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Artificial life attempts to understand the essential gene- does the abstract and material-independent methodology
ral properties of living systems by synthesizing life-like of information theory.
behavior in software, hardware and biochemicals. As Artificial life has also been influenced by developments
many of the essential abstract properties of living sys- in traditional disciplines. In addition to a wealth of infor-
tems (e.g. autonomous adaptive and intelligent behav- mation about the life forms found on Earth, some models
ior) are also studied by cognitive science, artificial life originally devised for specific biological phenomenon have
and cognitive science have an essential overlap. This been adopted by artificial life. Physics and mathematics,
review highlights the state of the art in artificial life especially statistical mechanics and dynamical systems,
with respect to dynamical hierarchies, molecular self- have contributed the method of constructing simple model
organization, evolutionary robotics, the evolution of systems that have broad generality and permit quanti-
complexity and language, and other practical appli- tative analysis. In addition, the use of cellular automata
cations. It also speculates about future connections as exemplars of complex systems [5] led directly to
between artificial life and cognitive science.
http://tics.trends.com 1364-6613/$ - see front matter q 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2003.09.012
506 Review TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences Vol.7 No.11 November 2003
contemporary artificial life. Complex systems are com- including connectionism [9], multi-agent AI [10], and
posed of many elements simultaneously interacting with evolutionary computation [6,11].
each other. Those in which the rules governing the ele-
ments are reshaped over time by some process of adap- A sample of the state of the art
tation or learning are complex adaptive systems [6,7], and Life exhibits complex adaptive behavior at many different
these are the main focus of artificial life. levels of analysis: metabolic and genomic networks, single
Artificial life also has roots in computer science, cells, whole organisms, social groups, evolving ecologies,
especially artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning. and so forth. This diversity of levels gives artificial life
Most notable here are John Holland’s pioneering investi- a broad intellectual scope (see Box 2). The following
gations of genetic algorithms and classifier systems [6,8] highlights illustrate ascending levels in the hierarchy of
(see Box 1). The subjects of AI and artificial life overlap, living systems.
as living and flourishing in a changing and uncertain
environment seem to require at least a rudimentary form Dynamical hierarchies
of intelligence. Their methodology is also similar: both Each level in a dynamical hierarchy consists of the inter-
study natural phenomena by simulating and synthesiz- action of entities with a distinctive set of autonomous
ing them. Nevertheless, there is an important difference functionalities, and the entities at higher levels are com-
between the modeling strategies of traditional symbolic AI posed of entities at lower levels (for example, think of
and artificial life. Most traditional AI models are top- organs, which are made up of tissues, which are made up
of cells, which are made up of organelles, which are made
down-specified serial systems involving a complicated,
up of molecules, and so on). One of the fundamental
centralized controller that makes decisions based on
open problems in artificial life is to explain how robust,
access to all aspects of global state. The controller’s deci-
multiple-level dynamical hierarchies emerge solely from
sions have the potential to affect directly any aspect of the
the interactions of elements at the lowest-level. This is
whole system. On the other hand, many natural living
closely analogous to the problem in cognitive science of
systems exhibiting complex autonomous behavior are
explaining how cognitive capacities ultimately emerge from
parallel, distributed networks of relatively simple, low-
the interactions of non-cognitive elements like neurons.
level ‘agents’ that simultaneously interact with each other.
Each agent’s decisions are based on information about, and
directly affect, only its own local environment. ALife’s
Box 2. Grand challenges in artificial life
models characteristically follow this example from nature.
The models themselves are bottom-up-specified, parallel A good way to understand an interdisciplinary science is through its
systems of simple agents interacting locally. They are central aims. The challenges of artificial life fall into three broad
categories: the origin of life, life’s evolutionary potential, and life’s
repeatedly iterated and the resulting global behavior is
connection to mind and culture [1]. (Some areas in which artificial life
observed. Such lower-level models are sometimes said to plays a significant role, such as robotics and art, do not appear on the
be ‘agent-based’ or ‘individual-based.’ The whole system’s list, which is not meant to be comprehensive.)
behavior is represented only indirectly, and arises out of
the interactions of directly represented parts (‘agents’ or How does life arise from the non-living?
(1) Generate a molecular proto-organism in vitro.
‘individuals’) with each other and with their physical and (2) Achieve the transition to life in an artificial chemistry in silico.
social environment. This decentralized architecture shares (3) Determine whether fundamentally novel living organizations
important similarities with some newer trends in AI, can arise from inanimate matter.
(4) Simulate a unicellular organism over its entire lifecycle.
(5) Explain how rules and symbols are generated from physical
dynamics in living systems.
Box 1. Genetic algorithm
The genetic algorithm is a machine-learning technique loosely What are the potentials and limits of living systems?
modeled on biological evolution; it views learning as a matter of (6) Determine what is inevitable in the open-ended evolution of
competition among candidate problem solutions. Potential solu- life.
tions are encoded in an artificial chromosome, and an initial popu- (7) Determine minimal conditions for evolutionary transitions
lation of candidate solutions is created randomly. The quality or from specific to generic response systems.
‘fitness’ of each solution is calculated by application of a ‘fitness (8) Create a formal framework for synthesizing dynamical hier-
function’. For example, if the problem is to find the shortest route archies at all scales.
between two cities and a candidate solution is a specific itinerary, (9) Determine the predictability of evolutionary manipulations of
then the fitness function might be the reciprocal of the sum of the organisms and ecosystems.
distances of each segment in the itinerary, so shorter-distance routes (10) Develop a theory of information processing, information flow,
have higher fitness. In effect, the fitness function is the ‘environment’ and information generation for evolving systems.
to which the population adapts. A candidate solution’s ‘genotype’ is
its chromosome, and its ‘phenotype’ is its fitness. By analogy with How is life related to mind, machines, and culture?
natural selection, lower fitness candidates are then replaced in the (11) Demonstrate the emergence of intelligence and mind in an
population with new solutions modeled on higher fitness candi- artificial living system.
dates. New candidates are generated by modifying earlier candidates (12) Evaluate the influence of machines on the next major
with ‘mutations’ that randomly change chromosomal elements and evolutionary transition of life.
‘crossover’ events that combine pieces of two chromosomes. After (13) Provide a quantitative model of the interplay between cultural
reproducing variants of the fittest candidates for many generations, and biological evolution.
the population contains better and better solutions. (14) Establish ethical principles for artificial life.
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Review TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences Vol.7 No.11 November 2003 507
configuration. Langton noted that natural self-reproducing cells (via chemical diffusion), and mechanisms for cell
living systems were not universal constructors, and he division (and death) and mutation. The system’s variables
produced a vastly simpler self-replicating cellular auto- are concentrations of metabolic chemicals, metabolic
maton that lacked a universal constructor [19]. Langton’s enzymes, chemicals for genetic information, and enzymes
configuration replicates because a description of it is both to translate genetic information into amino acids. The
copied into, and interpreted in the daughter configuration genetic code determines how genetic information is
in order to complete its construction. Langton’s result expressed phenotypically, that is, which amino acids are
sparked a series of simple self-replicating systems (reviewed produced, and evolution of the genetic code takes the form
in [20,21]). Self-replication is not sufficient for life, of course, of changes in the enzymes used in amino-acid synthesis.
and Langton-style self-replicating configurations seem more Simulations using this model have shown that evolution
like growing crystals than living organisms because they can create cells with distinct genetic codes.
are unable to evolve. Sayama has overcome that limitation
by creating self-replicating cellular automata that evolve Origin of multicellularity
and can become more complex [22], and Ikegami and The origin of multicellularity is one of the major tran-
co-workers have recently demonstrated the emergence of sitions in the evolution of life, and apparently has evolved
more realistic self-replicating structures [23]. independently many times. The developmental processes
that create these multicellular organizations share three
Artificial cells features. First, development starts with a homogeneous
The holy grail of ‘wet’ artificial life is to create artificial cell (or set of cells) that are multipotent (i.e. they have the
cells out of biochemicals. Such artificial cells would be ability to differentiate into many different types of special-
microscopic, autonomously self-organizing and self-repli- ized cells). Second, the developmental process has an
cating physical entities that assemble themselves out of intrinsic temporal direction because the differentiated
non-living materials. Although artificial, they would repair cells that result are not multipotent. Third, the develop-
themselves and adapt in an open-ended fashion, so for all mental process is stable in the face of perturbations that
intents and purposes they would be alive. The first artificial destroy clusters of cells.
cells will probably just move through a fluid and process Alan Turing’s pioneering work on cellular inhomo-
chemicals. To do even this flexibly and robustly, they must geneity over fifty years ago showed that an instability in
solve the functions of self-maintenance, autonomous a homogeneous chemical system could generate the for-
control of chemical processing, autonomous control of mation of patterns by a process of chemical reaction and
mobility, and self-replication. diffusion [30]. Furusawa and Kaneko have now extended
Nobody has yet created an artificial cell, but research Turing’s dynamic systems approach to explain the three
is pursuing two approaches. Venter and Smith are using universal features of multicellular differentiation men-
the top-down strategy of artificially synthesizing and tioned above [31]. They simulated a one-dimensional chain
modifying the genome of the organism with the smallest of cells governed by randomly generated biochemical
genome, the bacterium Mycoplasma genitalium [24]. The reaction networks, and showed that differentiated cells
other approach is bottom-up, building more and more can grow more quickly than undifferentiated cells.
complex physiochemical systems that increasingly incor-
porate life-like properties. Some bottom-up efforts are Evolutionary robotics
strongly inspired by the RNA chemistry in existing cells Much work at the multicellular level has occurred in ‘hard’
[25,26], whereas others pursue a simpler chemistry that artificial life, which is concerned with various forms of
replaces RNA with PNA (peptide nucleic acid, an analog of autonomous agents such as robots. This is artificial life’s
DNA in which the backbone is a pseudopeptide rather than most direct overlap with cognitive science, as its aim is to
a sugar) [27]. Laboratory experiments must be compared synthesize autonomous adaptive and intelligent behavior
with simulations of artificial cells, so there is overlap here in the real world. One of the tricks is to allow the physical
with systems biology, which aims to represent and simu- environment to generating the behavior as far as possible.
late the details of real cells [28]. However, artificial life Brooks pioneered a biologically inspired approach to robotics
has the broader aim of representing and synthesizing all [32 –34] (and see [35] for a recent textbook).
life-like systems, including those that do not yet exist. Traditional rational design for intelligent autonomous
agents is difficult, because it involves sophisticated inter-
Evolution of genetic code connections among many complex components. The ALife
The genetic code is a nearly universal feature of life on alternative is to follow nature and use an evolutionary
earth, and yet it is difficult to understand how it could design method [36], employing a genetic algorithm [6,11]
evolve. A mutation at a given codon (i.e. three adjacent (see Box 1). This method can be used to design many
bases on a strand of DNA or RNA that codes for a aspects of robots, including control systems and sensors
particular amino acid) might be a selective advantage, of [37 –39]. In natural autonomous agents, the control sys-
course, but any change in the code would entail wholesale tem is tightly coupled with morphology. Sims took some
changes at a vast number of codons. How could this be steps towards capturing this interconnection when he
anything but disastrous? Kaneko, Takagi and colleagues simultaneously co-evolved simulated creatures’ control-
[29] have proposed a solution to this problem by nume- lers, sensors, and morphology [40], and advances in hard-
rically simulating a dynamic system that models an intra- ware and software have recently stimulated this line of
cellular metabolic-reaction network, interactions between research [37,38,41]. Jordan Pollack and his students have
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Review TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences Vol.7 No.11 November 2003 509
demonstrated that co-evolution of controllers and mor- parasite-resistance and new forms of parasitism. After
phology can be constrained by off-the-shelf rapid proto- millions of CPU cycles of this co-evolutionary arms
typing technology, so that evolutionary design could be race, Tierra often contains many kinds of creatures
automatically replicated in the real world [42,43]. exhibiting a variety of competitive and cooperative
ecological relationships.
Evolution of digital organisms
The first significant achievement of spontaneous evolution
Evolution of complexity
in a digital medium was Ray’s Tierra [44]. Studying evolv-
Life has exhibited a remarkable growth in complexity over
ing systems in software is one of the most practical and
its evolutionary history. Simple prokaryotic one-celled life
constructive ways to explore any evolutionary expla-
developed into more complex eukaryotic one-celled life,
nations, such as those offered in evolutionary psychology.
which led to multicellular life, then to large-bodied verte-
Tierra consists of a population of digital ‘creatures’ that are
brate creatures with complex sensory processing capacities,
actually simple, self-replicating computer programs popu-
lating computer memory and consuming CPU time. A and ultimately to highly intelligent creatures that use
Tierran genotype consists of a string of machine code, and language and develop sophisticated technology – those
each Tierran creature is a token of a Tierran genotype. creatures at the central focus of cognitive science.
A simulation starts when a single self-replicating pro- Although some forms of life remain evolutionary stable
gram, the ancestor, is placed in computer memory and left for millions of years (e.g. coelacanths, sharks), the appa-
to replicate (Figure 3). The ancestor and its descendants rently open-ended growth in complexity of the most com-
repeatedly replicate until computer memory is teeming plex organisms is intriguing and enigmatic. Much effort in
with creatures that all share the same ancestral genotype, artificial life is directed towards creating a system that
so older creatures are continually removed from the sys- shows how this kind of open-ended evolutionary progress
tem to create space in memory for new descendants. Errors is possible, even in principle. Digital evolution in Tierra
(mutations) sometimes occur, so the population of Tierra does not show this, because the complexity of individual
creatures evolves by natural selection. If a mutation allows Tierran creatures typically decreases and significant
a creature to replicate faster, that genotype tends to spread evolutionary change eventually peters out (Figure 3).
through the population. Ray has tried to address these limitations by making the
Over time, the ecology of Tierran genotypes becomes Tierra environments much larger and more heterogene-
remarkably diverse. Quickly reproducing parasites that ous, and by making the ancestral Tierran creatures signi-
exploit a host’s genetic code evolve, and the co-evolution ficantly more complex (in effect, giving them multiple cell
between hoses and parasites spurs the evolution of types). By allowing Tierran creatures to migrate from
machine to machine over the Internet, looking for unused
resources and for more favorable local niches, Ray has
found signs that they evolve new types of cells [45].
(a) (b) High Furthermore, when Tierra is modified so that creatures
are rewarded for performing complex arithmetic opera-
tions on numbers they find in their environment, evolution
Fitness produces the expected increase in genetic complexity
[46,47]. However, as with the original version of Tierra,
these evolutionary progressions eventually stop.
Low Hillis demonstrated that co-evolution can spur evolu-
(c) (d) tionary progress [48], and co-evolutionary arms races
might be necessary to drive continual evolutionary pro-
gression by continually changing the environment. Even
so, the original and modified versions of Tierra all involve
co-evolution and yet the environment eventually becomes
essentially stable, so there must be more to the story.
Further progress on open-ended evolution would be aided
by quantitative comparisons across different artificial and
TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences
natural evolving systems. Bedau and Packard and their
Figure 3. Four snapshots of the evolutionary dynamics exhibited by a typical run
collaborators have taken a step in that direction by
of Avida [46,47], a derivative of Tierra [44]. Avida consists of a population of self- defining and studying evolutionary activity statistics.
reproducing computer programs, each of which occupies one location in a two- Comparing data from different artificial and natural
dimensional grid with periodic boundary conditions (i.e. the left and right edges of
the grid are connected, as are the top and bottom edges). The system is started by evolving systems suggests that there are qualitatively
seeding the grid with one self-replicating program that is designed by hand (a). As different classes of evolutionary dynamics, and no known
time evolves, this program replicates and spreads on the grid. Random mutations
artificial system generates the kind of evolutionary
change the fitness of offspring programs, and higher fitness programs spread
more quickly (b–d). Fitness is determined by replication rate and success at dynamics exhibited by the biosphere [49,50]. We still are
performing various logical operations. The evolving population of programs even- missing some insight about the mechanisms by which
tually fills the 100 £ 100 grid (c,d). Regions containing high-fitness programs typic-
ally contain miscellaneous isolated low-fitness programs that arise by deleterious
evolution continually creates new kinds of environments
mutations and quickly die. that elicit new kinds of adaptations.
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510 Review TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences Vol.7 No.11 November 2003
that affect their behavior, and they all exhibit memory and 4 Wiener, N. (1948) Cybernetics, or Control and Communication in the
inter-organism communication. Furthermore, the relative Animal and the Machine, Wiley
5 Wolfram, S. (1994) Cellular Automata and Complexity, Addison-
sophistication of such capacities seems roughly to reflect Wesley
and explain a life form’s relative biological complexity. 6 Holland, J.H. (1975/1992) Adaptation in Natural and Artificial
Evolution presumably explains much about the origin Systems: An Introductory Analysis with Applications to Biology,
and nature of the mental capacities found in nature, as it Control and Artificial Intelligence (2nd edn, expanded, 1992),
University of Michigan Press
does for any adaptation. But life and mind might have a
7 Holland, J.H. (1995) Hidden Order: How Adaptation Builds Complex-
deeper and more distinctive connection, and emergence ity, Helix Books
might be a clue to it. Cognitive science tries to explain how 8 Holland, J.H. (1986) Escaping brittleness: the possibilities of general-
cognitive capacities ultimately emerge from the behavior purpose learning algorithms applied to parallel rule-based systems. In
Machine Learning II (Michalski, R.S. et al., eds), pp. 3 – 25, Morgan
of biological materials like neurons, with qualitatively
Kaufmann
different properties, and artificial life tries to explain 9 Rumelhart, D.E. and McClelland, J.L. (1986) Parallel Distributed
how life emerges from a non-living substrate of molecules. Processing: Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition (Vols 1
This methodological affinity suggests an affinity of subject & 2), MIT Press
matter. However, physics explains how the solid, liquid 10 Rich, E. and Knight, K. (1991) Artificial Intelligence, McGraw-Hill
11 Mitchell, M. (1996) An Introduction to Genetic Algorithms, MIT Press
and gaseous phases of water emerge out of the behavior of 12 Berlekamp, E.R. et al. (1982) Winning Ways (Vol. 2), Academic Press
water molecules that individually are neither solid, liquid 13 Fontana, W. and Buss, L.W. (1994) The arrival of the fittest: toward a
or gaseous, so it cannot be said that emergence alone theory of biological organization. Bull. Math. Biol. 56, 1 – 64
entails a close connection between life and mind. 14 Rasmussen, S. et al. (2001) Ansatz for dynamical hierarchies. Artif.
Life 7, 329– 353
Adaptation might explain a tighter link. Open-ended
15 Kauffman, S.A. (1993) The Origins of Order: Self-Organization and
adaptablity is a hallmark of life, at least when considered Selection in Evolution, Oxford University Press
on an evolutionary time scale [65]. Similarly, following 16 Boerlijst, M.C. and Hogeweg, P. (1991) Spiral wave structures in
Maturana and Varela [66], many consider the ability to prebiotic evolution: hypercycles stable against parasites. Physics D 48,
cope with a complex, dynamic, unpredictable environment 17 – 28
17 McCaskill, J.S. (1997) Spatially resolved in vitro molecular evolution.
to be a defining feature of cognitive and intelligent systems Biophys. Chem. 66, 145– 158
[32,34,65,67,68]. This line of argument, which is being 18 Breyer, J. et al. (1998) Evolving reaction-diffusion ecosystems with
explored by the embodied cognition and dynamical sys- self-assembling structures in thin films. Artif. Life 4, 25– 40
tems approaches to cognition [34,68,69], implies a funda- 19 Langton, C.G. (1986) Studying artificial life with cellular automata.
Physica D 22, 120 – 149
mental similarity in the key mechanisms behind living
20 Sipper, M. (1998) Fifty years of research on self-replication: an
and cognitive systems. This conclusion is supported by overview. Artif. Life 4, 237 – 257
Brooks’s conclusion that the future of both AI and artificial 21 Sipper, M. and Reggia, J.A. (2001) Go forth and replicate. Sci. Am. 285,
life hinges on bridging the gap between non-living and 34 – 43
22 Sayama, H. (2000) Self-replicating worms that increase structural
living matter [70]. If Brooks is right, then we can expect
complexity through gene transmission. In Artificial Life VII (Bedau,
‘wet’ artificial life to become inseparably intertwined with M.A. et al., eds), pp. 21 – 30, MIT Press
‘soft’ and ‘hard’ artificial life, and we can expect all three to 23 Ono, N. and Ikegami, T. (2003) Selection of catalysts through cellular
merge with cognitive science. reproduction. In Artificial Life VIII (Standish, R. et al., eds), pp. 57 – 64,
MIT Press
24 Hutchison, C.A. et al. (1999) Global transposon mutagenesis and a
Conclusions
minimal Mycoplasma genome. Science 286, 2165 – 2169
Artificial life is an interdisciplinary investigation into one 25 Szostak, J.W. et al. (2001) Synthesizing life. Nature 409, 387 – 390
of the most fundamental aspect of the natural world – life 26 Pohorille, A. and Deamer, D. (2002) Artificial cells: prospects for
itself. Its synthetic methodology is making incremental biotechnology. Trends Biotechnol. 20, 123 – 128
progress on a wide range of issues, from dynamical 27 Rasmussen, S. et al. (2003) Bridging nonliving and living matter. Artif.
Life 9, 269– 316
hierarchies and artificial cells to the evolution of complex- 28 Kitano, H. (2002) Systems biology: a brief overview. Science 295,
ity and even language. Its ambitious agenda for the future 1662– 1664
involves explaining how life arises from non-living sub- 29 Takagi, H. et al. (2000) Evolution of genetic codes through isologous
strates, determining the potentials and limits of living diversification of cellular states. Artif. Life 6, 283 – 306
30 Turing, A. (1952) The chemical basis of morphogenesis. Philos. Trans.
systems, and understanding how life is related to mind, R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 237, 37 – 72
machines, and culture. This overlapping agenda means 31 Furusawa, C. and Kaneko, K. (2002) Origin of multicellular organisms
that artificial life is likely to change the future face of as an inevitable consequence of dynamical systems. Anat. Rec. 268,
cognitive science in significant ways. 327– 342
32 Brooks, R.A. (1989) A robot that walks: emergent behaviours from a
carefully evolved network. Neural Comput. 1, 253 – 262
Acknowledgements
33 Brooks, R.A. (1990) Elephants don’t play chess. Robots Auton. Syst. 6,
For many helpful suggestions on earlier drafts of this review, thanks go to
3 – 15
the editor and anonymous referees.
34 Brooks, R.A. (1991) Intelligence without representation. Artif. Intell.
J. 47, 139– 160
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The World Color Survey (WCS) data are now available on the web at
http://www.icsi.berkeley.edu/wcs/data.html.
These data represent the color naming responses of an average of 24 (mode 25) respondents in each of 110 unwritten languages
worldwide. The color stimuli for the WCS were 330 Munsell color chips representing 40 equally spaced Hues at eight levels of Value
(lightness) and maximum Chroma (saturation) plus 10 Neutral (achromatic) chips in equal Value steps. Each respondent named
each chip and then picked out from the full stimulus array the best (focal) example(s) of each term that the field worker judged to be
of major importance.
The data were gathered in the period 1976–1979 by field linguists of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, with direction by Brent
Berlin, Paul Kay and William Merrifield. The web archive was created by Richard Cook, with direction by Paul Kay and Terry Regier.
The data in this archive embody significant corrections of earlier versions of the data, including corrections based on
communications with the original field workers.
No earlier version of these data should be considered valid for scientific research.
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