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(Structure of Solids)
Crystal Structure of materials
FCC: Ni, Cu, Ag, Pt, Au, Pb, Al (soft)
BCC: V, Mo, Ta, W (hard material)
HCP: Mg, Zn
Cobalt HCP < 4200C, FCC > 4200C
Chromium HCP < 20oC , BCC >20oC
Glass- Amorphous
BCC-Ferrite or - iron & -ferrite or -iron
FCC- Austenite or -iron
GATE 2011
The crystal structure of austenite is
(a) body centered cubic
(b) face centered cubic
(c) hexagonal closed packed
(d) body centered tetragonal
IES 2011
Match List –I with List –II and select the correct answer using
the code given below the lists :
List –I List –II
A. Alpha iron 1. FCC
B. Zinc 2. BCC
C. Glass 3. HCP
D. Copper 4. Amorphous
Codes
A B C D A B C D
(a) 1 4 3 2 (b) 2 4 3 1
(c) 1 3 4 2 (d) 2 3 4 1
IES-2003
Match List-I (Crystal Structure) with List-II (Example)
and select the correct answer using the codes given
below the Lists:
List-I List-II
(Crystal Structure) (Example)
A. Simple Cubic 1. Zinc
B. Body-centered Cubic 2. Copper
C. Face-centered Cubic 3. Alpha iron at room temperature
D. Hexagonal Close Packed 4. Manganese
Codes:A B C D A B C D
(a) 4 3 1 2 (b) 4 3 2 1
(c) 3 4 2 1 (d) 3 4 1 2
IES-1998
Match List-I with List-II and select the correct
answer using the codes given below the lists:
List-I List-II
(Material) (Structure)
A. Charcoal 1. F.C.C
B. Graphite 2. H.C.P
C. Chromium 3. Amorphous
D. Copper 4. B.C.C
Code: A B C D A B C D
(a)3 2 1 4 (b) 3 2 4 1
(c)2 3 4 1 (d) 2 3 1 4
IES-2001
Match List-I (Name of the Element) with List-II
(Crystal Structure) and select the correct answer
using the codes given below the lists:
List I List II
A. Fluorspar 1. Body-centered cubic
B. Alpha-Iron 2. Hexagonal closed packed
C. Silver 3. Simple cubic
D. Zinc 4. Face-centered cubic
Codes:A B C D A B C D
(a) 3 2 4 1 (b) 4 1 3 2
(c) 4 2 3 1 (d) 3 1 4 2
IES-2006
Match List-I (Element) with List-II (Crystal
Structure) and select the correct answer using the
code given below the Lists:
List - I List - II
A. Alpha Iron 1.Hexagonal closed packed
B. Copper 2.Body-centred cubic
C. Zinc 3.Amorphous
D. Glass 4.Face-centred cubic
Codes:A B C D A B C D
(a) 2 3 1 4 (b) 1 4 2 3
(c) 2 4 1 3 (d) 1 3 2 4
Plastic deformation
Following the elastic deformation, material undergoes
plastic deformation.
Also characterized by relation between stress and
strain at constant strain rate and temperature.
Microscopically, it involves breaking atomic bonds,
moving atoms, then restoration of bonds.
Stress-Strain relation here is complex because of
atomic plane movement, dislocation movement, and
the obstacles they encounter.
Crystalline solids deform by processes – slip and
twinning in particular directions.
Contd…
Amorphous solids deform by viscous flow mechanism
without any directionality.
Because of the complexity involved, theory of
plasticity neglects the following effects:
Anelastic strain, which is time dependent
recoverable strain.
Hysteresis behavior resulting from loading and
unloading of material.
Bauschinger effect – dependence of yield stress on
loading path and direction.
Equations relating stress and strain are called
constitutive equations.
Contd…
A true stress-strain curve is called flow curve as it gives
the stress required to cause the material to flow
plastically to certain strain.
Because of the complexity involved, there have been
many stress-strain relations proposed.
= fn ( , T , m i cr ost r u ct u r e)
= K n S tra in h a r d en i n g exp on en t , n = 0.1 - 0.5
= K .m S tra in - r a t e sen si t i v i t y, m = 0.4 - 0.9
= K ( 0 + ) n S t r a i n fr om p r ev i ou s w or k - 0
= 0 + K n Yie ld st r en g t h - 0
Slip
Slip is the prominent mechanism of plastic deformation in
metals.
It involves sliding of blocks of crystal over one other along
definite crystallographic planes, called slip planes.
In physical words it is analogous to a deck of cards when it is
pushed from one end.
Slip occurs when shear stress applied exceeds a critical value.
During slip each atom usually moves same integral number
of atomic distances along the slip plane producing a step, but
the orientation of the crystal remains the same.
Steps observable under microscope as straight lines are
called slip lines.
Twinning
The second important mechanism of plastic deformation is
twinning.
It results when a portion of crystal takes up an orientation that
is related to the orientation of the rest of the untwined lattice
in a definite, symmetrical way.
The twinned portion of the crystal is a mirror image of the
parent crystal. The plane of symmetry is called twinning plane.
Each atom in the twinned region moves by a homogeneous
shear a distance proportional to its distance from the twin
plane.
The lattice strains involved in twinning are small, usually in
order of fraction of inter-atomic distance, thus resulting in
very small gross plastic deformation.
Contd…
The important role of twinning in plastic deformation is
that it causes changes in plane orientation so that further
slip can occur.
Twinning generally occurs when slip is restricted, because
the stress necessary for twinning is usually higher than
that for slip.
Thus, some HCP metals with limited number of slip
systems may preferably twin.
Also, BCC metals twin at low temperatures because slip is
difficult.
Of course, twinning and slip may occur sequentially or
even concurrently in some cases.
IES 2007
What is the movement of block of atoms along
certain crystallographic planes and directions,
termed as?
(a)Glide
(b) Twinning
(c)Slip
(d) Jog
IES-2005
The B.C.C. and H.C.P. metals undergo plastic
deformation by:
(a)Slip
(b) Twinning
(c)Edge dislocation
(d) Twinning in combination with slip
IES-1998
Assertion (A): Plastic deformation in metals and alloys is a
permanent deformation under load. This property is
useful in obtaining products by cold rolling.
Reason (R): Plastic or permanent deformation in metal or
alloy is caused by movement or dislocations.
(a)Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct
explanation of A
(b)Both A and R are individually true but R is not the correct
explanation of A
(c)A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
Atomic Structure
Atoms consist of a relatively dense nucleus composed of
positively charged protons and neutral particles of nearly
identical mass, known as neutrons.
Surrounding the nucleus are the negatively charged electrons,
which have only 1/1839 times the mass of a neutron and appear in
numbers equal to the protons, to maintain a net charge balance.
The light electrons that surround the nucleus play a far more
significant role in determining material properties.
Again, experiments reveal that the electrons are arranged in a
characteristic structure consisting of shells and subshells, each
possessing a distinctive energy. Upon absorbing a small amount
of energy, an electron can jump to a higher-energy shell farther
from the nucleus.
Contd…
The reverse jump can also occur with the concurrent
release of a distinct amount, or quantum, of energy.
The number of electrons surrounding the nucleus of a
neutral atom is called the atomic number.
More important, however, are those electrons in the
outermost shell or subshell, known as valence
electrons.
These are influential in determining chemical
properties, electrical conductivity, some mechanical
properties, the nature of interatomic bonding, atom
size, and optical characteristics.
Atomic Bonds
General characteristics of materials joined by ionic bonds include
moderate to high strength, high hardness, brittleness, high melting
point, and low electrical conductivity.
A second type of primary bond is the covalent type.
Like the ionic bond, the covalent bond tends to produce materials
with high strength and high melting point.
Atom movement within the framework material (plastic
deformation) requires the breaking of discrete bonds, thereby
making the material characteristically brittle.
Electrical conductivity depends on bond strength, ranging from
conductive tin (weak covalent bonding), through semiconducting
silicon and germanium, to insulating diamond (carbon).
Engineering materials possessing ionic or covalent bonds tend to be
ceramic (refractories or abrasives) or polymeric in nature.
Contd…
A third type of primary bond can form when a complete outer
shell cannot be formed by either electron transfer or electron
sharing. This bond is known as the metallic bond.
If there are only a few valence electrons (one, two, or three) in
each of the atoms in an aggregate, these electrons can easily be
removed while the remainder are held firmly to the nucleus.
These highly-mobile,"free" electrons account for the high
electrical and thermal conductivity values as well as the opaque
property (free electrons can absorb the discrete energies of light
radiation) observed in metals.
Moreover, they provide the "cement" required for the positive-
negative-positive attractions that result in bonding.
Bond strength, and therefore material strength, varies over a
wide range.
Contd…
More significant, however, is the observation that the
positive ions can move within the structure without
the breaking of discrete bonds. Materials bonded by
metallic bonds can therefore be deformed by atom-
movement mechanisms and produce a deformed
material that is every bit as strong as the original.
This phenomenon is the basis of metal plasticity,
ductility, and many of the shaping processes used in
the fabrication of metal products.
IES-2008
Assertion (A): Elements are classified into metals and
non-metals on the basis of their atomic weights.
Reason (R): The valence electron structures contribute
to the primary bonding between the atoms to form
aggregates.
(a)Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b)Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation
of A
(c)A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
IES-2003
Assertion (A): Unlike in the case of ionic bonds, the co-
ordination numbers for covalently bonded atoms are not
controlled by the radii ratio.
Reason (R): A covalent bond has a specific direction of
bonding in space.
(a)Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct
explanation of A
(b)Both A and R are individually true but R is not the correct
explanation of A
(c)A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
IES 2011
Solid material chemical bonds are :
(a) Ionic, molecular and fusion
(b) Covalent, fusion and fission
(c) Ionic, covalent and molecular
(d) Fission, molecular and ionic
Development of a grain structure
When a metal solidifies, a small particle of solid forms from
the liquid with a lattice structure characteristic of the given
material.
This particle then acts like a seed or nucleus and grows as
other atoms in the vicinity attach themselves. The basic
crystalline unit is repeated throughout space.
In actual solidification, many nuclei form independently at
various locations throughout the liquid and have random
orientations with respect to one another. Each then grows
until it begins to interfere with its neighbours.
Since adjacent lattice structures have different alignments or
orientations, growth cannot produce a single continuous
structure.
Contd…
The small, continuous volumes of solid are known as
cristals or grains, and the surfaces that divide them
(i.e., the surfaces of crystalline discontinuity) are
known as grain boundaries.
The process by which a grain structure is produced
Upon solidification is one of nucleation and growth.
Grains are the smallest of the structural units in a
metal that are observable with ordinary light
microscopy.
The atoms in the grain boundaries are more loosely
bonded and tend to react with the chemical more
readily than those that are part of the grain interior.
Contd…
The number and size of the grains in a metal vary with the rate
of nucleation and the rate of growth.
The greater the nucleation rate, the smaller the resulting
grains. Conversely, the greater the rate of growth, the larger the
grain.
Because the resulting grain structure will influence certain
mechanical and physical properties, it is an important property
for an engineer to both control and specify. One means of
specification is through the ASTM (American Society for
Testing and Materials) grain size number, defined as:
Contd…
Fig. Recrystallization
of 70-30 brass:
(a) cold-worked 33%;
(b)heated at 580°C
(1075°F) for 3 seconds,
(c) 4 seconds, and
(d) 8 seconds
Plastic deformation in polycrystalline
metals
Gross plastic deformation of a polycrystalline specimen
corresponds to the comparable distortion of the individual
grains by means of slip. Although some grains may be oriented
favourably for slip, yielding cannot occur unless the
unfavourably oriented neighbouring grains can also slip.
Thus in a polycrystalline aggregate, individual grains provide a
mutual geometrical constraint on one other, and this precludes
plastic deformation at low applied stresses.
That is to initiate plastic deformation, polycrystalline metals
require higher stresses than for equivalent single crystals, where
stress depends on orientation of the crystal.
Much of this increase is attributed to geometrical reasons.
Contd…
Slip in polycrystalline material involves generation,
movement and (re-)arrangement of dislocations.
The second important mechanism of plastic
deformation is twinning. It results when a portion of
crystal takes up an orientation that is related to the
orientation of the rest of the untwined lattice in a
definite, symmetrical way.
The twinned portion of the crystal is a mirror image of
the parent crystal. The plane of symmetry is called
twinning plane.