Structural-Formational Interpretation To PDF

Geophysical Prospecting, 2000, 48, 953±981
Structural±formational interpretation tools for

seismic stratigraphy
I.A. Mushin,1 V.V. Makarov,1,2 E.A. Kozlov1,2 and A. Lowrie3
Abstract
In the framework of a structural-and-formational interpretation (SFI) approach to
seismic data processing and geological interpretation, specific software/technology
tools were created to facilitate sequence stratigraphy analysis and reservoir
characterization. The most important tools are two types of time±frequency
representation of seismic data: the first is spectrum-time analysis (STAN), which
presents a seismic trace as a series of very narrow frequency band traces, while the
second tool converts an initial seismic section into a set of sections ranked with
preselected frequency bands, narrower than those of the initial section, but wider than
those related to STAN traces. Jointly, these two representations reflect both general
trends and local temporal and spatial variations of seismic data frequency content.
The use of these tools, developed in Russia in the 1980s, facilitates detection of
sedimentation cycles and their depositional environments, identification of hierarchies
within faulting patterns, and delineation of geological anomalies on seismic sections.
This, in turn, provides reliable starting points for palaeotectonic restoration and
basin modelling. In many regions, these tools have helped to clarify obscure
formation structures under study and to estimate the hydrocarbon potential of these
formations.
Introduction
Structural-and-formational interpretation (SFI) is an interpretational methodology
developed in the 1980s at the All-Russian Research Institute for Exploration
Geophysics ± VNIIgeofizika (Mushin et al. 1990). Since then the methodology has
been successfully applied to many exploration fields. The input data are seismic
records and well logs. The geological problems and exploration targets are the same as
those of seismic sequence stratigraphy and reservoir characterization. The SFI
Paper presented at the 54th EAEG Meeting, Paris, France, June 1992.
Received July 1998, revision accepted March 2000.
1
VNIIgeofizika, 1 Golutvinsky per. 1, 109180 Moscow, Russia.
2
Now at Paradigm Geophysical Ltd., 1 Golutvinsky per. 1, 109180 Moscow, Russia. E-mail:
koslov@geotech.msk.ru
3
Consultant, 238 FZ Goss Road, Picayune, MS 39466, USA.
q 2000 European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers 953

954 I.A. Mushin et al:
approach aims to create a sequence of geological models which are similar to sequence
stratigraphy and/or reservoir characterization models. The models are as follows:
1 structural;
2 stratigraphic sequence;
3 lithofacies;
4 porosity/permeability.
The structural model was traditionally created by depth conversion of key seismic
horizons picked on seismic time sections or in a data cube. This procedure is currently
replaced by iterative horizon picking/prestack depth migration techniques modified by
the construction of intermediate velocity±depth models. Stratigraphic, lithofacies and
porosity/permeability models were created in the course of sequence stratigraphy
analysis and reservoir characterization.
In the framework of an SFI approach, a series of techniques was developed to help
in the creation of the above models. The techniques are based on the comparative
analysis of time±frequency (t±f) representations of seismic data and are called
`spectrum-time analysis' (STAN) and `rank sections'. The use of these representa-
tions reveals variations in the seismic data frequency content in time and space, and
thus aids the detection of sedimentation cycles, the recognition of changes in
deposition environments, the identification of faulting hierarchy and the delineation of
geological anomalies that are unclear on common seismic sections.
The exploration potential of frequency content within seismic data has been
recognized since the initiation of the seismic method, the frequency content of a
particular short time window of seismic data and the temporal structure of a given
seismic wavefield corresponding to a certain narrow frequency band both being of
particular interest. Yet there is inherent difficulty in designing an efficient t±f
presentation: the shorter the time window, the less stable is the frequency analysis
result, and conversely, the longer the time window, the poorer is the resolution of
frequency content variation with time.
Because of the difficulty in describing the time and frequency of essentially non-
stationary seismic wavefields simultaneously, no absolutely perfect and unquestion-
ably superior formalism of such a description has been designed. Instead, several types
of t±f presentation have been proposed to serve as data processing and, later, as data
interpretation tools: i.e. the continuous wavelet transform (Morlet et al. 1982; Shensa
1992); quadratic shift-invariant transforms (Steeghs and Drijkoningen 1995; Steeghs
1997); the amplitude and phase Fourier spectrum of a seismic trace calculated over a
short time window positioned at a particular seismic horizon (Gridley and Partyka
1997).
The spectrum-time analysis was initially designed to decipher variations in the
frequency content of deep seismic sounding data (Dziewonski, Bloch and Landiss-
man 1969). In the mid-1970s and early 1980s, the t±f presentations in the form of
STAN and rank sections were adapted to support the analysis of the frequency
content of seismic data acquired in the search for oil and gas in the Volgo-Urals,
Timan-Pechora and West Siberia (Mushin et al. 1986, 1990).
q 2000 European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers, Geophysical Prospecting, 48, 953±981
SFI tools for seismic stratigraphy 955
In publications on other types of t±f presentation, except Gridley and Partyka

(1997 and later), the emphasis was mostly on the mathematical (or both mathematical
and application (Steeghs 1997)) aspects. By contrast, the aim of this paper is to show
how STAN and rank section analysis facilitate sequence stratigraphy interpretation
and reservoir characterization. First, the basic principles of t±f transforms are
described. Next, the interpretational potential of these tools is illustrated on synthetic
examples. Finally, the application of these tools to real cases is discussed to show how
they may be usefully applied to the geological interpretation of geophysical data.
Basic principles
The interpretational potential of all seismic-orientated t±f presentations, including
STAN and rank section analysis, is based on the hierarchy of sedimentation sequences
periodicity.
Sedimentation hierarchy as a basis for t±f transforms of geophysical data

One of the basic concepts of the Exxon/Vail sequence stratigraphic model, shown
below, is that sediments are deposited in a hierarchical quasiperiodic sequence:
X 1st order < 100 000 000 years Vail, Mitchum and Thompson (1977)
X 2nd order < 10 000 000 years Vail, Mitchum and Thompson (1977)
X 3rd order < 1 000 000 years Vail, Mitchum and Thompson (1977)/
Lowrie, Meeks and Hoffman (1996)
X 4th order < 100 000±20 000 years Lowrie, Meeks and Hoffman (1996)
X 5th order < 1000 years Lowrie and Hamiter (1995)
X 6th order < 100 years Lowrie and Hamiter (1995)
(Note that the initial Exxon/Vail model is modified using the results of studies by
Lowrie and Hamiter (1995) and Lowrie et al. (1996).)
The SFI approach is based on recognition of an analogous hierarchical architecture
of sedimentational sequences outlined independently. This hierarchy reflects a fractal
nature of deposition. The fractal nature is also characteristic of tectonic elements of
structure: spatial distribution and scales of faults and folds also display a hierarchy
connected with the hierarchy of layering (Hirata, Satoh and Ito 1987; Hirata 1989;
Turcotte 1989).
Each hierarchical order (rank) of a stratigraphic sequence for a given region is
characterized by a specific average thickness of its constituents. In the frequency
domain, this average thickness relates to a specific average spatial frequency along the
axis normal to bedding. On seismic time sections, this spatial frequency corresponds
to the temporal frequency of the appearance of reflection events attributed to the tops
of the constituents in a given rank. The major (thickest) hierarchical units are
characterized by the lowest frequency and the thinnest units alternate quasiperiodi-
cally with the highest frequency. In a sense, each rank has a characteristic frequency
response.
From the viewpoint of the SFI approach, this hierarchy of characteristic frequencies
provides the basis for developing and implementing t±f transforms in order to
decipher the features of the variations in seismic image frequency content in space and
recording time.
The STAN and rank section versions of t±f transforms were designed so as to
present temporal and spatial variations in geophysical data frequency content in as
simple and clearly visible form as possible, without noticeable loss of generality.
Main types of t±f transform: definitions

In the SFI approach, the discrete time and frequency multichannel filtering technique
has been adopted in a fairly straightforward `amplitude' form of STAN (Mushin et al.
1986, 1990, 1992):
X
St; f k st g STAN t 2 t; f k ; k 1; :::; N; 1
t
where gSTAN (t, fk) is the impulse response of the kth narrow band-pass filter used in
STAN, and s(t) is the seismic trace to be transformed. Triangular two-octave filters
with central frequency fk are used as the gSTAN (t, fk) kernel. As an alternative to the
2
amplitude form (1), an energy presentation jS~t; f j , smoothed over t and f, can be
used. The symbol Ä over S indicates smoothing within short time and frequency
windows.
STAN sections, STAN cubes

When a single seismic trace s(t) is chosen from an input seismic section, the transform
(1) results in a single gather of N output traces S(t, fk), where k 1, 2, ¼, N and
50 # N # 200, with frequencies fk increasing successively with k. This gather is
called a spectrum-time analysis (STAN) section (Fig. 1). Various forms of STAN
section display are shown in Figs 2a±c. Sequences of output traces S(t, fk) with or
Figure 1. Schematic representation of a spectrum-time analysis (STAN) section of a seismic

trace placed between groups of preceding and subsequent traces.

Figure 2. Various forms of t±f decomposition display: (a) STAN sections (amplitude form with spectral balancing); (b) STAN sections
(amplitude form without spectral balancing); (c) STAN sections (energy representation).
Figure 3. STAN sections sequence along a seismic line.
Figure 4. Initial seismic section (a) and its t±f transforms: (b) STAN cube, 500 traces (x-axis),
300 time samples from 1900 to 2500 ms, and 100 filterings, central frequencies from 6 to 100 Hz;
(c) the cube slices parallel to the main planes. Timan-Pechora province, Northern Russia.
without equalization appear to form a more interpretable image (Figs 2a and b) than
2
an energy map presentation jS~t; f j (Fig. 2c).
For better perception, the resulting STAN panel is usually placed on the initial
seismic section plane between groups of preceding and subsequent traces of the
section (Fig. 1) or on a vertical plane normal to the initial section plane (Fig. 3).
Applying the STAN transform to a series of sequential traces or to an entire seismic
section (Fig. 4a) yields a `STAN cube', given by S(x, t, fk) (Makarov et al. 1997a;
Fig. 4b). The STAN cube can be presented by a series of vertical, horizontal or
arbitrarily orientated slices as in any other 3D cube of seismic data (Fig. 4c).
The hierarchical order of geological sequences is reflected in STAN sections more
clearly than in a common wide-frequency seismic time or depth section. If a
periodicity of a certain rank is inherent in the sequence, and this periodicity complies
with the seismic frequency band, then a zone of increased amplitudes appears on the
respective STAN section due to the resonance effect. If there is more than one such
rank of periodicity, then more than one such zone of increased amplitudes could
appear on the STAN section. Variations in such rank zones along the x-axis can be
delineated and interpreted by examining a STAN cube.
The bandwidth of each rank zone and its position on the STAN section
plane relative to the frequency axis at any given point (x, t) helps to define the
parameters of a time and space-variant band-pass filter. Such a filter is the optimum
for identifying a particular hierarchical rank along a specific geological unit on the
seismic section. Applying such band-pass filter to the initial seismic section yields a
`rank section'.
Rank sections
Suppose that within the limit of a seismic frequency band (commonly between 5±10
and 70±100 Hz) there are three hierarchical ranks inherent in the sedimentary cover
of a region. Let average thicknesses of 100 m, 50 m and 30 m be inherent in the first,
second and third ranks, respectively. Then, assuming an interval velocity of 3000 m/s,
the central frequencies of the three ranks will be 15, 30 and 50 Hz. Hence, in order to
reflect the setting of each rank along a given seismic line, three rank sections Sf(x, t)
must be constructed by filtering the initial seismic section three times, each time using
the appropriate band-pass filter with the corresponding central frequency and
reasonable bandwidths. These bandwidths are usually chosen so as to cover the bands
of several adjacent narrow-band filters gSTAN(t, fk) of the transform (1): too wide a
band decreases rank resolution and too narrow a band decreases temporal resolution,
as is the case for all types of t±f presentation.
Creation of such a set of rank sections can be considered as `rank decomposition' of
the initial seismic section.
The rank sections can either be combined with each other (by simply stacking
them) in pairs to clarify the geological setting of the ranks coupled arbitrarily or they
can all be stacked together. In other words, a `controlled rank synthesis' can be
executed. The geological meaning of such a synthesis will be clarified in the
section `t±f transforms as interpretation tools ± real cases'. Here, it is emphasized

that the concept of rank band-pass filtering provides tools for a fundamentally
new approach: i.e. the geological interpretation (sequence stratigraphy included) of
separate ranks or their combinations, chosen by examination of a series of STAN
sections or of the whole STAN cube.
When creating sequence stratigraphic, lithofacies and porosity/permeability models,
a specific set of seismic images is created for each model. Such sets can include images
of instantaneous attributes, coherence maps, and AVO- and/or seismic amplitude
inversion attribute sections. Yet the main source of information remains the resulting
seismic sections or cubes processed so as to ensure maximum temporal and spatial
resolution. Creation of a set of rank sections (cubes) reveals more clearly the features
of the sedimentation sequence hierarchy, characteristic of the region surveyed.
Relationships between STAN and other t±f transforms

The definitions above can be extended to 3D data. For instance, the 3D analogue of
rank section Sf (x, t) is a rank 3D cube Sf (x, y, t), and a 3D STAN cube S(x, t, f ) in the
case of 3D data is replaced by a 4D STAN hypercube S(x, y, t, f ). (For simplicity, the
subscript k in fk is omitted here and in the following.)
Using the STAN cube notion, it is possible to illustrate interrelations between
the various versions of the t±f transform defined above. Each rank section can be
considered as a weighted sum (over frequency f ) of several consecutive STAN cube
slices Sf(x, t), f fi, fi11, ¼,fI, taken within the respective zones of increased
amplitudes. The STAN section, S(t, f ) ; Sx(t, f ), is simply an x constant slice of the
STAN cube. Summation of all rank sections will yield the initial seismic section s(x, t),
provided there is neither essential frequency overlapping nor frequency gaps between
the rank sections, and integration over t of an xth STAN section will yield an estimate
of the common smoothed amplitude spectrum of the trace sx(t).
The simplicity of the relationships between the initial section S(x, t), the cube S(x, t, f ),
the STAN sections Sx(t, f ), the rank sections Sf (x, t) and the spectra Sx(f )
distinguishes this model from other t±f representations.
t±f patterns of stratigraphic sequence elements ± synthetic examples

There is an obvious relationship between the seismic reflectivity function and the
vertical structure of stratigraphic sequences. A single reflection coefficient corre-
sponds to a sharp boundary between two homogeneous half-spaces; a single bed
sandwiched between two uniform half-spaces corresponds to a pair of reflection
coefficients of opposite sign, and so on. This close tie provides the basis for forming
t±f wave patterns for the characteristic elements of a stratigraphic sequence.
Figures 5±7 show STAN sections of such basic elements: a smooth and a rough
boundary between two different layers, a single contrasting and transient layer, a
sedimentation cycle, and a combination of two sequences of different hierarchical
rank. (The scales of all these elements of stratigraphic sequence ± sharp boundary,
rough surface, stacks of thin beds ± are related to a seismic frequency band.)
The STAN patterns of these elements are distinctly different. The patterns
obtained from a single sharp plane boundary (Fig. 5a) and single plane layers (Figs 5b
and c) can be intuitively expected. More interesting are the patterns due to a rough
reflector (Fig. 5d), to sedimentation cycles (Figs 6a and b) and to a combination of
different hierarchical ranks (Fig. 7).
Rough boundary
In accord with Huygens' principle, a 1D reflectivity function of a rough boundary can
be modelled as a laterally varying sequence of closely spaced (in time) reflection
coefficients of the same sign (left-hand side of Fig. 5d). The distinguishing feature of
such a sequence is the lateral variation that, unfortunately, cannot be shown in our 1D
model. The t±f STAN pattern of a rough boundary is more prolonged in time,
compared with a sharp boundary t±f signature (Fig. 5a); in addition, its amplitude
decreases faster with frequency. The lateral instability of a rough boundary t±f
signature will be shown later.
Sedimentation cycle
Such cycles are, basically, alternations of aggradation and progradation induced by
certain sea-level changes, resulting in vertical and lateral variations of facies.
Alternation of facies, in turn, causes alternation of reflection coefficients. The gradual
increase (or decrease) in the thickness of the constituent beds from top to bottom of a
cycle causes corresponding gradual changes in the intervals between reflection
coefficients. In the t±f domain, for instance on a STAN section, a more or less steeply
tilted, elongated cluster of increased amplitudes from lower to higher frequencies is
clearly visible in a STAN cycle model patterns (Figs 6a and b). The pattern differs
markedly from the STAN images of a single sharp reflector (Fig. 5a) or of a thin layer
(Figs 5b and c) and can be viewed as the model t±f seismic signature of sedimentation
cycles. Mushin et al. (1990) named this specific signature `the t±f seismic cycle'.
Similar tilted patterns of sedimentation cycles are also demonstrated on images of the
t±f transform designed by Steeghs (1997).
In principle, the frequency band occupied by a seismic cycle and the dip of the
corresponding cluster of increased amplitudes imaged on a STAN section describes
Figure 5. Models of reflectivity functions of basic stratigraphic sequence elements (left) and
their synthetic STAN t±f signatures (right) for a zero-phase seismic wavelet. (a) Sharp
boundary between two half-spaces; (b) transient layer; (c) contrasting layer; (d) single rough
boundary. Note frequency-independent positions of the amplitude maximum in the case of the
plane boundary, the increase in resolution at high frequencies for thin layers, and the unstable,
complex pattern for the rough boundary.
Figure 6. Models of reflectivity functions of sedimentation cycles (left), their synthetic STAN
t±f signatures (centre) and conventional symbolic designations of cycles (right). (a) Two
unidirectional cycles; (b) two cycles of opposite direction. Note a distinct tilted linear zone of
increased amplitudes attributed to each cycle.
the cycle quantitatively. For instance, the maximum and minimum thicknesses hmax
and hmin of the beds within a cycle can be deduced from the lowest and highest
frequencies fmin and fmax of a cycle's t±f signature using the equations hmax < V/(4fmin)
and hmin < V/(4fmax). The dip of the cluster defines the direction and rate of the
thickness drift. This brings a new quality into seismic (sequence) stratigraphy
interpretation and reservoir characterization and allows the creation of more reliable
and better resolved stratigraphic and lithofacies models.
Multirank sequences
Figure 7 (left-hand side) shows the model reflectivity function of a two-rank stack of
thin layers, the thickness of the layers belonging to the higher rank being twice the
Figure 7. Model of reflectivity function of a two-rank stack of thin layers (left) and its synthetic
STAN t±f signature (right). Note two vertically aligned zones of increased amplitudes: one
between 15 and 23 Hz and another between 35 and 50 Hz. The zones are divided from each
other by a subtle vertical zone of low amplitudes between 27 and 30 Hz.
thickness of the lower rank layers. The corresponding STAN section (right-hand side
of the panel) displays the characteristic pattern of a layer stack, i.e. a series of
continuous subhorizontal events (compare with the t±f signature of a single bed,
Figs 5b and c). The two-rank structure of the stack is revealed by amplitude increases
in two vertical zones, attributed to frequencies of 18 Hz and 38 Hz; these zones of
increased amplitudes are divided from each other by a vertical zone of amplitude
`lows' (see also the average spectrum above the STAN traces). An amplitude increase
within a certain frequency band, as compared to other frequencies in the same time
interval, indicates that the reflectivity function for this time interval is characterized by
a periodicity causing a resonance effect in the seismic wavefield; indeed, this
periodicity is inherent in the model reflectivity function (Fig. 7). The period (about
55 ms for the higher rank and about 27 ms for the lower rank, see Fig. 7), scaled in
proportion to the interval velocity, characterizes the average thickness of the respective
stratigraphic sequence members, i.e. the sequence rank.
Variations in such rank zones along the x-axis can be delineated and interpreted by
examining a STAN cube.
Note that (i) the seismic STAN section can help to reveal the hidden periodicity of a
reflectivity function (if any) only within the frequency band of the associated seismic
wavelet and (ii) the pattern can be distorted by additive noise, although the noise
immunity of STAN images of time-variant periodicity (e.g. of seismic cycles) has
been proved (Levshin, Pisarenko and Pogrebinsky 1972; Lander et al. 1973).
The notion of t±f seismic facies

Combinations of signatures of characteristic sedimentation sequence elements,
inherent in a formation under study, form specific three-dimensional (x, t, f ) wave
966
I.A. Mushin et al:
Figure 8. A neutron log correlated with a seismic trace near the well site using t±f representation. (a) Seismic trace; (b) its t±f transform; (f)
neutron log; (e) trace of contrast coefficients calculated from neutron log (f) by analogy with reflection coefficients calculated from acoustic
impedance; (d) filtered trace of the neutron log contrast coefficients (e); (c) t±f transform of (d).
patterns that can be viewed as the (x, t, f) analogues of common (x, t) seismic facies
observed on regular seismic time or depth sections. Hence, there is every reason to
introduce a term `t±f seismic facies' (Mushin et al. 1990; Makarov et al. 1996,
1997a,b) to designate the plurality of specific wave patterns in the domain of STAN
sections (cubes) and rank sections (t±f domain for short). Adding an extra dimension
to the traditional x±t presentation of seismic facies increases its diagnostic power.
The t±f transforms as interpretation tools ± real cases
Ranging geophysical data for integrated interpretation

The hierarchical organization of stratigraphic sequences is not restricted by the
seismic frequency band; this follows from the Exxon/Vail sequence stratigraphic
model. Hence, the t±f transforms applied to other kinds of geophysical data, which
can be presented as an oscillating function of argument t, will also be geologically
meaningful. (Here t can designate either arrival time or depth of burial.) Indeed, the
STAN transform successfully extracts valuable information on hidden periodicity
from well log and filtered transient electromagnetic (TEM) curves as well as from
seismic traces. These data can be effectively integrated because their frequency ranges
mutually complement each other with considerable overlapping: the TEM and
eventual magnetotelluric data after respective filtering and adjusting to the seismic
velocity of wave propagation cover the range from 0.1 to 5±10 Hz (Strack 1992; de
Hoop 1996; Safonov et al. 1996; Warren 1996; Smilevets 1997); seismic data: from 5
to 10 to 70±100 Hz; and well log curves: from 10 to 20 up to 10 000 Hz. This allows
us (i) to extend the effective resolution power of the t±f transforms far beyond the
seismic frequency band to both lower and higher frequencies by integrating TEM,
seismic and well log data when studying the multirange hierarchy of stratigraphic
sequences (Mushin et al. 1995) and (ii) to combine diverse geophysical data within
overlapping frequency ranges.
The latter possibility can be of use when there is no such direct connection between
data to be combined as, for example, the connection between seismic data and an
acoustic log curve. Figure 8 shows how the t±f transforms can help to establish a
correlation between a seismic trace recorded near a well (Fig. 8a) and the neutron log
data from this well (Fig. 8f). The log curve has been transformed into a trace of
contrast coefficients (Fig. 8e), analogous to seismic reflection coefficients, and then
filtered into the seismic frequency band using a trapezoidal band-pass filter of 10±25
to 35±60 Hz (Fig. 8d). Figures 8b and c represent t±f transforms of a seismic trace
and a filtered neutron log (i.e. Figs 8a and d). The mutual similarity of the t±f
transforms in Figs. 8b and c is obvious (see Mushin et al. (1995) for details).
Analysis of sedimentation cycles

Sedimentary cycles provide one of the most obvious manifestations of hierarchical
ordering of the sedimentation process. The cycles reflect tectonic and eustatic
oscillations, alternation of regression and transgression regimes, and the positions of
hiatuses. The STAN patterns of real sedimentary cycles are easily recognizable and
fully consistent with synthetics (compare Fig. 6 with Figs 9a and b). In the latter,
distinct tilted linear zones of increased amplitudes corresponding to two seismic cycles
can be seen between 2.3 and 2.55 s on both energy and amplitude STAN
presentations (Figs 9a and b). The use of STAN enabled us to trace two pairs of
Figure 9. Signatures of seismic cycles. (a) STAN t±f signatures of seismic cycles, energy
presentations; (b) STAN t±f signatures of seismic cycles, amplitude presentations; (c) seismic
section with symbolic designation of cycles at the positions of STANed traces; (d) Exxon/Vail
chart of sea-level changes. Note the distinct, linearly tilted zone of increased amplitudes on
STAN sections between 2.43 s and a less distinct zone between 2.28 and 2.38 s. These zones
correspond to seismic cycles. It would be difficult to detect the cycles on the initial broad-band
seismic section (c).
seismic cycles on a seismic section (Fig. 9c) and to relate the cycles to sea-level changes
restored from both seismic, well log and available a priori geological data (Fig. 9d).
Analysis of t±f seismic facies

STAN sections can help to determine whether a given seismic wave train is generated
by a sharp plane acoustic impedance boundary, by a rough boundary or by a stack of
thin layers defined in the seismic frequency band. Such an analysis helps in delineating
sedimentation hiatuses. Consider the events marked by the letters A, B and C on a
STAN cube shown in Fig. 4b. Unlike all the other events shown on the vertical
sections of the cube, the positions of events A and B with respect to the time-axis
display no visible dependence on frequency. In accordance with the pattern of
synthetic STAN sections in Fig. 5, the relative stability of the reflection signatures
along the frequency-axis allows each event to be associated with a single sharp seismic
reflector. Event C at the top of the cube is probably generated by a pair of reflectors of
the same sign. Its STAN pattern is represented by a strong wide wavelet at low
frequencies that bifurcates in the middle of the frequency range and then remains
unchanged as the frequency increases.
Even the simplest form of the t±f transform display (Fig. 10b) `reflects features of
reflectors' much better than does a plain broad-band seismic section (Fig. 10a), thus
allowing for robust t±f seismic facies analysis. It can be seen that adding an extra
coordinate (f) to seismic facies images provides for a fuller characterization of seismic
facies and thus increases the resolution and diagnostic power of seismic facies analysis.
Tracing formations, horizons and faults

The presentation of a seismic section in the form of a STAN cube can improve
the picking of seismic horizons and faults. Different seismic horizons often display
the best continuity in diverse frequency bands, as in stacks of thin layers. Obviously,
the best solution in such an environment is to restrict horizon picking to the domain of
a STAN cube, especially if the structure is complicated by a series of faults whose
throws are obscured by thin layering. In this case, the interpretation can be facilitated
by considering, in addition to a basic broad-band section, also a series of rank sections
constructed in accordance with the results of STAN section analysis.
The choice of cut-offs of band-pass filters used to create the rank sections is based
on the STAN section analysis. For instance, two and three subvertical zones of
increased amplitudes can be distinguished on the STAN sections shown in Figs 11a
and b, respectively. These amplitude `highs' are divided from each other by amplitude
`lows' marked by solid lines. Each zone of increased amplitudes occupies a comparatively
wide (15±25 Hz) frequency band and is nearly vertical. Hence, the `frequency
response' of each rank varies in time smoothly and insignificantly (i.e. in the same
manner as in the case of the synthetic signature of a multirank section (Fig. 5d)).
The corresponding rank sections are shown in Fig. 12. Formations of each rank can
Figure 10. (a) Portion of a seismic section from North Louisiana and (b) the corresponding
t±f representation in the form of a sequence of STAN sections obtained by STANing every
fourth seismic trace. Vertical and lateral alteration of the section rank structure is seen:
lower-order ranks are more prominent in the upper part of the section and in the middle of
the lower part; high-order ranks dominate in the lower left portion of the section.
be easily recognized and traced when considering the corresponding rank section in
addition to an initial wide-band seismic section.
The geological outcome of multirank analysis can be illustrated by the results
of structural and formational interpretation of seismic data from the Karachaganak
gas/condensate field, on the north slope of the pre-Caspian Basin. Sequential
application of t±f tools helped in deciphering the inner structure of formations
displaying sharp vertical and lateral variations, and in constructing a geological model
Figure 11. STAN sections of seismic data in amplitudes (left) and energies (right) where
deposition sequence ranks are shown as subvertical zones of increased amplitudes. The initial
seismic section is shown in Fig. 4a. (a), (b) Two- and three-rank sequences, respectively. Solid
subvertical lines mark boundaries between ranks.
confirmed by subsequent drilling (Fig. 13). Similarly, coherent t±f signatures may be
traced through complex structures (Fig. 14).
Setting the stage for palaeotectonic restorations and basin modelling

Palaeotectonic restoration can be treated (Mushin et al. 1990) as inverse analogues of
co- and post-sedimentation changes and tectonic deformations of the deposited
rockmass (Fig. 15). In order to start a palaeotectonic restoration, first the pertinent
stratigraphic sequences must be established, then the direction and amplitude of
dislocation for each particular fault. This is done by comparing sequence patterns and
seismic facies on opposite sides of each fault surface.
Figure 12. Rank band-pass filtering of a portion of the seismic section shown in Fig. 4a,
carried out in accordance with the results of STAN analysis shown in Fig. 11b. (a) Rank
sections; (b) corresponding geological partitions. The rank frequency bands are: (1) from 5±10
to 10±15 Hz; (2) from 10±20 to 20±30 Hz; (3) from 30±60 to 60±90 Hz.
The SFI approach provides both methodology and tools for this. Combined
iterative analysis of rank sections starts from the lowest frequency section, where the
faults with the largest throws are seen best. Then, as the highest rank faults are
detected and traced, sections of ever higher rank are considered and, correspondingly,
the faults of ever higher ranks are recognized. Because faults of a given rank are best
seen on sections of that particular rank, this iterative procedure results in ranging
faults stratigraphically. Analogously, the use of STAN sections S(t, f) or cubes S(x, t, f )
for identification of reflection patterns at opposite sides of fault surfaces provides extra
reliability due to the additional information extracted from the t±f analysis.
An example of this approach is taken from one of the Shengli group of oilfields,
People's Republic of China. A Palaeozoic carbonate reservoir here is deformed by a
complex system of co- and post-sedimentation faults. Because of several phases of
faulting and sharp unconformities (Mesozoic deposits are underlain alternately by
diverse Palaeozoic rocks aging from Carboniferous to Cambrian), several attempts at

building a geological model ended unsuccessfully, despite drilling some 70 discovery
or exploration wells and conducting four consecutive 3D seismic surveys.
A geologically meaningful model enabling the prediction of the spatial distribution
of reservoir properties has been built as a result of comprehensive structural and
formational analysis of 3D seismic and well log data carried out as follows.
X From well and seismic data, formations and subformations were identified and their
t±f characteristics studied.

X A system of high-rank faults was built using low-frequency (high-rank) seismic
sections.
Further steps included iterative palaeotectonic seismic restorations, identification of
lithofacies, detection and delineation of zones of barrier reef carbonate deposits and
associated local organic build-ups, `forward' seismic modelling, i.e. transformation of
seismic palaeosections to their present structure, and finally, mapping of the contempor-
aneous distribution of lithofacies, reservoir properties and expected oil saturation.
As a result, it was shown that it is the original palaeo-environments in comparatively
narrow zones dominated by barrier reefs of complex structure that predefine the
contemporaneous distribution of reservoir properties of the Shengli field carbonate
reservoir, despite all subsequent tectonic restructuring of the field.
In the context of this paper, the key procedures in the sequence above are the first
two steps: establishing specifics of a sedimentation hierarchy for the Shengli field and
the creation of a framework of major faults. These two steps are schematically
illustrated in Figs 16a±e.
A vertical section of the depth prestack migrated 3D Shengli data is shown in
Fig. 16a. Complex tectonic patterns are obvious, yet creation of a non-contradictory
tectonic model is not easy, as follows from Fig. 16b, where the result of a routine
approach is shown.
A STAN of the initial section revealed a distinct double rank hierarchy, of which the
highest (the lowest frequency) rank occupies the frequency band of fmax 25 Hz to fmax
1 5 Hz, where the central frequency fmax varies with depth from 11 Hz at 2200 m,
7 Hz at 2700 m, 8 Hz at 3300 m to 6 Hz at 3700 m (Fig. 16c). The respective rank
section is shown in Fig. 16d. This section is less resolved vertically than the initial
section in Fig. 16a, yet this low-frequency section enabled the tracing of the most
prominent faults more easily and more unambiguously than on the initial high-
resolution section. A characteristic feature of these faults is the prevalence of subvertical
throws overlain by subsequent tilted (listric) faulting due to apparent overthrust
movements. This high-rank tectonic model is validated by the creation of a section
obtained as a result of palaeotectonic restorations reduced to rather simple movements
of five major blocks shown in Fig. 16e (compare Figs 16b and e). Adding a much
more dense network of small, low-rank faults has not altered the essential pattern.
The prediction of contemporaneous reservoir rock porosity and oil migration
routes, derived from palaeotectonic restorations combined with palaeofacies
structural-and-formational analysis, has been confirmed by subsequent drilling.
Conclusions
The t±f transform techniques developed within the framework of the SFI approach
enable us to present seismic data in the form of STAN sections (cubes) and rank
Figure 13. Karachaganak gas-condensate field, pre-Caspian Basin. Productivity is attributed

to a complex association of Carboniferous reef bodies. In the course of geological interpretation,
a series of depth-migrated rank sections and STAN slices was considered. The whole cluster of
reef bodies is best shown on the lower-frequency rank section, while separate bodies can be
distinguished on the higher-frequency rank sections. (a) 8 m21 rank section; (b) 15 m21 rank
section; (c) 25 m21 rank section; (d) combined depth section obtained by integration of
sections (a)±(c); (e) generalized stratigraphic sequence model.
sections which are convenient for seismic sequence stratigraphy analysis and reservoir
characterization. These t±f transforms can be applied to construct structural,
stratigraphic, lithofacies, and porosity distribution models.
The transfer to STAN sections (cubes) and rank sections assists in the quantitative
investigation of sedimentation cycles; studying the lateral trends of t±f signatures
provides additional information on lateral variations in lithology and porosity. This is
achieved by modifying the visual analysis of seismic sections inherent in seismic/
sequence stratigraphy by the visual analysis of STAN sections (cubes) and rank
sections.
Figure 14. (a) Seismic section with cut-in designations of sedimentation cycles recognized
using STAN; (b) the results of integrated interpretation of the initial section and STAN
sections. North pre-Caucasus.
Figure 15. A fragment of a general scheme of structural-and-formational interpretation

methodology: basin modelling and palaeotectonic restorations.
Figure 16a and b. For caption and Fig. 16c see p. 979.
The t±f transforms developed, in particular the STAN, provide the bridge between
diverse geophysical data ± seismic, well log, TEM ± by unified presentation of all
these data in the t±f or z±f domain (here z is the depth of burial). This is a natural
domain for data integration aimed at (i) a full-scale description of sedimentation
sequence hierarchy covering unit thicknesses from centimetres to kilometres
(respective temporal frequencies: 0.5±10 Hz for EM, 5±10 to 70±100 Hz for
seismics and 10±20 to 10 000 Hz for well logs), and (ii) establishing the correlation
Figure 16d and e. For caption and Fig. 16c see p. 979.
between diverse data within the ranges of overlapping frequencies (e.g. for seismics
and well logs ± from 10 to 100 Hz).
The structural-and-formational t±f transforms increase the resolution in sequence
stratigraphy and reservoir characterization. The spectral analysis of the actual seismic
data permits resolution over frequency intervals that are not resolvable on a full
spectrum seismic section used in sequence stratigraphy. It can be said that the
Figure 16. Preliminary steps for palaeotectonic restorations on the Shengli oilfield, People's
Republic of China. (a) A depth prestack migrated initial section; (b) faults traced in the course
of routine interpretation; (c) a STAN panel of the initial section shown in Fig. 16a (trace 45):
two-rank hierarchy is clearly visible; the thick line on the panel divides the two ranks; (d) high-
rank (low-frequency) version of the initial section; (e) palaeotectonic restorations along faults
traced on the low-frequency, high-rank section in Fig. 16d.
structural-and-formational approach is a spectral analytic avenue to the use of seismic

sequence stratigraphy.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Dr G. Diephuis and Dr T.P.H. Steeghs who reviewed the
paper and made valuable recommendations concerning its structure and content, and
to the other anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments and remarks. The work
was partially supported by the Russian Fund of Basic Research (RFBR), grants 96-
05-66207 and 96-15-98519.
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Geophysical Prospecting, 2000, 48, 953±981

Structural±formational interpretation tools for

q 2000 European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers 953

In publications on other types of t±f presentation, except Gridley and Partyka

Sedimentation hierarchy as a basis for t±f transforms of geophysical data

Main types of t±f transform: definitions

STAN sections, STAN cubes

Figure 1. Schematic representation of a spectrum-time analysis (STAN) section of a seismic

SFI tools for seismic stratigraphy 957

section `t±f transforms as interpretation tools ± real cases'. Here, it is emphasized

Relationships between STAN and other t±f transforms

t±f patterns of stratigraphic sequence elements ± synthetic examples

The notion of t±f seismic facies

The t±f transforms as interpretation tools ± real cases

Ranging geophysical data for integrated interpretation

Analysis of sedimentation cycles

Analysis of t±f seismic facies

Tracing formations, horizons and faults

Setting the stage for palaeotectonic restorations and basin modelling

diverse Palaeozoic rocks aging from Carboniferous to Cambrian), several attempts at

t±f characteristics studied.

Figure 13. Karachaganak gas-condensate field, pre-Caspian Basin. Productivity is attributed

Figure 15. A fragment of a general scheme of structural-and-formational interpretation

structural-and-formational approach is a spectral analytic avenue to the use of seismic

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