers without significant settlement
3. Economic motives of imperialism
a. European merchants and entrepreneurs made personal fortunes
b. Overseas expansion for raw materials: rubber, tin, copper, petroleum
c. Colonies were potential markets for industrial products
4. Political motives
a. Strategic purpose: harbors and supply stations for industrial nations
b. Overseas expansion used to defuse internal tensions
5. Cultural justifications of imperialism
a. Christian missionaries sought converts in Africa and Asia
b. "Civilizing mission" or "white man's burden" was a justification for expansion
B. Tools of empire
1. Transportation technologies supported imperialism
Chapter 35: Nationalism and Political Identities in Asia, Africa, and Latin America
Chapter 36: New Conflagrations: World War II and the Cold War
I. Independence in Asia
A. India's "vivisection": partitioned independence
1. Indian self-rule
a. British finally willing to consider independence after WWII
b. Muslim separatism grew; feared domination by Hindus
c. Muslim League called a Day of Direct Action in 1946; rioting left six thousand dead
2. Partition of India and ensuing violence
a. Gandhi condemned division of India as a "vivisection"
b. Independent India, 1947, divided into Muslim Pakistan and Hindu India
c. Ten million refugees moved either to India or Pakistan; one million died in migration
d. Gandhi assassinated by a Hindu extremist, 30 January 1948
3. Conflicts between India and Pakistan
a. 1947, fought over province of Kashmir; Pakistan lost
b. Pakistan allied with United States; India accepted aid from both superpowers
c. India and Pakistan stayed in British Commonwealth; English was official language
4. Nonalignment emerged as attractive alternative to a cold war alliance
a. Indian prime minister Nehru favored policy of nonalignment, the "third path"
b. At Bandung Conference in Indonesia, 1955, twenty-nine nonaligned nations met
c. Movement lacked unity; many members sought aid from United States or USSR
B. Nationalist struggles in Vietnam
1. Fighting the French
a. Japan's invasion ended French rule; Ho Chi Minh declared independence
b. France reasserted colonial rule, recaptured Saigon and south Vietnam, 1945
c. Retook north by bombing Hanoi and Haiphong; killed at least ten thousand civilians
d. Ho and followers (Viet Minh) conducted guerrilla warfare from the countryside
e. Aided by Communist China, Viet Minh defeated the French in 1954
2. Geneva Conference and partial independence, 1954
a. Vietnam temporarily divided, north and south, at 17th parallel
b. South Vietnam's leaders delayed elections, feared communist victory
c. United States supported first the French, then the unpopular government of South Vietnam
d. North Vietnam received assistance from USSR and China
3. Cold war stalemate
a. Nationalist-communist (Viet Cong) attacks on government of South Vietnam
b. President Johnson launched bombing campaign, sent ground troops in 1965
c. U.S. troops were trapped in a quagmire; dragged on until 1973
C. Arab national states and the problem of Palestine
1. Arab states, except Palestine, gained independence after World War II
2. Zionist dream of a Jewish state in Palestine
a. Zionism affirmed by Balfour Declaration, 1917, and Paris peace talks
b. Britain supported Zionist effort, but limited Jewish migrants to Palestine
3. Conflicts between Arab Palestinians and Jewish settlers, 1920s and 1930s
a. Arab Palestinians resisted both British rule and Jewish settlement violently
b. Increased Jewish migration to escape Nazis; armed for self-protection
c. Independent Arab states opposed a Jewish state
4. Creation of Israel
a. Unable to resolve conflict, Britain turned Palestine question over to UN, 1947
b. UN proposed dividing into two states, Palestine and Israel; Arabs opposed
c. 1947, British withdrew, civil war broke out, Jews proclaimed the state of Israel
d. Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and Iraq declared war on Israel
e. Israel achieved victory in 1949; claimed territories larger than what was granted by UN plan
5. Egypt and Arab nationalism
a. Military leaders under Gamal A. Nasser seized power in 1952
b. Nasser became prime minister, a leader of pan-Arab nationalism
c. Egypt neutral in cold war, accepted aid from both powers
d. Nasser dedicated to ending imperialism and destroying state of Israel
6. Suez crisis, 1956, greatly enhanced Nasser's prestige
a. Canal controlled by Britain; Nasser nationalized it to build Egypt's economy
Sources: