The tespicatory system consists of the lungs and at pas sages. In the course of respiration air passes through the following structures; larynx, trachea and bronchi. The funetion of the respiratory system is to provide the body with oxygen needed to maintain life, and to get rid of the catbon dioxide which is produced as a waste product of, the body's metabolism. This interchange of gases takes place in the lungs, whose vital surface area has been esti- mated to be equivalent to the area of a tennis court. Before studying the physiology of the respiratory system, let us consider its anatomy in greater detail ‘Air passes through the nose, where itis filtered by the hairs, warmed by contact with the mucous surface. and moistened by the evaporation of moisture from the sur face. The air then passes through 2 muscular tube ~ the pharynx, and thea flows through the larynx, of voice-box, the front cartilage of which forms the familiae Adam's Apple. Attached to the top of the larynx isthe epiglottis, which helps to close off the larynx during swallowing, The vocal cords lie inside the larynx. ‘The trachea is a tubular structure extending about em downwards from the laryax. {has aWiatcter of about 2.Sem and is composed of smooth muscle in which are embedded incomplete rings of cartilage which give protection against collapse or blockage. Larynx, trachea and bronchi epiglortis thyroid cartilage cricoid eanilage right bronchus left bronchus upper lobe bronchus —~, middle lobe bronchus bronchus ‘At its lower end the trachea divides into two main branches, the right bronchus and left bronchus. The bronchi enter theic respective lungs, where they divide and subdivide into smaller branches eventually forming bron- cchioles. The bronchioles have a layer of smooth muscle, which causes constriction and dilation of the bronchioles. Itis, of course, involuntary and under the control of the autonomic nervous system. The lungs ace asy:mmetzical cone-shaped organs; the heart projects into the left thoracic cavity, creating a notch in the let lung called the cardiac notch, The right lung is iviged into theee lobes and the left lung into «Wo. ‘Their bases are on the diaphragm and theie upper, pointed, ends behind and above the clavicles. Each lung is surrounded by a double serous membrane, the pleura, Between the inner visceral and outer parietal pleural Iayers there isa slight exudate which lubricates the surfaces, and prevents friction between the lungs and the chest wall during the respiratory movements. In health the two layers of pleura are in contact one with the other. The pleural space or cavity is only a potential space, but when, in abnormal states, air or luid lies between the two layers of pleura separating tem, the space then becomes distinct. Within the lungs each bronchiole again divides many , eventually ending in clusters of alveoli. aTHERESPIRATORVISYSTEM : ee ‘A single alveolus isa tiny air space. Its walls consist of a single layer of flattened epithelial cells, which are in contact with the walls of the capillary blood vessels present throughout the lung. Through these very thin layers of tissue, oxygen and carbon dioxide can be readily exchanged between the blood inthe pulmonary capillaries and the air in the alveoli ‘The respiratory tract is lined with mucous membrane which secretes mucus from specialised glands and cells. ‘This membrane is lined with ciliated epithelium, The ellia are fine hair-like processes which beat with a wave-like motion and catty particles of foreign matter, mucus etc. ut of the respiratory tract. Thoracic Cavity ‘The thoracie cavity is situated at the upper part of the trunk. The Boundaries of the thopax are: ‘The sternum and costal cartilages in front. ‘The twelve thoracie vertebrae with theic intervertebral dises of cartilage behind. ‘The ribs and intercostal muscles at the sides ‘The diaphragm below. ‘The root of the neck above. ‘The sides ofthe thoracic cavity are completely filled by the lungs with their pleural covering: these lle each side of, and form the lateral boundaries of, the mediastinum. ‘The mediastinum isthe space in the thoracic cavity between the two lungs. It contains the heart and great blood vessels, the oesophagus, thorscie duct, descending aorta, and superior vena cava, the vagi and phrenic nerves and aumerous lymphatic glands. Respiratory Muscles There are a variety of muscles directly connected with, respiration, principally the intercostals, which assist in the expansion of the thorax so that air can flow into the lungs. ‘Another important muscle in respiration is the diaphragm. This is a broad sheet of muscle which separates the thorax from the abdomen, The only structures which pass through it are the oesophagus, major blood vessels and branches of the vagus nerve, In respiration the diaphragm, which is domed upwards, moves down, pressing the abdominal contents to allow air tobe taken into the thorax. As it moves upwards it helps to expel ai from the lungs. The diaphragm is under a degree of voluntary control and with practice better voluntary control can be obtained. Pulmonary Circulation ‘The pulmonary artery cartes the deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs its branches lie in contact with the bronchial tubes, dividing and subdividing until tiny arterioles are formed; these break up into a network of capillaries which lie in contact with the walls ofthe alveoli or air sacs. These minute capi lary vessels have a very small bore, so that the red blood cells are carried along practically in single fle. They rove very slowly, and being separated from the ait in the alveoli by only two exceedingly thin membranes the interchange of gases takes place by diffusion, which is the function of respiration, ‘The pulmonary capillaries unite and unite again until larger vessels are formed and finally two pulmonary veins leave each lung carrying the oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the heart and thence to the left ventricle for, distribution all over the body by way of the aorta,Mechanism of Respiration Ftonae eeathing consists of active breathing-in inspiration) follows? by passive breathing out (expitation). Dusng inssication the volume ofthe chert cavity (thorns) increased by the flattening and lowering of the diaphragm and by the expansion of the anterior chest wall by the ruscles between the ribs. Ths increase in the Volume of we thorax causes the pressute within the chest to fell - below that of the atmosphere, so that the air lows into the lux ‘The phase of passive expiration is caused by the natural tendency of the various muscles to return to their formes positions thus reducing the volume of the thorax with the resultant breathing out of used ai. The rate of nermet respiration varies considerably between individuals, but 16 {0 20 inspirations per minute may be taken 35 an average gure Physiology of Respiration The Function of the lungs is the interchange of gases. In she minute stritute of the lungs the pulmonary capillaries bresk up and surround the numerous alveoli: here the ree blood cells pass through tiny eapillary vessels close te eke air in the alveoli. Oxygen is taken up and earbon dioxide is given of Tissue oF Internal Respira Ths Blood, having its haemoglobin saturated with oxygen (oxy-haemoglobin) cisculates throughout the body ace finally reaches the capillacy bed whete the blood i moving exteenely slowly. The tissue cells take oxygen from the bsemoglobin to enable oxidation to go on, and the blood feceives in exchange the waste product of ovidavom cxrbon dioxide, Pulmonary Respiration or External Respiration ‘This consists of four processes 1 Ven:vation, This means the act of breathing which places the air in the alveoli with outside ait, 2 Blood flow through the lungs. 3 The distcibution of air-low and blood so that the correct, Smounts of each go to all parts ofthe lungs. 4 Diffusion. This is the process by which the gases pass actoss the alveolar walls and capillary membranes. CO, diffuses more easily than oxygen. ‘These processes are adjusted s0 that blood leaving the lungs has the correct amount of COs and Oz. During Eisise more blood comes.to the lungs with too much COs and too little Oz; the amount of CO cannot be Excreted and the concentration in the arterial blood in Euiaies. This stimulates the respiratory centre in the brain fo,26-"s80 the breathing. The increased ventilation thus Oe about then excrete the COs and takes up more Control of Respication Rt mechanism of respiration is regulated and eontrlled &Y 0 principal factors, 1 nervous, and 2 ehemical control Tau f2ctors stimulate the respiratory centre, which lies 2.5 medulla oblongata, and when simulated the centre to uig et impulses which are transmitted by spinal nerves coatt.Puscles of respiration - the diaphragm and inter- SeNSCOUS control: The cespiratory centre isan automatic immmcg He medulla oblongata from which efferent eae 2 BBS to the muscles of cespitation, These unpulses ‘Sse thythmie conteation ofthe Uaphrsgrr aed ine Gost] muscles atthe rte of about stteen times per minute 2 Ghemical contro: It is this which is the ultimate factor to send out the impulses respiration Ait Capacity of the Lungs Gh ta ar eapacity ofthe lungs is about to $4 tes, Only about 10% of this volume of air is inspired sage Total capacity of the lungs ¢ expiratory inspiratory fesidual reserve tidal reserve volume volume volume volume TT ly! ited during normal is known as the tidal that can be forcibly inspired is called the inspiratory feserve volume; the extra amount of aie that can be forcibly expired is called the expiratory reserve volume, ‘Quiet breathing. This small proportion Volume. The extra amountof ait Vital capacity fovetble inspiration and expiration increases considerably the volume of air breathed in and out. The volume which, can be made to passin and out of the lungs by the most forcible inspiration and expiration is known as the vital capacity. Its measured by means of an apparatus known asa spirometer, Ina fic man the vitl capacity may be as much as. 4 lites, but it is never equal to the total lung eapacity. ‘There is always a quantity of residual air, usualy amount: {ng to about 1 to 14 lites, which cemains in the lungs even after the most forcible expiration. The vital eapacity {s reduced by diseases of the lungs, heart disease and by weakness of the muscles of respiration, e Forced Expitstory Volume in One Second ‘This is the proportion of the vita capacity which ean be breathed out in one second. Ic is generally abbreviated as FEV,. In a fit man FEV, is equal to about 80% of the vital capacity. Conditions such as asthma or bronchitis Which cause constriction of the air pasages cause a reduc tion in FEV).VOCABUI ACTH | 1, Fill in the blanks with the appropriate word. i a) Intake, expeliing, pharynx, trachea, air sacs, larynx, picks up, alveolus, waste product, mouth, bronchial tubes. j The system of the body that is responsible for the ... of oxygen and the ... of carbon dioxide is called the respiratory system. The main parts of the respiratory system ate: the NOSE, geo cose ven eee NC the lungs. As in the circulatory _ ; ~~ system the passages OF TUES Ti the vespitatory ‘syStein Become sinaller and Sivaller aS They go from the mouth to the ... in the lungs. Oxygen and carbon dioxide pass freely from the ... to surrounding blood vessels and vice versa. Blood carries oxygen to the cells and ... carbon dioxide as a b) Respiratory system, tissues, lymph nodes, lifeline, tissues, vital signs, by way of wastes, white blood calls, properly, thymus, nutrients, blood clotting, remove, circulation. Good ... is vital to Shealth. Cells, ... organs and body systems cannot function ... if circulation is inadequate. The circulatory system is the ... for the entire body. When you measure ..., you are measuring the vitality of the body. The circulatory system serves three primary functions, They are: carrying food and oxygen to cells the blood vessels; removing ... from cells; fighting infection by carrying ... and other disease fighting ) substances. The heart, blood cells. blood vessels, ind ... are considered part of the circulatory system. Sometimes the spleen and... are also included. The main function within this system is the pumping of blood by the heart to all parts of the body, including the tiny cells. The purpose is to bring dissolved food (...). ‘oxygen, hormones, antibodies and ... factors to the cells, and to ... waste products from the cells. The circulation of blood also helps to keep the body at an even temperature and balance the fluid level The circulatory system works closely with the 2,The temple, the throut, the left breast, the inner elbow, the wrist, the thigh, the foot are the seven primary pulse points ia the human body. For each of them you are to supply syconyins, as iu the example. © e.g,, the temple - temporal! pulse 3. Make up the word family of the following words: pharynx, larynx, trachea, 4, Match the word with the correct description or definition: Carbohydrates, plasma, white corpuscles, aorta. capillaries, bile, stomach, incominence, excretion, ) insulin all intestine which vesttary caval belew she esophegus and ebove the 4 saccitke bulge in the a! igests and hoids food A hormone secreted by the: pancreas essential for proper metabolism: of sugar Sugars, starches, and cellulose. Foods containing carben kydragen, and oxygen. A secretion of the liver stored in the ge! bladder and released into ihe small intestine te aid in digesting fats ‘The largest artery carrying blood from the left side of the heart Tiny blood vessels with thin alls that allow oxygen and nutrients to be passed through them to nearby ceils . tid portion of the blood asies fie the body der functions crtting a rol one’s bowel or i