Energy

Technology

Prepared By:
Prof. Pradip Gunaki
REVA University Bangalore
 Unit – 2
Diesel Engine Power Plant

Application of diesel engine electric plant:-

(a) Peak load plants: Diesel plants can be used in combination with thermal or hydro plants as peak
load units. They can be easily started or stopped at short notice to meet the peak demand.

(b) Mobile plants: Diesel plants mounted on trailer can be used for temporary or emergency
purposes such as supplying power to large civil engineering works.

(c) Standby unit: If the main unit fails or can’t cope up with demand, a diesel plant can supply
necessary power. For example, if the water available in the hydro plant is not adequately available
due to less rainfall, the diesel station can operate in parallel to generate short fall of power.

(d) Emergency plant: During power interruption in a vital unit like key industrial plant or hospital, a
diesel electric plant can be used to generate the needed power.

(e) Nursery station: In the absence of the main grid, a diesel plant can be installed to supply power
in a small town. In course of time when electricity from main grid becomes available in the town,
the diesel unit can be shifted to some other area which needs power in small scale. Such diesel
station is called nursery station.

(f) Starting station: Diesel units can be used to run auxiliaries (like FD & ID fans) for starting large
steam power plant.

(g) Central station: Diesel electric plant can be used as central station where power required is
small.

Layout of a diesel power plant:-

Page 2
 The layout of a diesel engine power plant is shown in above figure.
 Diesel engine units are installed side by side with some room left fur extension in the future.
 The repairs and usual maintenance works require some space around the units.
 The air intakes and filters are exhaust mufflers are located outside.
 Adequate space for oil storage, repair shop and office are provided as shown.
 Bulk storage of Oil may be outdoors.

Starting of engine:-
Following are the three common method of starting an engine.
i. By an auxiliary engine, this is mounted close to the main engine and drives the latter
through a clutch and gears.
ii. By using an electric motor, in which a storage battery 12 to 36 volts is used to supply power
to an electric motor that derives the engine.
iii. By compressed air system, in which compressed air at about 17bar supplied from an air tank
is admitted to a few engine cylinders making them work like reciprocating air motors to run the
engine shaft. Fuel is admitted to the remaining cylinders and ignited in the normal way causing
the engine to start. The compressed air system is commonly used for starting large diesel
engines employed for stationary power plant service.

Essential component or element of diesel electric plant:-

1. Engine
2. Air intake system
3. Exhaust system
4. Fuel system
5. Cooling system
6. Lubrication system

1. Engine:-
It is the main component of the plant and is directly coupled to the generator.

2. Air intake system:-

It conveys fresh air through louvers and air filter that removes dirt, etc. causing wear of the
engine. Supercharger, if fitted, is generally driven by the engine itself and it augments the power
output of the engine.

Page 3
 3. Exhaust system:-

 Exhaust system discharge the engine exhaust to the atmosphere.

 The exhaust manifold connects the engine cylinder exhaust outlets to the exhaust pipe which is
provided with a muffler or silencer to reduce pressure on the exhaust line and eliminates most
of the noise which may result if gases are discharged directly to the atmosphere.
 The exhaust pipe should have flexible tubing system to take up the effects of expansion due to
high temperature and also isolate the exhaust system from the engine vibration.
There is scope of waste heat utilization from the diesel engine exhaust,
i. By installing a waste heat boiler to raise low pressure steam which can be used for any process,
purpose or for generating electricity.
ii. The hot exhaust may also be utilized to heat water in a gas-to-water heat exchanger which can be
in the form of a water coil installed in the exhaust muffler.
iii. It can also be used for air heating where the exhaust pipe is surrounded by the cold air jacket.

4. Fuel system:-
 Fuel oil may be delivered at the plant site by trucks, railway wagons or barges and oil tankers.
 An unloading facility delivers oil to the main storage tanks from where oil is pumped to small
service storage tanks known as engine day tanks, which store oil for approximately eight hours
of operation.
 The fuel injection system is the heart of a diesel engine.
 Engines driving electric generators have lower speeds and simple combustion chambers that
promote good mixing of fuel and air.

5. Cooling system:-
The temperature of the gases inside the cylinder may be as high as 2750"C. If there is no
external cooling, the cylinder walls and piston will tend to assume the average temperature of the
gases which may be of the order of 1000° to I500°C. The cooling of the engine is necessary for the
following reasons.
a) The lubricating oil used determines the maximum engine temperature that can be used. Above
these temperatures the lubricating oil deteriorates very rapidly and may evaporate and bum
damaging the piston and cylinder surfaces.
b) The strength of the materials used for various engine parts decreases with increase in
temperature.
c) High engine temperatures may result in very hot exhaust valve, giving rise to pre-ignition and
detonation or knocking.
d) Due to high cylinder head temperature, the volumetric efficiency and hence power outputs of
the engine are reduced.

Page 4
 Following are the two methods of cooling the engine.
(i) Air cooling:
Air cooling is used in small engines, where fins are provided to increase heat transfer surface
area.
(ii) Water cooling:
Big diesel engines are always water cooled. The cylinder and its head are enclosed in a water
jacket which is connected to a radiator. Water flowing in the jacket carries away the heat from the
engine and becomes heated. The hot water then flows into the radiator and gets cooled by rejecting
heat to air from the radiator walls. Cooled water is again circulated in the water jacket.

Various methods used for circulating the water around the cylinder are the following.
(a) Thermosiphon cooling: In this method water flow is caused by density difference. The rate of'
circulation is slow and insufficient.

(b) Forced cooling by pump: In this method a pump, taking power from the engine, forces water to
circulate, ensuring engine cooling under all operating conditions. There may be overcooling
which may cause low temperature corrosion of metal parts due to the presence of acids.

(c) Thermostat cooling: This is a method in which a thermostat maintains the desired temperature
and protects the engine from getting overcooled.

Page 5
(d) Pressurized water cooling: In this method a higher water pressure, 1.5 to bar, 2 is maintained to
increase heal transfer in the radiator. A pressure relief valve is provided against any pressure drop
or vacuum.

(e) Evaporative cooling: In this method water is allowed to evaporate absorbing the latent heal of
evaporation from the cylinder walls. The cooling circuit is such that the co olant is always liquid
and the steam flashes in a separate vessel.

6. Lubrication system:-
 Lubrication is the flow of oil between two surfaces having relative motion.
 Following are the function of lubricating system.
(a) Lubrication: To keep moving parts sliding freely past each other, thus reducing engine friction
and wear.
(b) Cooling: To keep the surface cool by taking away a part of heat caused by friction.
(c) Cleaning: To keep bearing and friction ring clean of the product of wear and combustion by
washing them away.
(d) Sealing: To form a good seal between the piston ring and cylinder wall.
(e) Reduce noise: To reduce noise of engine by absorbing vibration.

Lubrication system can be classified as, (a) Mist lubrication system, (b) Wet sump
lubrication system and (c) Dry sump lubrication system.

(a) Mist lubrication system:-

This system is used for two stroke cycle engine which employs crankcase
compression. Thus crankcase lubrication is not suitable in these engines.

(b) Wet sump lubrication system:-

The bottom part of the crankcase, called sump, contains the lubricating oil which is pumped
to the various part of the engine. There are three types of wet sump lubrication system; they are
Splash system, Modified splash system and Full pressure system.

Page 6
Splash system:-

It is used for small four stroke stationary engines. The oil level in the sump is maintained in
such a way that when the connecting rod’s big end at its lowest position the dippers at the end strike
the oil in the troughs which are supplied with oil from the sump by an oil pump. Due to striking of
dippers oil splashes over various parts of engine like crank pin, bearing, piston ring, piston pin etc.
Excess oil drips back into the sump.

Modified splash system:-

The splash system is not sufficient if the bearing loads are high. For such cases, the modified
splash system is used, where the main and camshaft bearings are lubricated by oil under pressure
pumped by an oil pump. The other engine parts are lubricated by splash system as shown in above
figure.

Full pressure system:-

 An oil pump is used to lubricate all the parts of the engine. Oil is pumped to the main bearing
of the crankshaft and camshaft at pressure between 1.5bar to 4bar. Drilled passages are used to
lubricate connecting rod end bearing.
A gear pump submerged in oil and driven by the camshaft draws the oil from the sump
through a strainer. A pressure relief valve is provided on delivery side to prevent excessive
pressure.

(c) Dry sump lubrication system:-

Oil from the sump is carried to a separate storage tank or supply tank outside the engine
cylinder. The oil from the dry sump pumped through the filter to the storage tank. Oil from the
supply tank is pumped to the engine cylinder through oil cooler. Oil pressure varies from 3bar to
8bar. Dry sump system is generally used for high capacity engine.
From the pump all the oil used for lubrication usually passes through an oil filter before it
reaches engine bearing. The bearings are machined through very high tolerance and are likely to
be damaged if any foreign material is allowed to the lubrication line.
Filter arrangement are of two types, they are full flow type and bypass type.
In full flow type, all the oil is filtered before it is fed to the bearings, as in dry sump lubrication
In bypass flow type, only a small part of oil is passed through the filter and rest is directly
supplied to the bearing, as in wet sump lubrication system
 Solar Energy

Introduction to solar energy

Solar energy is the energy obtained by capturing heat and light from the Sun. Energy from the Sun is
referred to as solar energy. Technology has provided a number of ways to utilize this abundant resource. It
is considered a green technology because it does not emit greenhouse gases. Solar energy is abundantly
available and has been utilized since long both as electricity and as a sourceof heat.

Solar energy can be converted directly into other useful forms by three different process
 Heliochemical process
 Helioelectrical process
 Heliothermal process
Heliochemical process
Photo-synthesis is the main Heliochemical process due to solar energy, which is the source of all fossil
fuels and food generation in plants. The biological conversion of solar energy utilized by plants and
animals called biomass followed by the photosynthesis process results in the productionof starch, cellulose
and oxygen. The energy thus derived is known as biomass energy.
Helioelectrical process
It is the direct production of electrical energy using solar cells. Conversion of solar energy into electrical
energy can be achieved by the photovoltaic effect caused by the solar radiations. Photo-voltaic effect can
be observed in variety of materials but best performance is given by semiconductors (like silicon).
When P-N junction of semiconductor is exposed to sunlight, a voltage around 0.5 volts is built up around
the junction and current depends on the exposed area of cell. By applying external load, current is made to
flow through the conductor, it will continue as long as the free electrons and holes are formed due to solar
radiation.
Heliothermal process:
The heating property of solar radiation is used in the devices to meet the thermal energy needs. It is
necessary to collect and concentrate the solar radiation in an efficient manner to arrive a reasonably high-
temperature heat source. The collectors gather the sun’s energy and direct it ontoreceivers that contain the
working fluid.

Solar radiation:
Solar radiation is radiant energy emitted by the sun from a nuclear fusion reaction that creates
electromagnetic energy. About half of the radiation is in the visible short-wave part of the electromagnetic
spectrum. The other half is mostly in the near-infrared part, with some in the ultraviolet part of the
spectrum.

There are three relevant bands, or ranges, along the solar radiation spectrum are ultraviolet, visible (PAR),
and infrared. Of the light that reaches Earth’s surface, infrared radiation makes up 49.4% of while visible
light provides 42.3%. Ultraviolet radiation makes up just over 8% of the total solarradiation.

The amount and intensity of solar radiation that a location or body of water receives depends on a variety
of factors. These factors include latitude, season, time of day, cloud cover and altitude. Not all radiation
emitted from the sun reaches Earth’s surface. Much of it is absorbed, reflected or
scattered in the atmosphere. At the surface, solar energy can be absorbed directly from the sun, called
direct radiation, or from light that has been scattered as it enters the atmosphere, called indirect radiation

Solar constant:
The sun is a large sphere of very hot gases, the heat being generated by various kinds of fusion reactions.
Its diameter is 1.39 X 106 km while that of earth is 1.27 X 104 km. the mean distance between the two is
1.5 X 108 km. although the sun is large, its subtends angle of only 32 min. at the earth’s surface.

The rate at which solar energy arise at the top of the atmosphere is called the solar constant 𝐼𝑆𝐶 . This is the
amount of energy received in unit time on a unit area perpendicular to the sun’s direction at the mean
distance of the earth from the sun. Approximately 1370 watts per square meter (
𝑊⁄ )
𝑚2
The solar constant value varies up to 3 % throughout the year, because the distance between the sun and
the earth varies little throughout the year. The earth is close set of the sun during the summer and farthest
during the winter.

The luminosity of the Sun is about 3.86 x 1026 watts. This is the total power radiated out into space by the
Sun. Most of this radiation is in the visible and infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum, the sun’s
energy is radiated uniformly in all directions. Because the Sun is about 150 million kilometers from the
Earth, and because the Earth is about 6300 km in radius, only 0.000000045% of this power is intercepted
by our planet. This still amounts to a massive 1.75 x 1017 watts.
Availability of solar energy:
The solar constant is currently estimated at 1367 W/m2 .This number actually varies by 3% because the
orbit of the earth is elliptical, and the distance from the sun varies over the course of the year.

As the solar radiation passes through the atmosphere, it gets absorbed, scattered, reflected, or transmitted.
All these processes result in reduction of the energy flux density. Actually, the solar flux density is
reduced by about 30% compared to extraterrestrial radiation flux on a sunny day and is reduced by as
much as 90% on a cloudy day.

The following main losses should be noted:

 absorbed by particles and molecules in the atmosphere - 10-30%

 reflected and scattered back to space - 2-11%
 scattered to earth (direct radiation becomes diffuse) - 5-26%

As a result, the direct radiation reaching the earth surface (or a device installed on the earth surface) never
exceeds 83% of the original extraterrestrial energy flux.

This radiation that comes directly from the solar disk to earth surface is defined as beam radiation.

The scattered and reflected radiation that is sent to the earth surface from all directions (reflected from
other bodies, molecules, particles, droplets, etc.) is defined as diffuse radiation.

The sum of the beam and diffuse components is defined as total (or global) radiation.
The solar radiation reaching the earth is highly variable and depends on the state of the atmosphere at a
specific locale. Two atmospheric processes can significantly affect the incident irradiation: scattering
and absorption.
Scattering is caused by interaction of the radiation with molecules, water, and dust particles in theair. How
much light is scattered depends on the number of particles in the atmosphere, particle size, and the total
air mass the radiation comes through.

Absorption occurs upon interaction of the radiation with certain molecules, such as ozone (absorption of
short-wave radiation - ultraviolet), water vapor, and carbon dioxide (absorption of long-wave radiation -
infrared).

Due to these processes, out of the whole spectrum of solar radiation, only a small portion reaches the earth
surface. Thus most of x-rays and other short-wave radiation is absorbed by atmosphericcomponents in the
ionosphere, ultraviolet is absorbed by ozone, and not-so abundant long-wave radiation is absorbed by
CO2.

Solar radiation measurement and estimation:

A radiometer absorbs solar radiation at its sensor, transforms it into heat and measures the resulting amount
of heat to ascertain the level of solar radiation.
The instrument used to measure the solar radiation includes both direct solar and diffuse solar radiation.
The instrument which are commonly used for measuring the solar radiation are
⸙ Pyrheliometer : Measures beam radiation intensity as a function of incident angle
⸙ Pyranometer : Measure total solar radiation
Pyrheliometer:
A Pyrheliometer is used to measure direct solar radiation from the sun. To measure direct solar radiation
correctly, its receiving surface must be arranged to be normal to the solar direction. For this reason, the
instrument is usually mounted on a sun-tracking device called an equatorial mount

Device operates on thermocouple effect the instrument consist of two Axis tracking mechanism and
alignment indicator. The tube contains sensor disc at its base and arrangement is made such that the
diffuse radiation is blocked from sensor surface hence device measures only beam radiation.

The Pyrheliometer which are commonly used are

 Angstrom compensation Pyrheliometer
 Abbot silver disc Pyrheliometer
 Eppley Pyrheliometer

Angstrom compensation Pyrheliometer:

This is a reliable instrument used to observe direct solar radiation, This Pyrheliometer has a rectangular
aperture, two manganin-strip sensors (20.0 mm × 2.0 mm ×0.02 mm) and several diaphragms to let only
direct sunlight reach the sensor. The sensor surface is painted optical black and has uniform absorption
characteristics for short-wave radiation. A copper constantan thermocouple is attached to the rear of each
sensor strip, and the thermocouple is connected to a galvanometer. The sensor strips also work as electric
resistors and generate heat when a current flows across them.

When solar irradiance is measured with this type of Pyrheliometer, the small shutter on the front face of
the cylinder shields one sensor strip from sunlight, allowing it to reach only the other sensor. Consist of
thin blackened shaded strip with an electric heating, strip is heated until it reaches same temp as that of
another strip which is exposed to solar radiation.

𝐻𝐷 = 𝐾 𝑖2
Where 𝐻𝐷= direct radiation incident on an area normal to sun.
𝑖 = Heating current in amps.
K= instrument constant.
𝑅
𝐻𝐷 =
𝑊𝖺
Where R= Resistance per unit length of absorbing strip.
W= Mean width of absorbing strip.
α = co-efficient of absorption of absorbing strip.
Pyranometer:
A Pyranometer is used to measure global solar radiation falling on a horizontal surface. Its sensor has a
horizontal radiation-sensing surface that absorbs solar radiation energy from the whole sky and
transforms this energy into heat. Global solar radiation can be ascertained by measuring this heat energy.

Thermoelectric Pyranometer:
The instrument’s radiation-sensing element has basically the same structure as that of a thermoelectric
Pyrheliometer. Another similarity is that the temperature difference derived between the radiation-sensing
element (the hot junction) and the reflecting surface (the cold junction) that serves as a temperature
reference point is expressed by a thermopile as a thermoelectromotive force.

In the case of a Pyranometer, methods of ascertaining the temperature difference are as follows:

 Several pairs of thermocouples are connected in series to make a thermopile that detects
the temperature difference between the black and white radiation-sensing surfaces.
 The temperature difference between two black radiation-sensing surfaces with differing
areas is detected by a thermopile.
 The temperature difference between a radiation-sensing surface painted solid black and a
metallic block with high heat capacity is detected by a thermopile.
 
Solar Geometry:
The Earth’s daily rotation about the axis through its two celestial poles (North and South) is perpendicular
to the equator, but it is not perpendicular to the plane of the Earth’s orbit. In fact, the measure of tilt or
obliquity of the Earth’s axis to a line perpendicular to the plane of its orbit iscurrently about 23.5°.

We call the plane parallel to the Earth’s celestial equator and through the center of the sun the plane of the
Sun. The Earth passes alternately above and below this plane making one complete elliptic cycle every
year.
Declination angle (δ)
Is defined to be that angle made between a ray of the Sun, when extended to the center of the
earth (O) and the equatorial plane.
360
𝛿 = 23.45 sin { (284 + 𝑛)}
365
Where, n = the day of the year
We take δ to be positively oriented whenever the Sun’s rays reach O by passing through the Northern
hemisphere.

On the day of the summer, the sun is above the horizon for the longest period of time in the northern
hemisphere. Hence, it is the longest day for daylight there. Making an angle δ = +23.5° with the
equatorial plane.
On the day of the winter, the smallest portion of the northern hemisphere is exposed to the Sun and the
Sun is above the horizon for the shortest period of time there. In fact, the Sun remains below the horizon
everywhere on this day.
The Sun declination angle ( ) has the range: – 23.5° <  < + 23.5° during its yearly cycle. It varies
continuously in sinusoidal over the year due earth circular orbit.

Elevation Angle:
The elevation angle (used interchangeably with altitude angle) is the angular height of the sun in the sky
measured from the horizontal. Confusingly, both altitude and elevation are also used to describe the
height in meters above sea level. The elevation is 0° at sunrise and 90° when the sun is directly overhead
(which occurs for example at the equator on the spring and fall equinoxes
From the previous figure, a formula for the elevation angle at solar noon can be determined
according to the formula:

α=90+φ-δ

When the equation above gives a number greater than 90° then subtract the result from 180°. Itmeans
the sun at solar noon is coming from the south as is typical the northern hemisphere.

Where:
φ is the latitude of the location of interest (+ve for the northern hemisphere and -ve for the southern
hemisphere).
δ is the declination angle, which depends on the day of the year

Altitude angle: it is the angle in the vertical plane between the sun’s rays and the horizontal
projection of sunrays. It is denoted by α
Latitude:
The latitude of a location on the Earth is the angle between the line joining that location to the center of
the earth and the equatorial plane. Lines of latitude measure north-south position betweenthe poles

For example, Chicago, is on the circle of latitude 41.8° N. All locations at the same latitude experience
the same geometric relationship with the sun.

The great semicircles along the surface of the Earth joining the North to the South poles are called

lines of longitude.

Hour angle ( ):

Angle through which earth must run to bring the meridian of a point directly in line with sun rays.

It is measure the time of the day with respect sun noon (local noon) (i.e. sun is at highest point in the sky).
The hour angle increases by 15 degrees every hour.

At noon = 0

= 15 per hour

It follows that at local noon, the hour angle is zero:  = 0°, Using a 24 hour time scale for the day(0 < t <
24, then t = 12 at local noon, t = 6.5 at five and one-half hours before local noon hours after local noon, t
= 18.25 at six and one-quarter hours after local noon)

We have that at time 𝑡𝑜 , the measure of the hour angle is

𝜔 = 15 × (𝑡𝑜 − 12)𝑜

Zenith angle:
It is the angle between the sun’s rays and a line perpendicular to the horizontal plane at a point of
intersection. It is complimentary angle of sun’s altitude and denoted by 𝜃𝑧

𝜋
𝜃2 = –𝛼
2

𝛼= sun’s altitude angle

Surface azimuth angle:

It is the angle between the normal to tilted surface and south line. It is denoted as ϒ

Solar incident angle:

Represents the angle between sun’s rays and normal (perpendicular) to the collector surface.

Day length:
Day length, or length of day, or length of daytime, is the time each day from the moment the upper limb of
the sun's disk appears above the horizon during sunrise to the moment when the upper limb disappears
below the horizon during sunset.

Local apparent time:

 Time required to be used for calculating the hour angle in below equation is the local solar
time or apparent solar time
  It does not coincide with local clock time
 This solar apparent time is obtain from the standard time observed on a clock by using
correction

Local apparent time= standard time ± (Standard time longitude ± longitude

of location)
+ equation of time correction.

HYDROGEN ENERGY

Introduction to Hydrogen energy

Hydrogen as an energy can play important role as an alternative to conventional fuels. Hydrogen as
highest energy content per unit mass compare to any chemical fuel, often it increases combustion
efficiency.
The combination of Hydrogen with oxygen results in the liberation of energy with water as theonly
product
1
𝐻2 + 𝑂2 → 𝐻2𝑂 + 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
2
Burning process is non-polluting hence it can be utilize to produce both electricity and useful heat.

Properties of Hydrogen energy

 Hydrogen atom has +vely changed Nucleus (proton & neutron) and –vely charged electron.
 Hydrogen has lightest gas in atmospheric condition which as density 1/14th that of air.
 It has highly active element. Hence it is not found Free State in atmosphere.
 However Hydrogen combined chemically with material such has water, fossil
Hydrocarbons
 Standard heating value of hydrogen gas is 12.1𝑀𝑗⁄𝑚3.
 Specific amount of energy of liquid hydrogen is superior compare to gasoline on mass
basis.
 1 gram of Hydrogen occupies about 12 liters
 Hydrogen can be Liquefied at -250oC
 How we use Hydrogen as Fuel
 Hydrogen is Secondary fuel that is produced by utilizing energy from a primary source.
 Hydrogen is ecologically an ideal fuel for transportation purposes. can be used
automobile, aircrafts, it reduces the take-off load considerably.

Possible areas of use of hydrogen in future

 Production of electrolytic hydrogen, for full-load exploitation of nuclear power station.
 Direct addition of hydrogen in Natural gas distribution network.
 Use of hydrogen in the processing of heavy oil.
 Use of hydrogen for manufacturing of synthesis liquid or gaseous fuels.
 Direct use of Hydrogen as a motor vehicle fuel, to reduce air-pollution problems.
 Direct use of Hydrogen as an aircraft fuel in air transport.
 Reduction of iron oxides by means of hydrogen in steel industry.

Use of hydrogen as an energy resources

Use of hydrogen as an energy source involves five basic issues.
1. Production
2. Storage and Transportation
3. Utilization
4. Safety and management
5. Economy

Hydrogen production by electrolysis process

Process of splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen by means of direct current is known as
electrolysis.
Construction
Electrolysis cell consist of two electrode commonly flat metals or Carbon plates. Electrodes immersed in
aqueous conducting solution called electrolyte (e.g. KOH solution). Source of direct current voltage is
connected to electrode so that current can flow through electrolyte from anode (-ve charge) to cathode
(+ve charge).
 Working Principle:
As direct current passes through electrolyte, the water in electrolyte solution decomposes into Hydrogen
gas (𝐻2) which is released at cathode (+ve).Oxygen Gas (𝑂2) released at anode. Here electrolyte required
KOH solution bcz water poor conductor of electricity.

Chemical reaction takes place during electrolysis

𝐻2𝑂 + 2𝑒− →→→→ 𝑂2− + 𝐻2(𝑔)

1
𝑂2− →→→→ 𝑂 (𝑔) + 2𝑒−
2 2
1
𝐻 𝑂 →→→→ 𝐻 (𝑔) + 𝑂 (𝑔)
2 2 2 2

Ideally, a voltage 1.23 -2 volts should be sufficient for the electrolysis of water at Normal

Atmospheric conditions. Since the rate of hydrogen production is proportional to current strength.
Theoretically 2.8kW-hr electric energy should produce 1 𝑚3 of hydrogen gas. However actual electrical
energy requirement is about 3.9 to 4.6 kW-hr per 𝑚3. Hence electrolysis efficiency to produce hydrogen
is about 60 to 70%.

Production of hydrogen by Thermo-chemical Methods

Sequential chemical reaction can be devised in which hydrogen and oxygen is produced, Water is
consumed and other all other chemical intermediately recycled. Energy supplied as heat to one or more
chemical reaction stages. Maximum temperature in a thermo-chemical cycle is about 950C. heat energy
should be convertible into hydrogen energy with 50% efficiency.

Presently No commercial process for thermal splitting of water into hydrogen and oxygen is in operation.
Several scientist processed multistep reaction to produce Hydrogen.
Example of reaction sequences to produce hydrogen.
This reaction sequences, only water split, all other material are completely
recycled.
Page 52