Welding Metallurgy

Module 3
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy

Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy

ƒ 3A – Basics of Metallurgy Principles

ƒ 3B – Basics of Welding Metallurgy
ƒ 3C – Carbon and Low Alloy Steels
ƒ 3D – Stainless Steels
ƒ 3E – Nickel-base Alloys
ƒ 3F – Other
Oth N Nonferrous
f All
Alloys
ƒ 3G – Polymers

3-2
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy

Module 3 Learning Objectives

ƒ Describe basic metallurgical principles including

strengthening mechanisms
ƒ Describe the basic concepts of welding metallurgy,
microstructure influences on properties and weldability
ƒ Understanding different types of carbon and low alloy steels,
stainless steels,, nickel alloys
y including
g microstructure
development and weldability issues of each alloy system
ƒ Understanding the effect of preheat, PWHT and temper bead
welding on carbon and low alloy steels
ƒ General understanding aluminum, titanium, and copper alloys
characteristics including welding metallurgy and weldability
issues
ƒ General understanding and properties of polymers and
methods of joining
3-3
Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Module 3A
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Types of Atomic Bonds

ƒ Primary Bonds (strong bonds)

z Ionic (table salt: NaCl)
z Covalent (ceramics and glasses)
z Metallic (metals and alloys)
Š Easy movement of electrons leads to high conductivity
Š Lack of bonding directionality leads to high atomic packing
ƒ Secondary
S d B
Bonds
d ((weak
kbbonds)
d )
z Van der Waals (dipole interactions)
z Hydrogen bonding

3-5
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Metallic Bonding

ƒ Metal stiffness is proportional to the bonding strength

ƒ Metallic bonds behave as though they were attached with a
spring
ƒ Bringing the atoms close
increases the repulsion and + Attractive force
attraction
(Coulomb attraction)
Total
force
Metallic Bonding

Force
Metal ions
+ - + - + - +
Bond
Distance
“Sea” of
- + - + - + -
Length
electrons
+ - + - + - + Repulsive force
-

3-6
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Elastic Modulus

ƒ Elastic behavior of metals ΔF

means that bonds are stretching E ∝
Δr
(but not breaking) + Strong

ƒ Metal stiffness is proportional to Bond

the bonding strength

Force
ƒ The linear behavior of bonds Distance
near the equilibrium bond length Weak
results in the linear elastic - Bond
region of a stress strain curve
ƒ Such behavior is observed
during tensile testing
Stress σ Tensile
E = Test
ε

Strain
3-7
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Crystal Structure

ƒ Atoms arrange themselves into different structures

ƒ Body-centered cubic (BCC) structure
z Iron BCC
z Ferritic steels
ƒ Face-centered cubic (FCC) structure
z Nickel ((and its alloys)
y )
z Aluminum (and its alloys)
ƒ Hexagonal close-packed (HCP) structure FCC
z Titanium (room temperature)
z Magnesium
z Zirconium

HCP

3-8
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Defects in Metal Crystals

ƒ Defects within a crystal structure can change the chemical

and physical properties
ƒ Some of the important defects are as follows:
ƒ Point defects (0-Dimensions)
z Vacancies
z Solid Solutions
ƒ Line defects (1-Dimensional)
z Dislocations
ƒ Planar defects (2-Dimensional)
z Grain boundaries
z Surfaces

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Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Point Defects

Self-interstitial defects Vacancy defects

ƒ Metals will always contain these two Equilibrium number of

types of defects vacancies

ƒ The number of vacancies is temperature ⎛ QV ⎞

NV = N exp⎜ − ⎟
dependent (important for diffusion) ⎝ kT ⎠
3-10
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Solid Solutions

ƒ Metal alloys contain at least two or more elements

ƒ Even “pure” metals typically contain some impurities
ƒ Two types of metal solutions:
z Substitutional solutions contain a solvent and solute where the solute
occupies lattice sites of the solvent

Ni is the solvent Cu and Ni both have

Cu is the solute the FCC crystal structure.

z Interstitial solutions contain a solute that occupies non-lattice sites

Fe has the BCC structure
Fe is the solvent and C occupies interstitial sites.
C is the solute This is a common arrangement
in steels.
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Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Line Defects

ƒ Line defects are known as dislocations

ƒ Movement of dislocations through a material results in plastic
deformation
ƒ Edge and screw dislocations are both found in metals

Edge dislocation Screw dislocation

3-12
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Planar Defects

ƒ Each unique crystal of atoms

has a surface Grain Boundaries

ƒ Metals typically contain

Low
multiple crystals which have
angle
their own orientation
ƒ Each crystal
y is referred to as a
grain
ƒ The region between two
different grains is called a
grain boundary
z Low angle boundaries High
z High angle boundaries angle

3-13
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Phase Diagrams

ƒ A phase is a homogenous system with uniform physical and

chemical properties (i.e., crystal structures)
ƒ Metals and alloys may have different phases
ƒ Composition and temperature are used to predict the phases
(crystal structure) present in an alloy
ƒ Reactions occur at equilibrium (infinite time)
ƒ Common phase diagram types include:
z Complete solid solution (isomorphous)
z Eutectic
z Peritectic
z Eutectoid
ƒ The Lever Rule is used to determine the phase balance and
composition of constituents
ƒ Microstructure evolution during slow (equilibrium) cooling
3-14
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

What is a Phase Diagram?

ƒ Describes structure of materials based on temperature and

composition
ƒ Assumes constant pressure
ƒ Features 1 2 3
z Liquidus
L

ure
z Solidus

Temperatu
z Solvus L+α
L+β
ƒ Phase transformations α β

z Composition 1
α+β
z L→L+α→α→α+β
z Composition 2
z L→L+α→α+β A B
Composition
z Composition 3
z L→α+β

3-15
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Phase Diagrams

Isomorphous Eutectic

Liquid
Liquid
Liquid + Solid
Temperature

Temperature
L+α L+β
α β

Solid
α+β

A Composition B A Composition B

3-16
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Phase Diagrams

Peritectic Eutectoid
L+αÆβ γÆα+β

γ
Liquid
Temperature

Temperature
L+α α+γ γ+β
α α
α+β
L+β
α+β
β

A Composition B A Composition B

3-17
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Microstructure Evolution During Slow Cooling

Microstructure for Three

Eutectic System Different Compositions
L L+α L+α α α+β
1 2 3
Liquid 1
Temperature

L L+α L+α α+β

L+α L+β
α β
2

α+β
L L+α+β α+β

3
A Composition B

3-18
 Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Determining Phase Balance

ƒ The Lever Rule

z Determines the
Liquidus 2 percentage of phases
L
present at a given
temperature
perature

Solidus
L+α z At temperature T1,
L+β Composition
p 2 is a
α β
Temp

mixture of α + β
T1
ƒ Percent α = Y
α+β
Solvus
X Y X+Y
ƒ Percent β = X
X+Y
A Composition
B

3-19
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Some Examples of Phase Diagrams

3-20
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Diffusion

ƒ Diffusion Mechanisms Vacancy Diffusion

z Vacancy diffusion
z Interstitial diffusion

Interstitial Diffusion

Reference: Defects in Crystals. Prof. Helmut Föll,

University of Kiel, Germany.
3-21
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Interdiffusion of Two Metals

Before Heat After Heat

Treatment Treatment

At High At High

Temperature Temperature

3-22
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Fick’s First Law of Diffusion

ƒ Flux is the mass diffusing through a fixed

area per unit of time Fick’s First Law:
ƒ Diffusion flux (J) does not change with dC
time during stead-state diffusion J = −D
dx
J, diffusion flux (g/m2s)
D diff
D, diffusion
i coefficient ( 2/s)
ffi i t (m /)
C, concentration (g/m3)
x, position (m)

Reference: Callister, W.D. (2000)

3-23
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Fick’s Second Law of Diffusion

ƒ Diffusion flux and the composition gradient typically vary with

time
ƒ This results in concentration profiles such as the one shown
ƒ Fick’s second law describes transient diffusion

Fick’s Second Law:

∂C ∂ 2C
=D 2
∂t ∂x
t, time (s)
D, diffusion coefficient (m2/s)
C, concentration (g/m3)
x, position (m)

Reference: Callister, W.D. (2000) 3-24

Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Diffusion Coefficients

ƒ Temperature has a
strong influence on
diffusion coefficients
ƒ This temperature
dependence takes on
the following form

⎛ Qd ⎞
D = D0 exp⎜ − ⎟
⎝ RT ⎠

Reference: Callister, W.D. (2000) 3-25

Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Strengthening Mechanisms of Metals

ƒ Grain Size Reduction

ƒ Solid Solution Strengthening
z Interstitial
z Substitutional
ƒ Strain Hardening (cold work)
ƒ Precipitation

3-26
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Importance of Grain Size

ƒ Reducing grain size acts as a barrier to dislocation motion

increasing strength and toughness
z The dislocation must change directions when reaching a grain
boundary since adjacent crystals have different crystal orientations
z Slip of atomic planes is not continuous across the boundary

Increasing Grain size →

Yield strength varies with

Yield strength
grain size according to the
Hall-Petch equation
σ Y = σ 0 + kd −1/ 2
σY, yield strength
σo, k, material constants σ0
d, average grain diameter 0 Grain size (d -1/2)

3-27
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Solid-Solution Strengthening

ƒ Intentional alloying with impurity atoms exerts strains on the

lattice surrounding the impurity

Increasing the alloying

content results in an increase
Substitutional Interstitial i yield
in i ld strength
t th
Alloying Alloying

Yield strength

Ductility
Alloy content (wt-%)

3-28
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Strain Hardening

ƒ “Cold work” or “work hardening” is done by plastically

deforming a ductile metal at or near room temperature

Increasing the cold work

results in an increase in yield
strength
Cold work expressed in terms
of area reduction:

⎛ Ainitial − A final ⎞
Yield strength

%CW = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ *100
Ductility

⎝ Ainitial ⎠

Percent cold work

3-29
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Precipitation Hardening

ƒ A metal alloy can be hardened and strengthened by

precipitating small secondary phase particles from a
supersaturated solid solution

Reference: Callister, W.D. (2000) 3-30

Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Annealing

ƒ Cold Work
ƒ Recovery
ƒ Recrystallization
ƒ Grain Growth

Reference: Callister, W.D. (2000) 3-31

Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

What is a Phase Transformation?

ƒ A change in the number and/or character of phases contained

within an alloy
ƒ Three types of transformations
z Diffusional transformations – No change in the number or composition
of the phases present
z Diffusional transformations – Phase composition and number of
phases
h may change
h
z Diffusionless transformations – Metastable phase is produced

3-32
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Phase Transformations

ƒ Isothermal transformation
diagrams (TTT) describe the
nucleation and growth
behavior at a hold
temperature

γ Æ α + Fe3C

γ
γ
γ
Temperature

α+γ γ + Fe3C
α

α + Fe3C
γ
γ

Fe Composition C

Reference: Callister, W.D. (2000)

3-33
Basics of Welding Metallurgy

Module 3B
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Welding Metallurgy

Welding Metallurgy

ƒ Welding metallurgy describes a microcosm of metallurgical

processes occurring in and around a weld that influence the
microstructure, properties, and weldability of the material
ƒ Due to the rapid heating and cooling rates associated with
most welding processes, metallurgical reactions often occur
under transient, non-equilibrium conditions

3-35
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Welding Metallurgy

Microstructure and Properties

ƒ The cooling rate and

chemical composition
Chemical Thermal affect the microstructure of
the welded joint
Composition Cycle
ƒ The mechanical properties
of a welded joint depend
on the microstructure
produced by welding
Microstructure

Mechanical
Properties

3-36
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Welding Metallurgy

Metallurgical Processes

ƒ Melting and solidification

ƒ Nucleation and growth
ƒ Phase transformations
ƒ Segregation and diffusion
ƒ Precipitation
ƒ Recrystallization
R t lli ti and d grain
i growth
th
ƒ Liquation mechanisms
ƒ Embrittlement
ƒ Thermal expansion, contraction, and residual stress

3-37
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Welding Metallurgy

Regions of a Fusion Weld

ƒ The microstructure can

vary from region to
Fusion zone region in a weld
ƒ Microstructure has a
profound effect on weld
properties

Base metal Heat-affected zone

3-38
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Welding Metallurgy

History

ƒ Pre-1976
z Fusion zone
z Heat-affected zone
ƒ Post-1976
z Fusion zone
Š Composite region
Š Unmixed zone
ƒ Heat-affected zone
z Partially melted zone
z “True” heat-affected zone

3-39
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Welding Metallurgy

Current

Fusion Zone
Heat-Affected
Heat-
Zone

Partially Melted
Unmixed Zone Zone

ƒ Fusion zone ƒ Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ)

z Composite zone z Partially-melted zone (PMZ)
z Unmixed zone (UMZ) z True heat-affected zone (T-HAZ)

3-40
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Fusion Zone

The Fusion Zone

ƒ Region of the weld that is completely melted and resolidified

ƒ Microstructure dependent on composition and solidification
conditions
ƒ Local variations in composition
ƒ Distinct from other regions of the weld
ƒ May exhibit three regions
z Composite zone
z Transition zone
z Unmixed zone

3-41
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Fusion Zone

Types of Fusion Zones

ƒ Autogenous
z No filler metal addition
z GTAW on thin sheet, EBW of square butt joint
ƒ Homogeneous
z Addition of filler metal of matching composition
z 4130 filler used to join 4130 Cr-Mo steel
ƒ Heterogeneous
z Addition of filler metal with dissimilar composition to the base material
z 4043 filler used to join 6061 aluminum
z Ni-based alloys for joining stainless steels

3-42
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Dilution

Dilution

ƒ Amount of melted base

metal mixing with filler
ƒ Expressed as percent base
metal dilution of the filler
metal
z 100% is an autogenous weld
z 10-40% common in arc welds
ƒ Significant effect on
Dilution (%) = a + c x 100 microstructure and
a+b+c properties
ƒ Controlled by joint design,
process, and parameters

3-43
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Dilution

Dilution of 308L SS Filler Metal by

304 SS Base Metal
High Dilution Low Dilution

304 304

A a c
C
B
b
304 304

Figure 1 Figure 2

3-44
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Dilution

Dilution of 4043 Filler Metal by 6061 Aluminum

Base Metal

High Dilution Low Dilution

V-Groove without Root Opening V-Groove with Root Opening

C a c b
6061 A B 6061 6061 6061

3-45
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Dilution

Dilution of 4043 Filler Metal by 6061 Aluminum

Base Metal
Material Cu Fe Mg Mn Si
6061 0.25 0.50 1.10 0.12 0.55
4043 0.30 0.80 0.05 0.05 5.20

High Dilution Low Dilution

45% Cu Fe Mg Mn Si 10% Cu Fe Mg Mn Si
Weld Metal 0 278
0.278 0 665
0.665 0 523
0.523 0 082
0.082 3 108
3.108 Weld Metal 0 295
0.295 0 770
0.770 0 155
0.155 0 057
0.057 4 735
4.735

Silicon levels above 4 wt% help prevent weld solidification cracking

3-46
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Fusion Zone

Weld Pool Shape

ƒ Material properties
z Melting point
z Thermal conductivity
z Surface tension
Š Marangoni effect
ƒ Process parameters
z Heat input
z Travel speed
ƒ Heat flow conditions
z 2-D (full penetration)
z 3-D (partial penetration)

3-47
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Fusion Zone

Surface Tension Induced Fluid Flow

ƒ Surface tension of liquid a

function of composition and
temperature
z Marongoni effect
ƒ Influence of gradient on weld
pool fluid flow
z Negative gradient promotes
outward flow and shallow
penetration
z Positive gradient promotes
inward (downward) flow and good
penetration
ƒ Strong influence of sulfur and
oxygen

Figure modified from Heiple and Roper

3-48
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Nucleation of Solid during Solidification

ƒ Homogeneous
z Critical radius size, where r* = 2γslTm
ΔHM ΔT
z Liquid undercooling
ƒ Heterogeneous
z Nucleation from existing substrate or particle
z Little or no undercooling required

3-49
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Types of Heterogeneous Nucleation

ƒ Dendrite fragmentation
ƒ Grain detachment
ƒ Nucleant particle formation
ƒ Surface nucleation
ƒ Epitaxial nucleation

Courtesy Kou and Le

3-50
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Epitaxial Nucleation at the Fusion Boundary

ƒ Nucleation from an existing

solid substrate
ƒ Crystallographic orientation
of base metal “seed crystal”
is maintained
ƒ Growth pparallel to cube edge
g
in cubic materials
z 〈100〉 in FCC and BCC
z 〈1010〉 in HCP
z Called “easy growth” directions

3-51
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Solidification Modes

ƒ Multiple solidification modes (morphologies) are possible

z Planar
z Cellular
z Cellular dendritic
z Columnar dendritic
z Equiaxed dendritic
ƒ Controlled by
z Temperature gradient in the liquid, GL
z Solidification growth rate, R
z Composition

3-52
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Solidification Growth Modes

High GL and Low R

3-53
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Solidification Growth Modes

3-54
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Effect of Travel Speed

ƒ Travel speed has significant

effect on weld pool shape
ƒ Low travel speeds
z Elliptical pool shape
z Curved columnar grains
z Gradual change in GL and R
ƒ High travel speeds
z Teardrop pool shape
z Distinct centerline
z R is constant along most of
S-L interface

3-55
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Effect of GL and R

Planar
Temperature Gradient, GL

Cellular

Finer
structure

Cellular
Dendritic
High G·R
Columnar
Dendritic

Low G·R
Equiaxed Dendritic

Solidification Rate, R

3-56
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Effect of GL, R, and Composition

Equiaxed Columnar
Dendritic Dendritic Cellular
Dendritic
Composition

Cellular

Typical Range of
Solidification

Planar

Solidification Parameter, GL/R½

3-57
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Effect of Cooling Rate

Higher Cooling Rate

Dendrite Arm Spacing

Finer
Structure

Castings Welds Splat Cooling

Log Cooling Rate, G ·R, degrees/sec

3-58
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Weld Metal Epitaxial Nucleation

ƒ Nucleation from and

existing solid substrate at
the fusion boundary
ƒ Crystallographic orientation
of HAZ grain is maintained
ƒ “Easyy growth”
g directions
parallel to cube edge in
cubic materials
z 〈100〉 in FCC and BCC
z 〈1010〉 in HCP

3-59
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Competitive Growth

ƒ Random orientation of base

metal grains in
polycrystalline materials
ƒ Growth most favorable
when easy growth direction
is parallel to heat flow
direction
ƒ Grains “compete”
depending on orientation
ƒ Intersection of grains forms
SGBs

From Nelson and Lippold

3-60
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Fusion Zone Boundaries

ƒ Differentiated by
z Composition
z Structure
ƒ Solidification subgrain
boundaries (SSGBs)
z Composition (Case 2)
z Low angle misorientation
ƒ Solidification grain boundaries
(SGBs)
z Composition (Case 3)
z High or low angle misorientation
ƒ Migrated grain boundaries
(MGBs)
z Local variation in composition
z High angle misorientation
3-61
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Solidification Subgrain Boundary

ƒ Boundaries between cells

and dendrites
(solidification subgrains)
ƒ Composition dictated by
Case 2 solute
redistribution
ƒ Low misorientation
between adjacent
subgrains - low angle
boundary

50 μm

3-62
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Solidification Grain Boundary

ƒ Boundary between
packets of subgrains
ƒ Results from competitive
SGB growth
ƒ Composition dictated by
Case 3 solute
redistribution
ƒ Large misorientation
across boundary at end of
solidification - high angle
boundary
25 μm ƒ Most likely site for
solidification cracking

3-63
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Migrated Grain Boundary

ƒ Crystallographic
component of SGB
ƒ Migrates away from SGB
in the solid state following
solidification or during
reheating
ƒ Large misorientation
across boundary - high
angle boundary
MGB
ƒ Composition varies locally
ƒ Possible boundary
25 μm “sweeping” and
segregation
ƒ Liquation and ductility dip
cracking
3-64
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Fusion Zone

Fusion Zone Microstructure - Stainless Steels

50 µm 50 µm

Austenitic Stainless Steel Duplex Stainless Steel

3-65
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Fusion Zone

Microstructure - Ni-Base Alloy

20 μm

3-66
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Fusion Zone

Filler Metal 82 – Nickel-Base Alloy

50 μm
Arrows indicate migrated grain boundaries
3-67
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Fusion Zone

Microstructure - Aluminum Alloy

3-68
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Fusion Zone

Transition Region

Ferrite +
Austenite

Ferrite

Martensite Band

50μm

Carbon steel base metal with austenitic stainless steel filler metal
3-69
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Unmixed Zone

Unmixed Zone (UMZ)

Fusion Zone
Heat-Affected
Zone
Partially Melted
Unmixed Zone
Zone

ƒ Narrow region adjacent to the fusion boundary

ƒ Completely melted and resolidified base metal
ƒ No mixing with the bulk fusion zone (composite region)

3-70
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Unmixed Zone

Factors Influencing UMZ Formation

ƒ Base metal/filler metal composition

ƒ Physical properties
z Melting point
z Fluid viscosity
z Miscibility
ƒ Welding
gpprocess
z Most prevalent in arc welding processes (GTAW, GMAW)
z Not observed in EBW and LBW
ƒ Process conditions
z Heat input
z Fluid flow

3-71
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Unmixed Zone

Alloy Systems

Low Alloy Steels HY-80

Austenitic Stainless Steels 310/304L, 312/304L

Superaustenitic Stainless Steels AL6XN, 254SMO

Aluminum Alloys 4043/6061, 2319/2195

Nickel-based Alloys Alloys 600 and 625

Dissimilar combinations 308L/625

3-72
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Unmixed Zone

Austenitic Stainless Steels

Weld Former UMZ

Metal

UMZ
100 μm
SEM

From Baeslack and Lippold

3-73
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Partially Melted Zone

Partially Melted Zone (PMZ)

Fusion Zone
Heat-Affected
Zone

Partially Melted
Unmixed Zone Zone

ƒ Region separating the fusion zone from the “true” heat-

affected zone
ƒ Transition from 100% liquid at the fusion boundary to 100%
solid in the HAZ
ƒ Localized melting normally observed at grain boundaries
ƒ Constitutional liquation of certain particles
3-74
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Partially Melted Zone

Grain Boundary Liquation in the PMZ

ƒ Segregation of solute/
impurities to grain
boundaries depresses the
local melting point
ƒ Temperature gradient has a
strong effect on the extent of
melting

Steep Gradient Shallow Gradient

3-75
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Heat-Affected Zone

The “True” Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ)

Fusion Zone
Heat-Affected
Zone

Partially Melted
Unmixed Zone Zone

ƒ Adjacent to the PMZ

ƒ All metallurgical reactions occur in the solid state
ƒ Strongly dependent on weld thermal cycle and heat flow
conditions

3-76
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Heat-Affected Zone

Metallurgical Reactions

ƒ Solid-state metallurgical reactions

z Recrystallization
z Grain growth
z Allotropic / phase transformations
z Dissolution / overaging of precipitates
z Formation of precipitates
z Formation of residual stresses
ƒ Degradation of weldment properties is often associated with
the HAZ

3-77
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Heat-Affected Zone

Effect of Heat Input and Heat Flow

Fusion Zone HAZ

PMZ

• Low HI • High HI
• Effective heat flow • Restricted heat flow

ƒ HAZ width dictated by weld thermal conditions

ƒ HAZ temperature gradient
z Heat input
z Heat flow

3-78
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Heat-Affected Zone

Effect of Recrystallization on Strength and

Ductility
ƒ Recrystallization promotes
z loss in strength
z Increase in ductility
ƒ Grain growth promotes
some additional softening

From W.D. Callister

3-79
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Heat-Affected Zone

Annealed vs. Cold Worked HAZs

Annealed HAZ Fusion Zone HAZ

Hardness or Strength

Base Metal
Cold Worked
Base Metal

3-80
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Heat-Affected Zone

HAZ Softening

Aluminum Alloy 5356-H3 Nickel-base Alloy 718

from AWS Handbook

3-81
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Heat-Affected Zone

HAZ Transformations in Steels

ƒ Function of composition and cooling rate

ƒ Regions that form austenite during heating transform during
cooling
z Ferrite
z Pearlite
z Bainite
z Martensite
z Combinations of phases
ƒ CCT diagrams

3-82
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Heat-Affected Zone

Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams

Ferrite Start

Bainite Start

Martensite Start

3-83
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Heat-Affected Zone

Phase Transformations

ƒ Most engineering alloy systems undergo phase

transformations in the HAZ
z Copper alloys, β (BCC) → α (FCC)
z Stainless steels, δ (BCC) → γ (FCC)
ƒ Nature of transformations
z Diffusion-controlled
z Diffusionless, or shear-type
Š Martensitic
Š Massive

3-84
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Regions of a Solid-State Weld

HAZ of Non-Fusion Joining Processes

ƒ Solid-state joining processes have no fusion zone but can

have a HAZ
z Friction welding
z Flash butt welding
z Diffusion welding
z Explosion welding
ƒ Friction and flash butt welding
z Base metal is heated until it is easily deformable
z Two ends of the joint are forged together
z Hot base metal is extruded from the joint to form a flash

3-85
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy ASME Section IX Requirements

ASME Section IX – Base Material Variables

ƒ ASME Section IX groups similar materials into P-No.

categories
z Similar composition, weldability and mechanical properties
ƒ In addition to P-No., materials can be further described by
Group No., grade, specification, grade, etc.
z Materials can be specified as P-No.1 Group 1 or P-No.1 Group 2
ƒ P-No. and Group No. are listed in QW/QB 422 of ASME
Section IX

ƒ Typically the base material requirements defined by ASME

Section IX are independent of the welding process

3-86
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy ASME Section IX Requirements

ASME Section IX – Base Material Variables

3-87
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy ASME Section IX Requirements

ASME Section IX – Base Material Variables

P-No. Description
1 C, C-Mn, and C-Mn-Si steels
3 Low-alloy steels [Mo, Mn-Mo, Si-Mo and Cr-Mo (Cr ≤ ¾% and total
alloy content < 2%)]
4 Cr-Mo low-alloy steels with Cr between ¾% and 2% and total alloy
content < 2 ¾%
5A Cr-Mo low-alloy steels with Cr ≤ 3% and < 85 ksi minimum tensile
strength
5B Cr-Mo low-alloy steels with Cr > 3% and ≤ 85 ksi minimum tensile
strength
5C Cr-Mo low-alloy steels with Cr between 2 ¼ % and 3% and ≥ 85 ksi
minimum tensile strength
6 Martensitic stainless steels
7 Ferritic stainless steels - nonhardneable
8 Austenitic stainless steels
3-88
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy ASME Section IX Requirements

ASME Section IX – Base Material Variables

P-No. Description
9A, 9B, 9C Nickel alloy steels with 4.5% Ni
10A – 10K Mn-V and Cr-V steels, 26% Cr-3% Ni-3% Mo, and 29% Cr-4%
Mo-2% Ni steels and duplex stainless steels
11A, 11B Low-alloy quench and tempered steels with > 95 ksi minimum
tensile strength
21 – 25 Aluminum and aluminum-base alloys
31 – 35 Copper and copper-base alloys
41 – 47 Nickel and nickel-base alloys
51 – 53 Titanium and titanium-base alloys
61, 62 Zirconium and zirconium-base alloys

3-89
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy ASME Section IX Requirements

ASME Section IX – Base Material Variables

Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
QW-402
Joint .3 Φ Backing Composition X
.1 φ P-No. Qualified X
.4 φ Group Number X
.5 φ Group Number X
.11 φ P-No. Qualified X
.12 φ P-No./Melt-in X
.15 φ P-No. Qualified X
φ Base Metal or Stud
.17 Metal P-No. X
.19 φ Base Metal X
QW-403 φ Specification, Type, or
Base Material .24 Grade X

3-90
Carbon and Low Alloy Steels

Module 3C
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Classification of Steels

Classification by Composition

ƒ Plain carbon ƒ High strength, low alloy (HSLA)

z Low carbon, < 0.2 wt% z Micro-alloyed
z Medium carbon, 0.2-0.6 wt% z Dual-phase
z High carbon, 0.6-1.0 wt% z Control-rolled
z Ultrahigh carbon, 1.25-2.0 wt% z Weathering
ƒ Low alloy, up to 8% alloying z Pearlite-reduced
addition z Acicular ferrite
z Low carbon, quench and ƒ High alloy, > 8% alloy addition
tempered z High Cr, heat-resistant
z Medium carbon, ultrahigh z Stainless
strength
z Cr-Mo heat resistant

3-92
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Classification of Steels

Steel Classification Systems

ƒ AISI/SAE ƒ ASTM

1020 A516
z 1 = carbon steel z C-steel pressure vessel plates
z 0 = plain carbon steel z Graded by tensile strength
z 20 = 20/100 % carbon
ƒ ASME Boiler and Pressure
4340 Vessel Code
4 = molybdenum steel
P1
z
z 3 = Ni-Cr-Mo (1.8% Ni)
z 40 = 40 / 100 % carbon z P groups of similar steel
z Simplified qualification

3-93
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Classification of Steels

Carbon Steels Used in the Nuclear Industry

Designation Composition Mechanical Uses

(wt%) Properties
SA-36 0.2C, 0.15-0.4Si, UTS: 58-80 ksi General structural
0.8-1.2Mn YS: 36 ksi min.
Elong: 20% min.

SA508,, 0.2C,, 0.15-0.40Si,, UTS: 90-115 ksi Quench and tempered

p
Class 3 1.2-1.5Mn, 0.4-1.0Ni, YS: 65 ksi min forgings for pressure
0.45-0.6Mo Elong: 16% min. vessels

SA-533, 0.25C, 0.15-0.40Si, UTS: 100-125 ksi Quench and tempered

Type C 1.15-1.5Mn, 0.4- YS: 83 ksi min. steel plates for pressure
0.7Ni, 0.45-0.6Mo Elong: 16% min. vessels

3-94
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Microstructure of Steels

Different Phases in Steel

ƒ Iron can exhibits 3 separate solid phases between room

temperature and its melting temperature
z Low temperature ferrite (bcc) – alpha ferrite
z Austenite (fcc)
z High temperature ferrite (bcc) – delta ferrite
ƒ When carbon is added to iron to form steel, another phase
known as cementite (Fe3C) can form
ƒ Steels are known as “allotropic” materials because the same
composition can have different phases depending on
temperature

3-95
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Fe-Fe3C Phase Diagram

Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram

ƒ Iron-rich end of Fe-C

δ + Liquid
0.09%
Liquid
equilibrium phase
1538
(2800)
0.53%
diagram
1495 (2723)
δ ƒ Equilibrium phases
1394
(2541)
0.17%
Liquid z Ferrite (alpha and delta)
γ + Liquid
C [°F]

δ+γ + Fe3C z Austenite

Temperature, °C

1148 (2098) 4.3% z Cementite (Fe3C)

γ
ƒ Invariant reactions
2.11%
z Peritectic (1495°C,
912
(1674)
α+γ γ+ 0.17%C)
Fe3C
Fe3C z Eutectic (1148°C,
770
(1418)
4.3%C)
0.77% 727 (1341)
z Eutectoid (727°C,
α
0.02% α + Fe3C
0.77%C)

0 6.67
Carbon, wt% 3-96
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Fe-Fe3C Phase Diagram

Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram

ƒ Steels
z C content generally less
than 1.0 wt%
z Hypoeutectoid – less than
0.77% carbon
z Hypereutectoid – between
0.77 and 2.1% C
ƒ Cast irons
z Greater than 2.1% carbon
z High volume fraction
cementite

3-97
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Effect of Cooling Rate

Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagram

3-98
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Effect of Cooling Rate

Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams

Ferrite Start

Bainite Start

Martensite Start

3-99
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Effect of Cooling Rate

Slow Cooling → Ferrite + Pearlite

ƒ Ferrite is a soft and ductile

phase found in steel
microstructures
z Ferrite can contain
£ 0.025% carbon
ƒ Pearlite is a banded mixture of
f it and
ferrite d cementite
tit (Fe
(F 3C)
z Cementite contains the excess
carbon that the ferrite can’t hold

3-100
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Effect of Cooling Rate

Bainite

ƒ Medium/high cooling rates

ƒ Suppressed proeutectoid
and eutectoid
transformations
ƒ Undercooled austenite
ƒ Short range diffusion of
carbon
ƒ Precipitation of Fe3C and
carbides
ƒ Formation of bainitic ferrite
ƒ Low toughness of upper
bainite

3-101
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Effect of Cooling Rate

Fast Cooling → Martensite

ƒ Martensite is very strong,

hard, and brittle
ƒ Body centered tetragonal
crystal structure (bct)
ƒ High dislocation density
ƒ Metastable structure

3-102
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Martensite

Martensite: Good or Bad?

ƒ GOOD Aspects of Martensite

z High strength and hardness compared to ferrite + pearlite
z Many steels are designed to be quenched to form martensite then
tempered to improve their ductility and toughness
Š 4130
Š 4340

ƒ BAD Aspects of Martensite

z Martensite results in low ductility and toughness
z Increases the possibility of hydrogen induced cracking (HIC)
particularly in highly restrained joints

3-103
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Hardness of Steels

Hardness - Effect of Carbon

ƒ Carbon is the most

important alloying element
in steel
ƒ Interstitial element
ƒ Forms carbides with Fe and
other alloying
y g elements ((Cr,,
Mo, V)
ƒ Greatly facilitates
transformation hardening
ƒ Controls the maximum
hardness achievable in the
alloy

3-104
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Carbon and Low Alloy Steels

Hardness versus Hardenability

ƒ Hardenability is the ease with which hardening occurs upon

cooling from the austenite phase field
ƒ Associated with the formation of martensite
ƒ Factors which influence hardenability
z Carbon content
z Alloying
y g additions
z Prior austenite grain size
z Homogeneity of the austenite
z Section thickness

3-105
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Hydrogen Cracking

Hydrogen Induced Cracking and Martensite

ƒ Four factors are required for hydrogen cracking

z Susceptible microstructure
z Source of hydrogen
Š Moisture in flux
Š Grease/oil on plates
z Stress
Š Residual
Š Applied
z Temperature between -100 and
200°C (-150 and 390°F)

Hydrogen crack at root of multipass weld

ƒ Eliminate only one factor and HIC goes away!!

3-106
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Hydrogen Cracking

Using Preheat to Avoid Hydrogen Cracking

ƒ If the base material is preheated, heat flows more slowly out

of the weld region
z Slower cooling rates avoid martensite formation
ƒ Preheat allows hydrogen to diffuse from the metal

T base Cooling rate ∝ (T - Tbase)3

Cooling rate ∝ (T - Tbase)2

T base
3-107
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Hydrogen Cracking

Interaction of Preheat and Composition

CE = %C + %Mn/6 + %(Cr+Mo+V)/5 + %(Si+Ni+Cu)/15

ƒ Carbon equivalent (CE) measures potential to form

martensite, which is generally necessary for hydrogen
cracking
z CE < 0.35 no preheat or PWHT
z 0.35 < CE < 0.55 preheat
z 0.55 < CE preheat and PWHT
ƒ Preheat temperature ↑ as CE ↑ and plate thickness ↑

3-108
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Hydrogen Cracking

Postweld Heat Treatment and Hydrogen Cracking

ƒ Postweld heat treatment (1100-1250°F) tempers any

martensite that may have formed
z Increase in ductility and toughness
z Reduction in strength and hardness
ƒ Residual stress is decreased by postweld heat treatment
ƒ Rule of thumb: hold at temperature
p for 1 hour p
per inch of p
plate
thickness; minimum hold of 30 minutes
ƒ Postweld heat treatment temperatures vary for different steels
ƒ In general, PWHT for tempering must be done below the
lower critical (A1) temperature

3-109
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Preheat and Post Weld Heat Treatment

Preheat and PWHT

Preheat Weld Thermal Cycle PWHT

No/Low Preheat
Medium Preheat
High Preheat
ure
Temperatu

Time
3-110
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Consumables

Welding Consumables for Carbon Steels

ƒ Processes used in the Nuclear Industry for Primary

Fabrication and Repair
z Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
z Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
z Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
z Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

3-111
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Coated Electrodes

AWS Standards Specific to SMAW

ƒ AWS A5.1 - Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes for

Shielded Metal Arc Welding
ƒ AWS A5.5 - Specification for Low-Alloy Electrodes for
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
ƒ AWS A5.4 - Specification for Corrosion-Resisting Chromium-
and Chromium-Nickel Steels for Shielded Metal Arc Welding
g

3-112
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Coated Electrodes

SMAW Electrode Designation

Welding Position
Digit Position
1 Flat, Horizontal, Vertical, Overhead
2 Flat and Horizontal only
3 Flat only
4 Flat, Horizontal, Vertical Down, Overhead 3-113
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Coated Electrodes

SMAW Electrode Designation

Type of Coating and Current Alloying Content of Weld Metal Deposit

Digit Type of Coating Current Suffix %Mn %Ni %Cr %Mo %V

0 Cellulose sodium DC+ A1 0.50

1 Cellulose potassium AC, DC± B1 0.50 0.50

2 Titania sodium AC, DC- B2 1.25 0.50

3 Titania potassium AC, DC+ B3 2.25 1.00

4 Iron powder titania AC, DC± C1 2.50

5 Low hydrogen sodium DC+ C2 3.25

6 Low hydrogen potassinm AC, DC+ C3 1.00 0.15 0.35

7 Iron powder iron oxide AC, DC± D1/D2 1.25-2.00 0.25-0.45

8 Iron powder low hydrogen AC, DC± G(1) 0.50 0.30 min. 0.20 min. 0.10 min.

Examples
E6010 Cellulosic, all position, DCEP, 60 ksi min UTS
E7018 Low hydrogen, all position, AC or DCEP, 70 ksi min UTS
E7010-A Cellulosic, all position, DCEP, 70 ksi min, carbon/moly

3-114
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Coated Electrodes

Common SMAW Electrode Coating Descriptions

ƒ XX10- High cellulose sodium, DCEP

ƒ XX11- High cellulose potassium, AC or DCEP

ƒ XX12- Rutile sodium AC, DCEP, DCEN

ƒ XX13- Rutile potassium AC, DCEP, DCEN
ƒ XX14-
XX14 Rutile
R til + FFe – powder
d additions
dditi AC
AC, DCEP
DCEP, DCEN

ƒ XX15- Low hydrogen, sodium, DCEP

ƒ XX16- Low hydrogen potassium AC, DCEP
ƒ XX18- Low hydrogen, Fe powder additions AC, DCEP

3-115
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Wire Electrodes

Types of Continuous Wire Electrodes

3-116
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Wire Electrodes

AWS Standards Specific to GTAW

and GMAW Electrodes
ƒ AWS A5.18 - Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes for
Gas Shielded Arc Welding
ƒ AWS A5.28 - Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes
and Rods for Gas Shielded Arc Welding
ƒ AWS A5.9 - Specification for Stainless Steel Electrodes and
Rods for Gas Shielded Arc Welding g

3-117
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Wire Electrodes

AWS Classification for Solid Steel Wires

AWS A5.18

ER70S-3 H4
Use as an electrode or rod
Tensile strength in ksi
Solid wire
Chemical composition of electrode (2, 3, 4, 6, 7, G)
Optional diffusible hydrogen designator
(4, 8 or 16 ml/100 g)

Examples
ER70S-6 C-Mn, high Si, 70 ksi min UTS
ER80S-B2 Cr-Mo grade, 80 ksi min UTS
ER100S-2 HSLA grade (Cr, Ni, Mo, Cu), 100 ksi min UTS
3-118
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Wire Electrodes

AWS Classification for Composite Steel Wires

Examples
E70C-3C 0.12%C-1.75%Mn-0.9%Si-0.5%Ni-0.2%Cr-0.3%Mo-
0.5%Cu, high Si, 70 ksi min UTS, 100% CO2 3-119
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Wire Electrodes

FCAW Electrode Classification

AWS A5.29

E80T5-K2M JH4
Electrode
Tensile strength in ksi x10
Welding position (0 F and H; 1 all)
Fl cored
Flux d electrode
l t d
Electrode polarity and usability
Chemical composition of deposited weld

Shielding gas (M 75-80% Ar, bal. CO2;

without M 100% CO2 or selfshielded)

Toughness requirement (J improved; without J normal)

Optional diffusible hydrogen designator (4, 8 or 16 ml/100 g)

Example
E91T1-D1 90-110 min ksi, all position, CO2 shielded, DCEP,
1.25/2.00 Mn and 0.25/0.55 Mo
3-120
 ASME Requirements
Preheat, PWHT and Temper Bead
Welding
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Preheat Requirements

ASME Section III Division 1 – NB –

Preheat Requirements
ƒ NB-4610, Welding Preheat Requirements
z NB-4611, When is Preheat Necessary
Š States preheat temperature is dependent on a number of factors
z Chemical analysis
z Degree of restraint
z Elevated temperature
z Physical properties
z Material thickness
Š Provides suggested preheat temperatures depending on the P-Number of
the material
Š Refers to non-mandatory Appendix D
z Preheat temperature is based on chemistry, thickness and/or strength of the
material
z NB-4612, Preheating Methods
z NB-4613, Interpass Temperature
Š Applicable to quench and tempered materials

3-122
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Preheat Requirements

ASME B31.1 – Power Piping –

Preheat Requirements
ƒ 131, Welding Preheat
z 131.1, Minimum Preheat Requirements
Š Provides minimum preheat temperatures depending on the material P-No.
Š The preheat temperature should be achieved 3 in. or 1.5 times the
material thickness which ever is greater from the weld joint
z 131.2, Different P-Number Materials
Š The minimum preheat temperature shall be the highest of the two
recommended temperatures
z 131.3, Preheat Temperature Verification
Š Specifies how to monitor the preheat temperature
z 131.4, Preheat Temperature
Š Should be 50ºF unless otherwise specified depending on material P-No.
Š Identifies the governing thickness as the thicker of the two nominal base
materials being welded
z 131.6, Interruption of Welding
Š Provides requirements for when welding is interrupted and varies
depending on material being welded
3-123
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Preheat Requirements

Comparison of ASME Preheat Requirements

Material Preheat Recommendations

ASME Section III - NB ASME B31.1

P-No. 1 200ºF for ≤ 0.30%C and >1.5” 175ºF for > 0.30%C and >1”
(Carbon Steel) thick thick
250ºF for > 0.30%C and >1”
thick
50ºF for all other materials 50ºF for all other materials
P-No. 5 400ºF for 60 ksi SMTS or 400ºF for 60 ksi SMTS or
(2.25Cr 1 Mo) specified minimum Cr >6.0% specified minimum Cr >6.0%
and 01.5” thick and 0.5” thick
300ºF for all other materials 300ºF for all other materials

3-124
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy PWHT Requirements

ASME Section III Division 1 – NB –

PWHT Requirements
ƒ NB-4620, Postweld Heat Treatment
z NB-4621, Heating and Cooling Methods
Š PWHT may be performed by suitable means provided heating and cooling
rates, metal temperature , uniformity and temperature control are
maintained
z NB-4622, PWHT Time and Temperature Requirements
Š NB-4622.1, General PWHT requirements
q
Š NB-4622.2, Time-Temperature Recordings
Š NB-4622.3, Definition of Nominal Thickness Governing PWHT
Š NB-4622.4, Hold Time at Temperature
z Does allow for lower temperatures for longer times with addition testing
requirements
Š NB-4622.5, Requirements for different P-No.
Š NB-4622.7, Exemptions to Mandatory Requirements

3-125
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy PWHT Requirements

ASME Section III Division 1 – NB –

PWHT Requirements

3-126
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy PWHT Requirements

ASME Section III Division 1 – NB –

PWHT Requirements
ƒ NB-4620, Postweld Heat Treatment
z NB-4622, PWHT Time and Temperature Requirements
Š NB-4622.4, Hold Time at Temperature
z Does allow for lower temperatures for longer times with addition testing
requirements

3-127
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy PWHT Requirements

ASME Section III Division 1 – NB –

PWHT Exemptions
ƒ NB-4620, Postweld Heat Treatment
z NB-4622, PWHT Time and Temperature Requirements
Š NB-4622.7, Exemptions to Mandatory Requirements
z Nonferrous material
z Exempted welds (Table NB-4622.7 (b)-1)
z Welds subjected to temperatures above the PWHT temperature
z Welds connecting nozzles to components or branch to pipe in accordance to
NB 4622 8 repairs
NB-4622.8 i tto vessels
l (i
(i.e., ttemper b
bead
d weld
ld repair)
i)
z Weld repairs to vessels in accordance to NB-4622.9 (i.e., temper bead weld
repair)
z Weld repairs to cladding after final PWHT in accordance to NB-4622.10
z Weld repairs to dissimilar metal welds after final PWHT in accordance to NB-
4622.11 (i.e., temper bead weld repair)

3-128
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy PWHT Requirements

ASME Section III Division 1 – NB –

PWHT Exemptions

3-129
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy PWHT Requirements

ASME Section III Division 1 – NB –

PWHT Exemptions

3-130
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy PWHT Requirements

ASME Section III Division 1 – NB –

PWHT Requirements
ƒ NB-4620, Postweld Heat Treatment
z NB-4623, PWHT Heating and Cooling Rates
Š Above 800ºF, the heating and cooling rate shall not exceed 400ºF divided
by the maximum material thickness per hour
Š Heating and cooling rates shall be between 400 and 100ºF/hr
Š There shall not be a temperature gradient greater than 250ºF per 15 feet
of weld length
z NB-4624, Methods of PWHT
ƒ NB-4630, PWHT of Welds Other Than Final PWHT
ƒ NB-4650, PWHT after Bending or Forming
ƒ NB-4660, PWHT of Electroslag Welds
z Electroslag welds in ferritic material over 1.5-in. thick shall be given a
grain refining heat treatment

3-131
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy PWHT Requirements

ASME B31.1 – Power Piping –

PWHT Requirements
ƒ 132, Postweld Heat Treatment
z 132.1, Minimum PWHT Requirements
Š Refers to Table 132
Š Allows for lower temperature and
longer time
z 132.2, Mandatory PWHT
Requirements
q
Š PWHT may be performed by
suitable means provided heating
and cooling rates, metal
temperature , uniformity and
temperature control are
maintained
Š Refers to Table 132 for time and
temperature

3-132
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy PWHT Requirements

ASME B31.1 – Power Piping –

PWHT Requirements

3-133
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy PWHT Requirements

ASME B31.1 – Power Piping –

PWHT Requirements

3-134
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy PWHT Requirements

ASME B31.1 – Power Piping –

PWHT Requirements
ƒ 132, Postweld Heat Treatment
z 132.3 Exemptions to Mandatory PWHT Requirements
Š Welds in nonferrous materials
Š Welds exempted in Table 132
Š Welds subject to temperatures above the lower critical temperature
provided proper qualification
Š Exemptions
p are based on the actual chemistry
y of the material
z 132.4 Definition of Thickness Governing PWHT
Š Table 132 uses weld thickness (i.e., “nominal thickness”) to determine time
and temperature but use material thickness (i.e., “nominal material
thickness”) for exemptions
z 132.5 PWHT Heating and Cooling Rates
Š Above 600ºF, the heating and cooling rate shall not exceed 600ºF per hour
divided by the ½ the maximum material thickness
Š Heating and cooling rates shall not exceed 600ºF/hr
z More specifics depending on material
z 132.6 and 132.7 describe furnace heating and local heating
requirements
3-135
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy PWHT Requirements

Comparison of ASME PWHT Requirements

ASME P- Hold Material Thickness
Code No. Temperature Up to 0.5 in. – > 2 in. – 5 in. Over 5 in.
0.5 in. 2 in.
Sec. III – 1 1100 ºF – 30 min. 1 hr/in. 2 hr plus 15 5 hr. plus 15
NB 1250 ºF min. each min. each
additional in. additional in.
5A 1250 ºF – 30 min. 1 hr/in. 1 hr/in. 5 hr. plus 15
1400 ºF min each
min.
additional in.
B31.1 1 1100 ºF – 1 hr/in. (15 min. 2 hr. plus 15 min. each
1200 ºF minimum) additional in.
5A 1300 ºF – 1 hr/in. (15 min. 2 hr. plus 15 min. each
1400 ºF minimum) additional in.

3-136
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy ASME Section IX Requirements

ASME Section IX –
Preheat and PWHT Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.1 Decrease > 100ºF X
.2 φ Preheat Maintenance X
.3 Increase > 100ºF (IP) X
QW-406 φ > 10% Amperage,
Preheat .7 Number of Cycles, etc X
.1 φ PWHT X
.2 φ PWHT (T & T Range) X
.4 T Limits X
φ PWHT, PWHT Cycles, or
QW-407 Separate PWHT Time or
PWHT .8 Temperature X

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Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Preheat and Post Weld Heat Treatment

Typical ASME Section IX Requirements

ƒ For SMAW process

z Preheat variables
Š Decrease by more than 100ºF requires requalification
z Interpass variables
Š Increase by more than 100ºF requires requalification if toughness is a
requirement
z PWHT variables
Š Change in PWHT temperature schedules requires requalification
z PWHT above upper transformation temperature, PWHT below lower
transformation temperature, etc.
Š Change in PWHT time and temperature ranges requires requalification if
toughness is a requirement
Š For specific ferrous materials (e.g., P-No. 7, 8 and 49), a change in
material thickness greater than 1.1X the thickness of the material qualified
requires requalification

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Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Temper Bead Welding

Temper Bead Welding – Background

ƒ Temper bead welding uses the heat from welding of

subsequent beads to temper HAZ of previous deposited
passes
z Tempering reduces HAZ
hardness
ƒ Temper bead welding is
mostt commonly l usedd ffor
repair applications as an
alternative to repairs
using PWHT
z Temper bead welding is
essentially a local PWHT

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Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Temper Bead Welding

ASME Section III Division 1 – NB –

Temper Bead Welding
ƒ NB-4622.9, Temper Bead Weld Repair
z Limited to P-No. 1 (C. Steel) and P-No.3 (0.5 Mo Steel) materials
using A-No. 1, 2, 10 and 11 filler metals
z Repair shall be no more than 100 in.2 in area and no greater than 1/3
material thickness
z Qualified in accordance with ASME IX with additional requirements
Š Use SMAW welding with low-hydrogen
low hydrogen electrodes and low-hydrogen
low hydrogen
welding practice
Š Preheat temperature shall be a minimum of 350ºF
Š Interpass temperature shall be a maximum of 450ºF
Š The weld are shall be maintained at a temperature of 450 – 550ºF after
welding for 2 hours for P-No. 1 materials and 4 hours for P-No. 3
materials
Š Specific weld bead locations specified and electrode diameter specified
per layer
z Inspection requirements prior to welding, during welding and after the
welding is complete
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Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Temper Bead Welding

ASME Section III Division 1 – NB –

Temper Bead Welding

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Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Temper Bead Welding

ASME Section III Division 1 – NB –

Temper Bead Welding

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Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Temper Bead Welding

ASME Section III Division 1 – NB –

Temper Bead Welding

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Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Temper Bead Welding

ASME Section III Division 1 – NB –

Temper Bead Welding
ƒ NB-4622.9(f), Welding Procedure Qualification Test Plate
z Qualification plate shall be the same P-No as the material in the field
including same PWHT conditions
z Depth of cavity shall be at least half the depth of the actual repair but
not less than 1 in.
z Test plate assembly shall be at least twice the depth of the cavity
z The test assembly around the groove shall be at least the thickness of
the test assembly but not less than 6 in.

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Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Temper Bead Welding

ASME Section III Division 1 – NB –

Temper Bead Welding

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Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy ASME Section IX Requirements

ASME Section IX –
Temper Bead Welding Requirements
ƒ Temper bead weld procedure qualification is more restrictive
than typical welding procedures
z Additional variables need to be addressed in addition to the weld
process variables
ƒ QW-290, Temper Bead Welding
z QW-290.1, Basic Qualification and Upgrading Existing WPS
z QW-290.2, Welding Process Restrictions
Š SMAW, GTAW, SAW, GMAW (including FCAW) and PAW is permitted
z QW-290.3, Variables for Temper Bead Welding Qualification
z QW-290.5, Test Coupon Preparation and Testing
Š Includes hardness testing requirements
Š Refers to the code of construction for additional testing

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Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy ASME Section IX Requirements

ASME Section IX –
Preheat and PWHT Procedure Variables
Hardness Impact Test
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential

QW-402 .23 + Fluid Backing X

Joints .24 + Fluid Backing X
.25 φ P-No. or Group No. X
QW-403
Base .26 > Carbon Equivalent X
Materials .27
27 >T X

QW-404 .51 Storage X

Filler Metals .52 Diffusible Hydrogen X
.8 > Interpass Temperature X
.9 < Preheat Maintenance X

QW-406 .10 Preheat Soak Time X

Preheat .11 Postweld Bake Out X

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Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy ASME Section IX Requirements

ASME Section IX –
Preheat and PWHT Procedure Variables
Hardness Impact Test
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
QW-408
Gas .24 Gas Moisture X
QW-409
Gas .29 φ Heat Input Ratio X X
φ Single to Multiply
.10
10 Electrodes X X
.58 - Surface Temper Bead X X
.59 Φ Type of Welding X X
.60 + Thermal Preparation X X
.61 Surface Bead Placement X X
Surface Bead Removal
.62 Method X

QW-410 .63 Bead Overlap X X

Technique .65 ± Grinding X X

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Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Temper Bead Welding

ASME Section IX – Temper Bead Welding

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Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Temper Bead Welding

ASME Section IX – Temper Bead Welding

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Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Temper Bead Welding

ASME Section IX – Temper Bead Welding

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