VII CURVES

TYPES OF CURVES
HORIZONTAL CURVES
When a highway changes horizontal direction, making the point where it changes direction a
point of intersection between two straight lines is not feasible. The change in direction would be
too abrupt for the safety of modem, high-speed vehicles. It is therefore necessary to interpose a
curve between the straight lines. The straight lines of a road are called tangents because the lines
are tangent to the curves used to change direction.
In practically all modem highways, the curves are circular curves; that is, curves that form
circular arcs. The smaller the radius of a circular curve, the sharper the curve. For modern, high-
speed highways, the curves must be flat, rather than sharp. That means they must be large-radius
curves.
In highway work, the curves needed for the location or improvement of small secondary roads
may be worked out in the field. Usually, however, the horizontal curves are computed after the
route has been selected, the field surveys have been done, and the survey base line and necessary
topographic features have been plotted. In urban work, the curves of streets are designed as an
integral part of the preliminary and final layouts, which are usually done on a topographic map.
In highway work, the road itself is the end result and the purpose of the design. But in urban
work, the streets and their curves are of secondary importance; the best use of the building sites
is of primary importance.
The principal consideration in the design of a curve is the selection of the length of the radius or
the degree of curvature (explained later). This selection is based on such considerations as the
design speed of the highway and the sight distance as limited by head-lights or obstructions
(fig.). Some typical radii you may encounter are 12,000 feet or longer on an interstate highway,
1,000 feet on a major thorough-fare in a city, 500 feet on an industrial access road, and 150 feet
on a minor residential street.

TYPES OF HORIZONTAL CURVES

There are four types of horizontal curves. They are described as follows:
1. SIMPLE. The simple curve is an arc of a circle (view A, fig. 11-2). The radius of the circle
determines the sharpness or flatness of the curve.
2. COMPOUND. Frequently, the terrain will require the use of the compound curve. This curve
normally consists of two simple curves joined together and curving in the same direction (view
B, fig.).
3. REVERSE. A reverse curve consists of two simple curves joined together, but curving in
opposite direction. For safety reasons, the use of this curve should be avoided when possible
(view C, fig.).
4. SPIRAL. The spiral is a curve that has a varying radius. It is used on railroads and most
modem highways. Its purpose is to provide a transition from the tangent to a simple curve or
between simple curves in a compound curve (view D, fig.).

VERTICAL CURVES
In addition to horizontal curves that go to the right or left, roads also have vertical curves that go
up or down. Vertical curves at a crest or the top of a hill are called summit curves, or
oververticals. Vertical curves at the bottom of a hill or dip are called sag curves, or
underverticals.
GRADES
Vertical curves are used to connect stretches of road that go up or down at a constant slope.
These lines of constant slope are called grade tangents (fig.). The rate of slope is called the
gradient, or simply the grade. (Do not confuse this use of the term grade with other meanings,
such as the design
Figure : A vertical curve.
elevation of a finished surface at a given point or the actual elevation of the existing ground at a
given point.) Grades that ascend in the direction of the stationing are designated as plus; those
that descend in the direction of the stationing are designated as minus. Grades are measured in
terms of percent; that is, the number of feet of rise or fall in a 100-foot horizontal stretch of the
road.
After the location of a road has been determined and the necessary fieldwork has been obtained,
the engineer designs or fixes (sets) the grades. A number of factors are considered, including the
intended use and importance of the road and the existing topography. If a road is too steep, the
comfort and safety of the users and fuel consumption of the vehicles will be adversely affected;
therefore, the design criteria will specify maximum grades. Typical maximum grades are a 4-
percent desired maximum and a 6-percent absolute maximum for a primary road. (The 6 percent
means, as indicated before, a 6-foot rise for each 100 feet ahead on the road.) For a secondary
road or a major street, the maximum grades might be a 5-percent desired and an 8-percent
absolute maximum; and for a tertiary road or a secondary street, an 8-percent desired and a 10-
percent (or perhaps a 12-percent) absolute maximum. Conditions may sometimes demand that
grades or ramps, driveways, or short access streets go as high as 20 percent. The engineer must
also consider minimum grades. A street with curb and gutter must have enough fall so that the
storm water will drain to the inlets; 0.5 percent is a typical minimum grade for curb and gutter
(that is, 1/2 foot minimum fall for each 100 feet ahead). For roads with side ditches, the desired
minimum grade might be 1 percent; but since ditches may slope at a grade different from the
pavement, a road may be designed with a zero-percent grade. Zero-percent grades are not
unusual, particularly through plains or tidewater areas. Another factor considered in designing
the finished profile of a road is the earthwork balance; that is, the grades should be set so that
all the soil cut off of the hills may be economically hauled to fill in the low areas. In the design
of urban streets, the best use of the building sites next to the street will generally be more
important than seeking an earthwork balance.
ELEMENTS OF A HORIZONTAL CURVE
PI POINT OF INTERSECTION. The point of intersection is the point where the back and for-
ward tangents intersect. Sometimes, the point of intersection is designated as V (vertex).
I INTERSECTING ANGLE. The intersecting angle is the deflection angle at the PI. Its value is
either computed from the preliminary traverse angles or measured in the field.
A CENTRAL ANGLE. The central angle is the angle formed by two radii drawn from the center
of the circle (O) to the PC and PT. The value of the central angle is equal to the I angle. Some
authorities call both the intersecting angle and central angle either I or A.
R RADIUS. The radius of the circle of which the curve is an arc, or segment. The radius is
always perpendicular to back and forward tangents.
PC POINT OF CURVATURE. The point of curva-ture is the point on the back tangent where
the circular curve begins. It is sometimes designated as BC (beginning of curve) or TC (tangent
to curve).
PT POINT OF TANGENCY, The point of tangency is the point on the forward tangent where
the curve ends. It is sometimes designated as EC (end of curve) or CT (curve to tangent).
POC POINT OF CURVE. The point of curve is any point along the curve.
L LENGTH OF CURVE. The length of curve is the distance from the PC to the PT, measured
along the curve.
T TANGENT DISTANCE. The tangent distance is the distance along the tangents from the PI
to the PC or the PT. These distances are equal on a simple curve.
LC LONG CHORD. The long chord is the straight-line distance from the PC to the PT. Other
types of chords are designated as follows:
C The full-chord distance between adja-cent stations (full, half, quarter, or one-tenth stations)
along a curve.
c] The subchord distance between the PC and the first station on the curve.
c? The subchord distance between the last station on the curve and the PT.
E EXTERNAL DISTANCE. The external distance (also called the external secant) is the
distance from the PI to the midpoint of the curve. The external distance bisects the interior angle
at the PI.
M MIDDLE ORDINATE. The middle ordinate is the distance from the midpoint of the curve to
the midpoint of the long chord. The extension of the middle ordinate bisects the central angle.
D DEGREE OF CURVE. The degree of curve defines the sharpness or flatness of the curve.

Simple Circular Curve

Once the alignment of a route is finalized, such as AVCD in Figure 7.1, the change in direction
is achieved through provision of circular curves. In Figure 7.1, to change the direction from AV
to VC, a circular curve T1 GT2 is provided. Similarly, from VC to CD, T'1G'T'2 is provided. The
straight alignments, between which a curve is provided, are tangential to the curve. Thus, AT 1 V
and VT2C are tangential to T1 GT 2 . The tangent line before the beginning of the curve is called
the Back tangent or the rear tangent. The tangent line after the end of the curve is called the
Forward tangent . The line AT1 is the back tangent and the line T2C is the forward tangent for the
curve T 1GT2. The distinction of the back tangent from the forward tangent depends on the
direction of the route surveying. The point at which extension of the back tangent and the
forward tangent meet is known as the Vertex (V) or point of intersection (P.I.). The exterior
angle at the vertex or point of intersection is known as the Intersection angle (I). It is also known
as Deflection angle (D) as it represents the deflection angle between the back tangent and the
forward tangent. Thus, angle between the line AV produced beyond the vertex V and the line VC
represents I (or D). The point on the back tangent where the curve begins is known as the Point
of Curvature (P.C.). At this point, the alignment of the route changes from a straight line to a
curve. This is represented by T1 in Figure 7.1. The point on the forward tangent where the curve
ends is known as the Point of tangency (P.T.). At this point, the alignment of the route changes
from a curve to a straight line. It is represented by T 2 in Figure 7.1. The distance between the
point of curvature (T1) to the point of intersection (V) along the extension of back tangent is
known as Tangent distance (T). It is also equal to the distance between the point of tangency (T2)
to the point of intersection along the extension of forward tangent. The distance between the
point of intersection (V) and the middle point of the curve is called as External distance (E). The
longest possible chord of the circular curve is known as Long chord (L). It is the line joining the
point of curvature (T1) and the point of tangency (T2). The distance between the middle point of
the curve and the middle point of the long chord is Mid-ordinate (M). The length of the
alignment along the curve between the point of curvature (T 1) and the point of tangency (T2) is
known as the Length of curve (l). During the progress of the route, if the direction of deflection
is to the right then it is called Right-hand curve (T1GT2) and it is called left -hand curve, if the
curve deflects to the left T'1G'T'2.

Elements of a Simple Circular Curve

Let T1GT2 be the circular curve that has been provided between the tangents AV and VC. The
deflection angle, D between the tangents is measured in the field. The radius of curvature is the
design value as per requirement of the route operation and field topography. The line joining O
and V bisects the internal angles at V and at O, the chord T1T2 and arc T1GT2 . It is perpendicular
to the chord T1T2 at F. From the Figure 7.1, RT1 O T2 = D and

To compute the elements of a circular curve, consider the radius of the curve OT 1 = OT2 = R.
Further, it is known that the RVT1 O = RVT2 O = 90° (since the tangent to a circle is
perpendicular to the radius at the point of tangency). The elements of a circular curve required to
lay it out in the field with reference to Figure 7.1 are as follows :
Length of Curve,
l = T1 GT2
 --------------Equation (7.1)
Tangent Length,
T = length T1 V = length T2 V

--------------Equation (7.2)
Chainages of tangent point : The chainage of the point of intersection (V) is generally known.
Thus,
Chainageof T1 = Chainage of V - tangent length (T) --------------Equation (7.3)
Chainage of T2 = Chainage of T1 + length of curve (l) --------------Equation (7.4)
Length of the long chord (L) : Length of the long chord,
L = length T1 FT2

--------------Equation (7.5)
External distance (E) :
E = length VG
= VO - GO

--------------Equation (7.6)
Mid-ordinate (M) :
M = length GF = OG-OF

--------------Equation (7.7)
Designation of a Curve
A curve is designated either in terms of its degree (D) or by its radius (R).
Degree of Curve
The degree of a curve (D) is defined as the angle subtended at the centre of the curve by a chord
or an arc of specified length.
Chord Definition
The degree of a curve is defined as the angle subtended at the centre of the curve by a chord of
30 m length.
Let D be the degree of a curve i.e., it is the angle subtended at its centre O by a chord C1C2 of 30
m length as shown in Figure 7.2. Thus
 -------------- Equation (7.8)

Arc Definition
The degree of a curve is defined as the angle subtended at its centre of the curve by an arc of 30
m length.
From Figure 7.3,

-------------- Equation (37.9)

Radius of Curve
In this convention, a curve is designated by its radius. The sharpness of the curve depends upon
its radius. A sharp curve has a small radius. On the other hand, a flat curve has a large radius.
Moreover, from (Equation 37.9), it can be found that the degree of curve is inversely
proportional to the radius of curve. Thus, a sharp curve has a large degree of curve, whereas a
flat curve has a small degree of curve.

Solving a Simple Curve

We will begin by first determining the distance from Station 18 + 00 to the location of the PI.
Since these points have been staked, we can determine the distance by field measurement. Let’s
assume we have measured this distance and found it to be 300.89 feet. Next, we set up a transit at
the PI and determine that deflection angle I is 75°. Since I always equals D, then D is also 75°,
Now we can compute the radius of the curve, the tangent distance, and the length of curve as
follows:

From these computed values, we can determine the stations of the PI, PC, and PT as follows:

By studying figure 11-10 and remembering that our task is to stake half-station intervals, you can
see that the first half station after the PC is Station 18 + 50 and the last half station before the PT
is 23+ 00; therefore, the distance from the PC to Station 18 + 00 is 42.2 feet [(18 + 50) - (18 +
07.80)]. Similarly, the distance from Station 23+ 00 to the PT is 7.8 feet. These distances are
used to compute the deflection angles for the subchords using the formula for deflection angles
(d= .3CD) as follows:

A convenient method of determining the deflection angle (d) for each full chord is to remember
that d equals 1/2D for 100-foot chords, 1/4D for 50-foot chords, 1/8D for 25-foot chords, and
1/20D for 10-foot chords. In this case, since we are staking 50-foot stations, d = 15/4, or 3°45’.
Previously, we discussed the difference in length between arcs and chords. In that discussion,
you learned that to be within allowable error, the recommended chord length for an 8- to 16-
degree curve is 25 feet. Since in this example we are using 50-foot chords, the length of the
chords must be adjusted. The adjusted lengths are computed using a rearrangement of the
formula for the sine of deflection angles as follows:

As you can see, in this case, there is little difference between the original and adjusted chord
lengths; however, if we were using 100-foot stations rather than 50-foot stations, the adjusted
difference for each full chord would be substantial (over 3 inches).
Now, remembering our previous discussion of deflection angles and chords, you know that all of
the deflection angles are usually turned using a transit that is set up at the PC. The deflection
angles that we turn are found by cumulating the individual deflection angles from the PC to the
PT as shown below:
Notice that the deflection angle at the PT is equal to one half of the I angle. That serves as a
check of your computations. Had the deflection angle been anything different than one half of
the I angle, then a mistake would have been made.
Since the total of the deflection angles should be one-half of the I angle, a problem arises when
the I angle contains an odd number of minutes and the instrument used is a 1-minute transit.
Since the PT is normally staked before the curve is run, the total deflection will be a check on the
PC therefore, it should be computed to the nearest 0.5 degree. If the total deflection checks to the
nearest minute in the field, it can be considered correct.
The curve that was just solved had an I angle of 75° and a degree of curve of 15°. When the I
angle and degree of curve consists of both degrees and minutes, the procedure in solving the
curve does not change; but you must be careful in substituting these values into the formulas for
length and deflection angles; for example I = 42°15’, D = 5°37’. The minutes in each angle must
be changed to a decimal part of a degree. To obtain the required accuracy, you should convert
them to five decimal places; but an alternate method for computing the length is to convert the I
angle and degree of curve to minutes; thus, 42°15’ = 2,535 minutes and 5°37’ = 337 minutes.
Substituting this information into the length formula gives the following:

This method gives an exact result. By converting the minutes to a decimal part of a degree to the
nearest fives places, you obtain the same result.

Fundamental Geometry of Circular Curve

The fundamentals of geometry of a circular curve those required to understand the fundamentals
of laying out of a circular curve are as follows:
Rule 1 : The angle subtended by any chord at the centre of the circle is twice the angle between
the chord and a tangent at one of its ends. For example, in Figure 7.4, the angle subtended by the
chord AB at the centre of the circle, RAOB (d) is twice the angle RVAB between the chord AB
and the tangent AV at end A (d / 2).
Rule 2 : Inscribed angles subtended by the same or equal arc or chord are equal. In Figure 7.4,
inscribed angles at C and E subtended by the chord AB are equal and both are (d / 2).
Rule 3 : Inscribed angle subtended by the same or equal arc or chord is half the angle subtended
(by the arc or chord) at the centre of the circle. In Figure 7.4, the inscribed angles at C and E (d /
2) is half the angle subtended by the chord AB at the centre of the circle, AOB (d).
Rule 4 : The deflection angle between a tangent (at any point on a circle) and a chord is equal to
the angle which the chord subtends in the alternate segment. For example, in Figure 7.4, the
deflection angle at D from the tangent at A (RVAD) is equal to the angle subtended by the chord
AD at B (RABD) i.e., RVAD = RABD.

Setting out simple curve:

There are different methods for laying out a circular curve based on the types of instruments used
for the purpose. Of these two methods
(i) Tape and Theodolite Method (Rankine's method) and
(ii) Two Theodolite Method are widely prevalent and will be discussed in this course work.
Tape and Theodolite Method
In this method, both the linear and angular measurements are carried out simultaneously to stake
points along which curve will be set out. A tape is used for the linear measurements, whereas a
theodolite is used for the angular measurements. This method is quite accurate and is commonly
used in practice.
Laying out a curve by Deflection angle ( Rankine's Method)
In this method, curves are staked out by use of deflection angles turned at the point of curvature
from the tangent to points along the curve. The curve is set out by driving pegs at regular interval
equal to the length of the normal chord. Usually, the sub-chords are provided at the beginning
and end of the curve to adjust the actual length of the curve. The method is based on the
assumption that there is no difference between length of the arcs and their corresponding chords
of normal length or less. The underlying principle of this method is that the deflection angle to
any point on the circular curve is measured by the one-half the angle subtended at the centre of
the circle by the arc from the P.C. to that point. [Rule 1 under "Fundamentals of geometry of
Circular Curve"
Let points a, b, c, d, e are to be identified in the field to layout a curve between T 1 and T2 to
change direction from the straight alignment AV to VB as in Figure A . To decide about the
points, chords ab, bc, cd, de are being considered having nominal length of 30m. To adjust the
actual length of the curve two sub-chords have been provided one at the beginning, T 1 a and
other, eT2 at the end of the curve. The amount of deflection angles that are to be set from the
tangent line at the P.C. are computed before setting out the points. The steps for computations
are as follows:
Referring to Figure B, let the tangential angles for points a, b, c,� be d1, d,�, d, dn and their
deflection angles (from the tangent at P.C.) be Da, Db, �.. , Dn.

Now, for the first tangential angle d1, from the property of a circle
Arc T1 a = R x 2d 1 radians
Assuming the length of the arc is same as that of its chord, if C1 is the length of the first chord
i.e., chord T 1 a, then

(Note: the units of measurement of chord and that of the radius of the curve should be same).
Similarly, tangential angles for chords of nominal length, say C,

And for last chord of length, say C n

The deflection angles for the different points a, b, c, etc. can be obtained from the tangential
angles. For the first point a, the deflection angle Da is equal to the tangential angle of the chord to
this point i.e., d 1. Thus,
Da = d 1.
The deflection angle to the next point i.e., b is Db for which the chord length is T1 b. Thus, the
deflection angle

Thus, the deflection angle for any point on the curve is the deflection angle upto previous point
plus the tangential angle at the previous point.
Field procedure for setting out the curve
Refer Figure (b),
1. A theodolite is set up at the point of curvature T1, and get it temporary adjusted.
2. The vernier A is set to zero, and get the upper plate clamped. After opening the lower plate
main screw, sight the point of intersection, V. Then the lower plate main screw gets tightened
and get the point V bisected exactly using the lower plate tangent screw. Now the line of sight is
in the direction of the rear tangent T 1 V and the vernier A reads zero.
3. Open the upper plate main screw, and set the vernier A to the deflection angle Da. The line of
sight is now directed along the chord T1 a. Clamp the upper plate.
4. Hold the zero end of the tape of a steel tape at T 1. Note a mark equal to the first chord length
C1 on the tape and swing an arrow pointed at the mark around �a' till it is bisected along the line
of sight. The arrow point then indicates the position of the first peg �a'. Fix the first peg at �a'.
5. Unclamp the upper plate, and set the vernier A to the deflection angle Db. The line of sight is
now directed along T 1 b.
6. With the zero end of the tape at a, and an arrow at a mark on the tape equal to the normal
chord length C, swing the tape around b until the arrow is bisected along the line of sight. Fix the
second peg at the point b at the arrow point.
It may be noted that the deflection angles are measured from the tangent point T1 but the chord
lengths are measured from the preceding point. thus, deflection angles observed are cumulative
in nature but chord lengths swung are individual in nature.
7. Repeat steps (5) and (6) till the last point is reached. The last point so located must coincide
with the tangent point T2 already fixed from the point of intersection.

Laying out a curve by Two Theodolite Method

In two theodolite method, curves are staked out by angular measurements only. Accuracy
attained in this method is quite high. Thus, the method is used when higher accuracy is required
and when the topography is rough or field condition is difficult.
The underlying principle of this method is that the deflection angle between a tangent (at any
point on a circle) and a chord is equal to the angle which the chord subtends in the alternate
segment. [Rule 4 under "Fundamental Geometry of Circular Curve '"

In this, two theodolites are used simultaneously placing one at the point of curvature (T1) and the
other at the point of tangent (T 2). Deflection angles for specified chord lengths are computed as
defined in the Rankine's method. The deflection angles are set at the theodolites. Ranging from
both the theodolites at the defined angles provide the location of the point along curve. Thus, the
curve is set out by driving pegs at suitable location identified through the theodolites.
Field Procedure
1. Two theodolites are placed, one at the point of curvature T 1 and the other at the point of
curvature T2. Get temporary adjustment in both. The vernier A of each theodolites set to zero and
clamp the upper plates.
2. Bisect the point of intersection, V from theodolites at T1 and T1 from the theodolite at T2 using
the lower plate main screw and then its tangent screw. Now both the theodolites are properly
oriented.
3. Open the upper plate main screw of the theodolites at T 1, and set the vernier A to the
deflection angle D1. The line of sight is now directed along the chord T 1 a. Clamp the upper
plate.
4. Release the upper clamp of the theodolite at T2 and set the vernier A to the angle D1. The line
of sight is now directed along the chord T2 a.
Thus the lines of sight of both the theodolites are directed towards the point 'a'.
5. Now, move a ranging rod or an arrow near the expected point 'a' until it is bisected
simultaneously by the cross-hairs of both the theodolites. Locate the point 'a' on the ground at the
arrow point and fix a peg at that point.
6. To locate the second point 'b', set the verniers of both the theodolites at angle Db and repeat
steps (3) to (5) .
7. Locate all other points c,d,e..... in the same manner.