Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Contents
Systems
Power Distribution
System Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-2
Basic Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-2
Trends in Systems Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-2
Goals of System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-3
Designing a Distribution System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-6
Development of a System One-Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-6
Importance of the System One-Line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-7
Standardized Drawing Symbols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-10
Additional Drawings, Schedules and Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-20
Power System Voltages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-21
Voltage Classifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-22
Incoming Service Voltage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-22
Incoming Service Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-23
Utilization Voltage Selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-24
Types of Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-27
Types of Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-27
Power System Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-38
Systems Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-38
Short-Circuit Currents—General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-38
Fault Current Waveform Relationships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-40
Fault Current Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-41
Fault Current Calculations for Specific Equipment—Exact Method . . . . . 1.1-42
Application Quick Check Table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-45
Medium-Voltage Fuses—Fault Calculations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-48
Low-Voltage Power Circuit Breakers—Fault Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-49
Molded-Case Breakers and Insulated Case Circuit Breakers—
Fault Calculations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-50
Low-Voltage Circuit Breaker Interrupting Derating Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-50
Short-Circuit Calculations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-51
Determining X and R Values from Transformer Loss Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-54
Voltage Drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-57
System Protection Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-59
Overcurrent Protection and Coordination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-59
Grounding/Ground Fault Protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-64
Grounding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-64
Typical Components of a Power System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-76
Typical Power System Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-76
Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-79
Generators and Generator Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-88
Generator Short-Circuit Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-91
Generator Set Sizing and Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-95
Generator Set Installation and Site Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-96
Capacitors and Power Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-97
Motor Power Factor Correction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-98
Typical Application by Facility Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-100
Healthcare Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-100
Quick Connect Generator and Load Bank Capabilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-106
Power Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-107
Power Quality Terms Technical Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-107
Other Application Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-120
Seismic Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-120
Reference Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-131
Codes and Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-131
Suggested IEEE Designations for Suffix Letters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-136
Ampacities for Conductors Rated 0–2000 V
(Excerpted from NFPA 70-2014, 310.15) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-142
Power Distribution Systems Design Guide SA081002EN
Effective February 2019
System Design 1.1-2
Basic Principles Trends in Systems Design The growing impact of adverse weather
conditions such as hurricanes and
The best distribution system is one that There are many new factors to consider in flooding is now driving incoming service
will, cost-effectively and safely, supply the design of power distribution systems. and distribution equipment rooms to
adequate electric service to both present be located out of basements and other
and future probable loads—this section Federal and state legislation has been low lying areas. Regions prone to these
is intended to aid in selecting, designing introduced to reduce the output of carbon storms often experience downed utility
and installing such a system. emissions into the environment; the power lines and/or flooded manholes,
intent being the reduction of their impact resulting in a loss of power to thousands
The function of the electric power on climate change. In order to address the of customers. In order to quickly return
distribution system in a building or an subsequent need for clean power, there power to these facilities, additional
installation site is to receive power at has been an accelerating trend toward on-site backup generation is being
one or more supply points and to deliver the incorporation of solar and other included in both new designs and as
it to the lighting loads, motors and all sustainable energy sources into existing upgrades to existing sites.
other electrically operated devices. The and new building designs. Energy storage
importance of the distribution system systems (ESS) are now making renewable This trend for resiliency is increasing
to the function of a building makes it energy a more viable option by helping among grocery stores, large chain stores
imperative that the best system be to stabilize power output during transient and other distribution facilities requiring
designed and installed. dips or interruptions to power production. refrigeration to keep products from
spoiling as well as large multifamily
In order to design the best distribution Utility deregulation has also provided dwelling complexes in low lying flood
system, the system design engineer financial incentives for building owners plain areas.
must have information concerning the and facility managers to participate in
loads and a knowledge of the types of peak demand load shaving programs. Building costs continue to rise and
distribution systems that are applicable. These programs are intended to reduce rentable or usable space is now at a
The various categories of buildings have load on the utility grid in response to a premium. To solve both problems, many
many specific design challenges, but 1 hour or 1 day ahead signal from the design and construction firms are looking
certain basic principles are common to utility. The users shedding or cycling of at off-site prefabrication of key elements.
all. Such principles, if followed, will nonessential loads is generally initiated Forest City Ratner’s 32-story residential
provide a soundly executed design. by a building management system (BMS) complex adjacent to Barclay’s Arena in
in conjunction with power monitoring Brooklyn, NY, advanced the modular
The basic principles or factors requiring and lighting control equipment. To concept with individual building sections
consideration during design of the power ensure uninterrupted operation of key constructed at a factory off-site and
distribution system include: customer loads, incorporation of other erected by crane into place. Resiliency
■■ Functions of structure, present types of distributed generation such as from storms and floods involving the
and future fuel cells and diesel or natural gas fired relocation of electrical equipment out
reciprocating generator sets may be of flood prone areas is costly, time
■■ Life and flexibility of structure
desired or required. consuming and takes up precious floor
■■ Locations of service entrance and space in a building. Electro Centers or
distribution equipment, locations and Hospital complexes and college campuses Integrated Power Assemblies (IPA) can
characteristics of loads, locations of are increasingly adopting the design of be fitted out with a variety of electrical
unit substations central utilities plants (CUPs). In lieu of a distribution equipment and shipped to
separate boiler plant, cogeneration is used the site in preassembled modules for
■■ Demand and diversity factors of loads
to produce electricity and the wasted heat mounting on elevated foundation piles,
■■ Sources of power; including normal, from the combustion process is recaptured building setbacks or rooftops.
standby and emergency to provide hot water for the campus.
■■ Continuity and quality of power Large cogeneration plants (3 MW and Finally, the need to have qualified
available and required above) often include large turbines or building electrical operators,
reciprocating engines as their prime maintenance departments and facility
■■ Energy efficiency and management
movers for the generators.To enhance engineers has collided with growing
■■ Distribution and utilization voltages service continuity, these generators use a expectations for improved productivity
■■ Busway and/or cable feeders continuous source of natural gas as their and reduced overall operating costs. The
fuel supply. Cogen plants generally have increasing proliferation of smart devices
■■ Distribution equipment and
higher power conversion efficiencies and and enhanced connectivity with power
motor control
produce lower carbon emissions. distribution equipment has expanded
■■ Power and lighting panelboards facility owner’s options. These capabilities
and motor control centers allow for automated communication of
■■ Types of lighting systems vital power system information including
■■ Installation methods energy data, equipment wellness and
predictive diagnostics, and electrical
■■ Power monitoring systems equipment control.
■■ Electric utility requirements
EATON www.eaton.com
Power Distribution Systems Design Guide SA081002EN
Effective February 2019
System Design 1.1-3
The future “Internet of Things” promises Additionally, Article 240.87 offers a OSHA has qualified a number of
to add millions of more sensors and number of prescriptive alternative Nationally Recognized Testing
other devices to collect operational methods for arc flash energy Laboratories (NRTL) to demonstrate
data and send it through the Internet reduction; one of which must be and certify “product conformance to
to “cloud-based” computing services. provided, for speeding up the clearing the applicable product safety test
There, information from multiple time of a circuit breaker that can be set standards.” Among the oldest and
devices can be analyzed and actions to trip at 1200 A or above. Eaton’s most respected of these electrical
can be taken to optimize performance Arcflash Reduction Maintenance product testing organizations is
and reduce downtime. SystemE is available in various Underwriters Laboratories (UL),
electronic trip units for molded-case which was founded in 1894.
Various sections of this guide cover and power circuit breakers to improve
the application and selection of such clearing time and reduce the incident It is the responsibility of the design
systems and components that may be energy level. engineer to be familiar with the NFPA
incorporated into the power equipment and NEC code requirements as well
being designed. The National Electrical CodeT (NECT), as the customer’s facility, process
NFPAT 70 and NFPA 70E, as well and operating procedures in order
as local electrical codes, provide to design a system that protects
Goals of System Design minimum standards and requirements personnel from live electrical
When considering the design of an in the area of wiring design and conductors and uses adequate circuit
electrical distribution system for a given protection, wiring methods and protective devices that will selectively
customer and facility, the electrical materials, as well as equipment for isolate overloaded or faulted circuits
engineer must consider alternate design general use with the overall goal of or equipment as quickly as possible.
approaches that best fit the following providing safe electrical distribution
systems and equipment. In addition to NFPA and NEC
overall goals.
guidelines, the design professional
1. Safety: The No. 1 goal is to design The NEC also covers minimum must also consider International
a power system that will not present requirements for special occupancies Building Code (IBC) and local
any electrical hazard to the people who including hazardous locations and municipality, state and federal
use the facility, and/or the utilization special use type facilities such as requirements. The United States
equipment fed from the electrical healthcare facilities, places of Department of Energy, for example,
system. It is also important to design assembly, theaters and the like, as mandates minimum efficiencies for
a system that is inherently safe for well as the equipment and systems transformers and other equipment.
the people who are responsible for located in these facilities. Special
equipment and special conditions Many of these regulatory codes
electrical equipment maintenance
such as emergency systems, standby reference ANSI/ASHRAE/IES Standard
and upkeep.
systems and communication systems 90.1-2013 “Energy Standard for
The Occupational Safety and Health are also covered in the code. Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential
Administration (OSHA) is a federal Buildings”. Section 8.1 covers power
agency whose “mission is to assure 2. Regulatory Requirements: Over the and includes receptacle load control.
safe and healthful workplaces by course of the past century, electrical Subsection 8.4.3 is titled Electrical
setting and enforcing standards, and product safety and performance Energy Monitoring and covers
by providing training, outreach, standards have been developed in metering and monitoring systems that
education and assistance.” OSHA’s cooperation between various notify building tenants and engineers
electrical requirements are covered agencies such as: American National of the increased use of electric power.
under several categories, the broadest Standards Institute (ANSI) as well as Section 9.1 covers lighting and lighting
being 1910 Subpart 10 Electrical industry groups such as the Institute control system requirements.
including references to the National of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE) and the National Electrical Other building standards organiza
Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) 70
Manufacturers Association (NEMA). tions that offer certifications, such
and 70E.
These are often referenced together as the U.S. Green Building Council’s
To address the concerns for personnel with specific test standards developed LEED Accreditation, require measure
safety from arc flash hazards, the 2014 in conjunction with Underwriters ment and verification that actual
Edition of the NEC as well as the 2015 Laboratories (UL). As an example, energy and water use meet initial
Edition of NFPA 70E have enhanced the low-voltage switchgear falls under building design criteria. The U.S.
requirements for personnel protection ANSI C37.20.1 and is tested in Green Building Council has teamed
when working on or near live equip compliance with UL 1558. with ANSI and ASHRAE to produce
ment.The 2014 NEC introduces new ANSI/ASHRAE/USGBC/IES Standard
arc flash labeling requirements. The 2014 National Electrical Code 189.1-2014 titled, “Standard for the
(NEC) Article 110.2 states that: “The Design of High-Performance Green
conductors and equipment required Buildings Except Low Rise Buildings”.
or permitted by this Code shall be
acceptable only if approved.” The
informational note references the
definitions in Article 100 for Approved,
Identified, Labeled and Listed.
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Power Distribution Systems Design Guide SA081002EN
Effective February 2019
System Design 1.1-4
Finally, utility incoming service Typically, service continuity and Power monitoring communication
standards for customer interconnects reliability can be increased by: systems connected to electronic
are key elements in the selection of metering can provide the trending
both the incoming service voltage and a. Supplying multiple utility power and historical data necessary to
the protection required for this sources or services. ensure future capacity for growth.
equipment. Knowledge of these b. Supplying multiple connection
standards is particularly important paths to the loads served. 6. Maximum Electrical Efficiency
when incorporating renewable energy (Minimum Operating Costs): Electrical
c. Using short-time rated power efficiency can generally be maximized
or distributed generation resources circuit breakers.
into a design. a by designing systems that minimize
d. Providing alternate customer- the losses in conductors, transformers
a Contact Eaton’s local application engineer for owned power sources such as and utilization equipment. Proper
assistance with design compliance. generators or batteries supplying voltage level selection plays a key
3. Minimum Initial Investment: Energy Storage Systems or factor in this area and will be
The owner’s overall budget for first uninterruptable power supplies. discussed later.
cost purchase and installation of the e. Selecting the highest quality Selecting equipment, such as
electrical distribution system and electrical equipment and transformers, with lower operating
electrical utilization equipment will conductors. losses, generally means higher
be a key factor in determining which f. Using the best installation first cost and increased floor space
of various alternate system designs methods, including proper requirements. Thus there is a balance
are to be selected. When trying to system grounding design. to be considered between the owner’s
minimize initial investment for long-term utility cost for the losses in
electrical equipment, consideration g. Designing appropriate system
alarms, monitoring and the transformer or other equipment
should be given to the total cost of versus the initial budget and cost
the installation. This includes reducing diagnostics.
of money.
on-site assembly time and cost by h. Selecting preventative mainte
prefabricating various electrical nance systems or equipment to 7. Minimum Maintenance Cost:
components into a single deliverable alarm before an outage occurs. Usually the simpler the electrical
system and reducing floor space and 5. Maximum Flexibility and system design and the simpler the
possible extra cooling requirements. Expandability: In many industrial electrical equipment, the lower
manufacturing plants, electrical the associated maintenance costs
4. Maximum Service Continuity: and operator errors. As electrical
The degree of service continuity and utilization loads are periodically
relocated or changed requiring systems and equipment become
reliability needed will vary depending more complicated to provide greater
on the type and use of the facility as changes in the electrical distribution
system. Consideration of the layout service continuity or flexibility, the
well as the loads or processes being maintenance costs and chance for
supplied by the electrical distribution and design of the electrical distribution
system to accommodate these operator error increases.
system. For example, for a smaller
commercial office building, a power changes must be considered. For When designing complex systems, the
outage of considerable time, say example, providing many smaller engineer should consider adding an
several hours, may be acceptable, transformers or loadcenters associated alternate power circuit to take electrical
whereas in a larger commercial with a given area or specific groups equipment (requiring periodic
building or industrial plant only a few of machinery may lend more flexibility maintenance) out of service without
minutes may be acceptable. In other for future changes than one large dropping essential loads. Use of
facilities such as hospitals, many transformer; the use of plug-in drawout type protective devices such
critical loads permit a maximum of busways to feed selected equipment in as breakers and combination starters
10 seconds outage and certain loads lieu of conduit and wire may facilitate can also minimize maintenance cost
cannot tolerate a loss of power for future revised equipment layouts. and out-of-service time. Utilizing
even a few cycles. In addition, consideration must be sealed equipment in lieu of ventilated
given to future building expansion, equipment may minimize maintenance
and/or increased load requirements costs and out-of-service time as well.
due to added utilization equipment
when designing the electrical
distribution system. In many cases
considering transformers with
increased capacity or fan cooling to
serve unexpected loads as well as
including spare additional protective
devices and/or provision for future
addition of these devices may be
desirable. Also to be considered
is increasing appropriate circuit
capacities to assure future capacity
for growth.
EATON www.eaton.com
Power Distribution Systems Design Guide SA081002EN
Effective February 2019
System Design 1.1-5
8. Maximum Power Quality: The power Summary This revision of this Design Guide
input requirements of all utilization It is to be expected that the engineer will includes updates based on changes to the
equipment has to be considered, never have complete load information 2014 National Electrical Code (NEC), 2015
including the acceptable operating available when the system is designed. NFPA 99 and other pertinent ANSI/IEEE
range of the equipment. Consequently, The engineer will have to expand the Standards. It also includes a significant
the electrical distribution system has information made available to him or revision in the flow of the material
to be designed to meet these needs. her on the basis of experience with presented. Additional new information
For example, what is the required similar projects. has been added to the document in
input voltage, current, power factor recognition that users will be at differing
requirement? Consideration to Of course, it is desirable that the engineer levels of experience. For those engineers
whether the loads are affected by has as much definite information as either beginning their careers or early
harmonics (multiples of the basic 60 Hz possible concerning the function, into them, guidance is provided for the
sine wave) or generate harmonics requirements, and characteristics of design and development of Power
must be taken into account as well as the utilization devices. Systems One-Line Diagrams.
transient voltage phenomena.
The engineer should know whether An expanded section on voltage
The above goals are interrelated and in certain loads function separately or selection, including both service and
some ways contradictory. As more together as a unit, the magnitude of the utilization voltages, has been added. This
redundancy is added to the electrical demand of the loads viewed separately narrative discusses considerations for
system design along with the best quality and as units, the rated voltage and utility metering at medium and low
equipment to maximize service continuity, frequency of the devices, their physical voltages. However, the description of
flexibility and expandability, and power location with respect to each other types of systems and the diagrams used
quality, the more initial investment and and with respect to the source and to explain the types of systems on the
maintenance are increased.Thus, the the probability and possibility of the following pages omit the location of
designer must weigh each factor based on relocation of load devices and addition utility revenue metering equipment for
the type of facility, the loads to be served, of loads in the future. clarity. Further pages address short-circuit
the owner’s past experience and criteria. calculations, coordination, overcurrent
Coupled with this information, a protection, voltage drop, ground fault
knowledge of the major types of electric protection, motor protection and
power distribution systems equips the application considerations for typical
engineers to arrive at the best system equipment utilized in a power system.
design for the particular building.
It is beyond the scope of this guide to
present a detailed discussion of loads that
might be found in each of several types of
buildings. Assuming that the design
engineer has assembled the necessary
load data, the following pages discuss
some of the various types of electrical
distribution systems that can be used.
EATON www.eaton.com
Power Distribution Systems Design Guide SA081002EN
Effective February 2019
Designing a Distribution System 1.1-6
EATON www.eaton.com
Power Distribution Systems Design Guide SA081002EN
Effective February 2019
Designing a Distribution System 1.1-7
EATON www.eaton.com
Power Distribution Systems Design Guide SA081002EN
Effective February 2019
Designing a Distribution System 1.1-8
UTILITY FEEDER #1 UTILITY FROM PSG-2A (SEE DWG E102) BUSWAY RISER
13.8 kV, 3Ø, + GND 60Hz METERING 4.16 kV, 3Ø, 60Hz (SEE DWG E106)
M
SPLICE IN PROPERTY LINE MANHOLE M1 4 6
M1-00 RBP-F3A T5-RBP-F3A PXM6000
N.O. (3)
(3) SINGLE PHASE POTHEADS (1/Ø) P=208A S=1804A METER
USG-1A "POINT A" 11.65KA SCA
M. H A PT'S
13.8kV, 1200A, AVAILABLE FROM UTILITY 8 AL 480V:120V
(4) GROUND STUDS (3-Ø, 1-GND) 250KA
50 kA SYM S.C. LO 300E /Ø.SPD
(2) UTILITY PT's MAIN CB
(15kV - 95KV BIL RATED)
(6) LIVE LINE INDICATORS (2/Ø) 14,400:120V 10A "RBS-F3A"
N.C.
E.O.
M. H P 2000 AF
7 1500kVA 1800 AT
LO F3D 4.16kV-480/277V LSG
TRIP M1 5.75% Z (3) 2000:5
TRIP S1 UTILITY
(3) PT'S CT's (2)
500:5 RHBP-F3A T4-RHBP-F3A
14,400:120V N.O. P=104A S=2082A
120:1 M. H A
(3) (3) 6 AL
27 59
TS RESIDENCE
M1 M1 VFI-3A
(3) (3) HALL B
SB 600A
(3) 800:5 (SEE DWG E105)
N.C.
STD (C100) M. H P
750kVA FR3 VFI PADMOUNT
5
SELECTOR SWITCH 55/65C 5.75% Z
EDR-5000-M1 1 TRIP M1 W/SURGE+LIGHTNING 4.16kV-60KV BIL
G R A TRIP S1 ARRESTERS 208/120V-20KV BIL
52-M1
M1A LO
1200A N.C. 52
(1) (3) (1) C/S
M1-L DFP-F3A T3-DFP-F3A
(1) N.O. P=139A S=1203A
50/51N 50/51 86 TRIP M1
86 M. H A
M1 M1 M1 TRIP S1 4 AL
T1
LO 200E DINING
TS SB
(3) 800:5 TS FACILITY
STD (C100) (SEE DWG E104)
(1) (3) N.C.
M. H P
51G 87 1000kVA
PXM6000 3
(3) 600:5 MR T1 T1 LO F3B 4.16kV-480/277V
METER
Set at 350:5 ETR-5000-T1 5.75% Z
(4) GROUND STUDS
TS TS TS
(3-Ø, 1-GND)
RHAP-F3A T2-RHAP-F3A
N.O. P=104A S=2082A
TRANSFORMER "T1" M. H A
2 AL
PRIMARY UNIT SUBSTATION STYLE M1-00
(1) "POINT C" F3A - RESIDENCE
13.8KV DELTA PRIMARY - 95KV BIL H2 63 VFI-2A
P/FA=479A 11.32KA SCA HALL A
4.16/2.4KV GROUNDED WYE - 60KV BIL T1 600A
WITHOUT MOTOR (SEE DWG E103)
EATON "PEAK" 55C/65C/75C H1 H3 71 49 P
N.C.
CU SCA & CABLE Z TO M. H 750kVA FR3 VFI PADMOUNT
7500/8400/9156 KVA KNAN X3 T1 T1 1 "POINT D" - 40,400 SCA
X0 T1 & T2-RHAP SELECTOR SWITCH 55/65C 5.75% Z
9375/10500/11445 KVA KNAF X1 W/SURGE+LIGHTNING 4.16kV-60KV BIL WITH UNLIMITED PRIMARY SCA
FR-3 FLUID FILLED, 6.5% MINIMUM Z
S/FA=1589A (1) (1)
X2 ARRESTERS 208/120V-20KV BIL & 50% MOTOR CONTRIBUTION
WITH SURGE + LIGHTNING ARRESTERS (1) 600:5 SEE XFMR TABLE 1.6-7 FOR
2000A BUSWAY M1-03
HI (C200) T2 ESTIMATING PURPOSES.
PSG-1A (4) GROUND STUDS "POINT B" T1 - 11.32KA (4) GROUND STUDS
CHILLER #1
(3-Ø, 1-GND) SCA WITHOUT MOTOR SCA, (3-Ø, 1-GND)
"BUS A" 4.16KV, CUP
2000A, 60KV BIL, SB CABLE % Z TO T1 & SB
(3) 2000:5 (3) 2000:5 (SEE DWG E107)
40KA SC RATED BUSWAY % Z
STD (C200) STD (C200)
M
EDR 1 (3) 600:5 MR
3000-S1 G R A PXM6000 Set at 600:5 M1-04
52-S1 EDR
(3) (1) LO METER
2000A N.C.
S1A 3000-F3
TRIP S1 52
51 86 C/S (1)
TRIP F1 TRIP S1 S1-L VFD-F2A
TRIP F2 S1 S1 50/51N
F3 G R A
TRIP F3 52-F3
TS SB F3A LO N.C.
(3) 2000:5 1200 52
TS 50/51 86 C/S DRAW-OUT
STD (C200) TRIP F3 F3-L
(1) F3 F3 DC TO AC
EBR
86 87 (3) (1) INVERTER
3000 (3) 2000:5 (3) 600:5
B1 B1 -B1 STD (C200) STD (C100)
(3) SB TS SB
TS AC TO DC
CONVERTER
TS SB TS SB
(3) 600:5 (3) 600:5 INTEGRAL
STD (C100) STD (C100) 24 PULSE
(3) (3)
XFMR
50/51 50/51
F1 G R A F2 G R A
(1) 52-F1 (1) 52-F2
LO LO
1200A N.C. 1200 N.C.
F1A F2A
52 (3) PT'S 52 CONTACTOR
50/51N 86 C/S 50/51N 86 C/S
TRIP F1 F1-L 4200V: TRIP F2 F2-L
F1 F1 F2 F2
120V
(1) 35:1 (1)
EDR EDR
3000-F1 (3) 600:5 MR 3000-F2 (3) 600:5 MR
(3) 400A
Set at 400:5 Set at 300:5
PXM6000 PXM6000
METER METER ISOLATION
(3) 2000:5 (3) 2000:5 E SWITCH
SB STD (C200) STD (C200)
SB
(4) GROUND STUDS (4) GROUND STUDS SC9000EP
(3-Ø, 1-GND) (3-Ø, 1-GND) MV-VFD
M1-02
M1-02
EATON www.eaton.com
Power Distribution Systems Design Guide SA081002EN
Effective February 2019
Designing a Distribution System 1.1-9
ENGINE
DIESEL
Open. S1 Cannot Close Until M1 is Closed. Include Key Interlocks as Shown.
N.O. CUP-F1A Provide MB-F1A Key Interlock With Generator Breaker "GB" and Tie Breaker
2
M. H A "LTA". Only the Single "MGTA" Key Can be Used to Close Any of these Breakers.
10
LO Provide Priority Load Shed Controls for Feeder Breakers in SUS-F1A Switchgear.
3
G Provide Interface With Generator Breaker "GB" to Enable Operation When Non-
N.C. Priority Loads have Been Shed.
M. H P FDR (SEE DWG E108)
9 "G" Provide All Magnum Breakers in SUS-F1A & RBS-F3A Switchgear With DT1150+
LO F1A 4 4000A BUSWAY TO
CLE 2000AF Trip Units Including Zone Selective Interlocking (ZSI) and Arc Flash Reduction
2000AT TIE CB "LTB" IN
600A Maintenance System (ARMS) in Compliance with Article 240.87 of the 2014 NEC.
PORTABLE "SUS-F1B"
LOAD BANK Provide Remote Touchscreen Panel With "Switchgear Dashboard Interface" to
P FA=461A 5 Monitor Operational Variables and Enable Arc Flash Reduction Maintenance Mode.
XFMR "ST-F1A"
CU 2500/3333kVA Wire All DT1150+ Trip Units Communications Ports to an Ethernet Gateway With
TOUCH 6
115C AA/FA 5 BACnet IP Connectivity. BMS Vendor Will Provide Field Wiring and Integrate Into
SCREEN
4.16KV-480/277V BMS System on a Separate Contract.
S FA=4000A Z=5.75%
2 3 2
MAIN CB TIE CB
MGTA (3) PT'S "GB" SECONDARY UNIT SUBSTATION "SUS-F1A"
"MB-F1A" 480V: EG BACNET IP "LTA"
LO E.O. 4000 AF 120V TO BMS LO E.O. 2000AF LO E.O. 4000 AF
4000 AT 2000AT 4000 AT
N.C. PXM6000 TO DT1150 N.O. LSG N.O.
LSG LSG
METER ETHERNET TRIP UNITS "DF5A"
01B (3) 4000:5 GATEWAY MAIN SWGR. BUS "A" 85KA, 480/277V, 4000A, 3-PH, 4W
01D 02A 02B 02C 02D 03A 03B 03C 03D 04A 04B 04C 04D
"DF1A" "DF2A" "DF3A" "DF4A" "DF6A" "DF7A" "DF8A" "DF9A" "DF1OA" "DF11A" "DF12A"
250KA/Ø E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 1600AF E.O. 1600AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 1600AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF
SPD 600 AT 600 AT 1600 AT 1600 AT 800 AT 400 AT 600 AT 1600 AT 400 AT 500 AT 500 AT
LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG
SPARE SPARE SPARE SPARE
(SEE DWG E109)
FROM GEN A
NORMAL ATS-A GENERATOR
SOURCE SOURCE
BYPASS ATC-900
1600AF DSB-DF4A SEE SCHEDULE DSB-DF4A ISOLATION TRANSFER
1600AT 480V, 1600A, ATS CONTROL
FOR LOADS PP-DF6A 480V, 600A,
3Ø, 4W, 65 KAIC
120KA/Ø 800AF 3Ø, 3W, 65 KAIC
SPD 800AT
MAINTENANCE
225AF 400AF 800AF 600AF 400AF 225AF 400AF 480/277V, 800A, ISOLATION
175AT 250AT 800AT 600AT 250AT 200AT 250AT 3Ø, 4W, 65 KAIC BYPASS
MBP BIB RIB
SPARE SPACE 2X
SEE SCHEDULE PP-DF6A UPS1
FOR LOADS 300KVA
400A 150A 150A 150A 150A 400A 400A 150A 150A 150A 150A 150A 150A
FR10 SIZE4 SIZE4 SIZE4 SIZE4 SIZE5 SIZE5 SIZE4 SIZE4 SIZE4 SIZE4 SIZE4 SIZE4
261A FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR MIS
DC-DS-A
3R 3R 3R 3R
6 POLE 6 POLE 6 POLE 6 POLE
200 75 75 75 75 150 150 75 75 75 75 75 75
BAT-A
NCHWP-1 CWP-1 CWP-2 CWP-3 CWP-4 CHWP-1 CHWP-2 CT-1 CT-2 CT-3 CT-4 SA-1 EF-1
240FLA 96FLA 96FLA 96FLA 96FLA 180FLA 180FLA 96FLA 96FLA 96FLA 96FLA 96FLA 96FLA
PDU-1
480V-3Ø 600AF 120KA/Ø
600AF 400AF IFS-DF7A 3W,65kA 500AT
150A SPD
600AT DSB-DF2A 400AT
P=361A
120KA/Ø 480V, 600A, XFMR-DF8A P=361A
SPD 3Ø, 3W, 65 KAIC XFMR-DF7A P=90A 300KVA XFMR-UPS1
225A 75KVA 480-208/120V 300KVA
480- 480-208/120V
S=833A
208/120V S=208A
150AF 150AF 150AF 150AF 150AF 150AF 150AF S=833A 208/120V, 3Ø, 4W
"DF7AP"
40AT 15AT 90AT 100AT 90AT 100AT 100AT RP-DF8A
480/277V 225A
SPARE SPACE 2X 3Ø, 4W, 65KA 225A
1200AF 400AF 400AF
POW-R-COMMAND 1000AT 400AT 400AT
LIGHTING CONTROL 208/120V, 225A,
3Ø, 4W, 10 KAIC
POW-R-COMMAND 208/120V, 1200A, CDP-A CDP-B
10 2 4X 4X 3Ø, 4W, 65 KAIC 42 Circuit 42 Circuit
RECEPTACLE CONTROL
GYCOL FUEL HVAC HEAT COMFORT HEAT
PUMP PUMP AHU-1,2,3,4 REJ. COOLING REJ.
GCP-1 FOP-1 UNITS CH-1 UNITS SEE SCHEDULE IFS-DF7AP & DF7AS SEE SCHEDULE RP-DF8A SEE SCHEDULE PDU-1
HRU-1,2,3,4 HRU-5-9 FOR NORMAL & CONTROLLED LOADS FOR LOADS FOR CRITICAL LOADS
EATON www.eaton.com
Power Distribution Systems Design Guide SA081002EN
Effective February 2019
Designing a Distribution System 1.1-10
EATON www.eaton.com
Power Distribution Systems Design Guide SA081002EN
Effective February 2019
Designing a Distribution System 1.1-11
current flowing through the conductor Figure 1.1-6. Current Transformer Symbols (3) 120:1 (3) 13.8 kV, 1200 A, 50 kA SYM S.C.
(15 kV - 95 KV BIL RATED)
they surround induces a proportional In the case of Differential Protection (3) 800:5
SB
isolated low level signal (either 1 A or Circuits such as the 87-T1 Transformer
STD (C100)
The dots, X’s or boxes are used to denote current flowing out of it. When more
(4) GROUND STUDS
(3-Ø, 1-GND)
TS TS TS
P/FA=479 A
63
(1)
conductor generally face toward the out, the relay senses the “differential” H3 CU 71
T1
49
source of the current flow. The polarity and trips the circuit breakers at high 1
X0
X3 T1 T1
orientation for donut style CTs. quantity “(3)” next to the CTs. This STD (C200)
TS SB
one-line on Page 1.1-8 are shown (3) 2000:5
STD (C200)
EATON www.eaton.com
Power Distribution Systems Design Guide SA081002EN
Effective February 2019
Designing a Distribution System 1.1-12
It is highly recommended that the design Standard for Device Function Numbers,
engineer show Test Switches on the Acronyms and Contact Designations.
System One-Line and include them in the
specifications. These are shown on the See Table 1.1-56 in Power Distribution
one-line as a box with “TS” in it. Test Systems Reference Data Section of this
switches are used during protective relay document for Device Function Number
testing to provide an alternate path to
(3) PT’S
4200 V: information.
120 V
inject current and voltage from a test set, 35:1
These element numbers are shown in
when commissioning these devices in a circle on the One-Line. A given relay
the field. may have multiple voltage and current
When designing a power system, it is elements shown in a common box, such
necessary to select the ratio and the Figure 1.1-8. Voltage Transformer Symbol as the EDR 5000-M1 protecting the 52-M1
accuracy class for the CT’s. For protective breaker in Figure 1.1-9.
relaying, the CT must be sized to ensure The secondary output of both voltage and
current transformers are measured by The numbers in parenthesis define the
they do not saturate under fault quantity of each specific element. In many
conditions. This may result in a higher protective relays and used in calculations
involving preset thresholds. cases this quantity is (3); one for each of
accuracy class with more physical mass the three phases. In some cases, such as
or a higher CT ratio being specified. Voltage monitoring elements of protective the 50/51N function, this is shown as a
Most of the CTs shown on Figure 1.1-7 relays compare the input from the VTs quantity of (1). The symbol to the right of
are Standard Accuracy Class for the against a desired set-point to see if the this relay represents a transition from (3)
ratios selected. The exception is the single system voltage is over or under that individual phase elements to a single
600:5 CT in transformer T1’s Neutral to nominal value. If the value exceeds a residual neutral protective element.
Ground Connection. This is shown as a plus or minus tolerance band around the
high accuracy CT. set-point, an output contact or contacts in The output of each protective function
the relay change state to signal an alarm is shown with a dashed line and arrow
When selecting CTs for metering indicating what action is to be taken if
purposes, such as those connected to the or trip the circuit breaker open.
the relay determines the monitored
Eaton PXM-6000 Power Quality Meter Microprocessor-based relays offer values exceed the preset thresholds.
(see Tab 3 for details) it is best to use the tremendous functionality over the The EDR-5000-M1 Relay’s 50/51 Elements
CT ratio as close to the actual load as older electromechanical and solid-state (Instantaneous Overcurrent and Time
possible. This is done to increase the predecessors. Many of these devices Overcurrent respectively) are shown
accuracy at the low end of the range offer multiple types of voltage and tripping a high-speed 86-M1 Lockout
because the CT’s excitation begins to current protective elements. Relay. The elements of the ETR-5000-T1
deteriorate at about 10% of its ratio Transformer Differential Relay are
setting. As an example, a 600:5A fixed Protective relay elements are generally shown similarly, also tripping an 86-T1
ratio CT would begin to lose accuracy denoted by a number or characters as lockout relay.
at 60 A. defined in the ANSI/IEEE C37.2
Where loads are light, during
construction or during early build out
“POINT A” 11.65 KA SCA
stages, the actual current that must be USG-1A (3) SINGLE PHASE POTHEADS (1/Ø)
AVAILABLE FROM UTILITY
measured by the meter may be only (4) GROUND STUDS (3-Ø, 1-GND)
(2) UTILITY PT’s
100 A. Multi-ratio CTs are frequently used (6) LIVE LINE INDICATORS (2/Ø) 14,400:120 V 10 A
to set the maximum ratio lower. If set at
100:5A, this would improve accuracy
down to 10 A for a 100 A load. Conversely, TRIP M1
TRIP S1
as the end loads grow, the maximum UTILITY
CT’s (2)
(3) PT’S
ratio setting can be easily increased by 14,400:120 V
500:5
changing the CT tap settings. (3) 120:1 (3) 13.8 kV, 1200 A, 50 kA SYM S.C.
27 59
TS (15 kV - 95 kV BIL RATED)
Voltage transformers are used to step M1 M1
(3) (3)
higher voltages down to safe levels for (3) 800:5
SB
EATON www.eaton.com
Power Distribution Systems Design Guide SA081002EN
Effective February 2019
Designing a Distribution System 1.1-13
EATON www.eaton.com
Power Distribution Systems Design Guide SA081002EN
Effective February 2019
Designing a Distribution System 1.1-14
As shown on the System One-Line, there Key interlocks are available in a variety of This permits personnel who will be
are ground studs on the incoming and configurations including transfer blocks working on the equipment to be in a
outgoing sides of both the “USG-1A”, to capture keys from multiple sources. safe location outside of the arc flash zone
(13.8 kV) and “PSG-1A”(4.16 kV) They are often used as part of Lockout and when enabling the Arcflash Reduction
switchgear. Applying these portable Tag-Out procedures. It is recommended Maintenance Mode.
ground cables requires a safe that the design engineer refer to a key
disconnection of power in the zone interlock manufacturer such as Kirk or Note 4 also requires Zone Selective
to be grounded to ensure personnel Superior for further documentation and Interlocking. This feature permits higher
safety. Consequently, a Key Interlock specific operational details. speed tripping of the Main breaker, if it
Scheme would be required to prevent does not receive a restraining signal from
grounding unless the respective breakers Drawing Notes are extremely important a downstream feeder breaker that it is
in the zone were withdrawn from their as they describe specific functional tripping to clear a fault.
connected position and locked open. requirements. In Figure 1.1-12, Note 3
above switchgear “SUS-F1A” describes an Note 6 adds a requirement for BACnet
The symbol representing the key interlock additional requirement for a Priority Load communications functionality to a future
shown on the One-Line next to the “M1” Shed Scheme to ensure the generator is Building Management System. It also
and “S1” breaker is the box with the circle not overloaded.The details of this scheme provides a point of demarcation between
and the letters “LO” inside it. The “LO” would need to be coordinated with the the scope of work to be provided by the
nomenclature indicates that the key generator manufacturer and further installing contractor and what portion of
“M1A” or key “S1A” respectively is defined in the switchgear specifications. the wiring and interface will be required
only removable when the device of the BMS vendor.
(breaker or fused switch) is in the Note 4 calls for DT1150+ electronic
breaker trip units that include an Arcflash Each of the circuit breaker symbols in the
Locked Open position. “SUS-F1A” switchgear are surrounded
Reduction Maintenance Mode.This feature
Key interlocks are also shown on the limits arc flash energy in compliance with by double arrows signifying that these
MVS switches in two of the (4) Primary Article 240.87 of the 2014 NEC by using an breakers are drawout versus fixed mount.
Selective Step-Down substations fed alternate high-speed analog instantaneous Additionally, the “E.O.” nomenclature
from MV Feeder Breaker F3A, as well as trip setting to reduce arcing time. Note 5 in the middle of the breaker symbol
on the medium-voltage switch “CUP-F1A”. requires a touchscreen panel to monitor represents “Electrically Operated”.
This is done to prevent paralleling of the the operating variables as well as be used This function makes it easier to open
two different sources involved in the to activate the Arcflash Reduction and close the breaker. It also enables the
Primary Selective Scheme. Maintenance Mode remotely. opportunity for remote control from a
handheld pendant operating station or
The 750 kVA pad-mounted transformers a wall-mounted control panel.
on the One-Line, feeding “Residence Hall
A” and “B”, are shown with internal
vacuum fault interrupters (VFIs) as their FROM PSG-2A (SEE DWG E102)
4.16 kV, 3Ø, 60Hz
BUSWAY RISER
(SEE DWG E106)
overcurrent protection. The VFIs offer 4 6
many of the benefits of a circuit breaker, RBP-F3A T5-RBP-F3A PXM6000
such as disconnection of all three phases M.H A
N.O. P=208A S=1804A
(3)
PT’S
METER
AL 480 V:120 V
simultaneously, and may be used with 8
LO 300E
250 KA
/Ø.SPD
external protective relays such as MAIN CB
E.O. “RBS-F3A”
EDR-3000 Distribution or ETR-3000 M.H
7
P
N.C.
1500 kVA
2000 AF
1800 AT
Transformer Differential Relay. The LO F3D 4.16 kV-480/277 V
5.75% Z
LSG
(3) 2000:5
VFI option is available for fluid-filled
RHBP-F3A T4-RHBP-F3A
transformers in both pad-mounted and N.O. P=104A S=2082A
or the “GB” breaker.This may or may not SCA & CABLE Z TO M.H P
750 kVA FR3 VFI PADMOUNT
1 “POINT D” - 40,400 SCA
T1 & T2-RHAP SELECTOR SWITCH 55/65C 5.75% Z
EATON www.eaton.com
Power Distribution Systems Design Guide SA081002EN
Effective February 2019
Designing a Distribution System 1.1-15
Each circuit breaker is named and its ampacity rated breaker cannot be Consequently, it is very important to
Frame Size (AF), Trip Rating (AT) and inserted into the wrong size cell. indicate the actual breaker short-circuit
protective functions such as Long, rating as well as the switchgear bus
Short and Ground (LSG) or Long, Short, As an example, a 1600 A breaker cannot ratings on the One-Line. These also need
Instantaneous and Ground (LSIG) are be used in a cell configured for 800 A to be consistent with other schedules and
noted accordingly. Since this equipment as it would not likely protect the cell drawings, as well as in the equipment
is drawout UL 1558 switchgear, the 4 cell bus runbacks and outgoing cables specifications. This can prevent a bidder
high structure number and associated appropriately. Likewise, a 65 kA short from incorrectly quoting 85 kA rated
breaker cell are illustrated. circuit rated breaker could not be inserted switchgear with 65 kA rated breakers.
into a switchgear cell rated for 85 kA.
“Spare” breakers have been located in the The System One-Line shows the
top “A” cells 02A and 04A as well as cells Figure 1.1-12 shows the main bus for the incoming surge protective device (SPD)
04B and 4C in structure #4.The generator switchgear rated at 4000 A with an 85 kA in “SUS-F1A” is rated at 250 kA per phase.
breaker is also located in top cell 03A of short-circuit rating. A busway symbol As shown in Figure 1.1-13, SPDs in the
structure #3, for cable and conduit egress is illustrated above the tie breaker, other downstream equipment are rated
out the top. In this example, all other indicating that it is connecting to the other at 120 kA per phase. This surge protection
breaker cables “feeding loads exit out the half of a double-ended switchgear lineup. scheme as shown is applied in a tiered
bottom of the switchgear.This avoids Eaton’s low-voltage busway can be approach per the IEEE Emerald Book. In
bottom exiting cables from covering supplied in ratings of 6–30 cycles.The this arrangement, the highest level of
access to the lugs for the spare and 4000 A busway shown has a 200 kA 6 cycle surge protection is at the incoming
generator breakers. Consequently, it rms symmetrical short-circuit rating that source. Downstream switchboards or
permits room to terminate the future exceeds the 85 kA rating of the “SUS-F1A” panelboards closer to the loads provide
cables, coming into the top of the switchgear bus on the drawing. the next of surge protection.
switchgear, easily at a later date.
The calculated short-circuit rating There is a considerable amount of
It is always wise to include spare breakers required for the “SUS-F1A” switchgear distribution equipment illustrated on
of important frame and trip sizes in a is dependent on a number of factors the example System One-Line. For
drawout switchgear lineup. These spare including: the available short circuit that reason, reference is made to other
breakers can either allow for future load upstream, the inclusion of the cable and drawings and schedules that would
growth or provide a readily available transformer impedances feeding it, as comprise the hypothetical bid package.
backup that can be used in the event that well as the short-circuit contribution As an example, 1600 A distribution
an active breaker requires maintenance from the motors downstream. switchboard DSB-DF4A has a note to see
or service. schedule DSB-DF4A for the end loads. The
In actuality, the short-circuit current same is true for power panel PP-DF6A.
Note that interference interlocks are available may be lower than the 85 kA
supplied on breakers and in switchgear shown on the drawing, permitting a
compartments where the compartments potential cost and space savings, if the
are of the same physical size. This rating required is dropped to 65 kA or
rejection feature ensures that an below. A short-circuit study would need
insufficient short circuit or incorrect to be done to confirm this.
1
DIESEL
2 3 2
MAIN CB TIE CB
MGT (3) PT’S “GB” SECONDARY UNIT SUBSTATION “SUS-F1A”
“MB-F1A” 480 V: EG BACNET IP “LTA”
LO E.O. 4000 AF 120 V TO BMS LO E.O. 2000AF LO E.O. 4000 AF
4000 AT 2000AT 4000 AT
N.C. PXM6000 TO DT1150 N.O. LSG N.O.
LSG LSG
METER ETHERNET TRIP UNITS “DF5A”
01B (3) 4000:5 GATEWAY MAIN SWGR. BUS “A” 85 KA, 480/277 V, 4000 A, 3-PH, 4W, (ALL BREAKERS RATED SC AT 85 KA)
01D 02A 02B 02C 02D 03A 03B 03C 03D 04A 04B 04C 04D
“DF1A” “DF2A” “DF3A” “DF4A” “DF6A” “DF7A” “DF8A” “DF9A” “DF1OA” “DF11A” “DF12A”
250KA/Ø E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 1600AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF
SPD 600 AT 600 AT 1600 AT 600 AT 800 AT 400 AT 600 AT 600 AT 400 AT 500 AT 500 AT
LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG
SPARE SPARE SPARE SPARE
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Power Distribution Systems Design Guide SA081002EN
Effective February 2019
Designing a Distribution System 1.1-16
01D 02A 02B 02C 02D 03A 03B 03C 03D 04A 04B 04C 04D
“DF1A” “DF2A” “DF3A” “DF4A” “DF6A” “DF7A” “DF8A” “DF9A” “DF1OA” “DF11A” “DF12A”
250 KA/Ø E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 1600AF E.O. 1600AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 1600AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF
SPD 600 AT 600 AT 1600 AT 1600 AT 800 AT 400 AT 600 AT 1600 AT 400 AT 500 AT 500 AT
LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG LSIG
SPARE SPARE SPARE SPARE
(SEE DWG E109)
FROM GEN A
NORMAL ATS-A GENERATOR
SOURCE SOURCE
BYPASS ATC-900
1600AF DSB-DF4A SEE SCHEDULE DSB-DF4A ISOLATION TRANSFER
1600AT 480V, 1600A, ATS CONTROL
FOR LOADS PP-DF6A 480 V, 600 A,
3Ø, 4W, 65 KAIC
120 KA/Ø 800AF 3Ø, 3W, 65 KAIC
SPD 800AT
400 A 150 A 150 A 150 A 150 A 400 A 400 A 150 A 150 A 150 A 150 A 150 A 150 A
FR10 SIZE4 SIZE4 SIZE4 SIZE4 SIZE5 SIZE5 SIZE4 SIZE4 SIZE4 SIZE4 SIZE4 SIZE4
261A FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR FVNR MIS
DC-DS-A
3R 3R 3R 3R
6 POLE 6 POLE 6 POLE 6 POLE
200 75 75 75 75 150 150 75 75 75 75 75 75
BAT-A
NCHWP-1 CWP-1 CWP-2 CWP-3 CWP-4 CHWP-1 CHWP-2 CT-1 CT-2 CT-3 CT-4 SA-1 EF-1
240FLA 96FLA 96FLA 96FLA 96FLA 180FLA 180FLA 96FLA 96FLA 96FLA 96FLA 96FLA 96FLA
PDU-1
480V-3Ø 600AF 120 KA/Ø
600AF 400AF IFS-DF7A 3W,65 kA 500AT
150 A SPD
600AT DSB-DF2A 400AT
P=361A
120KA/Ø 480V, 600A, XFMR-DF8A P=361A
SPD 3Ø, 3W, 65 KAIC XFMR-DF7A P=90A 300 KVA XFMR-UPS1
225 A 75KVA 480-208/120 V 300 KVA
480- 480-208/120 V
208/120 V S=833A
150AF 150AF 150AF 150AF 150AF 150AF 150AF S=208A S=833A
“DF7AP” 208/120 V, 3Ø, 4W
40AT 15AT 90AT 100AT 90AT 100AT 100AT RP-DF8A
480/277 V 225A
SPARE SPACE 2X 3Ø, 4W, 65KA 225A
1200AF 400AF 400AF
POW-R-COMMAND 1000AT 400AT 400AT
LIGHTING CONTROL 208/120 V, 225 A,
3Ø, 4W, 10 KAIC
208/120 V, 1200 A, CDP-A CDP-B
POW-R-COMMAND
10 2 4X 4X 3Ø, 4W, 65 KAIC 42 Circuit 42 Circuit
RECEPTACLE CONTROL
GYCOL FUEL HVAC HEAT COMFORT HEAT
PUMP PUMP AHU-1,2,3,4 REJ. COOLING REJ.
GCP-1 FOP-1 UNITS CH-1 UNITS SEE SCHEDULE IFS-DF7AP & DF7AS SEE SCHEDULE RP-DF8A SEE SCHEDULE PDU-1
HRU-1,2,3,4 HRU-5-9 FOR NORMAL & CONTROLLED LOADS FOR LOADS FOR CRITICAL LOADS
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Designing a Distribution System 1.1-18
As illustrated on the Power Figure 1.1-16 shows one possible In this arrangement, consideration would
System One-Line on Page 1.1-8, a application of an Eaton 9395 need to be given to generator stability. An
medium-voltage Clean Power VFD is uninterruptable power supply (UPS-1) ATS or generator failure would potentially
available for use with 4.16 kV motors. being fed through automatic transfer result in the UPS running on batteries
The input voltage can be either 4.16 kV switch (ATS-A). This arrangement until they were out of reserve power.
or its internal phase shifting transformer addresses a potential loss of power
can be configured to step-down a higher from switchgear SUS-F1A. If this approaches is utilized, the ATS
input voltage, such as 13.8 kV, to power should be of the BYPASS/ISOLATION
a 4.16 kV motor. design as indicated on the One-Line.
Eaton’s contactor-based BYPASS/
Medium-voltage VFDs are used to start 2 ISOLATION transfer switch is available
and control the speed of high horsepower TIE CB
“LTA”
with removable contactors. This permits
motors in sewage and fresh water LO E.O. 4000 AF them to be interchanged with a spare or
4000 AT
pumping applications. They are also N.O.
LSG the alternate source contactor during
used on medium-voltage high hp HVAC SWITCHGEAR “SUS-F1A”
maintenance and testing.
chillers. See Tab 10 for details. 04C 04D
“DF11A” “DF12A” A second option for feeding the UPS
Below the MCC in Figure 1.1-13 is E.O. 800AF E.O. 800AF would be to avoid providing the ATS
IFS-DF7A. This is an assembly that allows 500 AT
LSIG
500 AT
LSIG and feed the “MBP” and “BIB” from
several pieces of electrical distribution one breaker in switchgear SUS-F1A and
equipment to be pre-wired into a (SEE DWG E109) the “RIB” input breaker from one breaker
switchboard at Eaton’s manufacturing FROM GEN A in switchgear SUS-F1A and the “BIB”
facility. As shown, the IFS includes NORMAL
SOURCE
ATS-A GENERATOR
SOURCE
input breaker from another as shown
a 480/277 V main breaker feeding a BYPASS ATC-900 in Figure 1.1-17.
ISOLATION TRANSFER
480/277 Vac 225 A lighting control ATS CONTROL
480 V, 600 A,
panelboard. 3Ø, 3W, 65 KAIC
2
A 75 kVA 480 V to 208/120 V transformer is TIE CB
UPS1
also part of the IFS switchboard. It feeds a 300 KVA “LTA”
LO E.O. 4000 AF
208/120 V panelboard with remote control MBP BIB RIB
4000 AT
N.O.
breakers to feed various receptacle loads. SWITCHGEAR “SUS-F1A”
LSG
UPS1
300 KVA
Figure 1.1-16. UPS-1 Connection Option 1 MBP BIB RIB
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Designing a Distribution System 1.1-19
This would provide an alternate Larger kVA UPSs are used in industrial
path to supply the UPS during a applications such as microprocessor
maintenance event, such as servicing chip manufacturing operations. They
a breaker or cable termination. are also used to power ultraviolet
Unfortunately, in the event of a power purification equipment at fresh water
outage to the “SUS-F1A” switchgear, due pumping stations.
to substation transformer failure or
maintenance, power to both the UPS In a data center application, a UPS may be
Inverter and static switch would be lost. used to feed power to one or more power
Since the purpose of the static bypass is distribution units (PDUs).These PDUs
to operate in the event of a downstream are similar in functionality to an IFS
fault, the UPS inverter would not be Switchboard.They incorporate an integral
capable of responding to faults of this transformer to step down the incoming
nature. It would, however, continue to 480 V UPS feed to a 208/120 V supply.
use battery power to feed the loads until The end utilization voltage is distributed
the batteries were fully discharged. through integrated panelboards out to the
various computer loads. Individual circuits
Because most UPS battery systems are have CTs so each can be monitored on the
not intended to provide long periods of common touchscreen display.
standby power under the aforementioned
condition, resumption of Normal power Eaton PDUs can be provided in a variety
from the “SUS-F1A” switchgear would of configurations including other larger
need to be done quickly.This may be frame breakers that can feed remote
difficult as personnel would need to first power panels (RPPs).
open the 4000 A “MB-F1A” main breaker.
They would then need to manually operate
the Key Interlock Scheme to enable a
second source, such as the 2000 kW
generator or the tie breaker to the other
half of the double-ended switchgear.
To ensure a quick resumption of power,
transfer switches are also used in a
number of healthcare and mission-critical
applications to automatically connect to
an alternate source should main power
fail. While UPSs are traditionally used
to back up sensitive servers and data
processing equipment, there are
many other places they are utilized. In
healthcare, they ensure a continuous
source of reliable power is available for
electronic imaging equipment.
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Designing a Distribution System 1.1-20
process is developing a schedule. conductor ampacity at 60 °C making it 12 20 4/0 230
less practical. It also means that the 10 30 250 255
The overcurrent protection of many equipment could be fed from 90 °C 8 50 300 285
loads, such as motors and distribution conductors, but only if applied at the
6 65 350 310
transformers, must conform to the 75 °C ratings due to the limitations of
the equipment ratings. 4 85 400 335
requirements of Articles 240, 430 and
450 of the National Electrical Code. 3 100 500 380
Particular consideration needs to The following tables are adjusted in 2 115 600 420
be given to the length and type of accordance with NEC 240.4(D) to show
1 130 700 460
conductors that will need to connect the actual allowable ampacities of copper
and aluminum conductors terminating in 1/0 150 750 475
the distribution equipment.
electrical distribution assemblies. 2/0 175 1000 545
As cable length increases, so does its
resistance in the circuit leading to a drop in A schedule based on the allowable
ampacity of copper conductors in Table 1.1-2. Ampacity of AL Conductors
the voltage at the end of the conductor run
feeding the loads. Cable lengths exceeding Table 1.1-1 is shown in Figure 1.1-19. Conductor Ampacity (Aluminum)
100 feet generally need to be upsized to It includes the relevant requirements Conductor Amperes Conductor Amperes
offset for voltage drop concerns. for secondary unit substation “SUS-F1A” Size at 75 ºC Size at 75 ºC
shown on the One-Line. This schedule
Cable length, size and the raceway they outlines the breaker frame sizes, trip 14 — 3/0 155
are installed in, also have an impact on settings and particulars of the trip 12 15 4/0 180
the impedance of the conductor in the units required. 10 25 250 205
circuit. Greater impedance helps to 8 40 300 230
reduce the available short circuit at the It also annotates the names for
the breakers as well as their circuit 6 50 350 250
terminals of the distribution equipment
or end load. nameplate designations. The cable 4 65 400 270
sizes and quantities are determined 3 75 500 310
by utilizing the tables in the NEC, 2 90 600 340
(as condensed into Table 1.1-1). 1 100 700 375
1/0 120 750 385
2/0 135 1000 445
1C MB-F1A 4000 4000 LSG + ZSI MAIN BREAKER "MB-F1A" Close Coupled
2A DF1A 800 600 LSIG + ZSI 3N SPARE Future OVERHEAD
2B DF2A 800 600 LSIG + ZSI 3N DSB-DF2A (2) sets (4)#350MCM +(1)#1G 2 3" UNDERGROUND
2C DF-3A 1600 1600 LSIG + ZSI 3 MCC-DF3A (4) sets (3)#600MCM + (1)#4/0G 4 4" UNDERGROUND
2D DF-4A 1600 1600 LSIG + ZSI 3N DSB-DF4A (4) sets (3)#600MCM + (1)#4/0G 4 4" UNDERGROUND
3A DF-5A 800 600 LSIG + ZSI 3N SPARE Future OVERHEAD
SUS - F1A
3B DF6A 800 800 LSIG + ZSI 3N PP-DF6A (2) sets (4)#600MCM + (1)#1/0G 2 3.5" UNDERGROUND
3C DF7A 800 400 LSIG + ZSI 3N IFS-DF7A (1) set (4)#600MCM + (1)#3G 1 3.5" UNDERGROUND
3D DF8A 800 600 LSIG + ZSI 3 XFMR-DF8A (2) sets (4)#350MCM +(1)#1G 2 3" UNDERGROUND
4A DF9A 800 600 LSIG + ZSI 3N SPARE Future OVERHEAD
4B DF10A 800 400 LSIG + ZSI 3N SPARE Future OVERHEAD
4C DF11A 800 500 LSIG + ZSI 3N SPARE Future OVERHEAD
4D DF12A 800 500 LSIG + ZSI 3 UPS1-INPUT-DF12A (2) sets (3)#250MCM +(1)#2G 2 2" UNDERGROUND
5C LTA 4000 4000 LSG + ZSI 3N TIE CB "LTA" 4000A Busway OVERHEAD
Note 1: Looking at the front of the Unit Substation; Right of the Main Breaker is BUS 1. The TIE Breaker is on the far Right of the Lineup and connects to
Switchgear "SUS-F1B" Through 4000A Busway
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Designing a Distribution System 1.1-21
In order to provide an effective ground On other occasions, the room does not There is an expectation that further
fault path as required by 250.4(A)(5) and have enough height to accommodate advances will enable the potential to
250.4(B)(4) of the 2014 NEC, upsizing of standard equipment. In these cases, integrate maintenance, spare parts
the equipment ground conductors are special reduced height switchboards and actual performance data into these
required by Article 250.122(B) “when or switchgear may be provided. BIM models. Eaton offers a suite of
the ungrounded conductors are BIM component models ranging
increased in size from the minimum While this equipment may not be from automatic transfer switches to
size that has a sufficient ampacity for documented as standard, Eaton can panelboards and switchboards that are
the intended installation”. provide assistance in developing a available from the Eaton website. Larger
reduced height alternative solution. manufactured to order switchgear BIM
In these cases, “wire-type equipment models are available from your local
grounding conductors, where installed, As design and drafting tools have
evolved, the push to include 3D drawings Eaton application engineer or sales office.
shall be increased in size proportionally
according to the circular mil area of the has subsequently evolved into an
ungrounded conductors”. enhanced technology called Building
Information Modeling (BIM). BIM
When developing schedules, it is drawings include the 3D aspect but
important to remember that conductor also include the capability to assign
sizing is also impacted by the derating equipment performance parameters and
tables for ambient temperature and interdependencies. This permits architects
conductor fill when installed in raceways. and construction firms to be alerted to
potential “collisions” between incoming/
There are a number of ways to create outgoing conduits and other potential
cable schedules, the most common of obstructions such as existing conduits/
which is to name the conductor as is busduct, HVAC duct or plumbing in the
shown on the medium-voltage portion space above or below the equipment.
of the One-Line on Page 1.1-8.
Schedules are most often used to
define requirements for low-voltage TOP VIEW
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Designing a Distribution System 1.1-22
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Designing a Distribution System 1.1-23
Incoming Service
Considerations APPLICATION ZONES OF ARTICLE 230 - SERVICES PARTS I - VII & ASSOCIATED APPLICABLE NEC ARTICLES
Code: “covers service conductors and Part II - Overhead Service Conductors Part III - Underground Service Conductors
equipment for the protection of services 230.24 - Clearances 230.32 - Depth of Burial & Protection
and their installation requirements”. Service Head Terminal Box, Meter or Other Enclosure
Parts V, VI and VII of Article 230 spell out Articles 215 & 225 - Feeders
the common requirements for low- Articles 210 & 225 - Branch Circuits 75 kVa
voltage service equipment <1000 Vac. HVAC
480–208/120 V
0–150 V 208/120 V 3 ft 3 ft 3 ft
151–600 V 480/277 V 3 ft 3 ft 6 in 4 ft
601–2500 V 4160 V 3 ft 4 ft 5 ft
2501–9000 V 13,800 V 4 ft 5 ft 6 ft
9001–25,000 V 34,500 V 5 ft 6 ft 9 ft
NEC Definition of Live Parts: “Energized conductive Components.”
NEC Definition of Energized: “Electrically Connected to, or is a source of voltage.”
MVTransformers with Snubber Capacitors or MV EPR Cables holding a capacitive charge are considered
“Live” until the voltage is bled off by grounding procedures.
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To accomplish this, a step-up transformer Low-Voltage Utilization The National Electrical Code permits
is added after the low-voltage service. The With most low-voltage services, the voltage up to 300 V to ground on circuits
transformer primary is configured in a service voltage is the same as the supplying permanently installed electric
delta and is fed by the grounded and utilization voltage. However, when discharge lamp fixtures, provided the
bonded low-voltage incoming utility the engineer is faced with a decision luminaires do not have an integral
service. The step-up transformer wye between 208Y/120 V and 480Y/277 V manual switch and are mounted at least
secondary is often at medium voltage, secondary distribution for commercial 8 ft (2.4 m) above the floor. This permits
typically at 4.16 kV, with the transformers and institutional buildings, the choice a three-phase, four-wire, solidly grounded
wye secondary grounded. depends on several factors. The most 480Y/277 V system to supply directly all
important of these are the size and types of the fluorescent and high-intensity
A 4.16 kV delta primary step-down discharge (HID) lighting in a building at
transformer is then located near the of loads (motors, fluorescent lighting,
incandescent lighting, receptacles) and 277 V, as well as motors at 480 V.
served load and has its wye secondary
grounded in accordance with NEC Article length of feeders. In general, power
250.30 to create a separately derived system designs with HVAC equipment Technical Factors
system. This step-down transformer’s with a significant quantity of motors, The principal advantage of the use of
secondary voltage may be the same as predominantly fluorescent lighting loads, higher secondary voltages in buildings is
the incoming service, or it may be at and long feeders, will tend to make that for a given load, less current means
higher utilization voltage. 480Y/277 V more economical. smaller conductors and lower voltage
drop. Also, a given conductor size can
Caution must be taken when selecting the Industrial installations with large motor
supply a large load at the same voltage
step-up transformers to be used in this loads are almost always 480 V resistance
drop in volts, but a lower percentage
type of application. Step-up transformers, grounded, wye systems (see further
voltage drop because of the higher
particularly designs that are not optimized discussion on this topic in the Grounding/
supply voltage. Fewer or smaller circuits
for step-up purposes, such as a reverse-fed Ground Fault Protection section of this
can be used to transmit the power from
standard transformer, exhibit extremely Design Guide).
the service entrance point to the final
high inrush during energization. distribution points. Smaller conductors
Practical Factors can be used in many branch circuits
Unless the step-up transformers are
specifically wound for low inrush, Because most low-voltage distribution supplying power loads, and a reduction
the magnetizing current during initial equipment available is rated for up to in the number of lighting branch circuits
energization, may exceed the 6X make 600 V, and conductors are insulated for is usually possible.
capabilities of a low-voltage fused 600 V, the installation of 480 V systems
uses the same techniques and is It is easier to keep voltage drops within
bolted pressure switch. This can result acceptable limits on 480 V circuits than
in a condition where a portion of the essentially no more difficult, costly or
hazardous than for 208 V systems. The on 208 V circuits. When 120 V loads are
switch contact surface can weld before supplied from a 480 V system through
full engagement. The current passing major difference is that an arc of 120 V
to ground tends to be self-extinguishing, step-down transformers, voltage drop
through the smaller contact area will in the 480 V supply conductors can be
then eventually cause the switch to while an arc of 277 V to ground tends to
be self-sustaining and likely to cause compensated for by the tap adjustments
overheat and fail. on the transformer, resulting in full 120 V
severe damage.
Many step-up transformer applications output. Because these transformers are
involve a 208 Vac incoming service For this reason, Article 230.95 of the usually located close to the 120 V loads,
stepping this voltage up to the utilization National Electrical Code requires secondary voltage drop should not be
voltage of 480 Vac for HVAC motor loads ground fault protection of equipment a problem. If it is, taps may be used to
in a building. The design engineer must on grounded wye services of more than compensate by raising the voltage at
be aware of some potential pitfalls and 150 V to ground, but not exceeding the transformer.
plan ahead when involved in this type 600 V phase-to-phase (for practical
purpose, 480Y/277 V services), for any The interrupting ratings of circuit
of application. breakers and fuses at 480 V have
service disconnecting means rated
Larger step-up transformers offer fewer 1000 A or more. increased considerably in recent years,
transformer voltage taps, if any at all.They and protective devices are now available
also exhibit poor voltage regulation when Article 215.10 of the NEC extends this for any required fault duty at 480 V.
experiencing transient shock loads, such equipment ground fault requirement to In addition, many of these protective
as motors starting. When designing power feeder conductors and clarifies the need devices are current limiting, and can be
systems utilizing step-up transformers for equipment ground fault protection used to protect downstream equipment
to feed motor loads, a Motor Starting for 1000 A and above, feeder circuit against these high fault currents.
Analysis should be performed to ensure protective devices on the 480/277 Vac
that the motors will start and operate secondary of transformers. Article 210.13
as intended. has been added to the 2014 NEC,
essentially recognizing the same need
for equipment ground fault protection on
1000 A branch circuits being fed from the
480/277 Vac secondary of transformers.
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Designing a Distribution System 1.1-26
Economic Factors
Utilization equipment suitable for
principal loads in most buildings
is available for either 480 V or 208 V
systems. Three-phase motors and Elevator
their controls can be obtained for either Panel
Typical Typical
Spare
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Automatic
1 4000 A Transfer Switch
Main CB
Gen. CB
Utility Emergency
CTs or Standby
Metering
PTs Generator
Utility 4000A at 480Y/277V
Service 100,000A Available Fault Current
Figure 1.1-23. Typical Power Distribution and Riser Diagram for a Commercial Office Building
a Include ground fault trip.
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Types of Systems 1.1-27
75 kVA
480–208/120 V
HVAC
Distribution Distribution Lighting
Panel Panel Panelboard
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Types of Systems 1.1-28
Figure 1.1-25 shows a typical incoming It is important to consider the grounding If the three-phase generator neutral
service switchboard with the addition of of the generator neutral when using is brought back through the transfer
a key interlocked generator breaker. In automatic transfer switches in power switches and grounded at the service
this design, the breaker pair shares a system design. If the generator neutral is entrance, a three-pole transfer switch
single key that can only be used to close grounded at the generator, a separately with solid neutral should be provided.
one breaker at a time. This arrangement derived system is created. This requires
ensures against paralleling with the utility the use of four-pole transfer switches for
but requires manual intervention in the a three-phase system.
event of an outage.
In a typical standby generation arrange
ment, automatic transfer switches are
used to feed either Normal utility power Utility
or an alternate generator source of Medium-Voltage
backup power to the critical loads. The Distribution
transfer switches sense the loss of power
from the Normal source and send a run Utility Owned
command to the generator to start. Utility Pole or Padmount G
Meter Transformer
Once the generator is running, the
transfer switches sense that voltage is 480/277 Vac (VT’s or Tap by Utility)
Service Entrance
available and automatically open the Equipment (CT’s by Utility)
Normal contactor and close the Generator
contactor. When the Normal source K1 K1
returns, the transfer switch opens the
Generator contactor and closes the
Normal source contactor.
The location and type of the transfer
switches depends on the Utility and the
overall design intent. Transfer switches 75 kVA
can be Service Entrance Rated and 480–208/120 V
HVAC
used as the main Service Disconnect
feeding all the loads downstream. Distribution Distribution Lighting
See Figure 1.1-26. Panel Panel Panelboard
Load Load
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In cases where the utility service voltage is Each secondary unit substation is an However, because power is distributed
at some voltage higher than the utilization assembled unit consisting of a three- to the load areas at a primary voltage,
voltage within the building, the system phase, liquid-filled or air-cooled losses are reduced, voltage regulation is
design engineer has a choice of a number transformer, an integrally connected improved, feeder circuit costs are reduced
of types of systems that may be used.This primary fused switch, and low-voltage substantially, and large low-voltage feeder
discussion covers several major types of switchgear or switchboard with circuit circuit breakers are eliminated. In many
distribution systems and practical breakers or fused switches. Circuits are cases the interrupting duty imposed on
modifications of them. run to the loads from these low-voltage the load circuit breakers is reduced.
protective devices.
1. Simple medium-voltage radial This modern form of the simple radial
Because each transformer is located system will usually be lower in initial
2. Loop-primary system— within a specific load area, it must have investment than most other types of
radial secondary system sufficient capacity to carry the peak load primary distribution systems for build
3. Primary selective system— of that area. Consequently, if any diversity ings in which the peak load is above
secondary radial system exists among the load area, this modified 1000 kVA. A fault on a primary feeder
primary radial system requires more circuit or in one transformer will cause
4. Two-source primary— transformer capacity than the basic form an outage to only those secondary loads
secondary selective system of the simple radial system. served by that feeder or transformer.
In the case of a primary main bus fault
5. Sparing transformer system
or a utility service outage, service is
6. Simple spot network interrupted to all loads until the trouble
is eliminated.
7. Medium-voltage distribution
system design
In those cases where the customer
receives his supply from the primary Primary Fused Switch
system and owns the primary switch and
Transformer
transformer along with the secondary
low-voltage switchboard or switchgear,
600V Class
the equipment may take the form of Switchboard
a separate primary switch, separate
transformer, and separate low-voltage
switchgear or switchboard. This
equipment may be combined in the Distribution
Dry-Type
form of an outdoor pad-mounted Transformer
transformer with internal primary
fused switch and secondary main Distribution MCC Distribution Lighting
breaker feeding an indoor switchboard. Panel Panel Panelboard
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Reducing the number of transformers per 2. Loop Primary System— utilizing three on-off switches or a
primary feeder by adding more primary four-position sectionalizing switch and
feeder circuits will improve the flexibility Radial Secondary System vacuum fault interrupter (VFI) internal
and service continuity of this system; This system consists of one or more to the transformer saving cost and
the ultimate being one secondary unit “PRIMARY LOOPS” with two or more reducing footprint.
substation per primary feeder circuit. This transformers connected on the loop. This
of course increases the investment in the system is typically most effective when When pad-mounted compartmentalized
system but minimizes the extent of an two services are available from the utility transformers are used, they are furnished
outage resulting from a transformer or as shown in Figure 1.1-29. Each primary with loop-feed oil-immersed gang-
primary feeder fault. loop is operated such that one of the loop operated load break sectionalizing
sectionalizing switches is kept open to switches and Bay-O-Net expulsion
Primary connections from one secondary prevent parallel operation of the sources. fuses in series with partial range back-up
unit substation to the next secondary unit current-limiting fuses. By operating the
substation can be made with “double” When secondary unit substations are appropriate sectionalizing switches, it
lugs on the unit substation primary switch used, each transformer may have its is possible to disconnect any section of
as shown, or with load break or non-load own duplex (2-load break switches with the loop conductors from the rest of
break separable connectors made in load side bus connection) sectionalizing the system. In addition, it is possible to
manholes or other locations. See Eaton’s switches and primary load break fused disconnect any transformer from the loop.
Cooper PowerE series Molded Rubber switch as shown in Figure 1.1-30 or
Medium Voltage Connectors on Eaton’s
website for more details.
Depending on the load kVA connected
to each primary circuit and if no ground
fault protection is desired for either the
primary feeder conductors and trans Primary Main Breaker 1 52 52 Primary Main Breaker 2
formers connected to that feeder or the
main bus, the primary main and/or feeder 52
breakers may be changed to primary
Tie
fused switches. This will significantly Breaker
52 52 52 52 Loop Feeder Breaker
reduce the first cost, but also decrease
the level of conductor and equipment
Loop A
protection. Thus, should a fault or
Loop B
overload condition occur, downtime
increases significantly and higher costs
associated with increased damage levels NC NO NC NC
and the need for fuse replacement is Fault Sensors
typically encountered. In addition, if only
one primary fuse on a circuit opens, the
secondary loads are then single phased,
causing damage to low-voltage motors.
Another approach to reducing costs is
to eliminate the primary feeder breakers
completely, and use a single primary main
breaker or fused switch for protection of
a single primary feeder circuit with all
NC NC NO NC NC NC
secondary unit substations supplied
from this circuit. Although this system
results in less initial equipment cost,
system reliability is reduced drastically
because a single fault in any part of the
primary conductor would cause an outage
to all loads within the facility.
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NO
NC
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When a transformer fault or overload Mechanical and/or key interlocking is This means limited cable space especially
occurs, the transformer primary fuses furnished such that both switches cannot if double lugs are furnished for each line
open, and the transformer primary switch be closed at the same time (to prevent as shown in Figure 1.1-33. The downside
manually opened, disconnecting the parallel operation) and interlocking is that should a faulted primary conductor
transformer from the loop, and leaving such that access to either switch or fuse have to be changed, both lines would
all other secondary unit substation loads assembly cannot be obtained unless both have to be de-energized for safe changing
unaffected. switches are opened. of the faulted conductors.
A basic primary loop system that A second alternative is utilizing a three-
uses a single primary feeder breaker Primary
position selector switch internal to the
connected directly to two loop feeder Feeders transformer, allowing only one primary
switches which in turn then feed the feeder to be connected to the transformer
loop is shown in Figure 1.1-34. In this at a time without the need for any inter
Load Break
basic system, the loop may be normally Switches locking.The selector switch is rated for
operated with one of the loop section load-breaking. If overcurrent protection is
alizing switches open as described above also required, a vacuum fault interrupter
or with all loop sectionalizing switches (VFI), also internal to the transformer, may
closed. If a fault occurs in the basic Fuses
be utilized, reducing floor space.
primary loop system, the single loop
feeder breaker trips, and secondary In Figure 1.1-33 when a primary feeder
loads are lost until the faulted conductor fault occurs, the associated feeder
is found and eliminated from the loop breaker opens and the transformers
by opening the appropriate loop normally supplied from the faulted feeder
sectionalizing switches and then are out of service. Then manually, each
reclosing the breaker. primary switch connected to the faulted
line must be opened and then the
alternate line primary switch can be
Figure 1.1-35. Duplex Fused Switch in closed connecting the transformer to the
Two Structures live feeder, thus restoring service to all
One alternate to the duplex switch loads. Note that each of the primary
52
arrangement, a non-load break selector circuit conductors for Feeder A1 and B1
switch mechanically interlocked with a must be sized to handle the sum of the
Loop A Loop A
load break fused switch can be used as loads normally connected to both A1 and
shown in Figure 1.1-36. The non-load B1. Similar sizing of Feeders A2 and B2,
In cases where only one primary line break selector switch is physically located etc., is required.
is available, the use of a single primary in the rear of the load break fused switch,
breaker provides the loop connections If a fault occurs in one transformer, the
to the loads as shown here. thus only requiring one structure and a associated primary fuses blow and
lower cost and floor space savings over interrupt the service to just the load
Figure 1.1-34. Single Primary Feeder— the duplex arrangement. The non-load served by that transformer. Service
Loop System break switch is mechanically interlocked cannot be restored to the loads normally
to prevent its operation unless the load served by the faulted transformer until
break switch is opened. The main the transformer is repaired or replaced.
3. Primary Selective System— disadvantage of the selector switch is
Secondary Radial System that conductors from both circuits are Cost of the primary selective—secondary
The primary selective—secondary radial terminated in the same structure. radial system is greater than that of
system, as shown in Figure 1.1-33, differs the simple primary radial system of
from those previously described in that Figure 1.1-27 because of the additional
it employs at least two primary feeder
Primary primary main breakers, tie breaker,
Feeders
circuits in each load area. It is designed two-sources, increased number of feeder
so that when one primary circuit is out breakers, the use of primary-duplex or
of service, the remaining feeder or Non-Load Break selector switches, and the greater amount
Selector Switches of primary feeder cable required.
feeders have sufficient capacity to carry Inter-
the total load. Half of the transformers lock Load Break The benefits from the reduction in the
are normally connected to each of the Disconnect
amount of load lost when a primary feeder
two feeders. When a fault occurs on one is faulted, plus the quick restoration of
Fuses
of the primary feeders, only half of the service to all or most of the loads, may
load in the building is dropped. more than offset the greater cost.
Duplex fused switches as shown in Having two sources allows for either
Figure 1.1-33 and detailed in Figure 1.1-35 manual or automatic transfer of the two
may be utilized for this type of system. primary main breakers and tie breaker
Each duplex fused switch consists of two should one of the sources become
load break three-pole switches each in unavailable.
their own separate structure, connected
together by bus bars on the load side. Figure 1.1-36. Fused Selector Switch in
Typically, the load break switch closest to One Structure
the transformer includes a fuse assembly
with fuses.
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The primary selective-secondary radial In either of the above emergency Under this condition, all equipment
system, however, may be less costly conditions, the in-service transformer interrupting and momentary ratings
or more costly than a primary loop— of a double-ended unit substation would should be suitable for the fault current
secondary radial system of Figure 1.1-29 have to have the capability of serving the available from both sources.
depending on the physical location of the loads on both sides of the tie breaker. For
transformers. It also offers comparable this reason, transformers used in this For double-ended unit substations
downtime and reliability. The cost of application must have equal kVA ratings equipped with ground fault systems
conductors for the types of systems may on each side of the double-ended unit special consideration to transformer
vary depending on the location of the substation. The transformers are sized neutral grounding and equipment
transformers and loads within the facility. so the normal operating maximum load operation should be made—see
The cost differences of the conductors on each transformer is typically about Grounding/Ground Fault Protection
may offset cost of the primary switching 2/3 base nameplate kVA rating. section of this Design Guide. Where
equipment. two single-ended unit substations
Typically these transformers are furnished are connected together by busway
with fan-cooling and/or lower than or external tie conductors, it is
4. Two-Source Primary— normal temperature rise such that recommended that a tie breaker
under emergency conditions they can be furnished at each end of the tie
Secondary Selective System continuously carry the maximum load conductors. The second tie breaker
This system uses the same principle of on both sides of the secondary tie breaker. provides a means to isolate the
duplicate sources from the power supply Because of this spare transformer capacity, interconnection between the two
point using two primary main breakers the voltage regulation provided by the single-ended substations for
and a primary tie breaker.The two primary double-ended unit substation system maintenance or servicing purposes.
main breakers and primary tie breaker under normal conditions is better than
being either manually or electrically that of the systems previously discussed.
interlocked to prevent closing all three at
the same time and paralleling the sources. The double-ended unit substation
Upon loss of voltage on one source, a arrangement can be used in conjunction
manual or automatic transfer to the with any of the previous systems
alternate source line may be used to discussed, which involve two primary
restore power to all primary loads. sources. Although not recommended,
if allowed by the utility, momentary
Each transformer secondary is arranged re-transfer of loads to the restored
in a typical double-ended unit substation source may be made closed transition
arrangement as shown in Figure 1.1-37. (anti-parallel interlock schemes would
The two secondary main breakers and have to be defeated) for either the
secondary tie breaker of each unit primary or secondary systems.
substation are again either mechanically
or electrically interlocked to prevent
parallel operation. Upon loss of secondary .
source voltage on one side, manual or
automatic transfer may be used to transfer
the loads to the other side, thus restoring
power to all secondary loads. 52 52 Primary Main Breakers
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5. Sparing Transformer System The sparing transformer system operates In facilities without qualified electrical
The sparing transformer system concept as follows: power operators, an open transition with
came into use as an alternative to the key interlocking is often a prudent design.
■■ All main breakers, including the sparing
capital cost intensive double-ended main breaker, are normally closed; the Note: Each pair of “main breaker/tie breaker”
secondary unit substation distribution tie breakers are normally open key cylinders should be uniquely keyed to
system (see Two-Source Primary— prevent any paralleled source operations.
■■ Once a transformer (or primary cable
Secondary Selective System). It essen
or primary switch/fuse) fails, the Careful sizing of these transformers
tially replaces double-ended substations
associated secondary main breaker is as well as careful specification of the
with single-ended substations and one or
opened. The associated tie breaker is transformers is required for reliability.
more “sparing” transformer substations
then closed, which restores power to Low temperature rise specified with
all interconnected on a common
the single-ended substation bus continuous overload capacity or
secondary bus—see Figure 1.1-38.
■■ Schemes that require the main to upgraded types of transformers should
Generally no more than three to five be opened before the tie is closed be considered.
single-ended substations are on a (“open transition”), and that allow any
sparing loop. tie to be closed before the substation One disadvantage to this system is
main is opened, (“closed transition”) the external secondary tie system, see
The essence of this design philosophy is Figure 1.1-38. As shown, all single-ended
that conservatively designed and loaded are possible
substations are tied together on the
transformers are highly reliable electrical With a closed transition scheme, it is secondary with a tie busway or cable
devices and rarely fail. Therefore, this common to add a timer function that system. Location of substations is
design provides a single common backup opens the tie breaker unless either main therefore limited because of voltage
transformer for a group of transformers breaker is opened within a time interval. drop and cost considerations.
in lieu of a backup transformer for each
and every transformer. This system This closed transition allows power to Routing of busway, if used, must be
design still maintains a high degree of be transferred to the sparing transformer carefully layed out. It should also be
continuity of service. without interruption, such as for routine noted, that a tie busway or cable fault will
maintenance, and then back to the essentially prevent the use of the sparing
Referring to Figure 1.1-38, it is apparent substation. This closed transition transfer transformer until it is repaired. Commonly,
that the sparing concept backs up primary has an advantage in some facilities; the single-ended substations and the
switch and primary cable failure as well. however, appropriate interrupting sparing transformer must be clustered.
Restoration of lost or failed utility power capacities and bus bracing must be This can also be an advantage, as more
is accomplished similarly to primary specified suitable for the momentary kVA can be supported from a more
selective scheme previously discussed. It parallel operation. compact space layout.
is therefore important to use an automatic
throw-over system in a two source lineup
of primary switchgear to restore utility
power as discussed in the “Two-Source
Primary” scheme—see Figure 1.1-37.
A major advantage of the sparing
transformer system is the typically lower
total base kVA of transformation. In a K K K
double-ended substation design, each
transformer must be rated to carry the
sum of the loads of two buses and usually
requires the addition of cooling fans to
accomplish this rating. In the “sparing” Sparing Transformer
concept, each transformer carries only
its own load, which is typically not a
fan-cooled rating. In addition to first
K K
cost savings, there is a side benefit of
reduced equipment space.
K K
Typical Single-Ended Substation
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6. Simple Spot Network Systems The purpose of the network protector is This occurs in many radial systems
The ac secondary network system is the to protect the integrity of the network because more and smaller feeders
system that has been used for many years bus voltage and the loads served from it are often used in order to minimize the
to distribute electric power in the high- against transformer and primary feeder extent of any outage when a primary
density, downtown areas of cities, usually faults by quickly disconnecting the fault event occurs.
in the form of utility grids. Modifications defective feeder-transformer pair from
the network when backfeed occurs. In spot networks, when a fault occurs on
of this type of system make it applicable a primary feeder or in a transformer, the
to serve loads within buildings. The simple spot network system fault is isolated from the system through
The major advantage of the secondary resembles the secondary-selective radial the automatic tripping of the primary
network system is continuity of service. system in that each load area is supplied feeder circuit breaker and all of the
No single fault anywhere on the primary over two or more primary feeders through network protectors associated with that
system will interrupt service to any of the two or more transformers. In network feeder circuit. This operation does not
system’s loads. Most faults will be cleared systems, the transformers are connected interrupt service to any loads. After the
without interrupting service to any load. through network protectors to a common necessary repairs have been made, the
Another outstanding advantage that the bus, as shown in Figure 1.1-39, from system can be restored to normal
network system offers is its flexibility which loads are served. Because the operating conditions by closing the
to meet changing and growing load transformers are connected in parallel, primary feeder breaker. All network
conditions at minimum cost and minimum a primary feeder or transformer fault protectors associated with that feeder
interruption in service to other loads on does not cause any service interruption will close automatically.
the network. In addition to flexibility and to the loads.
The chief purpose of the network bus
service reliability, the secondary network The paralleled transformers supplying normally closed ties is to provide for the
system provides exceptionally uniform each load bus will normally carry equal sharing of loads and a balancing
and good voltage regulation, and its high load currents, whereas equal loading of of load currents for each primary
efficiency materially reduces the costs of the two separate transformers supplying service and transformer regardless of
system losses. a substation in the secondary-selective the condition of the primary services.
Three major differences between the radial system is difficult to obtain.The
interrupting duty imposed on the outgoing Also, the ties provide a means for
network system and the simple radial isolating and sectionalizing ground fault
system account for the outstanding feeder breakers in the network will be
greater with the spot network system. events within the switchgear network bus,
advantages of the network. First, a thereby saving a portion of the loads from
network protector is connected in the The optimum size and number of primary service interruptions, yet isolating the
secondary leads of each network feeders can be used in the spot network faulted portion for corrective action.
transformer in place of, or in addition system because the loss of any primary
to, the secondary main breaker, as shown feeder and its associated transformers The use of spot network systems provides
in Figure 1.1-39. Also, the secondaries does not result in the loss of any load users with several important advantages.
of each transformer in a given location even for an instant. In spite of the spare First, they save transformer capacity.
(spot) are connected together by a capacity usually supplied in network Spot networks permit equal loading of
switchgear or ring bus from which the systems, savings in primary switchgear transformers under all conditions. Also,
loads are served over short radial feeder and secondary switchgear costs often networks yield lower system losses and
circuits. Finally, the primary supply has result when compared to a radial system greatly improve voltage conditions.
sufficient capacity to carry the entire design with similar spare capacity.
building load without overloading when
any one primary feeder is out of service.
A network protector is a specially
Typical Feeder
designed heavy-duty air power breaker, Primary Circuit
spring close with electrical motor-charged To Other
mechanism, with a network relay to Networks
Network Transformer
control the status of the protector
(tripped or closed). Network Protector
Fuses
The network relay is usually a solid-state
microprocessor-based component Optional Main, 50/51
Relaying and/or
integrated into the protector enclosure Network Disconnect Tie Tie
that functions to automatically close Drawout
the protector only when the voltage Low-Voltage
LV Feeder NC NC Switchgear
conditions are such that its associated
transformer will supply power to the
secondary network loads. It also serves Customer Customer Customer
to automatically open the protector when Loads Loads Loads
power flows from the secondary to the
network transformer. Figure 1.1-39. Three-Source Spot Network
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The voltage regulation on a network 7. Medium-Voltage Distribution Retransfer to the “Normal” can be closed
system is such that both lights and transition subject to the approval of the
power can be fed from the same load System Design utility. Closed transition momentarily
bus. Much larger motors can be started (5–10 cycles) parallels both utility sources.
A. Single Bus, Figure 1.1-40
across-the-line than on a simple radial Caution: when both sources are paralleled,
system. This can result in simplified motor The sources (utility and/or generator(s)) the fault current available on the load
control and permits the use of relatively are connected to a single bus. All feeders side of the main device is the sum of the
large low voltage motors with their less are connected to the same bus. available fault current from each source
expensive control. This configuration is the simplest system; plus the motor fault contribution. It is
however, outage of the utility results in recommended that the short-circuit ratings
Finally, network systems provide a of the bus, feeder breakers and all load
greater degree of flexibility in adding total outage.
side equipment are rated for the increased
future loads; they can be connected to Normally the generator does not have available fault current.
the closest spot network bus. adequate capacity for the entire load.
A properly relayed system equipped If the utility requires open transfer, the
Spot network systems are economical for disconnection of motors from the bus
buildings that have heavy concentrations with load shedding, automatic voltage/
frequency control may be able to must be ensured by means of suitable
of loads covering small areas, with time delay on reclosing as well as
considerable distance between areas, maintain partial system operation.
supervision of the bus voltage and its
and light loads within the distances Any future addition of breaker sections to phase with respect to the incoming
separating the concentrated loads. They the bus will require a shutdown of the source voltage.
are commonly used in hospitals, high rise bus, because there is no tie breaker.
office buildings, institutional buildings This busing scheme does not preclude the
or laboratories where a high degree of use of cogeneration, but requires the use
service reliability is required from the of sophisticated automatic synchronizing
Utility
utility sources. Spot network systems and synchronism checking controls, in
are especially economical where three addition to the previously mentioned
G
or more primary feeders are available. load shedding, automatic frequency and
voltage controls.
Principally, this is due to supplying
each load bus through three or more This configuration is more expensive
transformers and the reduction in spare than the scheme shown in Figure 1.1-40,
cable and transformer capacity required. but service restoration is quicker. Again,
52 52 a utility outage results in total outage to
They are also economical when the load until transfer occurs. Extension
compared to two transformer double- Main Bus of the bus or adding breakers requires a
ended substations with normally opened shutdown of the bus.
tie breakers.
If paralleling sources, reverse current,
Emergency power should be connected reverse power and other appropriate
to network loads downstream from the 52
relaying protection should be added as
network, or upstream at primary voltage, requested by the utility.
not at the network bus itself.
One of Several Feeders
Utility #1 Utility #2
Figure 1.1-40. Single Bus
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C. Multiple Sources with Tie Breaker, In Figure 1.1-43, closing of the tie breaker Summary
Figure 1.1-42 and Figure 1.1-43 following the opening of a main breaker The medium-voltage system configu
This configuration is similar to the can be manual or automatic. However, rations shown are based on using
configuration shown in Figure 1.1-41. because a bus can be fed through two tie metal-clad drawout switchgear. The
It differs significantly in that both utility breakers, the control scheme should be service continuity required from electrical
sources normally carry the loads and also designed to make the selection. systems makes the use of single-source
by the incorporation of a normally open The third tie breaker allows any bus to be systems impractical.
tie breaker. The outage to the system load fed from any utility source.
for a utility outage is limited to half of In the design of a modern medium-
the system. Again, the closing of the tie voltage system, the engineer should:
breaker can be manual or automatic.The Caution for Figure 1.1-41,
Figure 1.1-42 and Figure 1.1-43: 1. Design a system as simple as possible.
statements made for the retransfer of the
configuration shown in Figure 1.1-41 If continuous paralleling of sources is 2. Limit an outage to as small a portion
apply to this scheme also. planned, reverse current, reverse power of the system as possible.
and other appropriate relaying protection
should be added. When both sources are 3. Provide means for expanding the
paralleled for any amount of time, the system without major shutdowns.
Utility #1 Utility #2
fault current available on the load side of 4. Design a protective relaying
the main device is the sum of the system so that only the faulted
available fault current from each source part is removed from service, and
plus the motor fault contribution. It is damage to it is minimized consistent
required that bus bracing, feeder breakers with selectivity.
and all load side equipment is rated for
the increased available fault current. 5. Specify and apply all equipment
52 NC 52 NC
within its published ratings and
national standards pertaining to
NO
Bus #1 Bus #2 the equipment and its installation.
52
Load Load
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The time-varying characteristic of the Synchronous reactance (Xd), which The electric network that determines the
impedance accounts for the symmetrical determines fault current after steady- short-circuit current consists of an AC
decay in current. The ratio of the state condition is reached. It has no driving voltage equal to the pre-fault
reactive and resistive components effect as far as short-circuit calculations system voltage and an impedance
(X/R ratio) accounts for the DC decay, are concerned, but is useful in the corresponding to that observed when
see Figure 1.1-44. The fault current determination of relay settings. looking back into the system from the
consists of an exponentially decreasing fault location.
direct-current component superimposed Transformer impedance, in percent, is
upon a decaying alternating-current. defined as that percent of rated primary In industrial medium- and high-voltage
voltage that must be applied to the work, it is generally satisfactory to regard
The rate of decay of both the DC and AC transformer to produce rated current reactance as the entire impedance;
components depends upon the ratio of flowing in the secondary, with the resistance may be neglected. However,
reactance to resistance (X/R) of the circuit. secondary shorted through zero this is normally permissible only if the
The greater this ratio, the longer the resistance. It is important to note that X/R ratio of the medium voltage system
current remains higher than the steady- the transformer percent impedance is is equal to or more than 25.
state value that it would eventually reach. a per-unit value typically expressed on
the base kVA rating of the transformer. In low-voltage (1000 V and below)
The total fault current is not symmetrical Therefore, it is not necessary to calculate calculations, it is usually worthwhile to
with respect to the time-axis because of maximum fault current produced at attempt greater accuracy by including
the direct-current component, hence it is the fan-cooled rating or the higher resistance with reactance in dealing
called asymmetrical current.The DC temperature rise kVA ratings because the with impedance. It is for this reason,
component depends on the point on the per-unit impedance at those kVA ratings plus ease of manipulating the various
voltage wave at which the fault is initiated. increases by the same ratio, making the impedances of cables and buses and
fault current calculation results the same. transformers of the low-voltage circuits,
See Figure 1.1-45 for multiplying factors that computer studies are recommended
that relate the rms asymmetrical value of Therefore, assuming the primary voltage
can be sustained (generally referred to before final selection of apparatus and
total current to the rms symmetrical value, system arrangements.
and the peak asymmetrical value of total as an infinite or unlimited supply), the
current to the rms symmetrical value. maximum current a transformer can When evaluating the adequacy of
deliver to a fault condition is the quantity short-circuit ratings of medium voltage
The AC component is not constant if of (100 divided by percent impedance) circuit breakers and fuses, both the rms
rotating machines are connected to the times the transformer rated secondary symmetrical value and asymmetrical
system because the impedance of this current. Limiting the power source fault value of the short-circuit current should
apparatus is not constant. The rapid capacity to the transformer primary will be determined.
variation of motor and generator thereby reduce the maximum fault
impedance is due to these factors: current from the transformer secondary. For low-voltage circuit breakers and
fuses, the rms symmetrical value should
Subtransient reactance (Xd ), determines be determined along with either: the
fault current during the first cycle, and X/R ratio of the fault at the device or the
after about 6 cycles this value increases to asymmetrical short-circuit current.
the transient reactance. It is used for the
calculation of the momentary interrupting
and/or momentary withstand duties of
Total Current—A Wholly Offset
equipment and/or system. Asymmetrical Alternating Wave
3.0
Transient reactance (Xd ), which rms Value of Total Current
determines fault current after about Alternating Component -
2.5
6 cycles and this value in 1/2 to 2 seconds Symmetrical Wave
increases to the value of the synchronous 2.0 rms Value of
reactance. It is used in the setting of the Alternating Component
phase overcurrent relays of generators 1.5
Scale of Curent Values
0.5
1 2 3 4
0
0.5
–1.0
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Fault Current Waveform Based on a 60 Hz system and t = 1/2 cycle (ANSI/IEEE C37.13.2015)
Relationships
The following Figure 1.1-45 describes the
relationship between fault current peak Peak multiplication factor =
values, rms symmetrical values and rms
asymmetrical values depending on the
calculated X/R ratio. The table is based on
the following general formulas:
Where:
I = Symmetrical rms current
Ip = Peak current
e = 2.718
w = 2 p f
f = Frequency in Hz
t = Time in seconds
2.8
2.7
PEAK MAXIMUM ASYMMETRICAL
RMS SYMMETRICAL
2.5
2.4
2.3
2.2 1.8
R
TO
C
2.1 1.7
FA
N
PEAK MULTIPLICATION FACTOR =
I O
AT
1.9 1.5
U
M
R
AK
CTO
1.8 1.4
PE
FA
N
TIO
1.7 L ICA 1.3
IP
U LT
1.6 SM 1.2
RM
1.5 1.1
1.4
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
CIRCUIT X/R RATIO (TAN PHASE)
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The steps in the calculation of fault Step 5: Reduce the resistance network by two or more transformations or the per
currents and breaker selection are to an equivalent resistance. Call this unit reactance external to the generation
described hereinafter: resistance RI. The above calculations of is 1.5 times or more than the subtransient
XI and RI may be calculated by several reactance of the generation on a common
Step 1: Collect the X and R data of the computer programs. base. Also use Figure 1.1-48 where the
circuit elements. Convert to a common fault is supplied by a utility only.
kVA and voltage base. If the reactances Step 6: Calculate the E/XI value, where E
and resistances are given either in ohms is the prefault value of the voltage at the Step 9: Interrupting duty short-circuit
or per unit on a different voltage or kVA point of fault nominally assumed 1.0 pu. current = E/XI x MFx = E/X2.
base, all should be changed to the same X
kVA and voltage base. This caution does Step 7: Determine X/R = I as Step 10: Construct the sequence
previously calculated. RI (positive, negative and zero) networks
not apply where the base voltages are the
same as the transformation ratio. properly connected for the type of fault
Step 8: Go to the proper curve for under consideration. Use the X values
Step 2: Construct the sequence networks the type of fault under consideration required by ANSI Standard C37.010 for
and connect properly for the type of fault (three-phase, phase-to-phase, phase-to- the “Close and Latch” duty value of the
under consideration. Use the X values ground), type of breaker at the location short-circuit current.
required by ANSI Standard C37.010 for the (2, 3, 5 or 8 cycles), and contact parting
“interrupting” duty value of the short- time to determine the multiplier to the Step 11: Reduce the network to
circuit current. calculated E/XI. an equivalent reactance. Call the
reactance X. Calculate E/X x 1.6 if the
Step 3: Reduce the reactance network See Figure 1.1-46, Figure 1.1-47 and breaker close and latch capability is
to an equivalent reactance. Call this Figure 1.1-48 for 5-cycle breaker given in rms amperes or E/X x 2.7 if the
reactance XI. multiplying factors. Use Figure 1.1-48 breaker close and latch capability is given
if the short circuit is fed predominantly in peak or crest amperes.
Step 4: Set up the same network for from generators removed from the fault
resistance values.
7
5
12
10
5
8
100 100 100
6
4
4
3
90 90 90
3
80 80 80
IME
Ratio X/R
Ratio X/R
Ratio X/R
70 70 70
TIME
GT
IN
60
RT
60
ING
60
PA
ART
50 50 50 T
AC
T P
NT
AC
CO
40 40 40
NT
CO
30 30 30
5-CYCLE 5-CYCLE 5-CYCLE
BREAKER BREAKER BREAKER
20 20 20
10 10 10
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
Multiplying Factors for E / X Amperes Multiplying Factors for E / X Amperes Multiplying Factors for E / X Amperes
Figure 1.1-46. Three-phase Fault Multiplying Figure 1.1-47. Line-to-Ground Fault Multiplying Figure 1.1-48. Three-phase and Line-to-Ground
Factors that Include Effects of AC and Factors that Include Effects of AC and Fault Multiplying Factors that Include Effects of
DC Decrement DC Decrement DC Decrement Only
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C. E/X x 1.6 ≤ rms closing and Table 1.1-9. Application Quick Check Table
latching capability of the breaker
Source Operating Voltage
and/or Transformer kV
MVA Rating
E/X x 2.7 ≤ Crest closing and Motor Load 2.4 4.16 6.6 12 13.8
latching capability of the breaker.
100% 0%
The ANSI standards do not require the 1 1.5 50VCP-W250 50VCP-W250 150VCP-W500 150VCP-W500 150VCP-W500
inclusion of resistances in the calculation 1.5 2 12 kA 10.1 kA 23 kA 22.5 kA 19.6 kA
of the required interrupting and close 2 2.5
and latch capabilities. Thus the calculated 2.5 3 50VCP-W250
values are conservative. However, when 3 3.75 36 kA
the capabilities of existing switchgear 3.75 5
are investigated, the resistances should 5 7.5 50VCP-W250
be included. 7.5 10 50VCP-W350 33.2 kA
10 a 10 49 kA
For single line-to-ground faults, the
symmetrical interrupting capability 10 12 a
12 15 50VCP-W350 75VCP-W500
is 1.15 x the symmetrical interrupting 41.3 kA
capability at any operating voltage, but 46.9 kA
not to exceed the maximum symmetrical 15 20
capability of the breaker. 20 a 20 BreakerType and symmetrical interrupting 150VCP-W750 150VCP-W750
capacity at the operating voltage 35 kA 30.4 kA
25
ANSI C37 provides further guidance for 30
medium voltage breaker application.
50 a 150VCP-W1000 150VCP-W1000
46.3 kA 40.2 kA
Reclosing Duty a Transformer impedance 6.5% or more, all other transformer impedances are 5.5% or more.
ANSI Standard C37.010 indicates the
reduction factors to use when circuit
breakers are used as reclosers. Eaton
VCP-W breakers are listed at 100% rating
factor for reclosing.
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Application of K >1 Breakers on a Symmetrical Current Rating Basis For Three-Phase Fault
50VCP–W250 4.76 kV 29 kA 36 kA 58 kA I3
(29) = 33.2 kA I1
Note: Interrupting capabilities I1 and I2 at operating voltage must not exceed maximum symmetrical
interrupting capability Kl.
13.8 kV
50VPC-W250
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6.9 kV
1
X X
= 25 = 35
R R
2 3
197A FL 173A FL
X''d = 20% X''d = 25%
3000 hp
1.0 PF 2500 hp
Syn. Ind.
Table 1.1-11. Multiplying Factor for E/X Amperes I1 SourceTransformer 0.628 0.628 11 11 = 157
0.070 = 8.971 0.070 = 8.971 0.070
(ANSI C37)
I2 3000 hp Syn. Motor 0.628 0.628 25 25 = 39
System Type VCP-W Vacuum Circuit Breaker (1.5) 0.638 = 0.656 0.638 = 0.984 0.638
X/R Rated Interrupting Time, 5-Cycle
I3 2500 hp Ind. Motor 0.628 0.628 35 35 = 39
Type of Fault (1.5) 0.908 = 0.461 0.908 = 0.691 0.908
Ratio Three- LG Three-Phase
Phase and LG I3F = 10.088 10.647 Total 1/R = 235
Source of Short Circuit
or 10.1 kA x 1.6
Local Remote 17.0 kA Momentary Duty
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Molded-Case Breakers and Low-Voltage Circuit Breaker Established standard values include
the following:
Insulated Case Circuit Interrupting Derating Factors
Table 1.1-13. Standard Test Power Factors
Breakers—Fault Calculations Refer to Table 1.1-13 for the standard
Interrupting Power Factor X/R Test
ranges of X/R and power factors used in
The method of fault calculation is the Rating in kA Test Range Range
testing and rating low voltage breakers.
same as that for low voltage power circuit Molded-Case Circuit Breaker
Refer to Table 1.1-14 for the circuit breaker
breakers.The calculated fault current 10 or Less 0.45–0.50 1.98–1.73
interrupting rating de-rating factors to
times the MF must be less than the breaker Over 10 to 20 0.25–0.030 3.87–3.18
be used when the calculated X/R ratio or
interrupting capacity. Because molded Over 20 0.15–0.20 6.6–4.9
power factor at the point the breaker is
case breakers are tested at lower X/R Low-Voltage Power Circuit Breaker
to be applied in the power distribution
ratios, the MFs are different than those All 0.15 Maximum 6.6 Minimum
system falls outside of the Table 1.1-13
for low voltage power circuit breakers.
X/R or power factors used in testing and
rating the circuit breakers. For distribution systems where the
Normally the short-circuit power factor calculated short-circuit current X/R ratio
or X/R ratio of a distribution system need differs from the standard values given
not be considered in applying low voltage in the above table, circuit breaker
circuit breakers.This is because the ratings interrupting rating derating factors from
established in the applicable standard are Table 1.1-14 table should be applied.
based on power factor values that amply
cover most applications.
Note: These are derating factors applied to the breaker and are the inverse of MF.
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Short-Circuit Calculations
Determination of Short-Circuit Current
Note: Transformer impedance generally relates to self-ventilated rating (e.g., with ONAN/ONAF/OFAF transformer use OA base).
Note: kV refers to line-to-line voltage in kilovolts.
Note: Z refers to line-to-neutral impedance of system to fault where R + jX = Z.
Note: When totalling the components of system Z, arithmetic combining of impedances as “ohms Z”. “per unit Z”. etc., is considered a shortcut
or approximate method; proper combining of impedances (e.g., source, cables transformers, conductors, etc.). should use individual R and
X components. This Total Z = Total R + j Total X (see IEEE “Red Book” Standard No. 141).
Page 1.1-53
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Example Number 1
How to Calculate Short-Circuit Currents at Ends of Conductors
A. System Diagram B. Impedance Diagram (Using “Short Cut” Method for Combining Impedances and Sources).
A B C
Utility Source 500 MVA
Major Contribution
Utility
Cables
Transformer
Switchboard Fault
1000 kV A
5.75%
480V Cables
Cable Fault
Switchboard Fault
F1 Zm
Zu 0.002 pu Zm 1.00 pu Zm 1.00 pu 1.00 pu
100 ft (30m)
3–350 kcmil Cable Zc
in Steel Conduit Zc Zc
A B C 0.0575 pu 0.027 pu 0.027 pu 0.027 pu
Switchboard Fault Zequiv
Mixed Load—Motors and Lighting F1
Each Feeder—100 ft (30m) of 3–350 kcmil
Cable in Steel Conduit Feeding Lighting and Zc 0.027 pu
250 kVA of Motors
Cable Fault
F2 F2
Cable Fault
Combining Series Impedances: ZTOTAL = Z1 + Z2 + ... +Zn
C. Conductor impedance from Table 1.1-61. 1 = 1 + 1 + ... 1
Combining Parallel Impedances:
Conductors: 3–350 kcmil copper, single ZTOTAL Z1 Z2 Zn
conductors Circuit length: 100 ft (30 m),
in steel (magnetic) conduit Impedance
Z = 0.0617 ohms/ 1,000 ft (304.8 m). 0.0595 pu
0.0777 pu
0.342 pu 0.0507 pu
ZTOT = 0.00617 ohms (100 circuit feet)
F1 F1 Es
D. Fault current calculations (combining
0.027 pu 0.027 pu
impedances arithmetically, using
approximate “Short Cut” method— F2
see Note 4, Page 1.1-53)
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Example Number 2
Fault Calculation—Secondary Side of Single-Phase Transformer
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Determining X and R Values Voltage Drop Considerations Computer Equipment: With the
proliferation of data-processing and
from Transformer Loss Data The first consideration for voltage drop is
that under the steady-state conditions of computer- or microprocessor-controlled
normal load, the voltage at the utilization manufacturing, the sensitivity of
Method 1:
equipment must be adequate. Fine-print computers to voltage has become an
Given a 500 kVA, 5.5% Z transformer important consideration. Severe dips of
with 9000W total loss; 1700W no-load notes in the NEC recommend sizing
feeders and branch circuits so that the short duration can cause a computer to
loss; 7300W load loss and primary “crash”—shut down completely, and
voltage of 480 V. maximum voltage drop in either does not
exceed 3%, with the total voltage drop for other voltage transients caused by
Watts Load Loss = 3 x (I2 x R) feeders and branch circuits not to exceed starting and stopping motors can cause
5%, for efficiency of operation. (Fine print data-processing errors. While voltage
notes in the NEC are not mandatory.) drops must be held to a minimum, in
many cases computers will require
Local energy codes as well as the special power-conditioning equipment
standards for high performance to operate properly.
R = 0.0067 ohms green buildings should be referenced
to determine any additional project Industrial Plants: Where large motors
related voltage drop requirements. exist, and unit substation transformers
are relatively limited in capacity,
In addition to steady-state conditions, voltage dips of as much as 20% may
voltage drop under transient conditions, be permissible if they do not occur too
with sudden high-current, short-time frequently. Lighting is often supplied from
Method 2: loads, must be considered.The most separate transformers, and is minimally
Using same values above. common loads of this type are motor affected by voltage dips in the power
inrush currents during starting.These systems. However, it is usually best to
loads cause a voltage dip on the system as limit dips to between 5 and 10% at most.
a result of the voltage drop in conductors,
transformers and generators under the One critical consideration is that a large
high current.This voltage dip can have voltage dip can cause a dropout (opening)
numerous adverse effects on equipment of magnetic motor contactors and control
in the system, and equipment and relays. The actual dropout voltage varies
conductors must be designed and sized considerably among starters of different
to minimize these problems. In many manufacturers.
cases, reduced-voltage starting of motors The only standard that exists is that of
How to Estimate Short-Circuit to reduce inrush current will be necessary. NEMA, which states that a starter must
Currents at Transformer Secondaries: not drop out at 85% of its nominal coil
voltage, allowing only a 15% dip. While
Method 1: Recommended Limits of most starters will tolerate considerably
To obtain three-phase rms symmetrical Voltage Variation more voltage dip before dropping out,
short-circuit current available at General Illumination: Flicker in limiting dip to 15% is the only way to
transformer secondary terminals, incandescent lighting from voltage dip ensure continuity of operation in all cases.
use the formula: can be severe; lumen output drops about
X-Ray Equipment: Medical x-ray and
three times as much as the voltage dips.
similar diagnostic equipment, such as
That is, a 10% drop in voltage will result
CAT-scanners, are extremely sensitive to
in a 30% drop in light output. While the
where %Z is the transformer impedance low voltage. They present a small, steady
lumen output drop in fluorescent lamps
in percent, from Table 1.1-61 through load to the system until the instant the
is roughly proportional to voltage drop, if
Table 1.1-67, Page 1.1-139. x-ray tube is “fired.” This presents a brief
the voltage dips about 25%, the lamp will
but extremely high instantaneous
This is the maximum three-phase go out momentarily and then restrike.
momentary load.
symmetrical bolted-fault current, For high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps
assuming sustained primary voltage In some modern x-ray equipment,
such as mercury vapor, high-pressure
during fault, i.e., an infinite or unlimited the firing is repeated rapidly to
sodium or metal halide, if the lamp goes
primary power source (zero source create multiple images. The voltage
out because of an excessive voltage dip, it
impedance). Because the power source regulation must be maintained within
will not restrike until it has cooled.This will
must always have some impedance, the manufacturer’s limits, usually 2 to 3%,
require several minutes.These lighting
this is a conservative value; actual fault under these momentary loads, to ensure
flicker effects can be annoying, and in the
current will be somewhat less. proper x-ray exposure.
case of HID lamps, sometimes serious.
Note: This will not include motor short-circuit
In areas where close work is being
contribution.
done, such as drafting rooms, precision
assembly plants, and the like, even a
Method 2:
slight variation, if repeated, can be very
Refer to Table 1.1-27 in the Reference annoying, and reduce efficiency. Voltage
section, and use appropriate row of data variation in such areas should be held to
based on transformer kVA and primary 2 or 3% under motor-starting or other
short-circuit current available. This will transient conditions.
yield more accurate results and allow for
including motor short-circuit contribution.
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Motor Starting Engine Generator Systems In other words, a NEMA design C motor
Motor inrush on starting must be limited With an engine generator as the source with an autotransformer would have a
to minimize voltage dips. Table 1.1-15 on of power, the type of starter that will limit starting torque of approximately full-load
the next page will help select the proper the inrush depends on the characteristics (see Table 1.1-15) whereas the NEMA
type of motor starter for various motors, of the generator. Although automatic design D motor under the same
and to select generators of adequate voltage regulators are usually used with conditions would have a starting torque
size to limit voltage dip. See Eaton’s all AC engine-generators, the initial dip of approximately 1-1/2 times full-load.
Low-Voltage Motor Control Center (MCC) in voltage is caused by the inherent Note: If a resistance starter were used for the
Design Guide for additional data on regulation of the generator and occurs same motor terminal voltage, the starting
reduced voltage motor starting. too rapidly for the voltage regulator to torque would be the same as that obtained
respond. It will occur whether or not a with autotransformer type, but the starting
regulator is installed. current would be higher, as shown.
Utility Systems
Where the power is supplied by a utility Consequently, the percent of initial voltage
network, the motor inrush can be assumed drop depends on the ratio of the starting Shortcut Method
to be small compared to the system kVA taken by the motor to the generator
capacity, the inherent regulation of The last column in Table 1.1-15 has been
capacity, and voltage at the source can
the generator, the power-factor of the worked out to simplify checking. The
be assumed to be constant during motor
load thrown on the generator, and the figures were obtained by using the
starting. Voltage dips resulting from motor
percentage load carried by the generator. formula above and assuming 1 kVA
starting can be calculated on the basis
generator capacity and 1% voltage drop.
of the voltage drop in the conductors
between the power source and the motor A standard 80% power-factor engine-
resulting from the inrush current. type generator (which would be used Example:
where power is to be supplied to motor
Assuming a project having a 1000 kVA
Where the utility system is limited, the loads) has an inherent regulation of
generator, where the voltage variation
utility will often specify the maximum approximately 40% from no-load to
must not exceed 10%. Can a 75 hp,
permissible inrush current or the full-load. This means that a 50% variation
1750 rpm, 220 V, three-phase, squirrel-cage
maximum hp motor they will permit in load would cause approximately 20%
motor be started without objectionable
to be started across-the-line. variation in voltage (50% x 40% = 20%).
lamp flicker (or 10% voltage drop)?
Assume that a 100 kVA, 80% PF engine-
Transformer Considerations From tables in the circuit protective
type generator is supplying the power
devices reference section, the full-load
If the power source is a transformer, and and that the voltage drop should not
amperes of this size and type of motor is
the inrush kVA or current of the motor exceed 10%. Can a 7-1/2 hp, 220 V,
158 A.To convert to same basis as the last
being started is a small portion of the 1750 rpm, three-phase, squirrel-cage
column, 158 A must be divided by the
full-rated kVA or current of the transformer, motor be started without exceeding this
generator capacity and % voltage drop, or:
the transformer voltage dip will be small voltage drop?
and may be ignored. As the motor inrush
becomes a significant percentage of the Starting current (%F.L.) =
transformer full-load rating, an estimate of
the transformer voltage drop must be Checking against the table, 0.0158 falls
added to the conductor voltage drop to within the 0.0170–0.0146 range for a
obtain the total voltage drop to the motor. From the nameplate data on the motor, NEMA A with an autotransformer starter.
the full-load amperes of a 7-1/2 hp. This indicates that a general-purpose
Accurate voltage drop calculation would motor with autotransformer starting can
220 V, 1750 rpm, three-phase, squirrel-
be complex and depend upon transformer be used.
cage motor is 19.0 A. Therefore:
and conductor resistance, reactance and
impedance, as well as motor inrush Starting current (%F.L.) = Note: Designers may obtain calculated
current and power factor. However, an information from engine generator
approximation can be made on the basis manufacturers.
of the low power-factor motor inrush
current (30–40%) and impedance of The calculation results in conservative
the transformer. From Table 1.1-15, a NEMA design C or results.The engineer should provide to the
NEMA design B motor with an autotrans engine-generator vendor the starting kVA
former starter gives approximately this of all motors connected to the generator
For example, if a 480 V transformer starting ratio. It could also be obtained and their starting sequence.The engineer
has an impedance of 5%, and the from a properly set solid-state adjustable should also specify the maximum
motor inrush current is 25% of the reduced voltage starter. allowable drop.The engineer should
transformer full-load current (FLC), request that the engine-generator vendor
The choice will depend upon the torque consider the proper generator size when
then the worst case voltage drop will requirements of the load since the use of
be 0.25 x 5%, or 1.25%. closed-transition autotransformer reduced
an autotransformer starter reduces the voltage starters, and soft-start solid-state
starting torque in direct proportion to the starter are used; so the most economical
The allowable motor inrush current reduction in starting current. method of installation is obtained.
is determined by the total permissible
voltage drop in transformer and
conductors.
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Voltage Drop Formulas If the receiving end voltage, load current and power factor (PF)
are known.
Approximate Method
Voltage Drop
ER is the receiving end voltage.
where abbreviations are same as below “Exact Method.” Exact Method 2—If receiving or sending mVA and its power
factor are known at a known sending or receiving voltage.
Exact Methods
Voltage drop
Exact Method 1—If sending end voltage and load PF are known.
where:
EVD = Voltage drop, line-to-neutral, volts
where:
ES = Source voltage, line-to-neutral, volts
ER = Receiving line-line voltage in kV
I = Line (Load) current, amperes
ES = Sending line-line voltage in kV
R = Circuit (branch, feeder) resistance, ohms
MVAR = Receiving three-phase mVA
X = Circuit (branch, feeder) reactance, ohms
MVAS = Sending three-phase mVA
cosq = Power factor of load, decimal
Z = Impedance between and receiving ends
sinq = Reactive factor of load, decimal
g = The angle of impedance Z
qR = Receiving end PF
qS = Sending end PF, positive when lagging
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Table 1.1-17. Voltage Drop—Volts per Ampere per 100 Feet (30 m); Three-Phase, Phase-to-Phase
Conductor Size Magnetic Conduit (Steel) Nonmagnetic Conduit (Aluminum or Nonmetallic)
AWG or kcmil Load Power Factor, % Load Power Factor, %
60 70 80 90 100 60 70 80 90 100
Copper Conductors
14 0.3390 0.3910 0.4430 0.4940 0.5410 0.3370 0.3900 0.4410 0.4930 0.5410
12 0.2170 0.2490 0.2810 0.3130 0.3410 0.2150 0.2480 0.2800 0.3120 0.3410
10 0.1390 0.1590 0.1790 0.1980 0.2150 0.1370 0.1580 0.1780 0.1970 0.2150
8 0.0905 0.1030 0.1150 0.1260 0.1350 0.0888 0.1010 0.1140 0.1250 0.1350
6 0.0595 0.0670 0.0742 0.0809 0.0850 0.0579 0.0656 0.0730 0.0800 0.0849
4 0.0399 0.0443 0.0485 0.0522 0.0534 0.0384 0.0430 0.0473 0.0513 0.0533
2 0.0275 0.0300 0.0323 0.0342 0.0336 0.0260 0.0287 0.0312 0.0333 0.0335
1 0.0233 0.0251 0.0267 0.0279 0.0267 0.0218 0.0238 0.0256 0.0270 0.0266
1/0 0.0198 0.0211 0.0222 0.0229 0.0213 0.0183 0.0198 0.0211 0.0220 0.0211
2/0 0.0171 0.0180 0.0187 0.0190 0.0170 0.0156 0.0167 0.0176 0.0181 0.0169
3/0 0.0148 0.0154 0.0158 0.0158 0.0136 0.0134 0.0141 0.0147 0.0149 0.0134
4/0 0.0130 0.0134 0.0136 0.0133 0.0109 0.0116 0.0121 0.0124 0.0124 0.0107
250 0.0122 0.0124 0.0124 0.0120 0.0094 0.0107 0.0111 0.0112 0.0110 0.0091
300 0.0111 0.0112 0.0111 0.0106 0.0080 0.0097 0.0099 0.0099 0.0096 0.0077
350 0.0104 0.0104 0.0102 0.0096 0.0069 0.0090 0.0091 0.0091 0.0087 0.0066
500 0.0100 0.0091 0.0087 0.0080 0.0053 0.0078 0.0077 0.0075 0.0070 0.0049
600 0.0088 0.0086 0.0082 0.0074 0.0046 0.0074 0.0072 0.0070 0.0064 0.0042
750 0.0084 0.0081 0.0077 0.0069 0.0040 0.0069 0.0067 0.0064 0.0058 0.0035
1000 0.0080 0.0077 0.0072 0.0063 0.0035 0.0064 0.0062 0.0058 0.0052 0.0029
Aluminum Conductors
12 0.3296 0.3811 0.4349 0.4848 0.5330 0.3312 0.3802 0.4328 0.4848 0.5331
10 0.2133 0.2429 0.2741 0.3180 0.3363 0.2090 0.2410 0.2740 0.3052 0.3363
8 0.1305 0.1552 0.1758 0.1951 0.2106 0.1286 0.1534 0.1745 0.1933 0.2115
6 0.0898 0.1018 0.1142 0.1254 0.1349 0.0887 0.1011 0.1127 0.1249 0.1361
4 0.0595 0.0660 0.0747 0.0809 0.0862 0.0583 0.0654 0.0719 0.0800 0.0849
2 0.0403 0.0443 0.0483 0.0523 0.0535 0.0389 0.0435 0.0473 0.0514 0.0544
1 0.0332 0.0357 0.0396 0.0423 0.0428 0.0318 0.0349 0.0391 0.0411 0.0428
1/0 0.0286 0.0305 0.0334 0.0350 0.0341 0.0263 0.0287 0.0322 0.0337 0.0339
2/0 0.0234 0.0246 0.0275 0.0284 0.0274 0.0227 0.0244 0.0264 0.0274 0.0273
3/0 0.0209 0.0220 0.0231 0.0241 0.0217 0.0160 0.0171 0.0218 0.0233 0.0222
4/0 0.0172 0.0174 0.0179 0.0177 0.0170 0.0152 0.0159 0.0171 0.0179 0.0172
250 0.0158 0.0163 0.0162 0.0159 0.0145 0.0138 0.0144 0.0147 0.0155 0.0138
300 0.0137 0.0139 0.0143 0.0144 0.0122 0.0126 0.0128 0.0133 0.0132 0.0125
350 0.0130 0.0133 0.0128 0.0131 0.0100 0.0122 0.0123 0.0119 0.0120 0.0101
500 0.0112 0.0111 0.0114 0.0099 0.0076 0.0093 0.0094 0.0094 0.0091 0.0072
600 0.0101 0.0106 0.0097 0.0090 0.0063 0.0084 0.0085 0.0085 0.0081 0.0060
750 0.0095 0.0094 0.0090 0.0084 0.0056 0.0081 0.0080 0.0078 0.0072 0.0051
1000 0.0085 0.0082 0.0078 0.0071 0.0043 0.0069 0.0068 0.0065 0.0058 0.0038
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10,000
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
70
80
90
.5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60
1000 1000
communications systems, and the like. In 900
800 4.16 kV 250 MVA
900
800
700 700
addition, economic loss from outages can 600 600
Thru Fault
able analysis and selection and application
30 30
Protection Curve
of each overcurrent protective device in 20 (More Than 10 in
Lifetime)
C 1,600A 20
TIME IN SECONDS
TIME IN SECONDS
5 5
the overcurrent disturbance so that the 4
20,000A
4
.04 .04
.03 .03
4.16 kV Fault
A
480V Fault
.02 .02
Max.
.01 .01
.5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60
70
80
90
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10,000
Figure 1.1-55. Time-Current Characteristic Curves for Typical Power Distribution System Protective
Devices Coordination Analysis
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In this manner, primary fuses and circuit Therefore in coordination studies, the Application data is available for all
breaker relays on the primary side of a knee of the short-time pickup setting protective equipment to permit systems
substation transformer can be coordinated on the secondary breaker should be to be designed for adequate overcurrent
with the low voltage breakers.Transformer multiplied by protection and coordination.
damage points, based on ANSI standards,
and low voltage cable heating limits can ■■ For circuit breakers of all types,
also be plotted on this set of curves to time-current curves permit selection of
ensure that apparatus limitations are instantaneous and inverse-time trips
before it is compared to the minimum
not exceeded. melting time of the upstream primary ■■ For more complex circuit breakers,
fuse curve. In the example shown, the with solid-state trip units, trip curves
Ground-fault curves may also be included include long- and short-time delays, as
knee is at 4000 A 30 sec., and the 30-sec.
in the coordination study if ground-fault well as ground-fault tripping, with a
trip time should be compared to the MMT
protection is provided, but care must be wide range of settings and features to
(minimum melt time) of the fuse curve at
used in interpreting their meaning. provide selectivity and coordination
4000 x 1.1547 = 4619 A. In this case, there
Standard definitions have been is adequate clearance to the fuse curve. ■■ For current-limiting circuit breakers,
established for overcurrent protective fuses, and circuit breakers with integral
In the example shown, the ANSI
devices covering ratings, operation fuses, not only are time-current
three-phase through fault transformer
and application systems. Referring to characteristic curves available, but also
protection curve must be multiplied
Figure 1.1-55, the Single Line Diagram data on current-limiting performance
by 0.577 and replotted in order to
references the below defined equipment. and protection for downstream devices
determine the protection given by the
M—Motor (100 hp). Dashed line shows primary for a single line to ground fault In a fully rated system, all circuit breakers
initial inrush current, starting current in the secondary. must have an interrupting capacity
during 9-sec. acceleration, and drop to adequate for the maximum available fault
Maximum 480 V three-phase fault
124 A normal running current, all well current at their point of application. All
indicated on the horizontal current axis.
below CBA trip curve. breakers are equipped with long-time-
Maximum 4160 V three-phase fault delay (and possibly short delay) and
A—CB (175 A) coordinates selectively instantaneous overcurrent trip devices.
indicated, converted to 480 V basis.
with motor M on starting and running and A main breaker may have short time-
with all upstream devices, except that CB delay tripping to allow a feeder breaker
B will trip first on low level ground faults. to isolate the fault while power is
B—CB (600 A) coordinates selectively The ANSI protection curves are maintained to all the remaining feeders.
with all upstream and downstream specified in ANSI C57.109 for liquid- A selective or fully coordinated system
devices, except will trip before A on filled transformers and C57.12.59 for permits maximum service continuity.
limited ground faults, since A has no dry-type transformers. The tripping characteristics of each
ground fault trips. overcurrent device in the system must
Illustrative examples such as shown
C—Main CB (1600 A) coordinates here start the coordination study from the be selected and set so that the breaker
selectively with all downstream devices lowest rated device proceeding upstream. nearest the fault opens to isolate the
and with primary fuse D, for all faults on In practice, the setting or rating of the faulted circuit, while all other breakers
load side of CB. utility’s protective device sets the upper remain closed, continuing power to the
limit. Even in cases where the customer entire unfaulted part of the system.
D—Primary fuse (250 A, 4160 V) coor
owns the medium voltage or higher The 2014 edition of the National Electrical
dinates selectively with all secondary
distribution system, the setting or rating Code contains specific requirements for
protective devices. Curve converted to
of the lowest set protective device at the designing certain circuits with selective
480 V basis. Clears transformer inrush
source determines the settings of the coordination. Article 100 defines selective
point (12 x FLC for 0.1 sec.), indicating
downstream devices and the coordination. coordination: Coordination (Selective), the
that fuse will not blow on inrush. Fuse is
underneath right-half of ANSI three-phase Therefore the coordination study should following definition: “Localization of an
withstand curve, indicating fuse will start at the present setting or rating of the overcurrent condition to restrict outages
protect transformer for high-magnitude upstream device and work toward the to the circuit or equipment affected,
faults up to ANSI rating. lowest rated device. If this procedure accomplished by the selection and
results in unacceptable settings, the installation of overcurrent protective
Delta-wye transformer secondary devices and their ratings or settings for
setting or rating of the upstream device
side short circuit is not reflected to the the full range of available overcurrents,
should be reviewed. Where the utility is
primary by the following relation for L-L from overload to the maximum available
the sole source, they should be consulted.
and L-G faults. fault current, and for the full range of
Where the owner has its own medium or
higher voltage distribution, the settings overcurrent protective device opening
or ratings of all upstream devices should times associated with those overcurrents.”
be checked.
For line-to-line fault, the secondary (low
If perfect coordination is not feasible, then
voltage) side fault current is 0.866 x I
lack of coordination should be limited to
three-phase fault current.
the smallest part of the system.
However, the primary (high voltage) side
fault is the same as if the secondary fault
was a three-phase fault.
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System Protection Considerations 1.1-61
Article 620.62 (elevators, dumbwaiters, In general for systems such as shown in B. Devices Rated 800 A or Less. The next
escalators, moving walks, wheelchair Figure 1.1-55: higher standard overcurrent device
lifts, and stairway chair lifts) requires rating (above the ampacity of the
“Where more than one driving machine 1. The settings or ratings of the conductors being protected) shall be
disconnecting means is supplied by a transformer primary side fuse and permitted to be used, provided all of
single feeder, the overcurrent protective main breaker must not exceed the the following conditions are met.
devices in each disconnecting means settings allowed by NEC Article 450.
shall be selectively coordinated with any 1. The conductors being protected
2. At 12 x IFL the minimum melting time are not part of a branch circuit
other supply side overcurrent protective characteristic of the fuse should be
device.” A similar requirement under supplying more than one
higher than 0.1 second. receptacle for cord-and-plug-
Article 700.28 is as follows; “Emergency
system(s) overcurrent devices shall be 3. The primary fuse should be to the left connected portable loads.
selectively coordinated with all supply of the transformer damage curve as 2. The ampacity of the conductors
side overcurrent protective devices.” much as possible.The correction factor does not correspond with the
Article 701.27 states that “Legally required for a single line-to-ground factor must standard ampere rating of a fuse or
standby system(s) overcurrent devices be applied to the damage curve. a circuit breaker without overload
shall be selectively coordinated with all trip adjustments above its rating
4. The setting of the short-time delay
supply side overcurrent devices.” (but that shall be permitted to have
element must be checked against the
Exception: Selective coordination shall fuse Minimum Melt Time (MMT) after other trip or rating adjustments).
not be required between two overcurrent it is corrected for line-to-line faults. 3. The next higher standard rating
devices located in series if no loads selected does not exceed 800 A.
5. The maximum fault current must be
are connected in parallel with the
indicated at the load side of each C. Overcurrent Devices Rated Over
downstream device.
protective device. 800 A. Where the overcurrent device is
In addition, for healthcare facilities, rated over 800 A, the ampacity of the
6. The setting of a feeder protective
Article 517.26, Application of Other conductors it protects shall be equal
device must comply with Article 240
Articles requires that “The life safety to or greater than the rating of the
and Article 430 of the NEC. It also must
branch of the essential electrical system overcurrent device as defined in
allow the starting and acceleration
shall meet the requirements of Article Section 240.6.
of the largest motor on the feeder
700, except as amended by Article 517.“
while carrying all the other loads on D. Small Conductors. Unless specifically
All Overcurrent Protective Devices must the feeder. permitted in 240.4(E) or 240.4(G), the
have an interrupting capacity not less overcurrent protection shall not
than the maximum available short-circuit exceed 15 A for 14 AWG, 20 A for 12
current at their point of application. A Protection of Conductors (Excerpts AWG, and 30 A for 10 AWG copper; or
selective system is a fully rated system from NFPA 70-2014, Article 240.4) 15 A for 12 AWG and 25 A for 10 AWG
with tripping devices chosen and adjusted Conductors, other than flexible cords and aluminum and copper-clad aluminum
to provide the desired selectivity. fixture wires, shall be protected against after any correction factors for
The tripping characteristics of each overcurrent in accordance with their ambient temperature and number of
overcurrent device should not overlap, ampacities as specified in Section 310.15, conductors have been applied.
but should maintain a minimum time unless otherwise permitted or required in
240.4 (A) through (G). E. Tap Conductors. Tap conductors shall
interval for devices in series (to allow be permitted to be protected against
for normal operating tolerances) at all A. Power Loss Hazard. Conductor overcurrent in accordance with the
current values. Generally, a maximum of overload protection shall not be following:
four low voltage circuit breakers can be required where the interruption of
operated selectively in series, with the the circuit would create a hazard, 1. 210.19(A)(3) and (A)(4) Household
feeder or branch breaker downstream such as in a material handling magnet Ranges and Cooking Appliances
furthest from the source. circuit or fire pump circuit. Short- and Other Loads.
Specify true rms sensing devices in order circuit protection shall be provided. 2. 240.5(B)(2) Fixture Wire.
to avoid false trips due to rapid currents Note: FPN See NFPA 20-2013, standard for 3. 240.21 Location in Circuit.
or spikes. Specify tripping elements with the Installation of Stationary Pumps for
I2t or I4t feature for improved coordination Fire Protection. 4. 368.17(B) Reduction in Ampacity
with other devices having I2t or I4t Size of Busway.
characteristics and fuses.
5. 368.17(C) Feeder or Branch Circuits
(busway taps).
6. 430.53(D) Single Motor Taps.
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System Protection Considerations 1.1-62
Circuit Breaker Cable The maximum allowable settings are: For low-voltage systems with high-
1200 A pickup, 1 second or less trip delay magnitude available short-circuit
Temperature Ratings at currents of 3000 A or greater. currents, common in urban areas and
UL listed circuit breakers rated 125 A large industrial installations, several
or less shall be marked as being suitable The characteristics of the ground-fault trip solutions are available:
for 60 ºC (140 ºF), 75 ºC (167 ºF) only or elements create coordination problems
60/75 ºC (140/167 ºF) wire. All Eaton with downstream devices not equipped ■■ High interrupting molded-case breakers
breakers rated 125 A or less are marked with ground fault protection. The National ■■ Current-limiting circuit breakers or
60/75 ºC (140/167 ºF). All UL listed circuit Electrical Code exempts fire pumps and current-limiting fuses
breakers rated over 125 A are suitable for continuous industrial processes from
■■ Limiters integral with molded-case
75 ºC conductors. this requirement.
circuit breakers (TRI-PACT)
Conductors rated for higher temperatures The NEC has addressed the concern ■■ MDS-L power circuit breakers with
may be used, but must not be loaded that the impedance added by a step-up, integral current-limiting fuses or
to carry more current than the 75 ºC step-down or isolation transformer MDS-X without current-limiting fuses
ampacity of that size conductor for causes the primary side ground fault
equipment marked or rated 75 ºC or protection to be desensitized to faults To provide current limiting, these devices
the 60 ºC ampacity of that size conductor on its secondary side. Consequently, must clear the fault completely within the
for equipment marked or rated 60 ºC. Article 215.10 clarifies the need for first half-cycle, limiting the peak current
However, when applying derated factors, equipment ground fault protection on (Ip) and heat energy (I2t) let-through to
so long as the actual load does not exceed 1000 A and above 480 Vac feeder circuit considerably less than what would have
the lower of the derated ampacity or the disconnects on the secondary of these occurred without the device.
75 ºC or 60 ºC ampacity that applies. transformers. Article 210.13 has been
added to the 2014 NEC, which recognized For a fully fusible system, rule-of-thumb
the same need for branch circuits being fuse ratios or more accurate I2t curves
Zone Selective Interlocking fed by transformers, as for feeder circuits can be used to provide selectivity
outlined in Article 215.10. and coordination. For fuse-breaker
Trip elements equipped with zone combinations, the fuse should be selected
selective interlocking, trip without (coordinated) so as to permit the breaker
It is recommended that in solidly
intentional time delay unless a restraint to handle those overloads and faults
grounded 480/277 V systems where main
signal is received from a protective device within its capacity; the fuse should
breakers are specified to be equipped with
downstream. Breakers equipped with this operate before or with the current breaker
ground fault trip elements that the feeder
feature reduce the damage at the point of only on large faults, approaching the
breakers be specified to be equipped with
fault if the fault occurs at a location within current interrupting capacity of the
ground fault trip elements as well.
the zone of protection. breaker, to minimize fuse blowing.
The upstream breaker upon receipt of
the restraint signal will not trip until Suggested Ground Fault Settings The three-pole FDCE breakers include
a Digitrip 310+ electronic trip unit and
its time-delay setting times out. If the are available in three models covering
breaker immediately downstream of the
For the main devices:
A ground fault pickup setting equal to loads from 15 A through 225 A. Optional
fault does not open, then after timing out, equipment ground fault allows the
the upstream breaker will trip. 20–30% of the main breaker rating but not
to exceed 1200 A, and a time delay equal designer to extend protection to smaller
Breakers equipped with ground fault trip to the delay of the short- time element, loads that are more likely to cause a
elements should also be specified to but not to exceed 1 second. ground fault trip, such as motors or
include zone interlocking for the ground lighting. Zone Selective Interlocking is
fault trip element. also available to ensure coordinated
For the feeder ground fault setting: tripping with upstream breakers.
A setting equal to 20–30% of the feeder
Ground Fault Protection ampacity and a time delay to coordinate The Series G high performance, current-
with the setting of the main (at least limiting circuit breaker series offers
Article 230.95 of NEC requires ground- 6 cycles below the main). interrupting ratings to 200 kA. Frames
fault protection of equipment shall be are EGC, JGC and LGU.
provided for solidly grounded wye If the desire to selectively coordinate
electrical services of more than 150 V to ground fault devices results in settings
ground, but not exceeding 600 V phase- that do not offer adequate damage
to-phase for each service disconnect protection against arcing single line-
rated 1000 A or more. ground faults, the design engineer
should decide between coordination
The rating of the service disconnect shall and damage limitation.
be considered to be the rating of the
largest fuse that can be installed or the
highest continuous current trip setting
for which the actual overcurrent device
installed in a circuit breaker is rated or
can be adjusted.
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System Protection Considerations 1.1-63
Any of these current-limiting devices— The 2014 National Electrical Code (NEC) Arc Flash Considerations
fuses, fused breakers or current-limiting included new marking requirements for The Arcflash Reduction Maintenance
breakers—cannot only clear these large electrical equipment. Article 110.24 applies System™ is available on power circuit
faults safely, but also will limit the Ip and to service equipment in other than breakers, insulated-case circuit breakers
I2t let-through significantly to prevent dwelling units and mandates that they and molded-case circuit breakers. The
damage to apparatus downstream, “shall be legibly marked in the field with trip units have maintenance settings of
extending their zone of protection. the maximum available fault current. 2.5 to 4 times the current setting. These
Without the current limitation of the The field marking(s) shall include the breakers deliver faster clearing times
upstream device, the fault current could date the fault-current calculation was than standard instantaneous trip by
exceed the withstand capability of the performed and be of sufficient durability eliminating the microprocessor
downstream equipment. to withstand the environment involved.” processing latencies. This system
Article 110.24 (B) requires that: “When is superior to simply reducing the
Underwriters Laboratories tests and lists modifications to the electrical installation
these series combinations. Application instantaneous setting and results in
occur that affect the maximum available arc energy reduction that can allow
information is available for combinations fault current at the service, the maximum
that have been tested and ULT-listed for for reduced PPE, improving worker
available fault current shall be verified or dexterity and mobility. The system can
safe operation. recalculated as necessary.The required also include a remote activation switch
Protective devices in electrical distribution field marking(s) in 110.24 (A) shall be with status indicator.
systems may be properly coordinated adjusted to reflect the new level of
when the systems are designed and built, maximum available fault current.” NEC 2014 240.87 requires Arc Energy
but that is no guarantee that they will Reduction “Where the highest continuous
Consequently, periodic study of current trip setting for which the actual
remain coordinated. System changes protective-device settings and ratings is
and additions, plus power source overcurrent device installed in a circuit
as important for safety and preventing breaker is rated or can be adjusted is
changes, frequently modify the protection power outages as is periodic maintenance
requirements, sometimes causing loss 1200 A or higher, 240.87(A) and (B)
of the distribution system. shall apply.
of coordination and even increasing
fault currents beyond the ratings of In addition, NFPA 70E 130.3 requires the A. Documentation shall be available to
some devices. study be reviewed periodically, but not those authorized to design, install,
less than every 5 years, to account for operate or inspect the installation as
changes in the electrical distribution to the location of the circuit breaker(s).
system that could affect the original
arc-flash analysis. B. Method to Reduce Clearing Time.
One of the following or approved
equivalent means shall be provided:
1. Zone-selective interlocking
2. Differential relaying
3. Energy-reducing maintenance
switching with local status indicator
4. Energy-reducing active arc flash
mitigation system
5. An approved equivalent means”
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Grounding/Ground Fault Protection 1.1-64
(1) Apparatus Fully insulated Lowest Partially graded Partially graded Partially graded
insulation
(2) Fault to Usually low Maximum value rarely Cannot satisfactorily be Low Negligible except when
ground current higher than three-phase reduced below one-half Petersen coil is short
short circuit current or one-third of values circuited for relay
for solid grounding purposes when it may
compare with solidly
grounded systems
(3) Stability Usually unimportant Lower than with other Improved over solid Improved over solid Is eliminated from
methods but can be grounding particularly grounding particularly consideration during
made satisfactory by use if used at receiving end if used at receiving end single line-to-ground faults
of high-speed breakers of system of system unless neutralizer is short
circuited to isolate fault by
relays
(4) Relaying Difficult Satisfactory Satisfactory Satisfactory Requires special
provisions but can be
made satisfactory
(5) Arcing Likely Unlikely Possible if reactance Unlikely Unlikely
grounds is excessive
(6) Localizing Effect of fault transmitted Effect of faults localized to Effect of faults localized to Effect of faults transmitted Effect of faults transmitted
faults as excess voltage on system or part of system system or part of system as excess voltage on as excess voltage on
sound phases to all parts where they occur where they occur unless sound phases to all sound phases to all
of conductively reactance is quite high parts of conductively parts of conductively
connected network connected network connected network
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Grounding/Ground Fault Protection 1.1-65
Because the method of grounding these conditions at any point in a system With selective ground fault isolation the
affects the voltage rise of the unfaulted is not effectively grounded. fault current should be at least 60% of the
phases above ground, ANSI C62.92 three-phase current at the point of fault.
classifies systems from the point of view The aforementioned definition is Damage to cable shields must be checked.
of grounding in terms of a coefficient of significance in medium-voltage Although this fact is not a problem
of grounding distribution systems with long lines and except in small cables, it is a good idea
with grounded sources removed during to supplement the cable shields returns
light load periods so that in some locations of ground fault current to prevent
in the system the X0/X1, R0/X1 may exceed damage, by installing an equipment
the defining limits. Other standards (cable grounding conductor.
and lightning arrester) allow the use of
This same standard also defines systems 100% rated cables and arresters selected The burdens on the current transformers
as effectively grounded when COG is less on the basis of an effectively grounded must be checked also (for saturation
than or equal to 0.8. Such a system would system only where the criteria in the above considerations), where residually
have X0/X1 less than or equal to 3.0 and are met. In effectively grounded system connected ground relays are used and the
R0/X1 less than or equal to 1.0. Any other the line-to-ground fault current is high and current transformers supply current to
grounding means that does not satisfy there is no significant voltage rise in the phase relays and meters.
unfaulted phases.
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Grounding/Ground Fault Protection 1.1-66
If ground sensor current transformers In general, where residually connected Grounding Point
(zero sequence type) are used they must ground relays are used (51N), the fault The most commonly used grounding point
be of high burden capacity. current at each grounded source should is the neutral of the system.This may be
not be limited to less than the current a neutral point created by means of a
Table 1.1-19 taken from ANSI-C62.92 transformers rating of the source. This
indicates the characteristics of the zigzag or a wye-broken delta grounding
rule will provide sensitive differential transformer in a system that was operating
various methods of grounding. protection for wye-connected generators as an ungrounded delta system.
and transformers against line-to-ground
Reactance Grounding faults near the neutral. In general, it is a good practice that all
It is generally used in the grounding of the source neutrals be grounded with the
Of course, if the installation of ground same grounding impedance magnitude.
neutrals of generators directly connected
fault differential protection is feasible, or However, neutrals should not be tied
to the distribution system bus, in order to
ground sensor current transformers are together to a single resistor. Where one of
limit the line-to-ground fault to somewhat
used, sensitive differential relaying in the medium-voltage sources is the utility,
less than the three-phase fault at the
resistance grounded system with greater their consent for impedance grounding
generator terminals. If the reactor is so
fault limitation is feasible. In general, must be obtained.
sized, in all probability the system will
ground sensor current transformers
remain effectively grounded. The neutral impedance must have a
(zero sequence) do not have high
burden capacity. voltage rating at least equal to the rated
Resistance Grounded line-to-neutral voltage class of the system.
Medium-voltage systems in general Resistance grounded systems limit the It must have at least a 10-second rating
should be low resistance grounded. The circulating currents of triplen harmonics equal to the maximum future line-to-
ground fault is typically limited to about and limit the damage at the point of fault. ground fault current and a continuous
200–400 A but less than 1000 A (a cable This method of grounding is not suitable rating to accommodate the triplen
shield consideration). With a properly for line-to-neutral connection of loads. harmonics that may be present.
sized resistor and relaying application, On medium-voltage systems, 100% cable
selective fault isolation is feasible. The insulation is rated for phase-to-neutral
fault limit provided has a bearing on voltage. If continued operation with
4. Low-Voltage System: Grounding
whether residually connected relays one phase faulted to ground is desired, Solidly grounded three-phase systems
are used or ground sensor current increased insulation thickness is required. (Figure 1.1-56) are usually wye-connected,
transformers are used for ground For 100% insulation, fault clearance is with the neutral point grounded. Less
fault relaying. recommended within one minute; for common is the “red-leg” or high-leg
133% insulation, one hour is acceptable; delta, a 240 V system supplied by some
for indefinite operation, as long as utilities with one winding center-tapped
necessary, 173% insulation is required. to provide 120 V to ground for lighting.
This 240 V, three-phase, four-wire system
Table 1.1-19. Characteristics of Grounding is used where 120 V lighting load is small
Grounding Classes Ratios of Symmetrical Percent Fault Per Unit Transient compared to 240 V power load, because
and Means Component Parameters a Current LG Voltage the installation is low in cost to the utility.
X0/X1 R0/X1 R0/X0 b c
A. Effectively d
Phase A
1. Effective
2. Very effective
0-3
0-1
0-1
0-0.1
—
—
>60
>95
≤2
<1.5 • • • Phase B
N
B. Noneffectively • Phase C
1. Inductance
a. Low inductance 3-10 0-1 — >25 <2.3
• Neutral
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A corner-grounded three-phase delta Most transformer-supplied systems are These faults are usually arcing and can
system is sometimes found, with one either solidly grounded or resistance cause severe damage if at least one of
phase grounded to stabilize all voltages grounded. Generator neutrals are often the grounds is not cleared immediately.
to ground. Better solutions are available grounded through a reactor, to limit If the second circuit is remote, enough
for new installations. ground fault (zero sequence) currents to current may not flow to cause protection
values the generator can withstand. to operate. This can leave high voltages
Ungrounded systems (Figure 1.1-57) and stray currents on structures and
can be either wye or delta, although jeopardize personnel.
the ungrounded delta system is far Selecting the Low-Voltage System
more common. Grounding Method In general, where loads will be connected
There is no one “best” distribution system line-to-neutral, solidly grounded systems
for all applications. In choosing among are used. High resistance grounded
solidly grounded, resistance grounded, systems are used as substitutes for
• Phase A
or ungrounded power distribution, the ungrounded systems where high
• • Phase B characteristics of the system must be system availability is required.
Phase C weighed against the requirements of
Ungrounded Delta power loads, lighting loads, continuity With one phase grounded, the voltage to
of service, safety and cost. ground of the other two phases rises 73%,
Phase A to full phase-to-phase voltage. In low-
• • • Phase B Under ground fault conditions, each voltage systems this is not important,
N system behaves very differently: since conductors are insulated for 600 V.
• Phase C
Ungrounded Wye
■■ A solidly grounded system produces A low-voltage resistance grounded
high fault currents, usually with arcing, system is normally grounded so that
and the faulted circuit must be cleared the single line-to-ground fault current
Figure 1.1-57. Ungrounded Systems on the first fault within a fraction of a exceeds the capacitive charging current
Resistance-grounded systems second to minimize damage of the system. If data for the charging
(Figure 1.1-58) are simplest with a ■■ An ungrounded system will pass limited current is not available, use 40–50 ohm
wye connection, grounding the neutral current into the first ground fault— resistor in the neutral of the transformer.
point directly through the resistor. only the charging current of the system, In commercial and institutional
Delta systems can be grounded by caused by the distributed capacitance installations, such as office buildings,
means of a zig-zag or other grounding to ground of the system wiring and shopping centers, schools and hospitals,
transformer. Wye broken delta equipment. In low-voltage systems, lighting loads are often 50% or more of
transformer banks may also be used. this is rarely more than 1 or 2 A the total load. In addition, a feeder outage
Therefore, on first ground fault, an on first ground fault is seldom crucial—
ungrounded system can continue in even in hospitals, that have emergency
Phase A power in critical areas. For these reasons,
• • • Phase B service, making it desirable where power
a solidly grounded wye distribution, with
N outages cannot be tolerated. However, if
R • Phase C the ground fault is intermittent, sputtering the neutral used for lighting circuits, is
or arcing, a high voltage—as much as usually the most economical, effective
6 to 8 times phase voltage—can be built and convenient design. In some
Resistance-Grounded Wye up across the system capacitance, from instances, it is an NEC requirement.
the phase conductors to ground. In industrial installations, the effect of
• • Phase A
Similar high voltages can occur as a shutdown caused by a single ground
• • fault could be disastrous. An interrupted
• Phase B a result of resonance between system
• Phase C capacitance and the inductances of process could cause the loss of all the
• transformers and motors in the system. materials involved, often ruin the process
N • However, the phase-to-phase voltage is equipment itself, and sometimes create
R • not affected. This high transient phase-to- extremely dangerous situations for
ground voltage can puncture insulation operating personnel.
at weak points, such as motor windings, On the other hand, lighting is usually only
Delta With Derived Neutral Resistance- and is a frequent cause of multiple motor
Grounded Using Zig-Zag Transformer a small fraction of the total industrial
failures on ungrounded systems. electrical load. Consequently, a solidly
Locating a first fault on an ungrounded grounded neutral circuit conductor is not
Figure 1.1-58. Resistance-Grounded Systems
system can be difficult. If, before the first imperative. When required, a neutral to
These arrangements create a derived fault is cleared, a second ground fault feed the lighting loads can be obtained
neutral point, which can be either solidly occurs on a different phase, even on a from inexpensive lighting transformers.
or impedance-grounded. If the grounding different, remote feeder, it is a high-
transformer has sufficient capacity, the current phase-to-ground-to-phase fault.
neutral created can be solidly grounded
and used as part of a three-phase,
four-wire system.
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Because of the ability to continue in The resulting ground fault current is Overcurrent protection is designed
operation with one ground fault on the rarely enough to cause the phase to protect conductors and equipment
system, many existing industrial plants overcurrent protection device to open against currents that exceed their
use ungrounded delta distribution. instantaneously and prevent damage. ampacity or rating under prescribed
Today, new installations can have all time values. An overcurrent can result
the advantages of service continuity of Sometimes, the ground fault is below the from an overload, short circuit or (high
the ungrounded delta, yet minimize the trip setting of the protective device and it level) ground fault condition.
problems of the system, such as the does not trip at all until the fault escalates
difficulty of locating the first ground fault, and extensive damage is done. For these When currents flow outside the normal
risk of damage from a second ground reasons, low level ground protection current path to ground, supplementary
fault, and damage transient overvoltages. devices with minimum time delay ground fault protection equipment will be
settings are required to rapidly clear required to sense low-level ground fault
A high-resistance grounded wye ground faults.This is emphasized by the currents and initiate the protection
distribution can continue in operation NEC requirement that a ground fault relay required. Normal phase overcurrent
with a ground fault on the system and on a service shall have a maximum delay protection devices provide no protection
will not develop transient overvoltages. of one second for faults of 3000 A or more. against low-level ground faults.
And, because the ground point is The NEC (Sec. 230.95) requires that There are three basic means of sensing
established, locating a ground fault is ground fault protection, set at no more ground faults. The most simple and direct
less difficult than on an ungrounded than 1200 A, be provided for each service method is the ground return method as
system especially when a “pulsing disconnecting means rated 1000 A or illustrated in Figure 1.1-59. This sensing
contactor” design is applied. When more on solidly grounded wye services method is based on the fact that all
combined with sensitive ground-fault of more than 150 V to ground, but currents supplied by a transformer
protection, damage from a second not exceeding 600 V phase-to-phase. must return to that transformer.
ground fault can be nearly eliminated. Practically, this makes ground fault
protection mandatory on 480Y/277 V
Ungrounded delta systems can be services, but not on 208Y/120 V services. Main
converted to high-resistance grounded
systems, using a zig-zag or other On a 208 V system, the voltage to ground Neutral
grounding transformer to derive a neutral, is 120 V. If a ground fault occurs, the arc Service
Transformer
with similar benefits. While the majority goes out at current zero, and the voltage Sensor GFR
of manufacturing plants use solidly to ground is often too low to cause it Typical
Feeder
Ground Bus
grounded systems, in many instances, to restrike. Therefore, arcing ground
the high-resistance grounded distribution faults on 208 V systems tend to be Main Bonding
will be the most advantageous. self-extinguishing. Jumper
Typical
Grounding Equipment 4W Load
On a 480 V system, with 277 V to Electrode Grounding
Conductor Conductor
Ground Fault Protection ground, restrike usually takes place
A ground fault normally occurs in one after current zero, and the arc tends to
be self-sustaining, causing severe and Figure 1.1-59. Ground Return Sensing Method
of two ways: by accidental contact of
an energized conductor with normally increasing damage, until the fault is When an energized conductor faults to
grounded metal, or as a result of an cleared by a protective device. grounded metal, the fault current returns
insulation failure of an energized The NEC requires ground fault service along the ground return path to the
conductor. When an insulation failure disconnecting means rated 1000 A or neutral of the source transformer. This
occurs, the energized conductor contacts higher. This protection works so fast that path includes the main bonding jumper
normally noncurrent-carrying grounded for ground faults on feeders, or even as shown in Figure 1.1-59.
metal, which is bonded to or part of the branch circuits, it will often open the A current sensor on this conductor
equipment grounding conductor. service disconnect before the feeder or (which can be a conventional bar-type or
In a solidly grounded system, the fault branch circuit overcurrent device can window type CT) will respond to ground
current returns to the source primarily operate. This is highly undesirable, and fault currents only. Normal neutral
along the equipment grounding in the NEC (230.95), an informational currents resulting from unbalanced loads
conductors, with a small part using parallel note states that “additional ground fault will return along the neutral conductor
paths such as building steel or piping. If protective equipment may be needed and will not be detected by the ground
the ground return impedance was as low on feeders and branch circuits where return sensor.
as that of the circuit conductors, ground maximum continuity of electric service
is necessary.” This is an inexpensive method of sensing
fault currents would be high, and the
ground faults where protection per
normal phase overcurrent protection Unless it is acceptable to disconnect the NEC (230.95) is desired. For it to operate
would clear them with little damage. entire service on a ground fault almost properly, the neutral must be grounded
Unfortunately, the impedance of the anywhere in the system, such additional in only one place as indicated in
ground return path is usually higher, stages of ground fault protection must Figure 1.1-59. In many installations, the
the fault itself is usually arcing and the be provided. At least two stages of servicing utility grounds the neutral at the
impedance of the arc further reduces the protection are mandatory in healthcare transformer and additional grounding is
fault current. In a 480Y/277 V system, the facilities (NEC Sec. 517.17). required in the service equipment per
voltage drop across the arc can be from NEC (250.24(A)(2)).
70 to 140 V.
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In such cases, and others including This method of sensing ground faults As with the zero sequence sensing
multiple source with multiple, inter can be employed on the main disconnect method, the resultant residual sensor
connected neutral ground points, where protection per NEC (230.95) is output to the ground fault relay or integral
residual or zero sequence ground desired. It can also be easily employed ground fault tripping circuit will be zero if
sensing methods should be employed. in multi-tier systems where additional all currents flow only in the circuit
levels of ground fault protection are conductors. Should a ground fault occur,
A second method of detecting ground desired for added service continuity. the current from the faulted conductor
faults involves the use of a zero sequence Additional grounding points may be will return along the ground path, rather
sensing method, as illustrated in employed upstream of the sensor, but than on the other circuit conductors, and
Figure 1.1-60. This sensing method not on the load side. the residual sum of the sensor outputs
requires a single specially designed will not be zero. When the level of ground
sensor, either of a toroidal or rectangular Ground fault protection employing fault current exceeds the pre-set current
shaped configuration.This core balance ground return or zero sequence sensing and time delay settings, a ground fault
current transformer surrounds all the methods can be accomplished by the use tripping action will be initiated.
phase and neutral conductors in a typical of separate ground fault relays (GFRs)
three-phase, four-wire distribution system. and disconnects equipped with standard This method of sensing ground faults can
shunt trip devices. Alternately, it can be be economically applied on main service
This sensing method is based on the fact done by circuit breakers using electronic disconnects where circuit breakers with
that the vectorial sum of the phase and trip units with integral ground fault integral ground fault protection are
neutral currents in any distribution circuit protection using external connections provided. It can be used in protection
will equal zero unless a ground fault from sensors arranged for this mode of schemes per NEC (230.95) or in multi-tier
condition exists downstream from the sensing. In some cases, a reliable source schemes where additional levels of
sensor. All currents that flow only in the of control power is needed. ground fault protection are desired for
circuit conductors, including balanced or added service continuity. Additional
unbalanced phase-to-phase and phase- The third basic method of detecting grounding points may be employed
to-neutral normal or fault currents, and ground faults involves the use of multiple upstream of the residual sensors, but
harmonic currents, will result in zero current sensors connected in a residual not on the load side.
sensor output. sensing method as illustrated in
Figure 1.1-61. This is a very common Both the zero sequence and residual
However, should any conductor become sensing method used with circuit breakers sensing methods have been commonly
grounded, the fault current will return equipped with electronic trip units, referred to as “vectorial summation”
along the ground path—not the normal current sensors and integral ground fault methods.
circuit conductors. Consequently, the protection.The three-phase sensors are
sensor will have an unbalanced magnetic required for normal phase overcurrent Most distribution systems can use either
flux condition. The ground fault relay will protection. Ground fault sensing is of the three sensing methods exclusively
sense the unbalance and provide a trip obtained with the addition of an identically or a combination of the sensing methods
signal to the breaker. rated sensor mounted on the neutral. depending upon the complexity of the
system and the degree of service
In a residual sensing scheme, the continuity and selective coordination
Zero
Sequence
Alternate
Sensor
relationship of the polarity markings— desired. Different methods will be
Sensor Location as noted by the “X” on each sensor—is required depending upon the number
Main
critical. Because the vectorial sum of the of supply sources, and the number and
currents in all the conductors will total location of system grounding points.
zero under normal, non-ground faulted
Neutral
conditions, it is imperative that proper As an example, one of the more
polarity connections are employed to frequently used systems where continuity
GFR Typical reflect this condition. of service to critical loads is a factor is
Feeder the dual source system illustrated in
Figure 1.1-62. This system uses tie-point
Typical Sensor
Residual
grounding as permitted under NEC Sec.
Polarity
4W Load
Marks
Sensors 250.24(A)(3). The use of this grounding
Main method is limited to services that are
Figure 1.1-60. Zero Sequence Sensing Method dual fed (double-ended) in a common
enclosure or grouped together in
Zero sequence sensors are available with
Neutral separate enclosures, employing a
various window openings for circuits with
secondary tie.
small or large conductors, and even with
Typical
large rectangular windows to fit over bus GFR Feeder
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M2N
M1G
M2G
M1N
Feeder Feeder
TN
TG
a a
tion between the tie breaker and the
33-
two main circuit breakers is achieved by 52-T
4-Wire 4-Wire
pre-set current pickup and time delay Load
B5 B4 B4 B5 B4 B5 Load
settings between devices GFR/1, GFR/2 B4 B5
Digitrip Digitrip Digitrip
B4 B5
Main Bkr. Main Bkr. Main Bkr.
and GFR/T. Digitrip 52-1 52-T 52-2 Digitrip
Trip Unit
Trip Unit
mains and tie are the same, and that there Typical X
X
Typical X
X
Four-Wire Four-Wire
are no other grounds on the neutral bus Feeder 52-1 52-T 52-2 Feeder
made downstream of points shown. a a a
An infinite number of ground fault
protection schemes can be developed Four-Wire Load Four-Wire Load
Trip Unit Trip Unit Trip Unit
depending upon the number of alternate Main Breaker Tie Breaker Main Breaker
sources, the number of grounding points 52-1 52-T 52-2
and system interconnections involved.
Depending upon the individual system Figure 1.1-63. Dual Source System—Multiple Point Grounding
configuration, either mode of sensing
or a combination of all types may be To maintain maximum service continuity, The use of GFRs (or circuit breakers with
employed to accomplish the desired more than two levels (zones) of ground integral ground fault protection) that
end results. fault protection will be required, so that incorporate Zone Selective Interlocking,
ground fault outages can be localized and allows a coordinated response in a
The NEC (230.95) limits the maximum service interruption minimized. To obtain system by operating in a time delayed
setting of the ground fault protection used selectivity between different levels of mode for ground faults occurring most
on service equipment to 1200 A (and timed ground fault relays, time delay settings remote from the source. This time delayed
tripping at 3000 A for one second). In order should be employed with the GFR furthest mode is only actuated when the GFR
to prevent tripping of the main service downstream having the minimum time protecting the zone containing the fault
disconnect on a downstream feeder delay. This will allow the GFR nearest the sends a restraining signal to the upstream
ground fault, ground fault protection fault to operate first. GFRs. The absence of a restraining signal
must be provided on all the feeders. from a downstream GFR is an indication
With several levels of protection, this will to the next upstream GFR that a ground
reduce the level of protection for faults fault is within its zone of protection and it
within the upstream GFR zones. Zone will operate instantaneously to clear the
interlocking was developed for GFRs to fault with minimum damage and
overcome this problem. maximum service continuity.
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This operating mode permits all GFRs to Further Information These supplemental grounding
operate instantaneously for a fault within ■■ PRSC-4E—System Neutral Grounding electrodes include: the effectively
their zone and still provide complete and Ground Fault Protection grounded metal frame of the building,
selectivity between zones. (ABB Publication) a concrete-encased electrode, a copper
conductor ground ring encircling the
The National Electrical Manufacturers ■■ PB 2.2—NEMA Application Guide
building, or a made electrode such as one
Association (NEMA) states, in their for Ground Fault Protective Devices or more driven ground rods or a buried
application guide for ground fault for Equipment plate. Where any of these electrodes are
protection, that zone interlocking is ■■ IEEE Standard 142—Grounding of present, they must be bonded together
necessary to minimize damage from Industrial and Commercial Power into one grounding electrode system.
ground faults. A two-wire connection is Systems (Green Book)
required to carry the restraining signal One of the most effective grounding
■■ IEEE Emerald Book (Standard 1100)
from the GFRs in one zone to the GFRs in electrodes is the concrete-encased
the next zone. ■■ UL 96A, Installation Requirements for electrode, sometimes called the Ufer
Lightning Protection Systems ground, named after the man who
Circuit breakers with integral ground fault developed it. It consists of at least 20 ft
protection and standard circuit breakers (6 m) of steel reinforcing bars or rods not
with shunt trips activated by the ground Lightning and Surge Protection
less than 1/2 inches (12.7 mm) in
fault relay are ideal for ground fault Physical protection of buildings from diameter, or at least 20 ft (6 m) of bare
protection. Eaton’s Pringle Bolted direct damage from lightning is beyond copper conductor, size No. 4 AWG
Pressure Type fused switches have an the scope of this section. Requirements or larger, encased in at least 2 inches
optional integral ground fault protection will vary with geographic location, (50.8 mm) of concrete. It must be located
relay and meet UL Class 1 requirements building type and environment, and within and near the bottom of a concrete
to open safely on faults up to 12 times many other factors (see IEEE/ANSI foundation or footing that is in direct
their rating. Eaton’s Shunt Trip Safety Standard 142, Grounding of Industrial contact with the earth. Tests have shown
Switches have passed Class 1 ground and Commercial Power Systems). Any this electrode to provide a low-resistance
fault testing and include an integral shunt lightning protection system must be earth ground even in poor soil conditions.
trip mechanism that can be field wired to grounded, and the lightning protection
an external ground fault relay. ground must be bonded to the electrical The electrical distribution system and
equipment grounding system. equipment ground must be connected
Power distribution systems differ widely to this grounding electrode system by
from each other, depending upon the a grounding electrode conductor. All
requirements of each end user’s facility Grounding Electrodes other grounding electrodes, such as those
type and application. A power system At some point, the equipment and for the lightning protection system, the
design professional needs to carefully system grounds must be connected telephone system, television antenna and
evaluate total system overcurrent to the earth by means of a grounding cable TV system grounds, and computer
protection, including ground fault electrode system. systems, must be bonded to this
currents, to meet these needs. grounding electrode system.
Experienced and knowledgeable Outdoor substations usually use a ground
engineers have to consider the impact grid, consisting of a number of ground There are many books written about the
on all power sources (utility and on-site rods driven into the earth and bonded design and application of grounding
generation), the effects of outages and together by buried copper conductors.The systems. For those diligent engineers
the cost impact of downtime, as well as required grounding electrode system for a seeking more information, the following
safety for people and equipment from building is spelled out in NEC Article 250. publications are recommended reading:
arc flash hazards, when balancing
enhanced protection schemes against The preferred grounding electrode is a ■■ Soares Book on Grounding and
initial equipment cost. They must metal underground water pipe in direct Bonding, 2014 NEC. IAEI 12th Edition
apply protective devices, analyzing the contact with the earth for at least 10 ft by International Association of
time-current characteristics and fault (3 m). However, because underground Electrical Inspectors
interrupting capacity, as well as selectivity water piping is often plastic outside the ■■ McGraw Hill’s National Electrical Code
and coordination methods to provide building, or may later be replaced by 2014 Grounding & Earthing Handbook
the most safe and cost-effective plastic piping, the NEC requires this
distribution system. electrode to be supplemented by
and bonded to at least one other
grounding electrode.
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Medium-Voltage Equipment Surge Recognizing that distribution system can Surge Protection Recommendations
be subject to voltage transients caused 1. For circuits exposed to lightning,
Protection Considerations by lighting or switching, the industry surge arresters should be applied in
has developed standards to provide line with Industry standard practices.
Transformers
guidelines for surge protection of electrical
If the voltage withstand/BIL rating of equipment.Those guidelines should be 2. Transformers—Because each
the transformer is less than that of the used in design and protection of electrical installation is unique, a variety of
switchgear feeding the transformer, distribution systems independent of the different factors can impact how the
surge protection is recommended at circuit breaker interrupting medium.The various electrical components interact
the transformer terminals, in line with industry standards are: as a system (i.e.,: transformer type
established practices. In addition, and MVA rating, system impedances,
consideration should be given to using ANSI C62 the Manufacturer’s Vacuum
surge arresters and/or surge capacitors Guides and Standards for Interrupter Current Chop Rating, etc.).
for transformers having equal or greater Surge Protection Consequently, there is no singular
withstand/BIL ratings than that of the answer for all situations. The optimum
switchgear feeding the transformer for IEEE 242—Buff Book
IEEE Recommended Practice for application of snubbers may require
distribution systems where reflected recommendations from a switching
voltage waves and/or resonant conditions Protection and Coordination of
Industrial and Commercial transient study.
may occur.
Power Systems Typical rules of thumb are:
Typically incoming voltage surges are
reflected at the transformer primary IEEE 141—Red Book a. Close-coupled to medium-
terminals, resulting in voltages at the Recommended Practice for Electric voltage primary breaker: Provide
ends of the transformer primary Power Distribution for Industrial Plants transients surge protection, such
terminals/windings of up to two times IEEE C37.20.2 as Surge Arrester in parallel with
the incoming voltage wave. System Standards for Metal-Clad Switchgear RC Snubber. The surge protection
capacitance and inductance values device selected should be located
combined with the transformer Eaton’s medium-voltage metal-clad and and connected at the transformer
impedance values can cause resonant metal-enclosed switchgear that uses primary terminals or it can be
conditions resulting in amplified reflected vacuum circuit breakers is applied over located inside the switchgear and
waves. Surge arresters/capacitors when a broad range of circuits. It is one of the connected on the transformer side
required, should be located as close to many types of equipment in the total of the primary breaker.
the transformer primary terminals distribution system. Whenever a b. Cable-connected to medium-
as practical. switching device is opened or closed, voltage primary breaker: Provide
certain interactions of the power system transient surge protection, such
Where concerns exist for transformer elements with the switching device can as surge arrester in parallel with
failures or life reduction due to cause high frequency voltage transients RC Snubber for transformers
switching transients, Eaton offers an in the system. connected by cables with lengths
environmentally friendly oil-filled
Due to the wide range of applications up to 150 feet. The surge protection
hardened transformer solution.
and variety of ratings used for different device should be located and
elements in the power systems, a given connected at the transformer
Motors terminals. Surge protection
circuit may or may not require surge
Surge capacitors and, where appropriate, protection. Therefore, Eaton does not is generally not needed for
surge arresters should be applied at the include surge protection as standard transformers with lightning
motor terminals. with its metal-clad or metal-enclosed impulse withstand ratings equal
medium-voltage switchgear. to that of the switchgear and
Generators connected to the switchgear by
The system designer must specify cables at least 150 feet or longer.
Surge capacitors and station class surge the optional type and extent of surge For transformers with lower BIL,
arresters should be properly applied at protection necessary, depending on the provide surge arrester in parallel
the machine terminals. individual circuit characteristics and cost with RC Snubber.
considerations. Because transformers c. When special transient resistant
Surge Protection have both high initial installation and transformer designs are used, RC
replacement costs, the specifying snubbers may not be required for
Eaton’s VacClad-W metal-clad switchgear engineer should consider commissioning
is applied over a broad range of circuits, power transformer protection.
an optional study. These switching However, they may be needed for
and is one of the many types of equipment transient studies and their associated
in the total system.The distribution system instrument transformer protection.
recommendations can be provided by
can be subject to voltage transients caused Eaton’s Engineering Services & Systems
by lighting or switching surges. group (EESS).
The following are Eaton’s recommenda
tions for surge protection of medium-
voltage equipment. Please note these
recommendations are valid when using
Eaton’s vacuum breakers only.
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RC Snubber to dampen internal Types of Surge Protection Devices B. Low Resistance Grounded Systems
transformer resonance: Generally surge protective devices should (systems grounded through resistor
be located as closely as possible to the rated for 10 seconds): Arrester
The natural frequency of transformer 10-second MCOV capability at 60 ºC,
windings can under some circum- circuit component(s) that require
protection from the transients, and which is obtained from manufacturer’s
stances be excited to resonate. data, should be equal to 1.05 x VLL,
Transformer windings in resonance connected directly to the terminals of the
component with conductors that are as where VLL is nominal line-to-line
can produce elevated internal service voltage, and 1.05 factor allows
voltages that produce insulation short and flat as possible to minimize the
inductance. It is also important that surge for +5% voltage variation above the
damage or failure. An RC Snubber nominal voltage.
applied at the transformer terminals protection devices should be properly
as indicated above can dampen grounded for effectively shunting high C. Ungrounded or Systems Grounded
internal winding resonance and frequency transients to ground. through impedance other than a
prevent the production of damaging 10-second resistor: Arrester MCOV
elevated internal voltages. This is Surge Arresters rating should be equal to 1.05 x VLL/T,
typically required where rectifiers, Modern metal-oxide surge arresters are where VLL and T are as defined above.
UPS or similar electronic equipment recommended as this design ensures
is on the transformer secondary. Refer to Table 1.1-20 for recommended
better performance and high reliability of ratings for metal-oxide surge arresters
3. Arc-Furnace Transformers—Provide surge protection schemes. Manufacturer’s that are sized in accordance with the
Surge Arrester in parallel with RC technical data must be consulted for above guidelines, when located in
Snubber at the transformer terminals. correct application of a given type of Eaton’s switchgear.
surge arrester.
4. Motors—Provide Surge Arrester in
parallel with RC Snubber at the motor Many manufacturer’s published arrester Surge Capacitors
terminals. For those motors using MCOV (maximum continuous operating Metal-oxide surge arresters limit the
VFDs, surge protection should be voltage) ratings are based on 40 ºC or magnitude of prospective surge over
applied and precede the VFD devices 45 ºC ambient temperature. In general, the voltage, but are ineffective in controlling
as well. following guidelines are recommended for its rate of rise. Specially designed surge
arrester selections, when installed inside capacitors with low internal inductance
5. Generators—Provide station class Eaton’s medium-voltage switchgear: are used to limit the rate of rise of this
Surge Arrester in parallel with RC surge overvoltage to protect turn-to-turn
Snubber at the generator terminals. A. Solidly Grounded Systems: Arrester
MCOV rating should be equal to insulation. Recommended values for
6. Capacitor Switching—No surge 1.05 x VLL/(1.732 x T), where VLL is surge capacitors are: 0.5 µf on 5 and
protection is required. Make sure nominal line-to-line service voltage, 7.5 kV, 0.25 µf on 15 kV, and 0.13 µf on
that the capacitor’s lightning impulse 1.05 factor allows for +5% voltage systems operating at 24 kV and higher.
withstand rating is equal to that of variation above the nominal voltage
the switchgear. according to ANSI C84.1, and T is
derating factor to allow for operation
7. Shunt Reactor Switching—Provide at 55 ºC switchgear ambient, which
Surge Arrester in parallel with RC should be obtained from the arrester
Snubber at the reactor terminals. manufacturer for the type of arrester
8. Motor Starting Reactors or Reduced under consideration. Typical values of
Voltage Auto-Transformers— T are: 0.946 to 1.0.
Provide Surge Arrester in parallel
with RC Snubber at the reactor or
RVAT terminals.
9. Switching Underground Cables—
Surge protection should be properly
applied as determined by a switching
transient study.
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2.30 3 2.55 3 2.55 3 2.55 3 2.55 3 2.55 3 2.55
2.40 3 2.55 3 2.55 6 5.10 3 2.55 3 2.55 6 5.10
3.30 3 2.55 3 2.55 6 5.10 3 2.55 3 2.55 6 5.10
4.00 3 2.55 6 5.10 6 5.10 3 2.55 6 5.10 6 5.10
4.16 6 5.10 6 5.10 6 5.10 6 5.10 6 5.10 6 5.10
4.76 6 5.10 6 5.10 9 7.65 6 5.10 6 5.10 9 7.65
4.80 6 5.10 6 5.10 9 7.65 6 5.10 6 5.10 9 7.65
6.60 6 5.10 6 5.10 9 7.65 6 5.10 6 5.10 9 7.65
6.90 6 5.10 6 5.10 9 7.65 6 5.10 9 7.65 9 7.65
7.20 6 5.10 6 5.10 10 8.40 6 5.10 9 7.65 10 8.40
8.32 9 7.65 9 7.65 12 10.20 9 7.65 9 7.65 12 10.20
8.40 9 7.65 9 7.65 12 10.20 9 7.65 9 7.65 12 10.20
11.00 9 7.65 9 7.65 15 12.70 9 7.65 10 8.40 15 12.70
11.50 9 7.65 10 8.40 18 15.30 9 7.65 12 10.20 18 15.30
12.00 10 8.40 10 8.40 18 15.30 10 8.40 12 10.20 18 15.30
12.47 10 8.40 12 10.20 18 15.30 10 8.40 12 10.20 18 15.30
13.20 12 10.20 12 10.20 18 15.30 12 10.20 12 10.20 18 15.30
13.80 12 10.20 12 10.20 18 15.30 12 10.20 15 12.70 18 15.30
14.40 12 10.20 12 10.20 21 17.00 12 10.20 15 12.70 21 17.00
18.00 15 12.70 15 12.70 27 22.00 15 12.70 18 15.30 27 22.00
20.78 18 15.30 18 15.30 30 24.40 18 15.30 21 17.00 30 24.40
22.00 18 15.30 18 15.30 30 24.40 18 15.30 21 17.00 30 24.40
22.86 18 15.30 21 17.00 — — 18 15.30 24 19.50 36 29.00
23.00 18 15.30 21 17.00 — — 18 15.30 24 19.50 36 29.00
24.94 21 17.00 24 19.50 — — 21 17.00 24 19.50 36 29.00
25.80 21 17.00 24 19.50 — — 21 17.00 24 19.50 36 29.00
26.40 21 17.00 24 19.50 — — 21 17.00 27 22.00 39 31.50
33.00 27 22.00 30 24.40 — — 27 22.00 36 29.00 45 36.50
34.50 30 24.40 30 24.40 — — 30 24.40 36 29.00 48 39.00
38.00 30 24.40 — — — — 30 24.40 36 29.00 — —
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Enclosures
The following are reproduced from NEMA 250.
Table 1.1-22. Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Indoor Nonhazardous Locations
Provides a Degree of Protection Against the Enclosure Type
Following Environmental Conditions 1a 2a 4 4X 5 6 6P 12 12K 13
Table 1.1-23. Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Outdoor Nonhazardous Locations
Provides a Degree of Protection Against the Enclosure Type
Following Environmental Conditions 3 3R c 3S 4 4X 6 6P
Table 1.1-24. Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Indoor Hazardous Locations
Provides a Degree of Protection Against Class Enclosure Types Enclosure Type
Atmospheres Typically Containing 7 and 8, Class I Groups f 9, Class II Groups f
(For Complete Listing, See NFPA 497M) A B C D E F G 10
Acetylene I n
Hydrogen, manufactured gas I n
diethyl ether, ethylene, cyclopropane I n
Gasoline, hexane, butane, naphtha, propane, acetone, toluene, isoprene I n
Metal dust II n
Carbon black, coal dust, coke dust II n
Flour, starch, grain dust II n n
Fibers, flyings g III n
Methane with or without coal dust MSHA n
f For Class III type ignitable fibers or combustible flyings, see the National Electrical Code, Article 500.
g Due to the characteristics of the gas, vapor or dust, a product suitable for one class or group may not be suitable for another class or group unless so marked on
the product.
Note: If the installation is outdoors and/or additional protection is required by Table 1.1-22 and Table 1.1-23, a combination-type enclosure is required.
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Table 1.1-25. Conversion of NEMA Enclosure Type Ratings to IEC 60529 Enclosure Classification Designations (IP) (From NEMA Publication 250)
(Cannot be Used to Convert IEC Classification Designations to NEMA Type Ratings)
Referencing the first character, 4, in the IP rating and the row designated “IP4–” in the leftmost column in the
table; the blocks in Column “A” for NEMA Types 3, 3S, 4, 4X, 5, 6, 6P, 12, 12K and 13 are shaded. These NEMA
ratings meet and exceed the IEC protection requirements against access to hazardous parts and solid foreign
objects. Referencing the second character, 5, in the IP rating and the row designated “IP–5” in the rightmost
column in the table; the blocks in Column “B” for NEMA Types 3, 3S, 4, 4X, 6 and 6P are shaded. These NEMA
ratings meet and exceed the IEC requirements for protection against the ingress of water. The absence of shading
in Column “B” beneath the “NEMA Enclosure Type 5” indicates that Type 5 does not meet the IP45 protection
requirements against the ingress of water. Likewise, the absence of shading in Column “B” for NEMA Type 12,
12K and 13 enclosures indicates that these enclosures do not meet the IP45 requirements for protection against
the ingressof water. Only Types 3, 3S, 4, 4X, 6 and 6P have both Column “A” in the “IP4–” row and Column “B”
in the “IP–5” row shaded and could be used in an IP45 application.
The NEMA Enclosure Type 3 not only meets the IP45 Enclosure Rating, but also exceeds the IEC requirements
because the NEMA Type requires an outdoor corrosion test; a gasket aging test; a dust test; an external icing
test; and no water penetration in the rain test. Slight differences exist between the IEC and NEMA test methods,
but the IEC rating permits the penetration of water if “it does not deposit on insulation parts, or reach live parts.”
The IEC rating does not require a corrosion test; gasket aging test; dust test or external icing test. Because the
NEMA ratings include additional test requirements, this table cannot be used to select IP Designations for NEMA
rated enclosure specifications.
IEC 60529 specifies that an enclosure shall only be designated with a stated degree of protection indicated by
the first characteristic numeral if it also complies with all lower degrees of protection. Furthermore, IEC 60529
states that an enclosure shall only be designated with a degreeof protection indicated by the second characteristic
numeral if it also complies with all lower degrees of protection up to and including the secondcharacteristic
numeral 6. An enclosure designated with a second characteristic numeral 7 or 8 only is considered unsuitable
for exposure to water jets (designated by second characteristic numeral 5 or 6) and need not comply with
requirements for numeral 5 or 6 unless it is dual coded. Because the IEC protection requirements become more
stringent with increasing IP character value up through 6, once a NEMA Type rating meets the requirements for
an IP designation up through 6, it will also meet the requirements for all lower IP designations. This is apparent
from the shaded areas shown in the table.
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Typical Components of a Power System 1.1-79
30 83.3 72.2 36.1 28.9 7.22 4.16 2.41 1.44 1.39 1.31 1.26 0.75 0.50
45 125 108 54.1 43.3 10.8 6.25 3.61 2.17 2.08 1.97 1.88 1.13 0.76
75 208 180 90.2 72.2 18.0 10.4 6.01 3.61 3.47 3.28 3.14 1.89 1.26
112-1/2 312 271 135 108 27.1 15.6 9.02 5.41 5.21 4.92 4.71 2.84 1.89
150 416 361 180 144 36.1 20.8 12.0 7.22 6.94 6.56 6.28 3.78 2.52
225 625 541 271 217 54.1 31.2 18.0 10.8 10.4 9.84 9.41 5.67 3.78
300 833 722 361 289 72.2 41.6 24.1 14.4 13.9 13.1 12.6 7.56 5.04
500 1388 1203 601 481 120 69.4 40.1 24.1 23.1 21.9 20.9 12.6 8.39
750 2082 1804 902 722 180 104 60.1 36.1 34.7 32.8 31.4 18.9 12.6
1000 2776 2406 1203 962 241 139 80.2 48.1 46.3 43.7 41.8 25.2 16.8
1500 4164 3608 1804 1443 361 208 120 72.2 69.4 65.6 62.8 37.8 25.2
2000 — 4811 2406 1925 481 278 160 96.2 92.6 87.5 83.7 50.4 33.6
2500 — — 3007 2406 601 347 200 120 116 109 105 63.0 42.0
3000 — — 3609 2887 722 416 241 144 139 131 126 75.6 50.4
3750 — — 4511 3608 902 520 301 180 174 164 157 94.5 62.9
5000 — — — 4811 1203 694 401 241 231 219 209 126 83.9
7500 — — — — 1804 1041 601 361 347 328 314 189 126
10,000 — — — — 2406 1388 802 481 463 437 418 252 168
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Typical Components of a Power System 1.1-80
300 50,000 834 14,900 1700 16,600 722 12,900 2900 15,800 361 6400 1400 7800 289 5200 1200 6400
5% 100,000 834 15,700 1700 17,400 722 13,600 2900 16,500 361 6800 1400 8200 289 5500 1200 6700
150,000 834 16,000 1700 17,700 722 13,900 2900 16,800 361 6900 1400 8300 289 5600 1200 6800
250,000 834 16,300 1700 18,000 722 14,100 2900 17,000 361 7000 1400 8400 289 5600 1200 6800
500,000 834 16,500 1700 18,200 722 14,300 2900 17,200 361 7100 1400 8500 289 5700 1200 6900
Unlimited 834 16,700 1700 18,400 722 14,400 2900 17,300 361 7200 1400 8600 289 5800 1200 7000
500 50,000 1388 21,300 2800 25,900 1203 20,000 4800 24,800 601 10,000 2400 12,400 481 8000 1900 9900
5% 100,000 1388 25,200 2800 28,000 1203 21,900 4800 26,700 601 10,900 2400 13,300 481 8700 1900 10,600
150,000 1388 26,000 2800 28,800 1203 22,500 4800 27,300 601 11,300 2400 13,700 481 9000 1900 10,900
250,000 1388 26,700 2800 29,500 1203 23,100 4800 27,900 601 11,600 2400 14,000 481 9300 1900 11,200
500,000 1388 27,200 2800 30,000 1203 23,600 4800 28,400 601 11,800 2400 14,200 481 9400 1900 11,300
Unlimited 1388 27,800 2800 30,600 1203 24,100 4800 28,900 601 12,000 2400 14,400 481 9600 1900 11,500
750 50,000 2080 28,700 4200 32,900 1804 24,900 7200 32,100 902 12,400 3600 16,000 722 10,000 2900 12,900
5.75% 100,000 2080 32,000 4200 36,200 1804 27,800 7200 35,000 902 13,900 3600 17,500 722 11,100 2900 14,000
150,000 2080 33,300 4200 37,500 1804 28,900 7200 36,100 902 14,400 3600 18,000 722 11,600 2900 14,500
250,000 2080 34,400 4200 38,600 1804 29,800 7200 37,000 902 14,900 3600 18,500 722 11,900 2900 14,800
500,000 2080 35,200 4200 39,400 1804 30,600 7200 37,800 902 15,300 3600 18,900 722 12,200 2900 15,100
Unlimited 2080 36,200 4200 40,400 1804 31,400 7200 38,600 902 15,700 3600 19,300 722 12,600 2900 15,500
1000 50,000 2776 35,900 5600 41,500 2406 31,000 9800 40,600 1203 15,500 4800 20,300 962 12,400 3900 16,300
5.75% 100,000 2776 41,200 5600 46,800 2406 35,600 9800 45,200 1203 17,800 4800 22,600 962 14,300 3900 18,200
150,000 2776 43,300 5600 48,900 2406 37,500 9800 47,100 1203 18,700 4800 23,500 962 15,000 3900 18,900
250,000 2776 45,200 5600 50,800 2406 39,100 9800 48,700 1203 19,600 4800 24,400 962 15,600 3900 19,500
500,000 2776 46,700 5600 52,300 2406 40,400 9800 50,000 1203 20,200 4800 25,000 962 16,200 3900 20,100
Unlimited 2776 48,300 5600 53,900 2406 41,800 9800 51,400 1203 20,900 4800 25,700 962 16,700 3900 20,600
1500 50,000 4164 47,600 8300 55,900 3609 41,200 14,400 55,600 1804 20,600 7200 27,800 1444 16,500 5800 22,300
5.75% 100,000 4164 57,500 8300 65,800 3609 49,800 14,400 64,200 1804 24,900 7200 32,100 1444 20,000 5800 25,800
150,000 4164 61,800 8300 70,100 3609 53,500 14,400 57,900 1804 26,700 7200 33,900 1444 21,400 5800 27,200
250,000 4164 65,600 8300 73,900 3609 56,800 14,400 71,200 1804 28,400 7200 35,600 1444 22,700 5800 28,500
500,000 4164 68,800 8300 77,100 3609 59,600 14,400 74,000 1804 29,800 7200 37,000 1444 23,900 5800 29,700
Unlimited 4164 72,500 8300 80,800 3609 62,800 14,400 77,200 1804 31,400 7200 38,600 1444 25,100 5800 30,900
2000 50,000 — — — — — — — — 2406 24,700 9600 34,300 1924 19,700 7800 27,500
5.75% 100,000 — — — — — — — — 2406 31,000 9600 40,600 1924 24,800 7800 32,600
150,000 — — — — — — — — 2406 34,000 9600 43,600 1924 27,200 7800 35,000
250,000 — — — — — — — — 2406 36,700 9600 46,300 1924 29,400 7800 37,200
500,000 — — — — — — — — 2406 39,100 9600 48,700 1924 31,300 7800 39,100
Unlimited — — — — — — — — 2406 41,800 9600 51,400 1924 33,500 7800 41,300
2500 50,000 — — — — — — — — 3008 28,000 12,000 40,000 2405 22,400 9600 32,000
5.75% 100,000 — — — — — — — — 3008 36,500 12,000 48,500 2405 29,200 9600 38,800
150,000 — — — — — — — — 3008 40,500 12,000 52,500 2405 32,400 9600 42,000
250,000 — — — — — — — — 3008 44,600 12,000 56,600 2405 35,600 9600 45,200
500,000 — — — — — — — — 3008 48,100 12,000 60,100 2405 38,500 9600 48,100
Unlimited — — — — — — — — 3008 52,300 12,000 64,300 2405 41,800 9600 51,400
3000 50,000 — — — — — — — — 3609 30,700 14,000 44,700 2886 24,600 11,500 36,100
5.75% 100,000 — — — — — — — — 3609 41,200 14,000 55,200 2886 33,000 11,500 44,500
150,000 — — — — — — — — 3609 46,600 14,000 60,600 2886 37,300 11,500 48,800
250,000 — — — — — — — — 3609 51,900 14,000 65,900 2886 41,500 11,500 53,000
500,000 — — — — — — — — 3609 56,800 14,000 70,800 2886 45,500 11,500 57,000
Unlimited — — — — — — — — 3609 62,800 14,000 76,800 2886 50,200 11,500 61,700
3750 50,000 — — — — — — — — 4511 34,000 18,000 52,000 3608 27,200 14,400 41,600
5.75% 100,000 — — — — — — — — 4511 47,500 18,000 65,500 3608 38,000 14,400 52,400
150,000 — — — — — — — — 4511 54,700 18,000 72,700 3608 43,700 14,400 58,100
250,000 — — — — — — — — 4511 62,200 18,000 80,200 3608 49,800 14,400 64,200
500,000 — — — — — — — — 4511 69,400 18,000 87,400 3608 55,500 14,400 69,900
Unlimited — — — — — — — — 4511 78,500 18,000 96,500 3608 62,800 14,400 77,200
a Short-circuit capacity values shown correspond to kVA and impedances shown in this table. For impedances other than these, short-circuit currents are inversely
proportional to impedance.
b The motor’s short-circuit current contributions are computed on the basis of motor characteristics that will give four times normal current. For 208 V, 50% motor
load is assumed while for other voltages 100% motor load is assumed. For other percentages, the motor short-circuit current will be in direct proportion.
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Effective February 2019
Typical Components of a Power System 1.1-81
Approximate Impedance Data Table 1.1-31. 15 kV Class Primary— Table 1.1-33. 600V Primary Class Three-Phase
Dry-Type Substation Transformers DOE 2016 Energy-Efficient Dry-Type Distribution
Table 1.1-28. Typical Impedances— Transformers, Copper Wound
Three-Phase Transformers Liquid-Filled a kVA %Z %R %X X/R
150 °C Rise kVA %Z %X %R X/R
kVA Liquid-Filled
300 4.50 2.87 3.47 1.21 150 °C Rise Copper
Network Padmount
500 5.75 2.66 5.10 1.92 15 3.10 1.59 2.66 0.60
37.5 — — 750 5.75 2.47 5.19 2.11 30 2.52 0.79 2.39 0.33
45 — — 1000 5.75 2.16 5.33 2.47 45 3.80 2.60 2.77 0.94
50 — — 1500 5.75 1.87 5.44 2.90 75 2.84 1.94 2.08 0.93
75 — 3.4 2000 5.75 1.93 5.42 2.81 112.5 3.63 3.11 1.88 1.66
112.5 — 3.4 2500 5.75 1.74 5.48 3.15 150 3.02 2.64 1.46 1.81
150 — 3.4 225 4.34 3.98 1.73 2.31
80 °C Rise
225 — 3.4 300 3.48 3.19 1.38 2.31
300 4.50 1.93 4.06 2.10
300 5.00 3.4 115 °C Rise Copper
500 5.75 1.44 5.57 3.87
500 5.00 4.6
750 5.75 1.28 5.61 4.38 15 2.90 1.59 2.43 0.66
750 5.00 5.75 30 2.35 0.97 2.14 0.45
1000 5.75 0.93 5.67 6.10
1000 5.00 5.75 45 3.85 2.87 2.57 1.12
1500 5.75 0.87 5.68 6.51
1500 7.00 5.75
2000 5.75 0.66 5.71 8.72 75 2.86 2.12 1.92 1.10
2000 7.00 5.75 112.5 4.02 3.59 1.82 1.97
2500 5.75 0.56 5.72 10.22
2500 7.00 5.75 150 3.34 3.05 1.37 2.23
3000 — 5.75
225 5.03 4.78 1.58 3.02
3750 — 6.00 Table 1.1-32. 600 V Primary Class Three-Phase 300 4.14 3.94 1.29 3.06
5000 — 6.50 DOE 2016 Energy-Efficient Dry-Type Distribution 80 °C Rise Copper
a Values are typical. For guaranteed values, refer Transformers, Aluminum Wound
15 3.09 2.04 2.32 0.88
to transformer manufacturer.
kVA %Z %X %R X/R 30 2.53 1.73 1.85 0.94
45 1.70 1.16 1.25 0.93
Table 1.1-29. 15 kV Class Primary— 150 °C Rise Aluminum
Oil Liquid-Filled Substation Transformers 75 2.42 2.07 1.25 1.66
15 4.04 2.08 3.46 0.60
112.5 2.27 1.98 1.09 1.81
kVA %Z %R %X X/R 30 2.52 1.13 2.25 0.50
150 2.89 2.65 1.15 2.31
45 3.75 2.64 2.67 0.99
65 °C Rise 225 3.11 2.95 0.96 3.06
75 4.05 3.34 2.29 1.46
112.5 5.00 1.71 4.70 2.75 112.5 4.66 4.22 1.99 2.12
150 5.00 1.88 4.63 2.47 150 3.48 3.09 1.61 1.92
225 5.00 1.84 4.65 2.52
225 4.20 3.96 1.39 2.85
300 5.00 1.35 4.81 3.57 300 4.46 4.26 1.32 3.23
500 5.00 1.50 4.77 3.18
750 5.75 1.41 5.57 3.96 115 °C Rise Aluminum
1000 5.75 1.33 5.59 4.21 15 3.77 2.08 3.14 0.66
1500 5.75 1.12 5.64 5.04 30 2.34 1.37 1.90 0.72
2000 5.75 0.93 5.67 6.10 45 4.26 3.44 2.52 1.37
2500 5.75 0.86 5.69 6.61 75 4.45 3.90 2.14 1.83
112.5 5.17 4.81 1.89 2.54
150 3.89 3.59 1.49 2.41
Table 1.1-30. DOE 2016 Transformer 225 4.90 4.73 1.28 3.69
Efficiencies—Medium-Voltage Three-Phase 300 4.80 4.65 1.21 3.85
Distribution Transformers b 80 °C Rise Aluminum
kVA % Efficiency 15 4.19 2.94 2.98 0.99
30 2.50 1.76 1.78 0.99
Liquid- Dry Transformers 45 2.43 2.01 1.37 1.46
Filled
75 3.11 2.81 1.32 2.12
All 25–45 46–95 M96 kV 112.5 2.61 2.31 1.21 1.92
BILs kV BIL kV BIL BIL 150 2.80 2.64 0.93 2.85
225 3.35 3.20 0.99 3.23
15 98.65 97.5 97.18 —
30 98.83 97.9 97.63 —
45 98.92 98.1 97.86 —
75 99.03 98.33 98.13 —
112.5 99.11 98.52 98.36 —
150 99.16 98.65 98.51 —
225 99.23 98.82 98.69 98.57
300 99.27 98.93 98.81 98.69
500 99.35 99.09 98.99 98.89
750 99.40 99.21 99.12 99.02
1000 99.43 99.28 99.2 99.11
1500 99.48 99.37 99.3 99.21
2000 99.51 99.43 99.36 99.28
2500 99.53 99.47 99.41 99.33
b Based on transformer operating at 50% of
nameplate base kVA.
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Typical Components of a Power System 1.1-83
DELTA-DELTA Connection 1. Suitable for both ungrounded and effectively grounded sources.
2. Suitable for a three-wire service or a four-wire service with a mid-tap ground.
Phasor H2 X2
Diagram:
H1 H3 X1 X3
DELTA-WYE Connection 1. Suitable for both ungrounded and effectively grounded sources.
2. Suitable for a three-wire service or a four-wire grounded service with XO grounded.
Phasor H2 X2
Diagram: 3. With XO grounded, the transformer acts as a ground source for the secondary system.
4. Fundamental and harmonic frequency zero-sequence currents in the secondary lines
X1 X0 supplied by the transformer do not flow in the primary lines. Instead the zero sequence
currents circulate in the closed delta primary windings.
H1 H3 5. When supplied from an effectively grounded primary system does not see load
X3 unbalances and ground faults in the secondary system.
Angular Displacement (Degrees): 30
WYE-DELTA Connection 1. Suitable for both ungrounded and effectively grounded sources.
2. Suitable for a three-wire service or a four-wire delta service with a mid-tap ground.
Phasor H2 X2
Diagram: 3. Grounding the primary neutral of this connection would create a ground source for
the primary system.This could subject the transformer to severe overloading during
a primary system disturbance or load unbalance.
X1
4. Frequently installed with mid-tap ground on one leg when supplying combination
three-phase and single-phase load where the three-phase load is much larger than
H1 H3
X3 single-phase load.
Angular Displacement (Degrees): 30 5. When used in 25 kV and 35 kV three-phase four-wire primary systems, ferroresonance
can occur when energizing or de-energizing the transformer using single-pole switches
located at the primary terminals. With smaller kVA transformers the probability of
ferroresonance is higher.
WYE-WYE Connection 1. Suitable for both ungrounded and effectively grounded sources.
2. Suitable for a three-wire service only, even if XO is grounded.
Phasor H2 X2
Diagram: 3. This connection is incapable of furnishing a stabilized neutral and its use may
result in phase-to-neutral overvoltage (neutral shift) as a result of unbalanced
phase-to-neutral load.
X0
4. If a three-phase unit is built on a three-legged core, the neutral point of the primary
windings is practically locked at ground potential.
H1 H3 X1 X3
GROUNDED WYE-WYE Connection 1. Suitable for four-wire effectively grounded source only.
2. Suitable for a three-wire service or for four-wire grounded service with
Phasor H2 X2 XO grounded.
Diagram:
3. Three-phase transformers with this connection may experience stray flux tank
heating during certain external system unbalances unless the core configuration
H0 X0 (four or five legged) used provides a return path for the flux.
4. Fundamental and harmonic frequency zero-sequence currents in the secondary
H1 H3 X1 X3
lines supplied by the transformer also flow in the primary lines (and primary
neutral conductor).
Angular Displacement (Degrees): 0
5. Ground relay for the primary system may see load unbalances and ground
faults in the secondary system.This must be considered when coordinating
overcurrent protective devices.
6. Three-phase transformers with the neutral points of the high-voltage and low-
voltage windings connected together internally and brought out through an
HOXO bushing should not be operated with the HOXO bushing ungrounded
(floating).To do so can result in very high voltages in the secondary systems.
DELTA-DELTA Connection with Tap 1. Suitable for both ungrounded and effectively grounded sources.
2. Suitable for a three-wire service or a four-wire service with a mid-tap ground.
Phasor H2 X2
Diagram: 3. When using the tap for single-phase circuits, the single-phase load kVA should
X4 not exceed 5% of the three-phase kVA rating of the transformer.The three-phase
rating of the transformer is also substantially reduced.
H1 H3 X1 X3
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Typical Components of a Power System 1.1-84
Sound Levels Area Consideration Because values given in Table 1.1-36 are
In determining permissible sound levels in general higher than those given in
Sound Levels of Electrical Equipment within a building, it is necessary to Table 1.1-35, the difference must be
for Offices, Hospitals, Schools and consider how the rooms are to be used attenuated by distance and by proper use
Similar Buildings and what levels may be objectionable to of materials in the design of the building.
Insurance underwriters and building occupants of the building. The ambient It may appear that a transformer is noisy
owners require that the electrical sound level values given in Table 1.1-35 because the level in the room where it
apparatus be installed for maximum are representative average values and is located is high. Two transformers of
safety and minimum impact on normal may be used as a guide in determining the same sound output in the same
functioning of the property. Architects suitable building levels. room increase the sound level in the
should take particular care with the room approximately 3 dB, and three
The decrease in sound level varies at an transformers by about 5 dB, etc. A good
designs for hospitals, schools and similar
approximate rate of 6 dB for each engineer needs to consider these factors
buildings to keep the sound perception
doubling of the distance from the source while designing the electrical rooms and
of such equipment as motors, blowers
of sound to the listener. For example, if allocating locations for the transformers.
and transformers to a minimum.
the level 6 ft (1.8 m) from a transformer
Even though transformers are relatively is 50 dB, the level at a distance of 12 ft In many buildings, floors between
quiet, resonant conditions may exist near (3.7 m) would be 44 dB and at 24 ft different levels can act like the sound
the equipment, which will amplify their (7.3 m) the level decreases to 38 dB, board in a piano. In these cases, sounds
normal 120 Hz hum. Therefore, it is etc. However, this rule applies only to due to structure-transmitted vibrations
important that consideration be given equipment in large areas equivalent to originating from the transformer are
to the reduction of amplitude and to the an out-of-door installation, with no lowered by mounting the transformers
absorption of energy at this frequency. nearby reflecting surfaces. on vibration dampeners or isolators.
This problem begins in the designing There are a number of different sound
Table 1.1-35. Typical Sound Levels vibration isolating materials that may
stages of the equipment and the building.
Description Average be used with good results.
There are two points worthy of Decibel
consideration: Level (dB) Dry-type power transformers are
often built with an isolator mounted
■■ What sound levels are desired in Radio, recording andTV studios 25–30 between the transformer support and
Theatres and music rooms 30–35 case members. The natural period
the normally occupied rooms of
Hospitals, auditoriums and churches 35–40
this building? of the core and coil structure when
Classrooms and lecture rooms 35–40 mounted on vibration dampeners is
■■ To effect this, what sound level in Apartments and hotels 35–45
the equipment room and what type Private offices and conference rooms 40–45 about 10% of the fundamental frequency.
of associated acoustical treatment The reduction in the transmitted vibration
Stores 45–55
will give the most economical Residence (radio,TV off) and is approximately 98%.
installation overall? small offices 53
Medium office (3 to 10 desks) 58
If the floor or beams beneath the
A relatively high sound level in the transformer are light and flexible,
Residence (radio,TV on) 60
equipment room does not indicate an Large store (5 or more clerks) 61
the isolator must be softer or have
abnormal condition within the apparatus. Factory office 61 improved characteristics in order to
However, absorption may be necessary Large office 64
keep the transmitted vibrations to a
if sound originating in an unoccupied Average factory 70 minimum. (Enclosure covers and
equipment room is objectionable outside Average street 80 ventilating louvers are often improperly
the room. Furthermore, added absorption tightened or gasketed and their vibration
material usually is desirable if sound is can produce unnecessary noise.)
magnified due to reflections. Transformer Sound Levels The building structure will assist the
While some sound reduction or Transformers emit a continuous 120 Hz dampeners if the transformer is mounted
attenuation takes place as the sound hum with harmonics when connected to above heavy floor members or if mounted
waves travel through building walls, the 60 Hz circuits. The fundamental frequency on a heavy floor slab. Positioning of the
remainder may be reflected in various is the “hum” that annoys people primarily transformer in relation to walls and other
directions, resulting in a build-up or because of its continuous nature. For reflecting surfaces has a great effect on
apparent higher levels. This is especially purposes of reference, sound measuring reflected noise and resonances. Often,
true if resonance occurs because of room instruments convert the different placing the transformer at an angle to
dimensions or material characteristics. frequencies to 1000 Hz and a 40 dB the wall, rather than parallel to it, will
level. Transformer sound levels based reduce noise.
on NEMA publication TR-1 are listed in
Table 1.1-36. Electrical connections to a substation
transformer should be made with flexible
braid or conductors; connections to an
individually mounted transformer should
be in flexible conduit.
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Typical Components of a Power System 1.1-85
300 55 — 58 67
500 56 — 60 67
750 57 67 64 67
1000 58 67 64 67
1500 60 67 65 68
2000 61 67 66 69
2500 62 67 68 71
3000 63 67 68 71
3750 64 67 70 73
5000 65 67 71 73
6000 66 68 72 74
7500 67 69 73 75
10,000 68 70 — 76
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Motor Protection Table 1.1-37. Motor Circuit Protector (MCP), Circuit Breaker and Fusible Switch Selection Guide
Consistent with the 2014 NEC 430.6(A)(1) Horsepower Full Load Fuse Size NEC 430.52 Recommended Eaton
circuit breaker, HMCP and fuse rating Amperes Maximum Amperes Circuit Motor Circuit
(NEC) FLA
selections are based on full load currents Breaker Protector Type HMCP
for induction motors running at speeds Time Delay Non-Time Delay Amperes Amperes Adj. Range
normal for belted motors and motors 230 V, Three-Phase
with normal torque characteristics using 1 3.6 10 15 15 7 21–70
data taken from NEC Table 430.250 1-1/2 5.2 10 20 15 15 45–150
(three-phase). Actual motor nameplate 2 6.8 15 25 15 15 45–150
ratings shall be used for selecting motor 3 9.6 20 30 20 30 90–300
running overload protection. Motors 5 15.2 30 50 30 30 90–300
built special for low speeds, high 7-1/2 22 40 70 50 50 150–500
torque characteristics, special starting 10 28 50 90 60 50 150–500
conditions and applications will require 15 42 80 150 90 70 210–700
other considerations as defined in the 20 54 100 175 100 100 300–1000
application section of the NEC. 25 68 125 225 125 150 450–1500
30 80 150 250 150 150 450–1500
These additional considerations may 40 104 200 350 150 150 750–2500
require the use of a higher rated HMCP, 50 130 250 400 200 150 750–2500
or at least one with higher magnetic 60 154 300 500 225 250 1250–2500
75 192 350 600 300 400 2000–4000
pickup settings. 100 248 450 800 400 400 2000–4000
Circuit breaker, HMCP and fuse 125 312 600 1000 500 600 1800–6000
ampere rating selections are in line with 150 360 700 1200 600 600 1800–6000
200 480 1000 1600 700 600 1800–6000
maximum rules given in NEC 430.52
and Table 430.250. Based on known 460 V, Three-Phase
characteristics of Eaton type breakers, 1 1.8 6 6 15 7 21–70
specific units are recommended. The 1-1/2 2.6 6 10 15 7 21–70
current ratings are no more than the 2 3.4 6 15 15 7 21–70
3 4.8 10 15 15 15 45–150
maximum limits set by the NEC rules for
motors with code letters F to V or without 5 7.6 15 25 15 15 45–150
7-1/2 11 20 35 25 30 90–300
code letters. Motors with lower code 10 14 25 45 35 30 90–300
letters will require further considerations. 15 21 40 70 45 50 150–500
In general, these selections were 20 27 50 90 50 50 150–500
25 34 60 110 70 70 210–700
based on: 30 40 70 125 70 100 300–1000
40 52 100 175 100 100 300–1000
1. Ambient—outside enclosure not more
than 40 °C (104 °F). 50 65 125 200 110 150 450–1500
60 77 150 150 125 150 750–2500
2. Motor starting—infrequent starting, 75 96 175 300 150 150 750–2500
stopping or reversing. 100 124 225 400 175 150 750–2500
125 156 300 500 225 250 1250–2500
3. Motor accelerating time—10 seconds 150 180 350 600 250 400 2000–4000
or less. 200 240 450 800 350 400 2000–4000
575 V, Three-Phase
4. Locked rotor—maximum 6 times
1 1.4 3 6 15 3 9–30
motor FLA.
1-1/2 2.1 6 10 15 7 21–70
Type HMCP motor circuit protector may 2 2.7 6 10 15 7 21–70
3 3.9 10 15 15 7 21–70
not set at more than 1300% of the motor
full-load current to comply with NEC 5 6.1 15 20 15 15 45–150
7-1/2 9 20 30 20 15 45–150
430.52. (Except for NEMA Design B 10 11 20 35 25 30 90–300
energy high-efficiency motors that can 15 17 30 60 40 30 90–300
be set up to 1700%.) 20 22 40 70 50 50 150–500
25 27 50 90 60 50 150–500
Circuit breaker selections are based on 30 32 60 100 60 50 150–500
types with standard interrupting ratings. 40 41 80 125 80 100 300–1000
Higher interrupting rating types may be 50 52 100 175 100 100 300–1000
required to satisfy specific system 60 62 110 200 125 150 750–2500
application requirements. 75 77 150 250 150 150 750–2500
100 99 175 300 175 150 750–2500
For motor full load currents of 208 V and
125 125 225 400 200 250 1250–2500
200 V, increase the corresponding 230 V 150 144 300 450 225 250 1250–2500
motor values by 10 and 15% respectively. 200 192 350 600 300 400 2000–4000
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Generator Systems Multiple Isolated Standby Generators Multiple generator systems have a
The second type of generator system more complex control and protection
Emergency Standby Generator System is a multiple isolated set of standby requirement as the units have to be
There are primarily three types of generators. Figure 1.1-66 shows multiple synchronized and paralleled together.
generator systems. The first and simplest generators connected to a paralleling The generators are required to share the
type is a single generator that operates bus feeding multiple transfer switches. load proportionally without swings or
independently from the electric utility The utility is the normal source for the prolonged hunting in voltage or frequency
power grid. This is typically referred to transfer switches. The generators and the for load sharing.They may also require
as an emergency standby generator utility are never continuously connected multiple levels of load shedding and/or
system. Figure 1.1-65 shows a single together in this scheme. load restoration schemes to match
standby generator, utility source and generation capacity.
a transfer switch. Multiple generators may be required to
meet the load requirements (N system). Multiple Generators Operating in
In this case, the load is either supplied Generators may be applied in an N+1
Parallel with Utility System
from the utility or the generator. The or a 2N system for improved system
generator and the utility are never reliability. The third type of system is either one
continuously connected together. This with a single or multiple generators that
simple radial system has few require operate in parallel with the utility system.
ments for protection and control. It also Figure 1.1-67 shows two generators
Utility
has the least impact on the complete G1 G2
and a utility source feeding a switchgear
electric power distribution system. lineup feeding multiple loads. This system
It should be noted that this type of typically requires generator capacity
generator system improves overall
Switchgear sufficient to carry the entire load or
electrical reliability but does not provide sophisticated load shedding schemes.
the redundancy that some facilities This system will require a complete and
require if the generator fails to start
ATS-1 ATS-2 complex protection and control scheme.
or is out for maintenance. The electric utility may have very stringent
and costly protection requirements for the
system. IEEE standard 1547 describes the
Load 1 Load 2
interconnection requirements for
Utility paralleling to the utility.
G1 Figure 1.1-66. Multiple Isolated Set of
Standby Generators
In an N system, where N is the number of Utility
G1 G2
generators required to carry the load; if a
generator fails or is out for maintenance,
then the load may be dropped. This is Switchgear
unacceptable for most critical 24/7
ATS operations. In an N + 1 system, N is the
number of generators needed to carry
the load and 1 is an extra generator for
redundancy. If one generator fails to start
or is out for maintenance, it will not affect
Load the load. Load 1 Load 2 Load 3
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Generator Fundamentals The application of generators adds If the generator’s neutral is bonded to
A generator consists of two primary special protection requirements to ground separate from the system-neutral,
components, a prime mover and an the system. The size, voltage class, it is a separately derived system and a
alternator. The prime mover is the importance and dollar investment four-pole transfer switch is required or
energy source used to turn the rotor will influence the protection scheme ground fault relays could misoperate
of the alternator. It is typically a diesel associated with the generator(s). The and unbalanced neutral current may be
combustion engine for most emergency mode of operation will influence the carried on ground conductors.
or standby systems. In cogeneration utility company’s interface protection
requirements. Paralleling with the electric An IEEE working group has studied the
applications, the prime mover may practice of low resistance grounding of
come from a steam driven turbine or utility is the most complicated of the
utility inter-tie requirements. IEEE ANSI medium-voltage generators within the
other source. On diesel units, a governor general industry. This “working group”
and voltage regulator are used to control 1547 provides recommended practices.
found that, for internal generator ground
the speed and power output. faults, the vast majority of the damage
The alternator is typically a synchronous Generator Grounding and Bonding is done after the generator breaker is
tripped offline, and the field and turbine
machine driven by the prime mover. A (Ref. NEC 2014, Article 250.30(A)(1) are tripped. This is due to the stored
voltage regulator controls its voltage
output by adjusting the field.The output of
and (2)) energy in the generator flux that takes
a single generator or multiple paralleled Generator grounding methods need several seconds to dissipate after the
generator sets is controlled by these to be considered and may affect the generator is tripped offline.
two inputs.The alternator is designed distribution equipment and ratings.
It is during this time that the low
to operate at a specified speed for the Generators may be connected in delta
resistance ground allows significant
required output frequency, typically 60 or or wye, with wye being the most typical
amounts of fault current to flow into
50 Hz.The voltage regulator and engine connection. A wye-connected generator
the ground fault. Because the large fault
governor along with other systems define can be solidly grounded, low impedance
currents can damage the generator’s
the generator’s response to dynamic load grounded, high impedance grounded
winding, application of an alternate
changes and motor starting characteristics. or ungrounded. The Grounding/Ground
protection method is desirable during
Fault Protection section of this Design
Generators are rated in power and this time period. One of the solutions set
Guide discusses general grounding
voltage output. Most generators are forth by this “working group” is a hybrid
schemes, benefits of each and protection
designed to operate at a 0.8 power factor. high resistance grounding (HHRG)
considerations.
For example, a 2000 kW generator at scheme as shown in Figure 1.1-68.
277/480 V would have a kVA rating of A solidly grounded generator may have a
In the HHRG scheme, the low resistance
2500 kVA (2000 kW/ 08 pf) and a lower zero sequence impedance than its
ground (LRG) is quickly tripped offline
continuous current rating of 3007A positive sequence impedance. In this case,
when the generator protection senses
. the equipment will need to be rated for the
the ground fault. The LRG is cleared at
larger available ground fault current.The
Typical synchronous generators for the same time that the generator breaker
generator’s neutral may be connected to
industrial and commercial power systems clears, leaving the high resistance ground
the system-neutral; if it is, the generator
range in size from 100–3000 kVA and from portion connected to control the transient
is not a separately derived system and a
208 V–13,800 V. Other ratings are available overvoltages during the coast-down
three-pole transfer switch is used.
and these discussions are applicable to phase of the generator, thereby all but
those ratings as well. eliminating generator damage.
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Generator Protection
Generator protection will vary and Generator Protection ANSI/IEEE
depend on the size of the generator, Std 242-1986
type of system and importance of the
generator. Generator sizes are defined as:
small—1000 kVA maximum up to 600 V 1 1 1 1
(500 kVA maximum when above 600 V); Alternate
51 51V 32 40
medium over 1000 kVA to 12,500 kVA Location
maximum regardless of voltage; large—
from 12,500–50,000 kVA.
The simplest is a single generator system
used to feed emergency and/or standby 1 3
loads. In this case, the generator is the 51G
Gen 87
only source available when it is operating
in the emergency mode and must keep 1
operating until the normal source returns.
51 Preferred
Location Gen
Figure 1.1-69 Part (A) shows minimum
recommended protection for a single 1
generator used as an emergency or 51G
standby system. Phase and ground time
overcurrent protection (Device 51 and
51G) will provide protection for external (A) (A) Single Isolated Generator on Low-Voltage System (B)
(B) Multiple Isolated Generator on Medium-Voltage System
faults. For medium-voltage generators,
a voltage controlled time overcurrent
relay (Device 51V) is recommended for Figure 1.1-69. Typical Protective Relaying Scheme for Small Generators
the phase protection as it can be set
more sensitive than standard overcurrent
relays and is less likely to false operate
on normal overloads. R
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Figure 1.1-71. Generator Percentage Differential Relay (Phase Scheme) and Ground Differential Scheme
Using a Directional Relay
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Genset Sizing Guidelines Generator Set Installation ■■ Hazardous waste considerations for
fuel, antifreeze, engine oil
Some conservative rules of thumb for
genset sizing include:
and Site Considerations ■■ Meeting local building and
There are many different installation electrical codes
1. Oversize genset 20–25% for reserve parameters and site conditions that ■■ Genset exposure (coastal conditions,
capacity and for across the line must be considered to have a successful
motor starting. dust, chemicals, etc.)
generator set installation. The following
■■ Properly sized starting systems
2. Oversize gensets for unbalanced is a partial list of areas to consider when
(compressed air, batteries and charger)
loading or low power factor conducting this design. Some of these
installation parameters include: ■■ Allowing adequate space for
running loads.
installation of the genset and for
3. Use 1/2 hp per kW for motor loads. ■■ Foundation type (crushed rock, maintenance (i.e., air filter removal,
concrete, dirt, wood, separate oil changing, general genset
4. For variable frequency drives, oversize concrete inertia pad, etc.) inspection, etc…)
the genset by at least 40% for six-
■■ Foundation to genset vibration ■■ Flex connections on all systems that
pulse technology drives.
dampening (spring type, cork and are attached to the genset and a rigid
5. For UPS systems, oversize the genset rubber, etc.) structure (fuel piping, foundation
by 40% for 6 pulse and 15% for 6 pulse ■■ Noise attenuation (radiator fan vibration isolators, exhaust, air intake,
with input filters or 12 pulse. mechanical noise, exhaust noise, control wiring, power cables, radiator
air intake noise) flanges/duct work, etc.)
6. Always start the largest motor first
when stepping loads. ■■ Combustion and cooling air ■■ Diesel fuel day tank systems
requirements (pumps, return piping)
For basic sizing of a generator system, ■■ Fuel storage tank (double walled,
■■ Exhaust backpressure requirements
the following example could be used: fire codes) and other parameters
■■ Emissions permitting
Step 1: Calculate Running Amperes ■■ Delivery and rigging requirements Please see the generator set manufac
■■ Genset derating due to high altitudes
turer’s application and installation
■■ Motor loads:
or excessive ambient temperatures guidelines for proper application
❏❏ 200 hp motor. . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 A and operation of their equipment.
❏❏ 100 hp motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 A
❏❏ 60 hp motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 A
■■ Lighting load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 A
■■ Miscellaneous loads . . . . . . . . . . 95 A
■■ Running amperes. . . . . . . . . . . . 445 A
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■■ Capacitor selection of calculation of the quantities covered Fused and unfused switches. . . . . 165%
by C37.06 Standard.
■■ Where to install capacitors in a plant Molded-case breaker or
distribution system Note that the definitions in C37.04 make equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150%
■■ Locating capacitors on reduced voltage
the switching of two capacitors banks in
close proximity to the switchgear bus a Insulated-case breakers. . . . . . . . . 135%
and multi-speed starters
back-to-back mode of switching. This
■■ Harmonic considerations Magnum DS power
classification requires a definite purpose
circuit breaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135%
■■ Eliminating harmonic problems circuit breaker (breakers specifically
■■ National Electrical Code requirements designed for capacitance switching). Contactors:
We recommend that such application be Open type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135%
referred to Eaton.
Medium-Voltage Enclosed type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150%
Capacitor Switching A breaker specified for capacitor
switching should include as applicable: The NEC, Section 460.8(C), requires the
Capacitance switching constitutes severe disconnecting means to be rated not less
operating duty for a circuit breaker. At the 1. Rated maximum voltage. than 135% of the rated capacitor current
time the breaker opens at near current (for 600 V and below).
zero, the capacitor is fully charged. After 2. Rated frequency.
interruption, when the alternating voltage Refer to Eaton’s Power Factor Capacitors
3. Rated open wire line charging
on the source side of the breaker reaches and Harmonic Filters Design Guide for
switching current.
its opposite maximum, the voltage that switching device ampere ratings. They
appears across the contacts of the open 4. Rated isolated cable charging and re based on percentage of capacitor-
breaker is at least twice the normal peak shunt capacitor switching current. rated current as indicated (above). The
line-to-neutral voltage of the circuit. If a interrupting rating of the switch must
breakdown occurs across the open 5. Rated back-to-back cable charging be selected to match the system fault
contact, the arc is re-established. Due and back-to-back capacitor current available at the point of capacitor
to the circuit constants on the supply switching current. application. Whenever a capacitor bank
side of the breaker, the voltage across the 6. Rated transient overvoltage factor. is purchased with less than the ultimate
open contact can reach three times the kvar capacity of the rack or enclosure, the
normal line-to-neutral voltage. After 7. Rated transient inrush current and switch rating should be selected based on
it is interrupted and with subsequent its frequency. the ultimate kvar capacity—not the initial
alternation of the supply side voltage, installed capacity.
the voltage across the open contact is 8. Rated interrupting time.
Refer to Eaton’s Power Factor Capacitors
even higher. 9. Rated capacitive current switching life. and Harmonic Filters Design Guide for
10. Grounding of system and recommended selection of capacitor
capacitor bank. switching devices; recommended
maximum capacitor ratings for various
Load break interrupter switches are motor types and voltages; and for
permitted by ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.30 required multipliers to determine
to switch capacitance, but they must have capacitor kvar required for power
tested ratings for the purpose. factor correction.
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BIL—Basic Impulse Levels Table 1.1-39. Metal-Clad Switchgear Voltage and Table 1.1-42. Liquid-Immersed Transformers
ANSI standards define recommended and Insulation Levels (From IEEE Std. C37.20.2-2015) Voltage and Basic Lightning Impulse Insulation
required BIL levels for: Rated Maximum Impulse Levels (BIL) (From ANSI/IEEE C57.12.00)
Voltage (kV rms) Withstand (kV) Application Nominal BIL
■■ Metal-clad switchgear System (kV Crest) a
(typically vacuum breakers) 4.76 60 Voltage
8.25 95 (kV rms)
■■ Metal-enclosed switchgear 15.0 95
(typically load interrupters, switches) 27.0 125 Distribution 1.2 30 — — —
38.0 150 2.5 45 — — —
■■ Pad-mounted and overhead
5.0 60 — — —
distribution switchgear
8.7 75 — — —
■■ Liquid immersed transformers Table 1.1-40. Metal-Enclosed 15.0 95 — — —
■■ Dry-type transformers Switchgear Voltage and Insulation Levels 25.0 150 125 — —
(From IEEE Std. C37.20.3-2013) 34.5 200 150 125 —
Table 1.1-39 through Table 1.1-43 Rated Maximum Impulse 46.0 250 200 — —
contain those values. Voltage (kV rms) Withstand (kV) 69.0 350 250 — —
Power 1.2 45 30 — —
4.76 60 2.5 60 45 — —
8.25 95 5.0 75 60 — —
15.0 95
8.7 95 75 — —
27.0 125 15.0 110 95 — —
38.0 150 25.0 150 — — —
34.5 200 — — —
46.0 250 200 — —
Table 1.1-41. Pad Mounted and Overhead 69.0 350 250 — —
Distribution Switchgear, Voltage and
115.0 550 450 350 —
Insulation Levels 138.0 650 550 450 —
Rated Maximum Impulse 161.0 750 650 550 —
Voltage Level (kV rms) Withstand (kV) 230.0 900 825 750 650
Pad Mount Switchgear (per IEEE C37.74-2014) 345.0 1175 1050 900 —
500.0 1675 1550 1425 1300
15.5 95 765.0 2050 1925 1800 —
27 125
38 150 a BIL values in bold typeface are listed as
Overhead Switchgear (per IEEE C37.60-2012) standard. Others listed are in common use.
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Figure 1.1-74. Typical Large Hospital Electrical System—Type 1 Essential Electrical System
Type 1 Essential Electrical The transfer switches can be non-delayed Table 1.1-46. Type 1 EES Applicable Codes
automatic, delayed automatic or manual Description Standard Section
Systems (EES) transfer depending on the requirements
Type 1 essential electrical systems (EES) of the specific branch of the EES that they Sources NFPA 99 6.4.1
have the most stringent requirements for are feeding. It is permissible to feed Uses NFPA 99 6.4.1.1.8
providing continuity of electrical service multiple branches or systems of the EES Emergency NFPA 110 4.1
and will, therefore, be the focus of this from a single automatic transfer switch Power Supply
section. Type 1 EES requirements meet provided that the maximum demand on Classification
or exceed the requirements for Type 2 the EES does not exceed 150 kVA. This Distribution NFPA 99 6.4.2
facilities. configuration is typically seen in smaller NEC 517.30
healthcare facilities that must meet Type 1 General NFPA 99 6.4.2.2.1
Sources:Type 1 systems are required to EES requirements (see Figure 1.1-75). NEC 517.25 thru 517.31
have a minimum of two independent
Life Safety NFPA 99 6.4.2.2.3
sources of electrical power—a normal Branch NEC 517.32
source that generally supplies the entire
Normal Source Critical NFPA 99 6.4.2.2.4
facility and one or more alternate sources Branch NEC 517.33
that supply power when the normal source
Alternate Equipment NFPA 99 6.4.2.2.5
is interrupted.The alternate source(s) must Branch NEC 517.34
be an on-site generator driven by a prime Source
Wiring NFPA 99 6.4.2.2.6
mover unless a generator(s) exists as the NEC 517.30.(C)
normal power source. In the case where a G
generator(s) is used as the normal source,
it is permissible for the alternate source to
be a utility feed.
Alternate source generators must be
classified as Type 10, Class X, Level 1
gensets per NFPA 110 Tables 4.1(a) and
Non-Essential
4.2(b) that are capable of providing power Loads
to the load in a maximum of 10 seconds.
Typically, the alternate sources of power Entire Essential
are supplied to the loads through a Electric System
series of automatic and/or manual (150 kVA or Less)
transfer switches.
Figure 1.1-75. Small Healthcare Facility
Electrical System—Single EES Transfer Switch
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Essential Electrical System Branches: 3. Task illumination and selected The following equipment must be
The Type 1 EES consists of three separate receptacles in the following patient arranged for delayed automatic or manual
branches capable of supplying power care areas: infant nurseries, transfer to the emergency power supply:
considered essential for life safety and medication prep areas, pharmacy,
effective facility operation during an selected acute nursing areas, 1. Select heating equipment.
interruption of the normal power source. psychiatric bed areas, ward 2. Select elevators.
They are the life safety branch, critical treatment rooms, nurses’ stations.
branch and equipment branch. 3. Supply, return and exhaust ventilating
4. Specialized patient care task systems for surgical, obstetrical,
A. Life Safety Branch—supplies illumination, where needed. intensive care, coronary care, nurseries
power for lighting, receptacles and emergency treatment areas.
and equipment to perform the 5. Nurse call systems.
following functions: 6. Blood, bone and tissue banks. 4. Supply, return and exhaust ventilating
systems for airborne infectious/
1. Illumination of means of egress. 7. Telephone equipment rooms isolation rooms, labs and medical
2. Exit signs and exit direction signs. and closets. areas where hazardous materials
are used.
3. Alarms and alerting systems. 8. Task illumination, selected
receptacles and selected power 5. Hyperbaric facilities.
4. Emergency communications circuits for the following: general
systems. care beds (at least one duplex 6. Hypobaric facilities.
receptacle), angiographic labs, 7. Autoclaving equipment.
5. Task illumination, battery chargers cardiac catheterization labs,
for battery powered lighting, and coronary care units, hemodialysis 8. Controls for equipment listed above.
select receptacles at the generator. rooms, selected emergency room
9. Other selected equipment in kitchens,
6. Elevator lighting control, treatment areas, human
laundries, radiology rooms and
communication and signal physiology labs, intensive care
central refrigeration as selected.
systems. units, selected postoperative
recovery rooms. Any loads served by the generator that
7. Automatic doors used for egress. are not approved as outlined above as
9. Additional circuits and single-
These are the only functions permitted part of the essential electrical system
phase fraction motors as needed f
to be on the life safety branch. Life must be connected through a separate
or effective facility operation.
safety branch equipment and wiring transfer switch. These transfer switches
must be entirely independent of all C. Equipment Branch—consists of major must be configured such that the loads
other loads and branches of service. electrical equipment necessary for will not cause the generator to overload
This includes separation of raceways, patient care and Type 1 operation. and must be shed in the event the
boxes or cabinets. Power must be generator enters an overload condition.
supplied to the life safety branch The equipment branch of the EES that
Ground fault protection—per NFPA 70
from a non-delayed automatic consists of large electrical equipment
NEC Article 230.95, ground fault
transfer switch. loads needed for patient care and
protection is required on any feeder or
basic healthcare facility operation.
B. Critical Branch—supplies power for service disconnect 1000 A or larger on
Loads on the equipment system that
task illumination, fixed equipment, systems with line to ground voltages
are essential to generator operation
selected receptacles and selected of 150 V or greater and phase-to-phase
are required to be fed by a non-
power circuits for areas related to voltages of 600 V or less. For healthcare
delayed automatic transfer switch.
patient care. The purpose of the critical facilities (of any type), a second level of
branch is to provide power to a limited ground fault protection is required to be
The following equipment must be
number of receptacles and locations on the next level of feeder downstream.
arranged for delayed automatic
to reduce load and minimize the transfer to the emergency power This second level of ground fault is only
chances of fault conditions. supply: required for feeders that serve patient care
areas and equipment intended to support
The transfer switch(es) feeding the 1. Central suction systems for medical
life. 100% selective coordination of the two
critical branch must be automatic and surgical functions.
levels of ground fault protection must be
type. They are permitted to have 2. Sump pumps and other equipment achieved with a minimum six-cycle
appropriate time delays that will required for the safe operation of a separation between the upstream and
follow the restoration of the life safety major apparatus. downstream device.
branch, but should have power
restored within 10 seconds of normal 3. Compressed air systems for As of the 2011 NEC, ground fault
source power loss. medical and surgical functions. protection is allowed between the
The critical branch provides power to generator(s) and the EES transfer
circuits serving the following areas 4. Smoke control and stair switch(es). However, NEC 517.17(B)
and functions: pressurization systems. prohibits the installation of ground
5. Kitchen hood supply and exhaust fault protection on the load side of a
1. Critical care areas. transfer switch feeding EES circuits
systems, if required to operate
2. Isolated power systems in during a fire. (see Figure 1.1-76—additional level of
special environments. ground fault).
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Careful consideration should be used in Wet procedure locations—A wet Electronic line isolation monitors (LIM)
applying ground fault protection on the procedure location in a healthcare facility are used to monitor and display leakage
essential electrical system to prevent a is any patient care area that is normally currents to ground. When leakage current
ground fault that causes a trip of the subject to wet conditions while patients thresholds are exceeded, visible and/or
normal source to also cause a trip on the are present. By default, operating rooms audible alarms are initiated to alert
emergency source. Such an event could are considered wet procedure locations occupants of a possible hazardous
result in complete power loss of both unless a risk assessment is performed to condition. This alarm occurs without
normal and emergency power sources show otherwise. Other examples of wet interrupting power to allow for the safe
and could not be recovered until the procedure locations might include conclusion of critical procedures.
source of the ground fault was located anesthetizing locations, dialysis locations,
and isolated from the system. To prevent etc. (patient beds, toilets and sinks are not Table 1.1-48. Wet Procedure Location
this condition, NEC 700.27 removes the considered wet locations). These wet Applicable Codes
ground fault protection requirement for procedure locations require special Description Standard Section
the emergency system source. Typically, protection to guard against electric shock.
General NFPA 99 6.3.2.2.8
the emergency system generator(s) are The ground fault current in these areas NEC 517.20
equipped with ground fault alarms that must be limited to not exceed 5 mA.
GFCI Protection NFPA 99 6.3.2.2.8.8
do not automatically disconnect power
during a ground fault. Protection to patient and staff in wet Isolated Power NFPA 99 6.3.2.2.9, 6.3.2.6
procedure locations can be provided Systems NE 517.160
Table 1.1-47. Ground Fault Protection through the use of GFCI outlets, GFCI
Applicable Codes breakers or isolated power systems. If
Description Standard Section GFCI protection is utilized, each circuit
must have a dedicated GFCI outlet or
Services NEC 230.95 GFCI breaker. It is not permissible to use
Branch-Circuits NEC (see Article 210.13 a single GFCI device to protect multiple
100 Definition
for Applicability)
outlets. This limits interruption resulting
Feeders NEC 215.10 from a ground fault to a single outlet.
Additional Level NFPA 99 6.3.2.5 Isolated power systems provide power
NEC 517.17
to an area that is isolated from ground
Alternate Source NEC 700.27 (or ungrounded). This type of system
NEC 701.26
limits the amount of current that flows
to ground in the event of a single
line-to-ground fault and maintains
circuit continuity.
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Typical Application by Facility Type 1.1-104
Utility
Utility G1 G2 Gx
Metering
Typical
Generator
Breaker
Service Main
Optional Closed
EP1 EP2 Typical EPX Transition
Panelboards Paralleling of
Generators and
Utility
Figure 1.1-77. Typical One-Line for a Paralleling Switchgear Lineup Feeding the Essential Electrical System (EES)
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1. Entering emergency mode b. As each automatic transfer switch Healthcare facilities are ideally suited
transfers back to utility power, it to take advantage of these programs
a. Upon loss of normal source, removes its run request from the because they already have significant
automatic transfer switches generator plant. on-site generation capabilities due to
send generator control system the code requirements described. Many
a run request. c. When the last automatic transfer
switch has retransferred to the healthcare facilities are taking advantage
b. All available generators are utility and all run requests have of these utility incentives by adding
started. The first generator up to been removed from the generator generator capacity over and above the
voltage and frequency is closed plant, all generator circuit breakers NFPA requirements. Figure 1.1-78 shows
to the bus. are opened. an example one-line of a healthcare
c. Unsheddable loads and load shed facility with complete generator backup
d. The generators are allowed and utility interconnect.
Priority 1 loads are powered in less to run for their programmed
than 10 seconds. cool-down period. NFPA 110 requirements state that the
d. The remaining generators are e. The system is now back in normal and emergency sources must be
synchronized and paralleled to the automatic/standby mode. separated by a fire-rated wall.
bus as they come up to voltage
and frequency. The intent of this requirement is so that a
With Utility Paralleling fire in one location cannot take out both
e. As additional generators are Today, many utilities are offering their sources of power. To meet this require-
paralleled to the emergency bus, customers excellent financial incentives ment, the paralleling switchgear must be
load shed priority levels are added, to use their on-site generation capacity to split into separate sections with a tie bus
powering their associated loads. remove load from the utility grid. These through a fire-rated wall.
f. The system is now in emergency incentives are sometimes referred to as
mode. limited interruptible rates (LIP). Under
2. Exit from emergency mode these incentives, utilities will greatly
reduce or eliminate kWhr or kW demand
a. Automatic transfer switches sense charges to their customers with on-site
the utility source is within generation capabilities. In exchange,
acceptable operational tolerances during times of peak loading of the utility
for a time duration set at the grid, the utility can ask their LIP rate
automatic transfer switch. customers to drop load from the grid by
using their on-site generation capabilities.
Transformer
Generators X = Number of Units
Utility G1 G2 Gx
Metering
Utility
Closed
Protective Typical
Transition
Relay Generator
Paralleling of
Generators and Breaker
Service Main Utility, Plus
Soft Loading/
Unloading
Normal Bus Emergency Bus
TIE Optional TIE
Optional Electrically Operated
Electrically Stored Energy
Field Installed Breakers
Operated
Cable or Busway
Stored F1 F2 Fx EF1 EF2 EFx
Energy
Breakers
Figure 1.1-78. Typical One-Line Healthcare Facility with Complete Generator Backup and Utility Interconnect
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Methodology for Ensuring Effective 2. Surge Protection If surge protection is only provided for the
Power Quality to Electronic Loads Surge protection devices (SPDs) are building entrance feeder, the let-through
The power quality pyramid is an recommended as the next stage power voltage will be approximately 950 V in a
effective guide for addressing power quality solutions. NFPA, UL 96A, 277/480 V system exposed to induced
quality problems at an existing facility. IEEE Emerald Book and equipment lightning surges. This level of let-through
The framework is also useful for manufacturers recommend the use of voltage can cause degradation or physical
specifying engineers who are surge protectors. The SPDs are used to damage of most electronic loads.
designing a new facility. shunt short duration voltage disturbances Wherever possible, consultants,
to ground, thereby preventing the surge specifiers and application engineers
Power quality starts with grounding
from affecting electronic loads. When should ensure similar loads are fed from
(the base of the pyramid) and then moves
installed as part of the facility-wide the same source. In this way, disturbance-
upward to address the potential issues.
design, SPDs are cost-effective compared generating loads are separated from
This simple, yet proven methodology, will
to all other solutions (on a $/kVA basis). electronic circuits affected by power
provide the most cost-effective approach.
As we move higher up the pyramid, the The IEEE Emerald Book recommends the disturbances. For example, motor loads,
cost per kVA of mitigating potential use of a two-stage protection concept. HVAC systems and other linear loads
problems increase and the quality of the For large surge currents, diversion is best should be separated from the sensitive
power increases (refer to Figure 1.1-79). accomplished in two stages: the first process control and computer systems.
diversion should be performed at the The most effective and economic solution
service entrance to the building. Then, any for protecting a large number of loads
residual voltage resulting from the action is to install parallel style SPDs at the
can be dealt with by a second protective building service entrance feeder and
device at the power panel of the computer panelboard locations. These SPDs are
Cost Per kVA
room (or other critical loads). either placed in parallel with the loads
The benefit of implementing cascaded directly on the equipment bus bars or
network protection is shown in externally by means of a short cable.
Figure 1.1-80. Combined, the two This reduces the cost of protection for
stages of protection at the service multiple sensitive loads.
entrance and branch panel locations
reduce the IEEE 62.41 recommended
5. Uninterruptible Power Supply test wave (C3–20 kV, 10 kA) to less than
(UPS, Gen. Sets, etc.) 200 V voltage, a harmless disturbance
4. Harmonic Distortion level for 120 V rated sensitive loads.
3. Voltage Regulation
2. Surge Protection
1. Grounding
Input—high energy
SPD
Figure 1.1-79. Power Quality Pyramid transient disturbance; IEEE Category
CP
SPD C3 Impulse 20,000V; 10,000A
20,000V
480V 120/208V
PEAK VOLTAGE
problems. All other forms of power IEEE C62.41[10] and C62.45 [10] 400V
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The recommended system approach Advantages of the system approach are: By twisting the installation wires, the area
for installing SPDs is summarized in between wires is reduced and the mutual
Figure 1.1-81. ■■ The lowest possible investment inductance affect minimized.
in mitigating equipment to protect
a facility Increasing the diameter of the installation
■■ Building entrance SPDs protect wires is of negligible benefit. Inductance
1. is a “skin effect” phenomenon and a
Identify Critical Loads the facility against large external
transients, including lightning function of wire circumference. Because
only a marginal reduction in inductance
2. ■■ SPDs are bi-directional and prevent
is achieved when the diameter of the
Identify Non-Critical Loads transient and noise disturbances installation conductors is increased, the
from feeding back within a system use of large diameter wire results in only
3. when installed at distribution or minimal improvement (see Figure 1.1-83).
Identify Noise and branch panels
Disturbance Generating Loads ■■ Two levels of protection safeguard Further benefits provided by integrated
sensitive loads from physical damage surge suppression designs are the
4. or operational upset elimination of field installation costs
Review Internal Power Distribution Layout and the amount of expensive “outboard”
wall space taken up by side-mounted
Side-Mounted SPD vs. Integral SPD SPD devices.
5. Directly connecting the surge suppresser
Identify Facility Exposure to to the bus bar of electrical distribution
Expected Levels of Disturbance Building Entrance Feeder
equipment results in the best possible
Installation Considerations
level of protection. Compared to side-
6. mounted devices, connecting the SPD Installing an SPD device immediately
Apply Mitigating Equipment to: unit to the bus bar eliminates the need after the switchgear or switchboard main
a) Service Entrance Main Panels breaker is the optimal location for
b) Key Sub-Panels
for lead wires and reduces the let-through
voltage up to 50% (see Figure 1.1-82). protecting against external disturbances
c) Critical Loads
d) Data and Communication Lines such as lightning. When placed in this
Given that surges are high frequency location, the disturbance is “intercepted”
disturbances, the inductance of the by the SPD and reduced to a minimum
Figure 1.1-81. System Approach for installation wiring increases the let- before reaching the distribution and/or
Installing SPDs through voltage of the protective device. branch panel(s).
There may be specific single-phase critical Figure 1.1-83 shows that for every inch
loads within a facility that require a higher of lead length, the let-through voltage The use of a disconnect breaker
level of protection. In these instances, is increased by an additional 15–25 V eliminates the need to de-energize the
a series style SPD is best suited for above the manufacturers stated building entrance feeder equipment
protecting such loads. Application of suppression performance. should the SPD fail or require isolation
the series style SPD involves wiring it for Megger testing.
in series with the load it is feeding. Lead length has the greatest effect on the
actual level of protection realized.Twisting
of the installation wires is the second most
important installation consideration.
208Y/120 Panelboard
(integrated versus side mounted SPD)
600
N 400
SPD
Integrated SPD
SPD (direct bus bar connection)
200
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3. Voltage Regulation
Additional Let-Through Voltage Using IEEE C1(6000V, 3000A)[3] Voltage regulation (i.e., sags or over
Additional Let-Through Voltage ¿
Waveform (UL 1449 Test Wave)[12] voltage) disturbances are generally site-
900 14 AWG or load-dependent. A variety of mitigating
800 209V (23%) 10 AWG
700 solutions are available depending upon
600 4 AWG the load sensitivity, fault duration/
673V (75%)
500 magnitude and the specific problems
400 encountered. It is recommended to install
300
200 monitoring equipment on the ac power
100 lines to assess the degree and frequency
0 of occurrences of voltage regulation
3 ft (914.4 mm) 1 ft (304.8 mm) problems.The captured data will allow
Lead Length Lead Length,
Loose Wiring Twisted Wires Twisted Wires
for the proper solution selection.
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Other types of harmonic-producing A-phase, B-phase and C-phase are in Harmonic Issues
loads include arcing devices (such as sequence with each other. Meaning, the
arc furnaces, welders and fluorescent triplen harmonics present on the three Harmonic currents may cause system
lighting). phases add together in the neutral, as losses that over burden the distribution
shown in Figure 1.1-85, rather than cancel system. This electrical overloading may
Nonlinear load currents vary widely from each other out, as shown in Figure 1.1-84. contribute to preventing an existing
a sinusoidal wave shape; often they are Odd non-triplen harmonics are classified electrical distribution system from
discontinuous pulses. This means that as “positive sequence” or “negative serving additional future loads.
nonlinear loads are extremely high in sequence” and are the 1st, 5th, 7th, 11th,
harmonic content. In general, harmonics present on a
13th, etc. distribution system can have the
Triplen harmonics are the 3rd, 9th, 15th,... In general, as the order of a harmonic following detrimental effects:
harmonics. Further, triplen harmonics gets higher, its amplitude becomes
are the most damaging to an electrical 1. Overheating of transformers and
smaller as a percentage of the rotating equipment.
system because these harmonics on the fundamental frequency.
2. Increased hysteresis losses.
3. Decreased kVA capacity.
60 Hz Fundamental
4. Overloading of neutral.
A Phase 5. Unacceptable neutral-to-ground
voltages.
6. Distorted voltage and current
waveforms.
120º
Lagging 7. Failed capacitor banks.
B Phase
8. Breakers and fuses tripping.
9. Double sized neutrals to defy the
negative effects of triplen harmonics.
120º
Lagging In transformers, generators and
C Phase
uninterruptible power supplies (UPS)
systems, harmonics cause overheating
and failure at loads below their ratings
because the harmonic currents cause
Balance
Neutral greater heating than standard 60 Hz
Current current. This results from increased eddy
current losses, hysteresis losses in the
iron cores, and conductor skin effects of
Figure 1.1-84. Balanced Neutral Current Equals Zero the windings. In addition, the harmonic
currents acting on the impedance of the
source cause harmonics in the source
60 Hz Fundamental voltage, which is then applied to other
3rd Harmonic loads such as motors, causing them
A Phase
to overheat.
The harmonics also complicate the
application of capacitors for power
factor correction. If, at a given harmonic
120º frequency, the capacitive impedance
B Phase
Lagging equals the system reactive impedance,
the harmonic voltage and current can
reach dangerous magnitudes. At the
same time, the harmonics create
120º
problems in the application of power
C Phase factor correction capacitors, they lower
Lagging
the actual power factor. The rotating
meters used by the utilities for watthour
and various measurements do not detect
the distortion component caused by the
Neutral harmonics. Rectifiers with diode front
Triplen
Current ends and large dc side capacitor banks
have displacement power factor of 90%
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Single-phase power supplies for Table 1.1-51. Low-Voltage System Classification When evaluating current distortion, it is
computer and fixture ballasts are rich in and Distortion Limits for 480 V Systems important to understand the difference
third harmonics and their odd multiples. Class C AN DF between THD (Total Harmonic Distortion)
and TDD (Total Demand Distortion). THD
Even with the phase currents perfectly Special application b 10 16,400 3% is the measured distortion on the actual
balanced, the harmonic currents in the General system 5 22,800 5% magnitude of current flowing at a given
neutral can total 173% of the phase Dedicated system 2 36,500 10% instant. This could be referred to as a
current. This has resulted in overheated b Special systems are those where the rate of “sine wave quality factor” as it is a
neutrals. The Information Technology change of voltage of the notch might mistrigger measure of the amount of distortion at
Industry Council (ITIC) formerly known an event. AN is a measurement of notch that given time, for that given magnitude
as CBEMA, recommends that neutrals in characteristics measured in volt-microseconds,
of current. It can be measured with a
the supply to electronic equipment be C is the impedance ratio of total impedance to
impedance at common point in system. DF is simple harmonic current metering device.
oversized to at least 173% of the ampacity Current THD is not utilized anywhere in
distortion factor.
of the phase conductors to prevent the IEEE 519 standard. Instead, the IEEE
problems. ITIC also recommends derating Table 1.1-52. Utility or Cogenerator Supply 519 standard sets limits based on TDD,
transformers, loading them to no more Voltage Harmonic Limits or Total Demand Distortion. TDD is a
than 50% to 70% of their nameplate kVA, Voltage 2.3–69 kV 69–138 kV >138 kV calculated value based on the amount
based on a rule-of-thumb calculation, to Range of harmonic distortion related to the full
compensate for harmonic heating effects. load capacity of the electrical system. The
Maximum 3.0% 1.5% 1.0%
In spite of all the concerns they cause, individual formula for calculating TDD is as follows:
nonlinear loads will continue to increase. harmonic
Therefore, the systems that supply them Total 5.0% 2.5% 1.5%
will have to be designed so that their
adverse effects are greatly reduced.
harmonic
distortion ( IL
)
TDD = I22 + I32 + I24 + I52 + … x 100
6-pulse rectifier
Harmonics a
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Drives and rectifiers— Line reactors n Inexpensive n May require additional compensation
includes three-phase n For 6-pulse standard drive/rectifier, can reduce
UPS loads harmonic current distortion from 80% down to
about 35–40%
K-rated/drive isolation n Offers series reactance (similar to line reactors) n No advantage over reactors for reducing
transformer and provides isolation for some transients harmonics unless in pairs for shifting phases
dc choke n Slightly better than ac line reactors for 5th and n Not always an option for drives
7th harmonics n Less protection for input semiconductors
12-pulse convertor n 85% reduction versus standard 6-pulse drives n Cost difference approaches 18-pulse drive
and blocking filters, which guarantee
IEEE 519 compliance
Harmonic mitigating n Substantial (50–80%) reduction in harmonics n Harmonic cancellation highly dependent on
transformers/phase shifting when used in tandem load balance
n Must have even multiples of matched loads
Tuned filters n Bus connected—accommodates load diversity n Requires allocation analysis
n Provides PF correction n Sized only to the requirements of that system;
must be resized if system changes
Broadband filters n Makes 6-pulse into the equivalent of 18-pulse n Higher cost
n Requires one filter per drive
18-pulse converter n Excellent harmonic control for drives above 100 hp n High cost
n IEEE 519 compliant
n No issues when run from generator sources
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It = Ir + Ic + Ig Id = Ih + Ix + Ir
Input Static Disconnect
Output
Contactor Switch Line Inductor
Contactor
Source Load
Ix
dc Filter Inductor Ig Id = Output Current
Field Coil ac
Ih = Harmonic Current
Driver dc ac Ix = Reactive Load Current
Ir = Real Load Current
Ih
Integrated Motor/Flywheel/
and Generator
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The power stage controls analyze the Recharge Mode High-Speed Rotary Advantages
harmonic current requirements of the When input power is restored to ■■ Addresses all power quality problems
load and set the firing angle of the inverter acceptable limits, the UPS synchronizes
IGBTs to make the utility converter a very ■■ Battery systems are not required
the output and input voltages, closes the or used
low impedance source to any harmonic input contactor and turns on the static
currents.Thus, nonlinear load currents are ■■ No battery maintenance required
disconnect switch. The utility converter
supplied almost entirely from the utility then transfers power from the flywheel ■■ Unlimited discharge cycles
converter with little effect on the quality to the input source by linearly increasing ■■ 150-second recharge time available
of the UPS output voltage waveform the real input current. The transfer time
and with almost no transmission of load ■■ Wide range of operating temperatures
is programmable from 1 to 15 seconds.
harmonics currents to the input of As soon as the load power is completely can be accommodated (–20 ° to 40 °C)
the UPS. transferred to the input source, the utility ■■ Small compact size and less floor space
converter and flywheel converter start required (500 kW systems takes 20 sq ft)
Discharge Mode to recharge the flywheel and return to ■■ N+1 reliability available up to 900 kVA
The UPS senses the deviation of the normal operation mode. The flywheel maximum
voltage or frequency beyond programmed recharge power is programmable
■■ No disposal issues
tolerances and quickly disconnects the between a slow and fast rate. Using the
supply source by turning off the static fast rate results in an increase of UPS
High-Speed Rotary Disadvantages
disconnect switch and opening the input input current over nominal levels.
■■ Flywheel does not have deep reserve
contactor.The disconnect occurs in less Recharging the flywheel is accomplished capacity—rides through for up to
than one-half cycle.Then the utility by controlling the utility and flywheel 13 seconds at 100% load
converter starts delivering power from converter in a similar manner as is used
the dc bus to the load, and the flywheel ■■ Some enhanced flywheel systems may
to maintain full charge in the normal extend the ride through to 30 seconds
converter changes the firing point of its operation mode, however the IGBT
IGBTs to deliver power to the dc bus. at 100% load
gating points are changed to increase
The UPS maintains a clean output voltage current into the flywheel. ■■ Mechanical flywheel maintenance
within 3% or nominal voltage to the load required every 2–3 years, and oil
when input power is lost. changes required every year
■■ Recharge fast rates require the input to
be sized for 125% of nominal current
■■ Flywheels failures in field not
understood
■■ Requires vacuum pumps for
high-speed flywheels
■■ Limited number of vendors and
experience
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Static UPS Systems Double Conversion Concept 5. The bypass circuit provides a path
of Operation for unregulated normal power to be
Typical Ratings The basic operation of the Double routed around the major electronic
20 kW to 1 MVA / 1 MW, and higher when Conversion UPS is: sub-assemblies of the UPS to the
multiple units are paralleled. load so that the load can continue to
1. Normal power is connected to the operate during maintenance, or if the
UPS input through the facility UPS electronics fails. The bypass static
Typical Static UPS Configurations electrical distribution system. This switch can switch to conducting mode
Static UPS systems modules are available usually involves two input circuits in <1 millisecond. When the UPS
in three basic types of configurations that can either come from the same recognizes a requirement to transfer
known as standby, line interactive and source or from separate sources such to the bypass mode, it simultaneously
double conversion. The lower power as utility and site generation. turns the static switch ON, the output
ratings are likely to be one of the first two breaker to OPEN, and the bypass
types of configurations, e.g., standby or 2. The Rectifier/Charger function breaker to CLOSE. The output breaker
line interactive. Most medium or large converts the normal ac power to opens and the bypass breaker
static UPS installations use the double dc power to charge the battery and closes in about 50 milliseconds. The
conversion technology in one or multiple power the inverter. The load is isolated restoration of normal conditions
module configurations, i.e., or multiple from the normal input source. at the UPS results in the automatic
UPS units in parallel. 3. The battery stores dc energy for use restoration of the UPS module
Special UPS high-efficiency operating when input power to the UPS fails. powering the load through the
modes like Eco mode or ESS can provide The amount of power available from rectifier/charger and inverter with
efficiency improvements to over 99%, the dc battery system and time to load isolation from power quality
equating to less than 1% losses through discharge voltage is a function of problems, and the opening of the
the UPS. These modes depend on the the type of battery selected and the bypass circuit.
system operating with the static switch ampere-hour sized used. Battery
closed and power conversion sections systems should be sized for no less Static Double Conversion Advantages
suspended (not off). Modern UPSs can than 5 minutes of clean power usage ■■ Addresses all power quality problems
instantly revert to traditional double from a fully charged state, and, in
many cases, are sized to provide ■■ Suitable for applications from 5 kVA to
conversion operation within 2 ms on over 2500 kVA
detection of any power anomaly. more time on battery power.
■■ Simple battery systems are sized
Figure 1.1-87 illustrates the one-line 4. The dc link connects the output of the for application
diagram of a simple single Double rectifier/charger to the input of the
inverter and to the battery.Typically the ■■ Long battery backup times and long life
Conversion UPS module. Brief explana batteries are available
tions appear for the standby and line rectifier/charger is sized slightly higher
interactive UPS systems after the text than 100% of UPS output because it ■■ Higher reliability is available using
explaining the Double Conversion static must power the inverter and supply redundant UPS modules
UPS type of system. charger power to the battery.
Source Load
Normal Rectifier/Charger Output
Inverter
Breaker Breaker
ac dc
dc ac
Battery Breaker
Battery
Figure 1.1-87. Typical Static UPS, Double Conversion Type with Battery Backup
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Static Double Conversion 3. The battery stores dc energy for use Static Line Interactive UPS
Disadvantages by the inverter when input power to Concept of Operation
■■ Battery systems, battery maintenance the UPS fails. The amount of power The basic operation of the Line Interactive
and battery replacement are required available from the dc battery system UPS is:
and time to discharge voltage is a
■■ Large space requirement for battery 1. The Line Interactive type of UPS has
function of the type of battery selected
systems (higher life takes more space, and the ampere-hour sized used. a different topology than the static
e.g., 500 kW takes 80–200 sq ft Battery systems should be sized for double conversion and standby
depending upon the type of battery the anticipated outage. systems. The normal input power is
used, VRLA 10 year, VRLA 20 year connected to the load in parallel with
or flooded) 4. The dc link connects the output of the a battery and bi-directional inverter/
■■ Limited discharge cycles of rectifier/charger to the input of the charger assembly. The input source
battery system inverter and to the battery. Typically usually terminates at a line inductor
the rectifier/charger is sized only to and the output of the inductor is
■■ Narrow temperature range
supply charger power to the battery, connected to the load in parallel
for application and is rated far lower than in the with the battery and inverter/charger
■■ Efficiencies are in the 90–97% double conversion UPS. circuit. See Figure 1.1-89 for more
■■ Bypass mode places load at risk unless details.
5. The bypass circuit provides a direct
bypass has UPS backup connection of bypass source to 2. The traditional rectifier circuit is
■■ Redundancy of UPS modules results the load. The load operates from eliminated and this results in
in higher costs unregulated power. The bypass static a smaller footprint and weight
■■ Output faults are cleared by the switch can switch to non-conducting reduction. However, line
bypass circuit mode in <8 milliseconds. When the conditioning is compromised.
UPS recognizes the loss of normal
■■ Output rating of the UPS is 150%
input power, it transfers to battery/ 3. When the input power fails, the
■■ Battery disposal and safety issues exist inverter mode by simultaneously battery/inverter charger circuit
turning the Inverter ON and the reverses power and supplies the
Standby UPS Concept of Operation static switch OFF. load with regulated power.
The basic operation of the Standby
UPS is: Static Standby UPS Advantages Static Line Interactive UPS Advantages
■■ Lower costs than double conversion ■■ Slight improvement of power
1. The Standby UPS topology is similar conditioning over standby
to the double conversion type, but the ■■ Rectifier and charger are
economically sized UPS systems
operation of the UPS is different in
significant ways. Normal power is ■■ Small footprints and weights
■■ Efficient design
connected to the UPS input through ■■ Batteries are sized for the application
■■ Efficient design
the facility electrical distribution ■■ Batteries are sized for the application
system. This usually involves two Static Standby UPS Disadvantages
input circuits that can come from Static Line Interactive
one or two sources such as utility ■■ Impractical over 2 kVA
UPS Disadvantages
and site generation. See Figure 1.1-88 ■■ Little to no isolation of load from power
for details. quality disturbances ■■ Impractical over 10 kVA
■■ Standby power is from battery alone ■■ Not as good conditioning as
2. The rectifier/charger function converts double conversion
the normal ac power to dc power to ■■ Battery systems, battery maintenance
and battery replacement are required ■■ Standby power is from battery alone
charge the battery only, and does not
simultaneously power the inverter. ■■ Limited discharge cycles of ■■ Battery systems, battery maintenance
The load is connected to the bypass battery system and battery replacement are required
source through the bypass static ■■ Limited discharge cycles for the
■■ Narrow temperature range
switch. The inverter is in the standby battery system
mode ready to serve the load from for application
■■ Output faults are cleared by the ■■ Narrow temperature range
battery power if the input power
source fails. bypass circuit for application
■■ Battery disposal and safety issues exist ■■ Battery disposal and safety issues exist
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UPS Module
Source Load
Rectifier/
Normal Charger Inverter Output
Breaker Breaker
ac dc
dc ac
Battery
Breaker
Battery
Figure 1.1-88. Typical Static UPS, Standby Type with Battery Backup
UPS Module
Source Load
Inductor
Bidirectional
Inverter/Charger
dc
ac
Battery
Figure 1.1-89. Typical Static UPS, Line Interactive Type with Battery Backup
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Seismic Requirements
General
In the 1980s, Eaton embarked on a
comprehensive program centered
around designing and building electrical
distribution and control equipment
capable of meeting and exceeding the
seismic load requirements of the Uniform
Building Code (UBC) and California
Building Code (CBC). These codes
emphasize building design requirements.
Electrical equipment and distribution
system components are considered
attachments to the building. The entire
program has been updated to show
compliance with the 2015 International
Building Code (IBC) and the 2016 CBC
seismic requirements.
A cooperative effort with the equipment Figure 1.1-90. Typical Earthquake Ground Motion Map for the United States
user, the building designer and the
equipment installer ensures that the International Building Code (IBC) California Building Code
equipment is correctly anchored such On December 9, 1994, the International The 2001 CBC was based upon the 1997
that it can withstand the effects of an Code Council (ICC) was established as UBC. In August of 2006, it was repealed
earthquake. Eaton’s electrical distribution a nonprofit organization dedicated to by the California Building Standards
and control equipment has been tested developing a single set of comprehensive Commission (CBSC) and replaced by the
and seismically proven for requirements and coordinated codes.The ICC founders 2007 CBC, California Code of Regulations
in compliance with the IBC and CBC. Over —the Building Officials and Code (CCR),Title 24, Part 2 and used the 2006
100 different assemblies representing Administrators (BOCA), the International IBC as the basis for the code.The 2016
essentially all product lines have been Conference of Building Officials (ICBO), CBC is based upon the 2015 IBC, with
successfully tested and verified to seismic and the Southern Building Code Congress amendments as deemed appropriate by
requirements specified in the IBC and CBC. International (SBCCI)—created the ICC in the CBSC. Eaton’s seismic qualification
The equipment maintained structural response to technical disparities among program fully envelopes the requirements
integrity and demonstrated the ability to the three nationally recognized model of the 2016 CBC with many of the
function immediately after the seismic codes now in use in the U.S.The ICC offers distribution and control products having
tests. A technical paper, Earthquake a single, complete set of construction Seismic Certification Pre-approval with
Requirements and Eaton Distribution and codes without regional limitations—the the California Office of Statewide Health
Control Equipment Seismic Capabilities International Building Code. Planning and Development (OSHPD).
(SA12501SE), provides a detailed
explanation of the applicable seismic
codes and Eaton’s equipment qualification Uniform Building Code (UBC) Process
program.The paper may be found at 1997 was the final year in which the UBC According to Chapter 16 of the 2015 IBC,
www.eaton.com/seismic.Type in was published. It has since been replaced structure design, the seismic requirements
SA12501SE in the document search field. by the IBC. of electrical equipment in buildings may
be computed in two steps.The first step is
to determine the maximum ground
motion to be considered at the site.The
second step is to evaluate the equipment
mounting and attachments inside the
building or structure.These are then
evaluated to determine appropriate
seismic test requirements.The ground
motion, seismic requirements of the
equipment, and the seismic response
spectrum requirements are discussed
on Page 1.1-122, see Figure 1.1-92.
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Ground Motion As a result, the adjusted maximum According to the IBC and ASCE 7, the
The first step in the process is to considered earthquake spectral response spectral acceleration (Sa) at periods less
determine the maximum considered for 0.2 second short period (SMS) and at than 1.45 seconds may be computed by
earthquake spectral response accelera 1.0 second (SM1), adjusted for site class using the following formula:
tion at short periods of 0.2 seconds (SS) effects, are determined from the
following equations: Sa = SDS (0.6 T/T0 + 0.4)
and at a period of 1.0 second (S1). These
values are determined from a set of SMS = Fa SS = 1.0 x 3.73 g = 3.73 g Where T is the period where Sa is being
spectral acceleration maps (Figure 1.1-90) calculated:
and include numerous contour lines SM1 = Fv S1 = 1.5 x 1.389 g = 2.08 g
Therefore, the acceleration at 0.0417
indicating the severity of the earthquake
ASCE 7 (American Society of Civil seconds (24 Hz), for example, is equal to:
requirements at a particular location in
Engineers) provides a plot of the final
the country. Sa = 2.49 (0.6 ((0.0417/0.112) + 0.4) = 1.55 g
shape of the design response spectra
The spectral acceleration maps indicate of the seismic ground motion. The plot The acceleration at 0.03 seconds (33 Hz)
low to moderate seismic requirements is shown in Figure 1.1-91. ASCE 7 is is equal to:
for the entire country, with the exception referenced throughout the IBC as
of two particular areas; the West Coast the source for numerous structural Sa = 2.49 (0.6 (0.3/0.112) + 0.4) = 1.40 g
and the Midwest (the New Madrid area). design criteria.
At zero period (infinite frequency), T = 0.0,
The maps indicate that the high seismic the acceleration (ZPA) is equal to:
The design spectral acceleration curve
requirements in both regions, West
can now be computed. The peak spectral
Coast and Midwest, quickly decrease Sa = 2.49 (0.6 (0.0/0.112) + 0.4) = 0.996 g
acceleration (SDS) and the spectral
as one moves away from the fault area. (ZPA)
acceleration at 1.0 second (SD1) may
Therefore, the high requirements are only
now be computed from the following
limited to a relatively narrow strip along The acceleration to frequency
formulas in the code:
the fault lines. Just a few miles away from relationship in the frequency range of 1.0
this strip, only a small percentage of the SDS = 2/3 x SMS = 2/3 x 3.73 g = 2.49 g Hz to TS is stated equal to:
maximum requirements are indicated.
SD1 = 2/3 x SM1 = 2/3 x 2.08 g = 1.39 g Sa = SD1/T
Assuming the worse condition, which
is a site directly located near a fault, SDS, the peak spectral acceleration, Where Sa is the acceleration at theT period.
the maximum considered earthquake extends between the values of T0 and TS. At 1.0 Hz (T=1.0) this equation yields the
spectral response acceleration at short T0 and TS are defined in the codes as following acceleration:
periods of 0.2 seconds (SS) is equal to follows:
285% gravity and at 1.0 second period (S1) Sa = 1.39/1 = 1.39 g
is 124% gravity. These numbers are the T0 = 0.2 SD1/SDS = 0.2 x 1.39/2.49 =
maximum numbers for the entire country. 0.112 seconds (8.96 Hz)
To help understand the 2015 IBC (and
TS = SD1/SDS = 1.39/2.49 =
2016 CBC) seismic parameters for a
specific building location, the link to 5.585 seconds (1.79 Hz)
the US Geological Society is extremely
helpful: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/
research/hazmaps/design/
Spectural Response Acceleration Sa(g)
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Acceleration (g peak)
not necessary. In addition, having the 6 (TRS) Acceleration = Maximum
5
low end of the spectra higher than Table Test Motion
4
realistically required forces the shake
table to move at extremely high 3
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Acceleration (g)
actual acceleration of the C.G. of a piece
of equipment under seismic test. The
seismic response at the middle of base 1
mounted equipment close to its C.G. is at
least 50% higher than the floor input at
the equipment natural frequency. The
base accelerations associated with the
accelerations of FP/WP at the C.G. of the
equipment could then be computed as 0.1
4.48 /1.5 = 2.99 g. It is the equipment base 1 10 100
input acceleration that is measured and Frequency (Hz)
documented during seismic testing and is
the acceleration value shown on Eaton’s Eaton Seismic IBC 2015/CBC 2016
seismic certificates.
Figure 1.1-93. Required Response Spectrum Curve
Final Combined Requirements
To better compare all seismic levels and
determine the final envelope seismic
100% vs. 120%
requirements, the 2016 CBC and 2015 IBC
10
for California are plotted in Figure 1.1-93.
All curves are plotted at 5% damping.
An envelopment of the seismic levels in
the frequency range of 3.2 Hz to 100 Hz is
also shown. This level is taken as Eaton’s
Acceleration (g)
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Eaton Equipment
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Other Application Considerations 1.1-125
Additional Design and Note: Eaton recommends that designers Energy Conservation
confirm with the manufacturer if the seismic
Installation Considerations certification supplied with the equipment is Because of the greatly increased cost of
When installing electrical distribution and based on: electrical power, designers must consider
control equipment, consideration must be the efficiency of electrical distribution
given as to how the methods employed 1. ACTUAL shaker table test as required systems, and design for energy
will affect seismic forces imposed on the by the IBC and CBC. conservation. In the past, especially in
equipment, equipment mounting surface, commercial buildings, design was for
2. The seismic certificate and test data lowest first cost, because energy was
and conduits entering the equipment. clearly state if the equipment was inexpensive.Today, even in the speculative
Eaton recommends that when specifying tested as free-standing—anchored at office building, operating costs are so
a brand of electrical distribution and the bottom of the equipment to the high that energy-conserving designs can
control equipment, the designer shaker table. justify their higher initial cost with a rapid
references the installation manuals of 3. Structure attached, that is, anchored payback and continuing savings.The
that manufacturer to ascertain that the at the center of gravity (C.G.) or at the leading standard for energy conservation
requirements can be met through the TOP of the equipment to a simulated is ASHRAE 90.1 (latest is 2016) and
design and construction process. wall on the shaker table. International Energy Conservation Code
(IECC) as adopted by the International
For Eaton electrical distribution and Building Code (IBC).
control products, the seismic installation Stand-Alone or Free-Standing
guides for essentially all product lines Equipment There are four major sources of
can be found at our Web site: If stand-alone or free-standing, then this electrical energy conservation in
http://www.eaton.com/seismic. may require that additional width space a commercial building: 1) Lighting
be allowed at each end of the equipment Systems, 2) Motors and controls,
Electrical designers must work closely 3) Transformers, 4) HVAC system.
for additional seismic bracing supplied by
with the structural or civil engineers for
the manufacturer.
a seismic qualified installation. The lighting system must take advantage
Additional thought must be given to the of the newest equipment and techniques.
Consideration must be given to the type New light sources, familiar light sources
clearances around the equipment to rigid
of material providing anchorage for the with higher efficiencies, solid-state
structural edifices. Space must be
electrical equipment. ballasts with dimming controls, use of
allowed for the differing motions of the
If steel, factors such as thickness or equipment and the structure, so that they daylight, environmental design, efficient
gauge, attachment via bolts or welding, do not collide during a seismic event and luminaires, computerized or programmed
and the size and type of hardware must damage one another. control, and the like, are some of the
be considered. methods that can increase the efficiency
Note: If the equipment is installed as stand- of lighting systems. They add up to
If concrete, the depth, the PSI, the type alone or free-standing, with additional seismic
providing the necessary amount of light,
bracing at each end and not attached to the
of re-enforcing bars used, as well as the with the desired color rendition, from the
structure as tested, and yet, it is fitted tightly
diameter and embedment of anchorage against a structural wall, then this would be an most efficient sources, where and when it
all must be considered. incorrect installation for the application of the is needed, and not providing light where
seismic certificate. or when it is not necessary.
The designer must also give consider
ation if the equipment will be secured to The installation of energy-efficient
Furthermore, if conduits are to be
the wall, versus stand-alone or free- lighting provides the best payback for
installed overhead into the equipment,
standing, which requires the equipment the lowest initial investment and should
does the design call for flexible conduits
to withstand the highest level of seismic be considered the first step in a facility
of sufficient length to allow for the
forces. Top cable entry should be avoided energy reduction program.
conflicting motion of the equipment and
for large enclosures, as accommodation
the structure during a seismic event so as Motors and controls are another cause
for cable/conduit flexibility will need to be
to not damage the conductors contained of wasted energy that can be reduced.
designed into the system.
therein, and the terminations points New, energy-efficient motor designs are
For a manufacturer to simply state within the equipment. available using more and better core
“Seismic Certified” or “Seismic steel, and larger windings.
Qualified” does not tell the designer Structure Attached Equipment
if the equipment is appropriate for the The designer must work closely with the
intended installation. structural engineer if the equipment is to
be attached to the structure to ascertain
that the internal wall re-enforcement of
the structure, type of anchor, and depth
of embedment is sufficient to secure
the equipment so that the equipment,
conduits and structure move at or near
the same frequency.
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For any motor operating 10 or more hours The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has HVAC systems have traditionally been
per day, the use of energy-efficient types established energy efficiency standards very wasteful of energy, often being
is strongly recommended. These motors that manufacturers of distribution designed for lowest first cost. This, too, is
have a premium cost of about 20% more transformers must comply with since changing. For example, reheat systems
than standard motors. Depending on 2007. As of January 1, 2016, the DOE are being replaced by variable air volume
loading, hours of use and the cost of standard CFR Title 10 Chapter II Part 431 systems, resulting in equal comfort with
energy, the additional initial cost could be (in Appendix A of Subpart K 2016) substantial increases in efficiency. While
repaid in energy saved within a few requires increased minimum operating the electrical engineer has little influence
months, and it rarely takes more than two efficiencies for each distribution on the design of the HVAC system,
years. Because, over the life of a motor, transformer size at a loading equal to he/she can specify that all motors
the cost of energy to operate it is many 35% of the transformer full load kVA. The with continuous or long duty cycles are
times the cost of the motor itself, any 35% loading value in the NEMA standard specified as energy-efficient types, and
motor with many hours of use should be reflects field studies conducted by the that the variable-air-volume fans do not
of the energy-efficient type. U.S. Department of Energy, which use inlet vanes or outlet dampers, but
showed that dry-type transformers are driven by variable-speed drives.
Where a motor drives a load with variable installed in commercial facilities are
output requirements such as a centrifugal typically loaded at an average of 35% of Variable speed drives can often be
pump or a large fan, customary practice their full load capacity over a 24-hour time desirable on centrifugal compressor units
has been to run the motor at constant period. Figure 1.1-96 compares losses for as well. Because some of these require-
speed, and to throttle the pump output or both low temperature rise TP-1 and DOE ments will be in HVAC specifications, it
use inlet vanes or outlet dampers on the 2016 transformers using a 75 kVA design. is important for the energy-conscious
fan. This is highly inefficient and wasteful electrical engineer to work closely with
of energy. In order to achieve maximum the HVAC engineer at the design stage to
energy efficiency in these applications, ensure that these systems are as energy
solid-state variable frequency, variable efficient as possible.
speed drives for AC induction motors
are available as a reliable and relatively
inexpensive option. Using a variable-
Former TP-1 Versus NEW DOE 2016 Transformer Loss Comparison
speed drive, the throttling valves, inlet for 75 kVA Copper Wound
vanes or output dampers can be 3500
80C, 115C and 150C Temperature Rated Designs
building are usually energized 24 hours 0% 25% 35% 50% 75% 100%
a day, savings from lower losses can be Percentage of Load
substantial, and should be considered
DOE 2016 Efficient 150C TP-1 Efficient 150C DOE 2016 Efficient 115C
in all transformer specifications. One
method of obtaining reduced losses is to TP-1 Efficient 115C DOE 2016 Efficient 80C TP-1 Efficient 80C
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Utilities require that when the protective For installation in/on/for existing Seek the solar module data sheet for a
device at their substation opens that structures and sites, it is advised that, at list of standard test condition (STC) data,
the device connecting a cogenerator the minimum, pre-design and construction temperature coefficients, and any special
to the utility open also. This is often tests be performed for existing power- module-related information to determine
accomplished by Transfer Trip Systems quality issues, water drainage and the the low-temperature open circuit voltage.
utilizing dedicated fiber optic connectivity utility feeder/transformer. The prevailing industry practice, requires
and local multiplexing equipment. the use of the site’s Extreme Annual Mean
Additionally, electrical distribution panel Minimum Design Dry Bulb Temperature
This can add considerable cost and ratings ampacity and short-circuit ratings data, available in the ASHRAE Handbook.
complexity to the design as well as must be sufficient for the planned solar Code requires that the resulting
reoccuring monthly charges to pay system, and the necessary arc flash maximum voltage (Voc) when added
for the use of the dedicated fiber. studies be performed. Connection to the in the “string of modules” be under
utility is always preceded by a utility maximum system voltage. Record low
One reason for these complex interconnect agreement (application)
Transfer Trip arrangements is that most temperatures provide an indication of
process. Successful approval is typically system performance when temperatures
cogenerators are connected to feeders required for the available solar incentives
serving other customers. Utilities desire drop to these levels. Power Xpert Solar
and programs offered by the utility, inverters are designed to 1000 Vdc and
to reclose the feeder after a transient municipality, state, and various federal
fault is cleared. Reclosing in most cases 1500 Vdc standards.
agencies and departments. State,
will damage the cogenerator if it had and IRS tax incentives require well-
remained connected to their system. documented records. High Temperature Equation
Islanding is another reason why the Once the maximum number of modules
Solar systems, while low maintenance, per string is established, the minimum
utility insists on the disconnection of the do require periodic service. The solar
cogenerator. Islanding is the event that number of modules per string needs to
modules need to be washed-clean on a be calculated. Here, more site-related
after a fault in the utility’s system is cleared regular basis and electrical terminations
by the operation of the protective devices, aspects come into play, as the voltage of
require initial and annual checks. Cooling solar modules decreases with increasing
a part of the system may continue to system filters are periodic maintenance
be supplied by cogeneration. Such a temperature. The modules’ (photovoltaic
items, with the re-fresh rate dependent cell) temperature is influenced by the
condition is dangerous to the utility’s upon typical and unusual circumstances.
operation during restoration work. ambient temperature, reflected sun-loads
Solar systems installed near other new from nearby structures, parapet walls,
Major cogenerators are connected to construction where dust is generated roof-coatings, etc.
the subtransmission or the transmission (e.g., grading, paving) or agricultural
system of a utility. Major cogenerators Air-flow above and behind the solar
environments may require additional modules affect the cell temperature. The
have buy-sell agreements. In such cases, solar-system checks and services.
utilities will use a trip transfer scheme to accepted industry standards to add to the
Planning for such contingencies is the module heating are listed below. Unusual
trip the cogenerator breaker. business of solar-system design, mounting systems may adjust these
Guidelines that are given in IEEE 1547 construction and on-going operation. figures, and it is best to seek assistance
and IEEE P2030 are starting points, but Performance-based incentives require in establishing and planning such
the entire design should be coordinated verifiable metering, often by registered/ installations.
with the utility. approved independent third parties. Such
monitoring periods are typically for 60 or ■■ 15–20 °C for ground or pole mounted
more months. solar systems
PV System Design Considerations It is generally wise to involve engineering ■■ 20–25 °C for roof-top solar systems
Successful photovoltaic (PV) design and design firms that specialize in complete mounted at inclined angles (offers
construction is a complex multi-discipline solar systems “turn-key” calculations, improved air-flow behind the modules)
endeavor. Proper planning includes site drawings, construction management ■■ 25–30 °C for roof-top solar systems
survey and solar site assessment for and procurement. mounted flat, yet at least 6.00 inches
maximizing the sun’s energy harvesting (152.4 mm) above the roof surface
for solar module selection, and for The following equations are the basis of
updating the electrical/mechanical design all solar system layout and design. Vmp_min = Vmp + (temp-differential x
and construction to the latest code and temp-coefficient-of-Vmp)
local constraints, including fire marshal Low Temperature Equation
Voc_max = Voc + (temp-differential x The temp-differential in this case includes
and seismic regulations. Professionally
temp-coefficient-of-Voc) the above temperature “adders.” The Vmp
prepared bid, permit, construction and
and related temperature coefficients are
as-built drawings must be required
The temp-differential is the difference listed on the solar module’s data sheets.
and maintained.
between the standard module rating
at 25 °C and the low temperature. The
voltage (Voc) will rise with temperatures
under 25 °C.
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While the code doesn’t indicate the high All wiring from emergency source to Where the emergency or standby source,
temperature to use (i.e., because it is emergency loads must be kept separate such as an engine generator or separate
an equipment application issue), the from all other wiring and equipment, in service, has capacity to supply the entire
industry standard is to evaluate the its own distribution and raceway system, system, the transfer scheme can be either
ASHRAE 2% high temperature figures, except in transfer equipment enclosures a full-capacity automatic transfer switch,
coupled to known location differences. and similar locations. or, less costly but equally effective,
Record high temperatures provide an normal and emergency main circuit
indication of system performance when The most common power source for breakers, electrically interlocked such
climatic condition reaches these levels. large emergency loads is an engine- that on failure of the normal supply the
generator set, but the NEC also permits emergency supply is connected to the
Beyond the damaging temperature affects the emergency supply (subject to local load. However, if the emergency or
on photovoltaic module Vmp voltage code requirements) to be storage standby source does not have capacity
levels, voltage drop in PV conductors batteries, uninterruptible power supplies, for the full load, as is usually the case,
under such conditions also need to be a separate emergency service, or a such a scheme would require automatic
calculated and evaluated, beyond normal connection to the service ahead of disconnection of the nonessential loads
temperatures.The inverter only uses the normal service disconnecting before transfer.
(knows) the Vmp voltage at the inverter, means. Unit equipment for emergency
not at the PV modules. illumination, with a rechargeable battery, A simpler and more economical approach
a charger to keep it at full capacity when is a separate emergency bus, supplied
Increasing grid voltages also puts a normal power is on, one or more lamps, through an automatic transfer switch, to
constraint on the minimum Vmp voltage and a relay to connect the battery to feed all critical loads. The transfer switch
at the DC input stage. the lamps on loss of normal power, is connects this bus to the normal supply,
To ensure the full MPPT range without also permitted. in normal operation. On failure of the
power-clipping (reduced power output), normal supply, the engine-generator is
Because of the critical nature of started, and when it is up to speed the
prudent PV system designs shall consider emergency power, ground fault
the PV array’s Vmp voltage drop to the automatic switch transfers the emergency
protection is not required. It is considered loads to this source. On return of the
point of the inverter connection, ambient preferable to risk arcing damage, rather
temperatures and the PV system normal source, manual or automatic
than to disconnect the emergency supply retransfer of the emergency loads can
installation type’s effects on Vmp, solar completely. For emergency power,
module miss-match and tolerance take place.
ground fault alarm is required by NEC
variations, degradation of solar modules 700.5(D) to indicate a ground fault in
over time (solar system life), etc. Typical
Vmp design values, based upon known
solidly grounded wye emergency Peak Shaving
systems of more than 150 V to ground
and expected conditions are 5–10% over and circuit-protective devices rated Many installations now have emergency
the minimum MPPT tracking voltage. 1000 A or more. or standby generators. In the past, they
Reference NEC 2017 Section 690 and 691, were required for hospitals and similar
Solar Photovoltaic Systems. Legally required standby systems, as locations, but not common in office
required by the governmental agency buildings or shopping centers. However,
having jurisdiction, are intended to many costly and unfortunate experiences
Emergency Power supply power to selected loads, other during utility blackouts in recent years
Most areas have requirements for than those classed as emergency have led to the more frequent installation
emergency and standby power systems. systems, on loss of normal power. of engine generators in commercial and
The National Electrical Code does not These are usually loads not essential to institutional systems for safety and for
specifically call for any emergency or human safety, but loss of which could supplying important loads.
standby power, but does have require create hazards or hamper rescue or
ments for those systems when they fire-fighting operations. Industrial plants, especially in process
are legally mandated and classed as industries, usually have some form
emergency (Article 700), legally required NEC requirements are similar to those for of alternate power source to prevent
standby (Article 701) by municipal, emergency systems, except that wiring extremely costly shutdowns. These
state, federal or other codes, or by any may occupy the same distribution and standby generating systems are critical
governmental agency having jurisdiction. raceway system as the normal wiring if when needed, but they are needed only
Optional standby systems, not legally desired. Optional standby systems are infrequently. They represent a large
required, are also covered in the NEC those not legally required, and are capital investment. To be sure that their
(Article 702). intended to protect private business or power will be available when required,
property where life safety does not depend they should be tested periodically
Emergency systems are intended to on performance of the system. Optional under load.
supply power and illumination essential systems can be treated as part of the
for safety to human life, when the normal normal building wiring system. Both
supply fails. NEC requirements are legally required and optional standby
stringent, requiring periodic testing under systems should be installed in such a
load and automatic transfer to emergency manner that they will be fully available on
power supply on loss of normal supply. loss of normal power. It is preferable to
See Figure 1.1-97. isolate these systems as much as possible,
even though not required by code.
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Utility
Source
Typical Application: Three engine generator sets serve the load, plus one additional engine
generator set for redundancy to achieve N+1 level of performance. Open or Closed transition is available.
G1 G2 G3 G4
Paralleling Switchgear
with Distribution
Revenue
Metering
HMI
Touchscreen
52G1 52G2 52G3 52G4
Main D1 D2 D3 D4
Service
Optional Remote PC
with Software
LP1 BP1 LP2 BP2 LP3 BP3 LP4 BP4
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Operations:
445 and 501 Hoes Lane
Piscataway, NJ 08854-4141
732-981-0060
www.ieee.org
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2 Time-delay starting or closing relay A device that functions to give a desired amount of Used for providing a time-delay for re-transfer
time delay before or after any point of operation in a back to the normal source in an automatic
switching sequence or protective relay system, except transfer scheme.
as specifically provided by device functions 48, 62
and 79 described later.
6 Starting circuit breaker A device whose principal function is to connect —
a machine to its source of starting voltage.
19 Starting to running transition timer A device that operates to initiate or cause the Used to transfer a reduced voltage starter from
automatic transfer of a machine from the starting starting to running.
to the running power connection.
21 Distance relay A device that functions when the circuit admittance, —
impedance or reactance increases or decreases
beyond predetermined limits.
23 Temperature control device A device that functions to raise or to lower the Used as a thermostat to control space heaters in
temperature of a machine or other apparatus, or outdoor equipment.
of any medium, when its temperature falls below
or rises above, a predetermined level.
24 Volts per hertz relay A device that operates when the ratio of voltage ETR-5000 transformer protective relays,
to frequency is above a preset value or is below EGR-5000 generator protective relay.
a different preset value.The relay may have
any combination of instantaneous or time
delayed characteristics.
25 Synchronizing or synchronism A device that operates when two AC circuits are within In a closed transition breaker transfer, a
check device the desired limits of frequency, phase angle or voltage, 25 relay is used to ensure two-sources are
to permit or cause the paralleling of these two circuits. synchronized before paralleling. Eaton
EDR-5000 feeder protective relays, EGR-5000
generator protective relay.
27 Undervoltage relay A device which functions on a given value Used to protect a motor or other devices from
of undervoltage. a sustained under-voltage and/or initiate an
automatic transfer when a primary source of
power is lost. Eaton EDR feeder protective relay,
EMR-4000/EMR-5000 motor protective relays,
ETR-5000 transformer protective relay, EGR-5000
generator protective relay.
30 Annunciator relay A non-automatically reset device that gives a number Used to remotely indicate that a protective relay
of separate visual indications upon the functioning of has functioned, or that a circuit breaker has
protective devices, and which may also be arranged to tripped.Typically, a mechanical “drop” type
perform a lockout function. annunciator panel is used.
32 Directional power relay A relay that functions on a desired value of power Used to prevent reverse power from feeding
flow in a given direction, or upon reverse power an upstream fault. Often used when primary
resulting from arc back in the anode or cathode backup generation is used in a facility. Eaton
circuits of a power rectifier. EDR-5000 feeder protective relay, EMR-4000/
EMR-5000 motor protective relays, ETR-5000
transformer protective relay, EGR-5000 generator
protective relay.
33 Position switch A device that makes or breaks contact when the main Used to indicate the position of a drawout circuit
device or piece of apparatus, which has no device breaker (TOC switch).
function number, reaches a given point.
34 Master sequence device A device such as a motor-operated multi-contact —
switch, or the equivalent, or a programmable device,
that establishes or determines the operating sequence
of the major devices in equipment during starting and
stopping, or during sequential switching operations.
37 Undercurrent or underpower relay A relay that functions when the current or power Eaton EMR-3000, EMR-4000, EMR-5000 motor
flow decreases below a predetermined value. protective relays.
38 Bearing protective device A device that functions on excessive bearing —
temperature, or on other abnormal mechanical
conditions, such as undue wear, which may
eventually result in excessive bearing temperature.
40 Field relay A device that functions on a given or abnormally EGR-5000 generator protective relay.
high or low value or failure of machine field current,
or on an excessive value of the reactive component
of armature current in an AC machine indicating
abnormally high or low field excitation.
41 Field circuit breaker A device that functions to apply, or to remove, —
the field excitation of a machine.
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Table 1.1-56. Selected IEEE Device Numbers for Switchgear Apparatus (Continued)
Device Function Definition Typical
Number Uses
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Table 1.1-56. Selected IEEE Device Numbers for Switchgear Apparatus (Continued)
Device Function Definition Typical
Number Uses
59 Overvoltage relay A relay that functions on a given value of overvoltage. Used to trip a circuit breaker, protecting
downstream equipment from sustained
overvoltages. Eaton EDR-5000 feeder protective
relay and EMR-4000/EMR-5000 motor protective
relays, ETR-5000 transformer protective relay,
EGR-5000 generator protective relay.
60 Voltage or current balance relay A relay that operates on a given difference in voltage, —
or current input or output of two circuits.
62 Time-delay stopping or opening relay A time-delay relay that serves in conjunction with the Used in conjunction with a 27 device to delay
device that initiates the shutdown, stopping or opening tripping of a circuit breaker during a brief loss of
operation in an automatic sequence. primary voltage, to prevent nuisance tripping.
63 Pressure switch A switch that operates on given values or on a given Used to protect a transformer during a rapid
rate of change of pressure. pressure rise during a short circuit.This device
will typically act to open the protective devices
above and below the transformer.Typically
used with a 63-X auxiliary relay to trip the
circuit breaker.
64 Ground protective relay A relay that functions on a failure of the insulation of a Used to detect and act on a ground-fault
machine, transformer or of other apparatus to ground, condition. In a pulsing high resistance grounding
or on flashover of a DC machine to ground. system, a 64 device will initiate the alarm.
65 Governor A device consisting of an assembly of fluid, electrical or —
mechanical control equipment used for regulating the
flow of water, steam or other media to the prime mover
for such purposes as starting, holding speed or load,
or stopping.
66 Notching or jogging device A device that functions to allow only a specified Eaton EMR-3000/EMR-4000/EMR-5000 motor
number of operations of a given device, or equipment, protective relays.
or a specified number of successive operations within
a given time of each other. It also functions to energize
a circuit periodically or for fractions of specified time
intervals, or that is used to permit intermittent
acceleration or jogging of a machine at low speeds
for mechanical positioning.
67 AC directional overcurrent relay A relay that functions on a desired value of AC Eaton EDR-5000 feeder protective relay,
overcurrent flowing in a predetermined direction. EMR-4000/EMR-5000 motor protective relays,
ETR-5000 transformer protective relay, EGR-5000
generator protective relay.
69 Permissive control device A device that is generally a two-position manually Used as a remote-local switch for circuit
operated switch that in one position permits the closing breaker control.
of a circuit breaker, or the placing of equipment into
operation, and in the other position prevents the circuit
breaker to the equipment from being operated.
71 Level switch A switch that operates on given values, or on a given Used to indicate a low liquid level within a
rate of change of level. transformer tank in order to save transformers
from loss-of-insulation failure. An alarm contact
is available as a standard option on a liquid level
gauge. It is set to close before an unsafe
condition actually occurs.
72 DC circuit breaker A device that is used to close and interrupt a DC power —
circuit under normal conditions or to interrupt this
circuit under fault or emergency conditions.
73 Load-resistor contactor A device that is used to shunt or insert a step of load —
limiting, shifting or indicating resistance in a power
circuit; to switch a space heater in circuit; or to switch
a light or regenerative load resistor of a power rectifier
or other machine in and out of circuit.
74 Alarm relay A device other than an annunciator, as covered under —
device number 30, which is used to operate, or to
operate in connection with, a visible or audible alarm.
78 Phase-angle measuring relay A device that functions at a predetermined phase angle EDR-5000 feeder protective relay, EMR-4000/
between two voltages, between two currents, EMR-5000 motor protective relays, ETR-5000
or between voltage and current. transformer protective relay, EGR-5000
generator protective relay. (Note: For Voltage
Only—78 V.)
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Table 1.11-1. Selected IEEE Device Numbers for Switchgear Apparatus (Continued)
Device Function Definition Typical
Number Uses
79 AC reclosing relay A relay that controls the automatic closing and locking Used to automatically reclose a circuit breaker
out of an AC circuit interrupter. after a trip, assuming the fault has been cleared
after the power was removed from the circuit.
The recloser will lock-out after a predetermined
amount of failed attempts to reclose. EDR-5000
feeder protective relay, ETR-5000 transformer
protective relay, EGR-5000 generator protective
relay.
81 Frequency relay A relay that functions on a predetermined value of Used to trip a generator circuit breaker in the
frequency—either under or over, or on normal system event the frequency drifts above or below a given
frequency—or rate of change frequency. value. Eaton EDR-5000 feeder protective relay
and EMR-4000/EMR-5000 motor protective
relays, ETR-5000 transformer protective relay,
EGR-5000 generator protective relay.
83 Automatic selective control or A relay that operates to select automatically between Used to transfer control power sources in a
transfer relay certain sources or conditions in equipment, or double-ended switchgear lineup.
performs a transfer operation automatically.
85 Carrier or pilot-wire relay A device that is operated or restrained by a signal —
transmitted or received via any communications
media used for relaying.
86 Locking-out relay An electrically operated hand, or electrically, reset Used in conjunction with protective relays to
relay that functions to shut down and hold an lock-out a circuit breaker (or multiple circuit
equipment out of service on the occurrence of breakers) after a trip.Typically required to be
abnormal conditions. manually reset by an operator before the breaker
can be reclosed.
87 Differential protective relay A protective relay that functions on a percentage or Used to protect static equipment, such as cable,
phase angle or other quantitative difference of two bus or transformers, by measuring the current
currents or of some other electrical quantities. differential between two points.Typically the
upstream and/or downstream circuit breaker will
be incorporated into the “zone of protection.”
Eaton EBR-3000 bus differential relay, ETR-4000/
ETR-5000 transformer protective relays,
EMR-5000 motor protective relay, EGR-5000
generator protective relay.
90 Regulating device A device that functions to regulate a quantity or —
quantities, such as voltage, current, power, speed,
frequency, temperature and load, at a certain value or
between certain (generally close) limits for machines,
tie lines or other apparatus.
91 Voltage directional relay A device that operates when the voltage across an —
open circuit breaker or contactor exceeds a given
value in a given direction.
94 Tripping or trip-free relay A relay that functions to trip a circuit breaker, contactor —
or equipment, or to permit immediate tripping by
other devices, or to prevent immediate reclosure of a
circuit interrupter, in case it should open automatically
even though its closing circuit is maintained closed.
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Enclosures
The following are reproduced from NEMA 250.
Table 1.1-57. Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Indoor Nonhazardous Locations
Provides a Degree of Protection Against the Enclosure Type
Following Environmental Conditions 1a 2a 4 4X 5 6 6P 12 12K 13
Table 1.1-58. Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Outdoor Nonhazardous Locations
Provides a Degree of Protection Against the Enclosure Type
Following Environmental Conditions 3 3R c 3S 4 4X 6 6P
Table 1.1-59. Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Indoor Hazardous Locations
Provides a Degree of Protection Against Class Enclosure Types Enclosure Type
Atmospheres Typically Containing 7 and 8, Class I Groups 6 9, Class II Groups 6
(For Complete Listing, See NFPA 497M) A B C D E F G 10
Acetylene I n
Hydrogen, manufactured gas I n
diethyl ether, ethylene, cyclopropane I n
Gasoline, hexane, butane, naphtha, propane,
acetone, toluene, isoprene I n
Metal dust II n
Carbon black, coal dust, coke dust II n
Flour, starch, grain dust II n
Fibers, flyings 7 III n
Methane with or without coal dust MSHA n
f For Class III type ignitable fibers or combustible flyings, see the National Electrical Code, Article 500.
g Due to the characteristics of the gas, vapor or dust, a product suitable for one class or group may not be
suitable for another class or group unless so marked on the product.
Note: If the installation is outdoors and/or additional protection is required by Table 1.1-57 and
Table 1.1-58, a combination-type enclosure is required.
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Table 1.1-60. Conversion of NEMA Enclosure Type Ratings to IEC 60529 Enclosure Classification Designations (IP)
(Cannot be Used to Convert IEC Classification Designations to NEMA Type Ratings)
Referencing the first character, 4, in the IP rating and the row designated “IP4–” in the leftmost column in the
table; the blocks in Column “A” for NEMA Types 3, 3S, 4, 4X, 5, 6, 6P, 12, 12K and 13 are shaded. These NEMA
ratings meet and exceed the IEC protection requirements against access to hazardous parts and solid foreign
objects. Referencing the second character, 5, in the IP rating and the row designated “IP–5” in the rightmost
column in the table; the blocks in Column “B” for NEMA Types 3, 3S, 4, 4X, 6 and 6P are shaded. These NEMA
ratings meet and exceed the IEC requirements for protection against the ingress of water. The absence of shading
in Column “B” beneath the “NEMA Enclosure Type 5” indicates that Type 5 does not meet the IP45 protection
requirements against the ingress of water. Likewise, the absence of shading in Column “B” for NEMA Type 12,
12K and 13 enclosures indicates that these enclosures do not meet the IP45 requirements for protection against
the ingressof water. Only Types 3, 3S, 4, 4X, 6 and 6P have both Column “A” in the “IP4–” row and Column “B”
in the “IP–5” row shaded and could be used in an IP45 application.
The NEMA Enclosure Type 3 not only meets the IP45 Enclosure Rating, but also exceeds the IEC requirements
because the NEMA Type requires an outdoor corrosion test; a gasket aging test; a dust test; an external icing
test; and no water penetration in the rain test. Slight differences exist between the IEC and NEMA test methods,
but the IEC rating permits the penetration of water if “it does not deposit on insulation parts, or reach live parts.”
The IEC rating does not require a corrosion test; gasket aging test; dust test or external icing test. Because the
NEMA ratings include additional test requirements, this table cannot be used to select IP Designations for NEMA
rated enclosure specifications.
IEC 60529 specifies that an enclosure shall only be designated with a stated degree of protection indicated by
the first characteristic numeral if it also complies with all lower degrees of protection. Furthermore, IEC 60529
states that an enclosure shall only be designated with a degreeof protection indicated by the second characteristic
numeral if it also complies with all lower degrees of protection up to and including the secondcharacteristic
numeral 6. An enclosure designated with a second characteristic numeral 7 or 8 only is considered unsuitable
for exposure to water jets (designated by second characteristic numeral 5 or 6) and need not comply with
requirements for numeral 5 or 6 unless it is dual coded. Because the IEC protection requirements become more
stringent with increasing IP character value up through 6, once a NEMA Type rating meets the requirements for
an IP designation up through 6, it will also meet the requirements for all lower IP designations. This is apparent
from the shaded areas shown in the table.
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Table 1.1-61. 60 Hz Impedance Data for Three-Phase Copper Cable Circuits, in Approximate Ohms per 1000 ft (305 m) at 75 °C (a) Three Single Conductors
Wire Size, In Magnetic Duct In Non-Magnetic Duct
AWG or 600 V and 5 kV Non-Shielded 5 kV Shielded and 15 kV 600 V and 5 kV Non-Shielded 5 kV Shielded and 15 kV
kcmil
R X Z R X Z R X Z R X Z
8 0.811 0.0754 0.814 0.811 0.0860 0.816 0.811 0.0603 0.813 0.811 0.0688 0.814
8 (solid) 0.786 0.0754 0.790 0.786 0.0860 0.791 0.786 0.0603 0.788 0.786 0.0688 0.789
6 0.510 0.0685 0.515 0.510 0.0796 0.516 0.510 0.0548 0.513 0.510 0.0636 0.514
6 (solid) 0.496 0.0685 0.501 0.496 0.0796 0.502 0.496 0.0548 0.499 0.496 0.0636 0.500
4 0.321 0.0632 0.327 0.321 0.0742 0.329 0.321 0.0506 0.325 0.321 0.0594 0.326
4 (solid) 0.312 0.0632 0.318 0.312 0.0742 0.321 0.312 0.0506 0.316 0.312 0.0594 0.318
2 0.202 0.0585 0.210 0.202 0.0685 0.214 0.202 0.0467 0.207 0.202 0.0547 0.209
1 0.160 0.0570 0.170 0.160 0.0675 0.174 0.160 0.0456 0.166 0.160 0.0540 0.169
1/0 0.128 0.0540 0.139 0.128 0.0635 0.143 0.127 0.0432 0.134 0.128 0.0507 0.138
2/0 0.102 0.0533 0.115 0.103 0.0630 0.121 0.101 0.0426 0.110 0.102 0.0504 0.114
3/0 0.0805 0.0519 0.0958 0.0814 0.0605 0.101 0.0766 0.0415 0.0871 0.0805 0.0484 0.0939
4/0 0.0640 0.0497 0.0810 0.0650 0.0583 0.0929 0.0633 0.0398 0.0748 0.0640 0.0466 0.0792
250 0.0552 0.0495 0.0742 0.0557 0.0570 0.0797 0.0541 0.0396 0.0670 0.0547 0.0456 0.0712
300 0.0464 0.0493 0.0677 0.0473 0.0564 0.0736 0.0451 0.0394 0.0599 0.0460 0.0451 0.0644
350 0.0378 0.0491 0.0617 0.0386 0.0562 0.0681 0.0368 0.0393 0.0536 0.0375 0.0450 0.0586
400 0.0356 0.0490 0.0606 0.0362 0.0548 0.0657 0.0342 0.0392 0.0520 0.0348 0.0438 0.0559
450 0.0322 0.0480 0.0578 0.0328 0.0538 0.0630 0.0304 0.0384 0.0490 0.0312 0.0430 0.0531
500 0.0294 0.0466 0.0551 0.0300 0.0526 0.0505 0.0276 0.0373 0.0464 0.0284 0.0421 0.0508
600 0.0257 0.0463 0.0530 0.0264 0.0516 0.0580 0.0237 0.0371 0.0440 0.0246 0.0412 0.0479
750 0.0216 0.0495 0.0495 0.0223 0.0497 0.0545 0.0194 0.0356 0.0405 0.0203 0.0396 0.0445
Note: More tables on Page 1.1-140.
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Table 1.1-62. 60 Hz Impedance Data for Three-Phase Copper Cable Circuits, in Approximate Ohms per 1000 ft (305 m) at 75 °C (b) Three Conductor Cable
Wire Size, In Magnetic Duct and Steel Interlocked Armor In Non-Magnetic Duct and Aluminum Interlocked Armor
AWG or 600 V and 5 kV Non-Shielded 5 kV Shielded and 15 kV 600 V and 5 kV Non-Shielded 5 kV Shielded and 15 kV
kcmil
R X Z R X Z R X Z R X Z
8 0.811 0.0577 0.813 0.811 0.0658 0.814 0.811 0.0503 0.812 0.811 0.0574 0.813
8 (solid) 0.786 0.0577 0.788 0.786 0.0658 0.789 0.786 0.0503 0.787 0.786 0.0574 0.788
6 0.510 0.0525 0.513 0.510 0.0610 0.514 0.510 0.0457 0.512 0.510 0.0531 0.513
6 (solid) 0.496 0.0525 0.499 0.496 0.0610 0.500 0.496 0.0457 0.498 0.496 0.0531 0.499
4 0.321 0.0483 0.325 0.321 0.0568 0.326 0.321 0.0422 0.324 0.321 0.0495 0.325
4 (solid) 0.312 0.0483 0.316 0.312 0.0508 0.317 0.312 0.0422 0.315 0.312 0.0495 0.316
2 0.202 0.0448 0.207 0.202 0.0524 0.209 0.202 0.0390 0.206 0.202 0.0457 0.207
1 0.160 0.0436 0.166 0.160 0.0516 0.168 0.160 0.0380 0.164 0.160 0.0450 0.166
1/0 0.128 0.0414 0.135 0.128 0.0486 0.137 0.127 0.0360 0.132 0.128 0.0423 0.135
2/0 0.102 0.0407 0.110 0.103 0.0482 0.114 0.101 0.0355 0.107 0.102 0.0420 0.110
3/0 0.0805 0.0397 0.0898 0.0814 0.0463 0.0936 0.0766 0.0346 0.0841 0.0805 0.0403 0.090
4/0 0.0640 0.0381 0.0745 0.0650 0.0446 0.0788 0.0633 0.0332 0.0715 0.0640 0.0389 0.0749
250 0.0552 0.0379 0.0670 0.0557 0.0436 0.0707 0.0541 0.0330 0.0634 0.0547 0.0380 0.0666
300 0.0464 0.0377 0.0598 0.0473 0.0431 0.0640 0.0451 0.0329 0.0559 0.0460 0.0376 0.0596
350 0.0378 0.0373 0.0539 0.0386 0.0427 0.0576 0.0368 0.0328 0.0492 0.0375 0.0375 0.0530
400 0.0356 0.0371 0.0514 0.0362 0.0415 0.0551 0.0342 0.0327 0.0475 0.0348 0.0366 0.0505
450 0.0322 0.0361 0.0484 0.0328 0.0404 0.0520 0.0304 0.0320 0.0441 0.0312 0.0359 0.0476
500 0.0294 0.0349 0.0456 0.0300 0.0394 0.0495 0.0276 0.0311 0.0416 0.0284 0.0351 0.0453
600 0.0257 0.0343 0.0429 0.0264 0.0382 0.0464 0.0237 0.0309 0.0389 0.0246 0.0344 0.0422
750 0.0216 0.0326 0.0391 0.0223 0.0364 0.0427 0.0197 0.0297 0.0355 0.0203 0.0332 0.0389
Table 1.1-63. 60 Hz Impedance Data for Three-Phase Aluminum Cable Circuits, in Approximate Ohms per 1000 Ft (305 m) at 90 °C (a) Three Single Conductors
Wire Size, In Magnetic Duct In Non-Magnetic Duct
AWG or 600 V and 5 kV Non-Shielded 5 kV Shielded and 15 kV 600 V and 5 kV Non-Shielded 5 kV Shielded and 15 kV
kcmil
R X Z R X Z R X Z R X Z
Table 1.1-64. 60 Hz Impedance Data for Three-Phase Aluminum Cable Circuits, in Approximate Ohms per 1000 ft (30 m) at 90 °C (b) Three Conductor Cable
Wire Size, In Magnetic Duct and Steel Interlocked Armor In Non-Magnetic Duct and Aluminum Interlocked Armor
AWG or 600 V and 5 kV Non-Shielded 5 kV Shielded and 15 kV 600 V and 5 kV Non-Shielded 5 kV Shielded and 15 kV
kcmil
R X Z R X Z R X Z R X Z
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Current Carrying Capacities of Copper and Aluminum and Copper-Clad Aluminum Conductors
From National Electrical Code (NEC), 2014 Edition (NFPA 70-2014)
Table 1.1-65. Allowable Ampacities of Insulated Conductors Rated 0–2000 V, 60 ° to 90 °C (140° to 194 °F).
Not more than three current-carrying conductors in raceway, cable or earth (directly buried), based on ambient temperature of 30 °C (86 °F).
Size Temperature Rating of Conductor (See Table 310.15 [B][16]) Size
AWG or kcmil 60 °C (140 °F) 75 °C (167 °F) 90 °C (194 °F) 60 °C (140 °F) 75 °C (167 °F) 90 °C (194 °F) AWG or kcmil
Types Types
TW, UF RHW, THHW, TBS, SA, SIS, FEP, TW, UF RHW, THHW, TBS, SA, SIS,
THW, THWN, FEPB, MI, THW, THWN, THHN, THHW,
XHHW, USE, ZW RHH, RHW-2, XHHW, USE THW-2, THWN-2,
THHN, THHW, RHH, RHW-2,
THW-2, THWN-2, USE-2, XHH,
USE-2, XHH, XHHW, XHHW-2,
XHHW, XHHW-2, ZW-2
ZW-2
Copper Aluminum or Copper-Clad Aluminum
18 — — 14 — — — —
16 — — 18 — — — —
14 a 15 20 25 — — — —
12 a 20 25 30 20 20 25 12 a
10 a 30 35 40 25 30 35 10 a
8 40 50 55 30 40 45 8
6 55 65 75 40 50 60 6
4 70 85 95 55 65 75 4
3 85 100 110 65 75 85 3
2 95 115 130 75 90 100 2
1 110 130 150 85 100 115 1
1/0 125 150 170 100 120 135 1/0
2/0 145 175 195 115 135 150 2/0
3/0 165 200 225 130 155 175 3/0
4/0 195 230 260 150 180 205 4/0
250 215 255 290 170 205 230 250
300 240 285 320 190 230 255 300
350 260 310 350 210 250 280 350
400 280 335 380 225 270 305 400
500 320 380 430 260 310 350 500
600 355 420 475 285 340 385 600
700 385 460 520 310 375 420 700
750 400 475 535 320 385 435 750
800 410 490 555 330 395 450 800
900 435 520 585 355 425 480 900
1000 455 545 615 375 445 500 1000
1250 495 590 665 405 485 545 1250
1500 520 625 705 435 520 585 1500
1750 545 650 735 455 545 615 1750
2000 560 665 750 470 560 630 2000
a See NEC Section 240.4 (D).
Note: For complete details of using Table 1.1-65, see NEC Article 310 in its entirety.
Table 1.1-66. Correction Factors From NFPA 70-2014 (See Table 310.15 [B][2][a])
Ambient For ambient temperatures other than 30 °C (86 °F), multiply the allowable ampacities shown Ambient
Temperature °C above by the appropriate factor shown below. Temperature °F
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Rated 0–2000 V (Excerpted from in the Allowable Ampacity (a) More Than Three Current-Carrying
Conductors in a Raceway or Cable.
NFPA 70-2014, 310.15) Table 310.15(B)(16) through Table
Where the number of current-carrying
310.15(B)(19), and Ampacity Table
Note: Fine Print Note (FPN) was changed 310.15(B)(20) and Table 310.15(B)(21) conductors in a raceway or cable
to Informational Note in the 2011 NEC. as modified by 310.15(B)(1) through exceeds three, or where single
(B)(7). conductors or multiconductor cables
are installed without maintaining
(A) General. Note: Table 310.15(B)(16) through spacing for a continuous length longer
(1) Tables or Engineering Supervision. Table 310.15(B)(19) are application tables for than 24.00-inch (600 mm) and are not
Ampacities for conductors shall be use in determining conductor sizes on loads installed in raceways, the allowable
permitted to be determined by tables calculated in accordance with Article 220.
ampacity of each conductor shall be
Allowable ampacities result from consideration
as provided in 310.15(B) or under reduced as shown in Table 310.15(B)(3)
of one or more of the following:
engineering supervision, as provided (a). Each current-carrying conductor
in 310.15(C). (1) Temperature compatibility with of a paralleled set of conductors
connected equipment, especially the shall be counted as a current-
Note: Informational Note No. 1: Ampacities
provided by this section do not take voltage connection points. carrying conductor.
drop into consideration. See 210.19(A), Note: Informational Note No. 1: See Annex B,
Informational Note No. 4, for branch circuits (2) Coordination with circuit and
Table B.310.15(B)(2)(11), for adjustment factors
and 215.2(A), Informational No. 2, for feeders. system overcurrent protection. for more than three current-carrying conductors
Note: Informational Note No. 2: For the (3) Compliance with the requirements of in a raceway or cable with load diversity.
allowable ampacities of Type MTW wire, see
product listings or certifications. See
Table 13.5.1 in NFPA 79-2007, Electrical Note: Informational Note No. 2: See 366.23(A)
Standard for Industrial Machinery. 110.3(B). for adjustment factors for conductors in
(4) Preservation of the safety benefits of sheet metal auxiliary gutters and 376.22(B)
(2) Selection of Ampacity. Where more for adjustment factors for conductors in
established industry practices and metal wireways.
than one ampacity applies for a given standardized procedures.
circuit length, the lowest value shall be
used. Exception: Where two different (1) General. For explanation of type (1) Where conductors are installed in
ampacities apply to adjacent portions letters used in tables and for cable trays, the provisions of 392.80
of a circuit, the higher ampacity shall recognized sizes of conductors for the shall apply.
be permitted to be used beyond the various conductor insulations, see (2) Adjustment factors shall not apply
point of transition, a distance equal to Table 310.104(A) and Table 310.104(B). to conductors in raceways having
10 ft (3.0 m) or 10 percent of the circuit For installation requirements, see a length not exceeding 24.00-inch
length figured at the higher ampacity, 310.1 through 310.15(A)(3) and the (600 mm).
whichever is less. various articles of this Code. For
flexible cords, see Table 400.4, Table (3) Adjustment factors shall not apply to
Note: See 110.14(C) for conductor temperature underground conductors entering or
400.5(A)(1) and Table 400.5(A)(2).
limitations due to termination provisions.
leaving an outdoor trench if those
conductors have physical protection
in the form of rigid metal conduit,
intermediate metal conduit, rigid
polyvinyl chloride conduit (PVC), or
reinforced thermosetting resin conduit
(RTRC) having a length not exceeding
10 ft (3.05 m), and if the number of
conductors does not exceed four.
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Power Distribution Systems Design Guide SA081002EN
Effective February 2019
Reference Data 1.1-143
(4) Adjustment factors shall not apply to Where conductors or cables are installed (5) Neutral Conductor.
Type AC cable or to Type MC cable in circular raceways exposed to direct
under the following conditions: sunlight on or above rooftops, the (a) A neutral conductor that carries only
adjustments shown in Table 1.1-67 the unbalanced current from other
a. The cables do not have an overall shall be added to the outdoor conductors of the same circuit shall
outer jacket. temperature to determine the applicable not be required to be counted when
ambient temperature for application of applying the provisions of 310.15(B)
b. Each cable has not more than three (3)(a).
current-carrying conductors. the correction factors in Table 310.15(B)(2)
(a) or Table 310.15(B)(2)(b). (b) In a three-wire circuit consisting of
c. The conductors are 12 AWG copper. two phase conductors and the neutral
Note: Informational Note: One source for the
d. Not more than 20 current-carrying average ambient temperatures in various conductor of a four-wire, three-phase,
conductors are installed without locations is the ASHRAE Handbook wye-connected system, a common
maintaining spacing, are stacked, —Fundamentals. conductor carries approximately the
or are supported on”bridle rings.” same current as the line-to-neutral
Table 1.1-67. NEC (2014) Table 310.15(B)(3)(c) load currents of the other conductors
(5) An adjustment factor of 60 percent Ambient Temperature Adjustment for Circular and shall be counted when applying
shall be applied to Type AC cable or Raceways or Cables Exposed to Sunlight On or the provisions of 310.15(B)(3)(a).
Type MC cable under the following Above Rooftops
conditions: (c) On a four-wire, three-phase wye circuit
Distance Above Roof Temperature
to Bottom of Conduit Adder ºF (ºC)
where the major portion of the load
a. The cables do not have an overall consists of nonlinear loads, harmonic
outer jacket. 0–0.51-inch (0–13.0 mm) 60 (33) currents are present in the neutral
Above 0.51-inch (13.0 mm)– 40 (22) conductor; the neutral conductor shall
b. The number of current carrying
3.54-inch (90.0 mm) therefore be considered a current-
conductors exceeds 20.
Above 3.54-inch (90.0 mm)– 30 (17) carrying conductor.
c. The cables are stacked or bundled 11.81-inch (300.0 mm)
(6) Grounding or Bonding Conductor.
longer that 24.00-inch (600 mm) Above 12.00-inch (300.0 mm)– 25 (14)
36.00-inch (900.0 mm) A grounding or bonding conductor
without spacing being maintained.
shall not be counted when applying
(b) More Than One Conduit, Tube, the provisions of 310.15(B)(3)(a).
or Raceway. Spacing between (4) Bare or Covered Conductors. Where
conduits, tubing, or raceways bare or covered conductors are
shall be maintained. installed with insulated conductors,
the temperature rating of the bare or
(c) Circular Raceways Exposed to covered conductor shall be equal to
Sunlight on Rooftops. the lowest temperature rating of the
insulated conductors for the purpose
of determining ampacity.
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Power Distribution Systems Design Guide SA081002EN
Effective February 2019
Reference Data 1.1-144
Kilowatts
kVA —
Horsepower (output)
a For two-phase, three-wire circuits, the current in the common conductor is times that in either of the two other conductors.
Note: Units of measurement and definitions for E (volts), I (amperes), and other abbreviations are given below under Common Electrical Terms.
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Power Distribution Systems Design Guide SA081002EN
Effective February 2019
Reference Data 1.1-145
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