The Sun Also Rises

The first edition of The Sun Also Rises published in

1926 by Scribner's, with dust jacket illustrated by
Cleonike Damianakes. The Hellenistic jacket design
"breathed sex yet also evoked classical Greece".[1]
The Sun Also Rises is a 1926 novel written
by American author Ernest Hemingway,
about a group of American and British
expatriates who travel from Paris to the
Festival of San Fermín in Pamplona to
watch the running of the bulls and the
bullfights. An early and enduring
modernist novel, it received mixed reviews
upon publication. However, Hemingway
biographer Jeffrey Meyers writes that it is
now "recognized as Hemingway's greatest
work",[2] and Hemingway scholar Linda
Wagner-Martin calls it his most important
novel.[3] The novel was published in the
United States in October 1926 by
Scribner's. A year later, Jonathan Cape
published the novel in London under the
title Fiesta. It remains in print.

Hemingway began writing the novel on his

birthday—21 July—in 1925, and finished
the draft manuscript barely two months
later, in September. After setting aside the
manuscript for a short period, he worked
on revisions during the winter of 1926.

The basis for the novel was Hemingway's

trip to Spain in 1925. The setting was
unique and memorable, depicting sordid
café life in Paris and the excitement of the
Pamplona festival, with a middle section
devoted to descriptions of a fishing trip in
the Pyrenees. Hemingway's sparse writing
style, combined with his restrained use of
description to convey characterizations
and action, is demonstrative of his
"Iceberg Theory" of writing.

The novel is a roman à clef: the characters

are based on real people in Hemingway's
circle, and the action is based on real
events. In the book, Hemingway presents
his notion that the "Lost Generation"—
considered to have been decadent,
dissolute, and irretrievably damaged by
World War I—was in fact resilient and
strong.[4] Additionally, Hemingway
investigates themes of love and death; the
revivifying power of nature, and the
concept of masculinity.

Background
In the 1920s Hemingway lived in Paris,
was foreign correspondent for the Toronto
Star, and traveled to places such as
Smyrna to report about the Greco–Turkish
War. He wanted to use his journalism
experience to write fiction, believing that a
story could be based on real events when
a writer distilled his own experiences in
such a way that, according to biographer
Jeffrey Meyers, "what he made up was
truer than what he remembered".[5]
 

Hemingway (left), with Harold Loeb, Duff Twysden (in

hat), Hadley Richardson, Donald Ogden Stewart
(obscured), and Pat Guthrie (far right) at a café in
Pamplona, Spain, July 1925. The group formed the
basis for the characters in The Sun Also Rises:
Twysden as Brett Ashley, Loeb as Robert Cohn,
Stewart as Bill Gorton, and Guthrie as Mike Campbell.

With his wife Hadley Richardson,

Hemingway first visited the Festival of San
Fermín in Pamplona, Spain, in 1923, where
he was following his recent passion for
bullfighting.[6] The couple returned to
Pamplona in 1924—enjoying the trip
immensely—this time accompanied by
Chink Dorman-Smith, John Dos Passos,
and Donald Ogden Stewart and his wife.[7]
The two returned a third time in June 1925
and stayed at the hotel of his friend
Juanito Quintana. That year, they brought
with them a different group of American
and British expatriates: Hemingway's
Michigan boyhood friend Bill Smith,
Stewart, recently divorced Duff, Lady
Twysden, her lover Pat Guthrie, and Harold
Loeb.[8] In Pamplona, the group quickly
disintegrated. Hemingway, attracted to
Duff, was jealous of Loeb, who had
recently been on a romantic getaway with
her; by the end of the week the two men
had a public fistfight. Against this
background was the influence of the
young matador from Ronda, Cayetano
Ordóñez, whose brilliance in the bullring
affected the spectators. Ordóñez honored
Hemingway's wife by presenting her, from
the bullring, with the ear of a bull he killed.
Outside of Pamplona, the fishing trip to the
Irati River (near Burguete in Navarre) was
marred by polluted water.[8]

Hemingway had intended to write a

nonfiction book about bullfighting, but then
decided that the week's experiences had
presented him with enough material for a
novel.[7] A few days after the fiesta ended,
on his birthday (21 July), he began writing
what would eventually become The Sun
Also Rises.[9] By 17 August, with 14
chapters written and a working title of
Fiesta chosen, Hemingway returned to
Paris. He finished the draft on
21 September 1925, writing a foreword the
following weekend and changing the title
to The Lost Generation.[10]

A few months later, in December 1925,

Hemingway and his wife spent the winter
in Schruns, Austria, where he began
revising the manuscript extensively.
Pauline Pfeiffer joined them in January,
and—against Richardson's advice—urged
him to sign a contract with Scribner's.
Hemingway left Austria for a quick trip to
New York to meet with the publishers, and
on his return, during a stop in Paris, began
an affair with Pauline. He returned to
Schruns to finish the revisions in March.[11]
In June, he was in Pamplona with both
Richardson and Pfeiffer. On their return to
Paris, Richardson asked for a separation,
and left for the south of France.[12] In
August, alone in Paris, Hemingway
completed the proofs, dedicating the novel
to his wife and son.[13] After the
publication of the book in October,
Richardson asked for a divorce;
Hemingway subsequently gave her the
book's royalties.[14]

Publication history

Hemingway spent December 1925 in Schruns, Austria,

with Hadley and Jack. During that period he wrote The
Torrents of Spring.
Hemingway apparently maneuvered Boni &
Liveright into terminating their contract so
he could have The Sun Also Rises
published by Scribner's instead. In
December 1925 he quickly wrote The
Torrents of Spring—a satirical novella
attacking Sherwood Anderson—and sent it
to his publishers Boni & Liveright. His
three-book contract with them included a
termination clause should they reject a
single submission. Unamused by the satire
against one of their most saleable authors,
Boni & Liveright immediately rejected it
and terminated the contract.[15] Within
weeks Hemingway signed a contract with
Scribner's, who agreed to publish The
Torrents of Spring and all of his
subsequent work.[16][note 1]

Scribner's published the novel on

22 October 1926. Its first edition consisted
of 5090 copies, selling at $2.00 per
copy.[17] Cleonike Damianakes illustrated
the dust jacket with a Hellenistic design of
a seated, robed woman, her head bent to
her shoulder, eyes closed, one hand
holding an apple, her shoulders and a thigh
exposed. Editor Maxwell Perkins intended
"Cleon's respectably sexy"[1] design to
attract "the feminine readers who control
the destinies of so many novels".[18] Two
months later the book was in a second
printing with 7000 copies sold.
Subsequent printings were ordered; by
1928, after the publication of Hemingway's
short story collection Men Without Women,
the novel was in its eighth printing.[19][20] In
1927 the novel was published in the UK by
Jonathan Cape, titled Fiesta, without the
two epigraphs.[21] Two decades later, in
1947, Scribner's released three of
Hemingway's works as a boxed set,
including The Sun Also Rises, A Farewell to
Arms, and For Whom the Bell Tolls.[22]

By 1983, The Sun Also Rises had been in

print continuously since its publication in
1926, and was likely one of the most
translated titles in the world. At that time
Scribner's began to print cheaper mass-
market paperbacks of the book, in addition
to the more expensive trade paperbacks
already in print.[23] In the 1990s, British
editions were titled Fiesta: The Sun Also
Rises.[24] In 2006 Simon & Schuster began
to produce audiobook versions of
Hemingway's novels, including The Sun
Also Rises.[25]

Plot summary
On the surface, the novel is a love story
between the protagonist Jake Barnes—a
man whose war wound has made him
impotent—and the promiscuous divorcée
usually identified as Lady Brett Ashley.
Barnes is an expatriate American
journalist living in Paris, while Brett is a
twice-divorced Englishwoman with bobbed
hair and numerous love affairs, and
embodies the new sexual freedom of the
1920s. Brett's affair with Robert Cohn
causes Jake to be upset and break off his
friendship with Cohn; her seduction of the
19-year-old matador Romero causes Jake
to lose his good reputation among the
Spaniards in Pamplona.
Book One is set in the café society of
young American expatriates in Paris. In the
opening scenes, Jake plays tennis with his
college friend Robert Cohn, picks up a
prostitute (Georgette), and runs into Brett
and Count Mippipopolous in a nightclub.
Later, Brett tells Jake she loves him, but
they both know that they have no chance
at a stable relationship.

In Book Two, Jake is joined by Bill Gorton,

recently arrived from New York, and Brett's
fiancé Mike Campbell, who arrives from
Scotland. Jake and Bill travel south and
meet Robert Cohn at Bayonne for a fishing
trip in the hills northeast of Pamplona.
Instead of fishing, Cohn stays in Pamplona
to wait for the overdue Brett and Mike.
Cohn had an affair with Brett a few weeks
earlier and still feels possessive of her
despite her engagement to Mike. After
Jake and Bill enjoy five days of fishing the
streams near Burguete, they rejoin the
group in Pamplona.

All begin to drink heavily. Cohn is resented

by the others, who taunt him with anti-
semitic remarks. During the fiesta the
characters drink, eat, watch the running of
the bulls, attend bullfights, and bicker with
each other. Jake introduces Brett to the
19-year-old matador Romero at the Hotel
Montoya; she is smitten with him and
seduces him. The jealous tension among
the men builds—Jake, Campbell, Cohn, and
Romero each want Brett. Cohn, who had
been a champion boxer in college, has a
fistfight with Jake and Mike, and another
with Romero, whom he beats up. Despite
his injuries, Romero continues to perform
brilliantly in the bullring.

Book Three shows the characters in the

aftermath of the fiesta. Sober again, they
leave Pamplona; Bill returns to Paris, Mike
stays in Bayonne, and Jake goes to San
Sebastián on the northern coast of Spain.
As Jake is about to return to Paris, he
receives a telegram from Brett asking for
help; she had gone to Madrid with Romero.
He finds her there in a cheap hotel, without
money, and without Romero. She
announces she has decided to go back to
Mike. The novel ends with Jake and Brett
in a taxi speaking of the things that might
have been.

Major themes
Paris and the Lost Generation
 

Gertrude Stein in 1924 with Hemingway's son Jack.

She coined the phrase "Lost Generation".

The first book of The Sun Also Rises is set

in mid-1920s Paris. Americans were drawn
to Paris in the Roaring Twenties by the
favorable exchange rate, with as many as
200,000 English-speaking expatriates
living there. The Paris Tribune reported in
1925 that Paris had an American Hospital,
an American Library, and an American
Chamber of Commerce.[26] Many
American writers were disenchanted with
the US, where they found less artistic
freedom than in Europe. (For example,
Hemingway was in Paris during the period
when Ulysses, written by his friend James
Joyce, was banned and burned in New
York.)[27]

The themes of The Sun Also Rises appear

in its two epigraphs. The first is an allusion
to the "Lost Generation", a term coined by
Gertrude Stein referring to the post-war
generation;[note 2][28] the other epigraph is a
long quotation from Ecclesiastes: "What
profit hath a man of all his labour which he
taketh under the sun? One generation
passeth away, and another generation
cometh: but the earth abideth for ever. The
sun also ariseth, and the sun goeth down,
and hasteth to his place where he
arose."[29] Hemingway told his editor Max
Perkins that the book was not so much
about a generation being lost, but that "the
earth abideth forever." He thought the
characters in The Sun Also Rises may have
been "battered" but were not lost.[4]

Hemingway scholar Wagner-Martin writes

that Hemingway wanted the book to be
about morality, which he emphasized by
changing the working title from Fiesta to
The Sun Also Rises. Wagner-Martin argues
that the book can be read either as a novel
about bored expatriates or as a morality
tale about a protagonist who searches for
integrity in an immoral world.[30] Months
before Hemingway left for Pamplona, the
press was depicting the Parisian Latin
Quarter, where he lived, as decadent and
depraved. He began writing the story of a
matador corrupted by the influence of the
Latin Quarter crowd; he expanded it into a
novel about Jake Barnes at risk of being
corrupted by wealthy and inauthentic
expatriates.[31]
 

Hemingway at home in his apartment on the Left

Bank, Paris, 1924

The characters form a group, sharing

similar norms, and each greatly affected
by the war.[30] Hemingway captures the
angst of the age and transcends the love
story of Brett and Jake, although they are
representative of the period: Brett is
starved for reassurance and love and Jake
is sexually maimed. His wound symbolizes
the disability of the age, the disillusion, and
the frustrations felt by an entire
generation.[30]

Hemingway thought he lost touch with

American values while living in Paris, but
his biographer Michael Reynolds claims
the opposite, seeing evidence of the
author's midwestern American values in
the novel. Hemingway admired hard work.
He portrayed the matadors and the
prostitutes, who work for a living, in a
positive manner, but Brett, who prostitutes
herself, is emblematic of "the rotten
crowd" living on inherited money. It is Jake,
the working journalist, who pays the bills
again and again when those who can pay
do not. Hemingway shows, through Jake's
actions, his disapproval of the people who
did not pay up.[32] Reynolds says that
Hemingway shows the tragedy, not so
much of the decadence of the
Montparnasse crowd, but of the decline in
American values of the period. As such,
the author created an American hero who
is impotent and powerless. Jake becomes
the moral center of the story. He never
considers himself part of the expatriate
crowd because he is a working man; to
Jake a working man is genuine and
authentic, and those who do not work for a
living spend their lives posing.[33]
Women and love

The twice-divorced Brett Ashley

represented the liberated New Woman (in
the 1920s, divorces were common and
easy to be had in Paris).[34] James Nagel
writes that, in Brett, Hemingway created
one of the more fascinating women in
20th-century American literature. Sexually
promiscuous, she is a denizen of Parisian
nightlife and cafés. In Pamplona she
sparks chaos: in her presence, the men
drink too much and fight. She also
seduces the young bullfighter Romero and
becomes a Circe in the festival.[35] Critics
describe her variously as complicated,
elusive, and enigmatic; Donald Daiker
writes that Hemingway "treats her with a
delicate balance of sympathy and
antipathy."[36] She is vulnerable, forgiving,
independent—qualities that Hemingway
juxtaposes with the other women in the
book, who are either prostitutes or
overbearing nags.[37]

Nagel considers the novel a tragedy. Jake

and Brett have a relationship that becomes
destructive because their love cannot be
consummated. Conflict over Brett destroys
Jake's friendship with Robert Cohn, and
her behavior in Pamplona affects Jake's
hard-won reputation among the
Spaniards.[35] Meyers sees Brett as a
woman who wants sex without love while
Jake can only give her love without sex.
Although Brett sleeps with many men, it is
Jake she loves.[38] Dana Fore writes that
Brett is willing to be with Jake in spite of
his disability, in a "non-traditional erotic
relationship."[39] Other critics such as
Leslie Fiedler and Nina Baym see her as a
supreme bitch; Fiedler sees Brett as one of
the "outstanding examples of
Hemingway's 'bitch women.' "[40][41] Jake
becomes bitter about their relationship, as
when he says, "Send a girl off with a
man .... Now go and bring her back. And
sign the wire with love."[42]
Critics interpret the Jake–Brett
relationship in various ways. Daiker
suggests that Brett's behavior in Madrid—
after Romero leaves and when Jake
arrives at her summons—reflects her
immorality.[43] Scott Donaldson thinks
Hemingway presents the Jake–Brett
relationship in such a manner that Jake
knew "that in having Brett for a friend 'he
had been getting something for nothing'
and that sooner or later he would have to
pay the bill."[44] Daiker notes that Brett
relies on Jake to pay for her train fare from
Madrid to San Sebastián, where she
rejoins her fiancé Mike.[45] In a piece
Hemingway cut, he has Jake thinking, "you
learned a lot about a woman by not
sleeping with her."[46] By the end of the
novel, although Jake loves Brett, he
appears to undergo a transformation in
Madrid when he begins to distance
himself from her.[46] Reynolds believes that
Jake represents the "everyman," and that
in the course of the narrative he loses his
honor, faith, and hope. He sees the novel
as a morality play with Jake as the person
who loses the most.[47]

The corrida, the fiesta, and

nature
 

Hemingway (in white trousers and dark shirt) fighting

a bull in the amateur corrida at Pamplona fiesta, July
1925

In The Sun Also Rises, Hemingway

contrasts Paris with Pamplona, and the
frenzy of the fiesta with the tranquillity of
the Spanish countryside. Spain was
Hemingway's favorite European country;
he considered it a healthy place, and the
only country "that hasn't been shot to
pieces."[48] He was profoundly affected by
the spectacle of bullfighting, writing,

It isn't just brutal like they always

told us. It's a great tragedy—and
the most beautiful thing I've ever
seen and takes more guts and
skill and guts again than
anything possibly could. It's just
like having a ringside seat at the
war with nothing going to happen
to you.[48]
He demonstrated what he considered the
purity in the culture of bullfighting—called
afición—and presented it as an authentic
way of life, contrasted against the
inauthenticity of the Parisian
bohemians.[49] To be accepted as an
aficionado was rare for a non-Spaniard;
Jake goes through a difficult process to
gain acceptance by the "fellowship of
afición."[50]

The Hemingway scholar Allen Josephs

thinks the novel is centered on the corrida
(the bullfighting), and how each character
reacts to it. Brett seduces the young
matador; Cohn fails to understand and
expects to be bored; Jake understands
fully because only he moves between the
world of the inauthentic expatriates and
the authentic Spaniards; the hotel keeper
Montoya is the keeper of the faith; and
Romero is the artist in the ring—he is both
innocent and perfect, and the one who
bravely faces death.[51] The corrida is
presented as an idealized drama in which
the matador faces death, creating a
moment of existentialism or nada
(nothingness), broken when he vanquishes
death by killing the bull.[52]
 

Hemingway named his character Romero for Pedro

Romero, shown here in Goya's etching Pedro Romero
Killing the Halted Bull (1816).

Hemingway presents matadors as heroic

characters dancing in a bullring. He
considered the bullring as war with precise
rules, in contrast to the messiness of the
real war that he, and by extension Jake,
experienced.[30] Critic Keneth Kinnamon
notes that young Romero is the novel's
only honorable character.[50] Hemingway
named Romero after Pedro Romero, an
18th-century bullfighter who killed
thousands of bulls in the most difficult
manner: having the bull impale itself on his
sword as he stood perfectly still. Reynolds
says Romero, who symbolizes the
classically pure matador, is the "one
idealized figure in the novel."[53] Josephs
says that when Hemingway changed
Romero's name from Guerrita and imbued
him with the characteristics of the
historical Romero, he also changed the
scene in which Romero kills a bull to one
of recibiendo (receiving the bull) in
homage to the historical namesake.[54]
Before the group arrives in Pamplona,
Jake and Bill take a fishing trip to the Irati
River. As Harold Bloom points out, the
scene serves as an interlude between the
Paris and Pamplona sections, "an oasis
that exists outside linear time." On another
level it reflects "the mainstream of
American fiction beginning with the
Pilgrims seeking refuge from English
oppression"—the prominent theme in
American literature of escaping into the
wilderness, as seen in Cooper, Hawthorne,
Melville, Twain, and Thoreau.[55] Fiedler
calls the theme "The Sacred Land"; he
thinks the American West is evoked in The
Sun Also Rises by the Pyrenees and given
a symbolic nod with the name of the
"Hotel Montana."[40] In Hemingway's
writing, nature is a place of refuge and
rebirth, according to Stoltzfus, where the
hunter or fisherman gains a moment of
transcendence at the moment the prey is
killed.[52] Nature is the place where men
act without women: men fish, men hunt,
men find redemption.[40] In nature Jake
and Bill do not need to discuss the war
because their war experience,
paradoxically, is ever-present. The nature
scenes serve as counterpoint to the fiesta
scenes.[30]
All of the characters drink heavily during
the fiesta and generally throughout the
novel. In his essay "Alcoholism in
Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises", Matts
Djos says the main characters exhibit
alcoholic tendencies such as depression,
anxiety and sexual inadequacy. He writes
that Jake's self-pity is symptomatic of an
alcoholic, as is Brett's out-of-control
behavior.[56] William Balassi thinks that
Jake gets drunk to avoid his feelings for
Brett, notably in the Madrid scenes at the
end where he has three martinis before
lunch and drinks three bottles of wine with
lunch.[57] Reynolds, however, believes the
drinking is relevant as set against the
historical context of Prohibition in the
United States. The atmosphere of the
fiesta lends itself to drunkenness, but the
degree of revelry among the Americans
also reflects a reaction against Prohibition.
Bill, visiting from the US, drinks in Paris
and in Spain. Jake is rarely drunk in Paris
where he works but on vacation in
Pamplona, he drinks constantly. Reynolds
says that Prohibition split attitudes about
morality, and in the novel Hemingway
made clear his dislike of Prohibition.[58]

Masculinity and gender

Critics have seen Jake as an ambiguous
representative of Hemingway manliness.
For example, in the bar scene in Paris,
Jake is angry at some homosexual men.
The critic Ira Elliot suggests that
Hemingway viewed homosexuality as an
inauthentic way of life, and that he aligns
Jake with homosexual men because, like
them, Jake does not have sex with
women. Jake's anger shows his self-
hatred at his inauthenticity and lack of
masculinity.[59] His sense of masculine
identity is lost—he is less than a man.[60]
Elliot wonders if Jake's wound perhaps
signifies latent homosexuality, rather than
only a loss of masculinity; the emphasis in
the novel, however, is on Jake's interest in
women.[61] Hemingway's writing has been
called homophobic because of the
language his characters use. For example,
in the fishing scenes, Bill confesses his
fondness for Jake but then goes on to say,
"I couldn't tell you that in New York. It'd
mean I was a faggot."[62]

In contrast to Jake's troubled masculinity,

Romero represents an ideal masculine
identity grounded in self-assurance,
bravery, competence, and uprightness. The
Davidsons note that Brett is attracted to
Romero for these reasons, and they
speculate that Jake might be trying to
undermine Romero's masculinity by
bringing Brett to him and thus diminishing
his ideal stature.[63]

Critics have examined issues of gender

misidentification that are prevalent in
much of Hemingway's work. He was
interested in cross-gender themes, as
shown by his depictions of effeminate
men and boyish women.[64] In his fiction, a
woman's hair is often symbolically
important and used to denote gender.
Brett, with her short hair, is androgynous
and compared to a boy—yet the ambiguity
lies in the fact that she is described as a
"damned fine-looking woman." While Jake
is attracted to this ambiguity, Romero is
repulsed by it. In keeping with his strict
moral code he wants a feminine partner
and rejects Brett because, among other
things, she will not grow her hair.

Anti-semitism
Mike lay on
the bed
looking like
a death
mask of
himself. He
opened his
eyes and
looked at
me.
'Hello Jake'
he said very
slowly. 'I'm
getting a
little sleep.
I've wanted
a little sleep
for a long
time ....'
'You'll sleep,
Mike. Don't
worry, boy.'
'Brett's got a
bullfighter,'
Mike said.
'But her Jew
has gone
away ....
Damned
good thing,
what?'
— The Sun
Also Rises
[65]

Hemingway has been called anti-Semitic,

most notably because of the
characterization of Robert Cohn in the
book. The other characters often refer to
Cohn as a Jew, and once as a 'kike'.[66]
Shunned by the other members of the
group, Cohn is characterized as "different",
unable or unwilling to understand and
participate in the fiesta.[66] Cohn is never
really part of the group—separated by his
difference or his Jewish faith.[30] Critic
Susan Beegel goes so far as to claim,
"Hemingway never lets the reader forget
that Cohn is a Jew, not an unattractive
character who happens to be a Jew but a
character who is unattractive because he
is a Jew."[67] Hemingway critic Josephine
Knopf speculates that Hemingway might
have wanted to depict Cohn as a "shlemiel"
(or fool), but she points out that Cohn
lacks the characteristics of a traditional
shlemiel.[68]

Cohn is based on Harold Loeb, a fellow

writer who rivaled Hemingway for the
affections of Duff, Lady Twysden (the real-
life inspiration for Brett). Biographer
Michael Reynolds writes that in 1925, Loeb
should have declined Hemingway's
invitation to join them in Pamplona. Before
the trip he was Duff's lover and
Hemingway's friend; during the fiasco of
the fiesta, he lost Duff and Hemingway's
friendship. Hemingway used Loeb as the
basis of a character remembered chiefly
as a "rich Jew."[69]

Writing style
The novel is well known for its style, which
is variously described as modern, hard-
boiled, or understated.[70] As a novice
writer and journalist in Paris, Hemingway
turned to Ezra Pound—who had a
reputation as "an unofficial minister of
culture who acted as mid-wife for new
literary talent"—to mark and blue-ink his
short stories.[71] From Pound, Hemingway
learned to write in the modernist style: he
used understatement, pared away
sentimentalism, and presented images
and scenes without explanations of
meaning, most notably at the book's
conclusion, in which multiple future
possibilities are left for Brett and
Jake.[70][note 3] The scholar Anders
Hallengren writes that because
Hemingway learned from Pound to
"distrust adjectives," he created a style "in
accordance with the esthetics and ethics
of raising the emotional temperature
towards the level of universal truth by
shutting the door on sentiment, on the
subjective."[72]
F. Scott Fitzgerald told Hemingway to "let
the book's action play itself out among its
characters." Hemingway scholar Linda
Wagner-Martin writes that, in taking
Fitzgerald's advice, Hemingway produced
a novel without a central narrator:
"Hemingway's book was a step ahead; it
was the modernist novel."[73] When
Fitzgerald advised Hemingway to trim at
least 2500 words from the opening
sequence, which was 30 pages long,
Hemingway wired the publishers telling
them to cut the opening 30 pages
altogether. The result was a novel without
a focused starting point, which was seen
as a modern perspective and critically well
received.[74]
Each time
he let the
bull pass so
close that
the man
and the bull
and the
cape that
filled and
pivoted
ahead of
the bull
were all one
sharply
etched
mass. It
was all so
slow and so
controlled.
It was as
though he
were
rocking the
bull to
sleep. He
made four
veronicas
like that ...
and came
away
toward the
applause,
his hand on
his hip, his
cape on his
arm, and the
bull
watching
his back
going away.
—
bullfighting
scene from
The Sun
Also Rises
[75]

Wagner-Martin speculates that

Hemingway may have wanted to have a
weak or negative hero as defined by Edith
Wharton, but he had no experience
creating a hero or protagonist. At that
point his fiction consisted of extremely
short stories, not one of which featured a
hero.[30] The hero changed during the
writing of The Sun Also Rises: first the
matador was the hero, then Cohn was the
hero, then Brett, and finally Hemingway
realized "maybe there is not any hero at all.
Maybe a story is better without any
hero."[76] Balassi believes that in
eliminating other characters as the
protagonist, Hemingway brought Jake
indirectly into the role of the novel's
hero.[77]

As a roman à clef, the novel based its

characters on living people, causing
scandal in the expatriate community.
Hemingway biographer Carlos Baker
writes that "word-of-mouth of the book"
helped sales. Parisian expatriates gleefully
tried to match the fictional characters to
real identities. Moreover, he writes that
Hemingway used prototypes easily found
in the Latin Quarter on which to base his
characters.[78] The early draft identified the
characters by their living counterparts;
Jake's character was called Hem, and
Brett's was called Duff.[79]

Although the novel is written in a

journalistic style, Frederic Svoboda writes
that the striking thing about the work is
"how quickly it moves away from a simple
recounting of events."[80] Jackson Benson
believes that Hemingway used
autobiographical details as framing
devices for life in general. For example,
Benson says that Hemingway drew out his
experiences with "what if" scenarios: "what
if I were wounded in such a way that I
could not sleep at night? What if I were
wounded and made crazy, what would
happen if I were sent back to the front?"[81]
Hemingway believed that the writer could
describe one thing while an entirely
different thing occurs below the surface—
an approach he called the iceberg theory,
or the theory of omission.[82]
If a writer of
prose knows
enough of
what he is
writing about
he may omit
things that
he knows
and the
reader, if the
writer is
writing truly
enough, will
have a
feeling of
those things
as strongly
as though
the writer
had stated
them. The
dignity of
movement o
an ice-berg is
due to only
one-eighth of
it being
above water.
A writer who
omits things
because he
does not
know them
only makes
hollow
places in his
writing.
—Hemingway
explained the
iceberg
theory in
Death in the
Afternoon
(1932).[83]

Balassi says Hemingway applied the

iceberg theory better in The Sun Also Rises
than in any of his other works, by editing
extraneous material or purposely leaving
gaps in the story. He made editorial
remarks in the manuscript that show he
wanted to break from the stricture of
Gertrude Stein's advice to use "clear
restrained writing." In the earliest draft, the
novel begins in Pamplona, but Hemingway
moved the opening setting to Paris
because he thought the Montparnasse life
was necessary as a counterpoint to the
later action in Spain. He wrote of Paris
extensively, intending "not to be limited by
the literary theories of others, [but] to write
in his own way, and possibly, to fail."[84] He
added metaphors for each character:
Mike's money problems, Brett's
association with the Circe myth, Robert's
association with the segregated steer.[85] It
wasn't until the revision process that he
pared down the story, taking out
unnecessary explanations, minimizing
descriptive passages, and stripping the
dialogue, all of which created a "complex
but tightly compressed story."[86]

Hemingway said that he learned what he

needed as a foundation for his writing
from the style sheet for The Kansas City
Star, where he worked as cub
reporter.[note 4][87] The critic John Aldridge
says that the minimalist style resulted
from Hemingway's belief that to write
authentically, each word had to be
carefully chosen for its simplicity and
authenticity and carry a great deal of
weight. Aldridge writes that Hemingway's
style "of a minimum of simple words that
seemed to be squeezed onto the page
against a great compulsion to be silent,
creates the impression that those words—
if only because there are so few of them—
are sacramental."[88] In Paris Hemingway
had been experimenting with the prosody
of the King James Bible, reading aloud
with his friend John Dos Passos. From the
style of the biblical text, he learned to build
his prose incrementally; the action in the
novel builds sentence by sentence, scene
by scene and chapter by chapter.[30]

 
Paul Cézanne, L'Estaque, Melting Snow, c. 1871. Writer
Ronald Berman draws comparison between Cézanne's
treatment of this landscape and the way Hemingway
imbues the Irati River with emotional texture. In both,

the landscape is a subjective element seen differently

by each character.[89]

The simplicity of his style is deceptive.

Bloom writes that it is the effective use of
parataxis that elevates Hemingway's
prose. Drawing on the Bible, Walt Whitman
and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn,
Hemingway wrote in deliberate
understatement and he heavily
incorporated parataxis, which in some
cases almost becomes cinematic.[90] His
skeletal sentences were crafted in
response to Henry James's observation
that World War I had "used up words,"
explains Hemingway scholar Zoe Trodd,
who writes that his style is similar to a
"multi-focal" photographic reality. The
syntax, which lacks subordinating
conjunctions, creates static sentences.
The photographic "snapshot" style creates
a collage of images. Hemingway omits
internal punctuation (colons, semicolons,
dashes, parentheses) in favor of short
declarative sentences, which are meant to
build, as events build, to create a sense of
the whole. He also uses techniques
analogous to cinema, such as cutting
quickly from one scene to the next, or
splicing one scene into another. Intentional
omissions allow the reader to fill the gap
as though responding to instructions from
the author and create three-dimensional
prose.[91] Biographer James Mellow writes
that the bullfighting scenes are presented
with a crispness and clarity that evoke the
sense of a newsreel.[92]

Hemingway also uses color and visual art

techniques to convey emotional range in
his descriptions of the Irati River. In
Translating Modernism: Fitzgerald and
Hemingway, Ronald Berman compares
Hemingway's treatment of landscape with
that of the post-Impressionist painter Paul
Cézanne. During a 1949 interview,
Hemingway told Lillian Ross that he
learned from Cézanne how to "make a
landscape." In comparing writing to
painting he told her, "This is what we try to
do in writing, this and this, and woods, and
the rocks we have to climb over."[93] The
landscape is seen subjectively—the
viewpoint of the observer is paramount.[94]
To Jake, landscape "meant a search for a
solid form .... not existentially present in
[his] life in Paris."[94]

Reception
Hemingway's first novel was arguably his
best and most important and came to be
seen as an iconic modernist novel,
although Reynolds emphasizes that
Hemingway was not philosophically a
modernist.[95] In the book, his characters
epitomized the post-war expatriate
generation for future generations.[96] He
had received good reviews for his volume
of short stories, In Our Time, of which
Edmund Wilson wrote, "Hemingway's
prose was of the first distinction." Wilson's
comments were enough to bring attention
to the young writer.[97]
No amount
of analysis
can convey
the quality
of The Sun
Also Rises.
It is a truly
gripping
story, told in
a lean, hard,
athletic
narrative
prose that
puts more
literary
English to
shame. Mr.
Hemingway
knows how
not only to
make words
be specific
but how to
arrange a
collection of
words
which shall
betray a
great deal
more than
is to be
found in the
individual
parts. It is
magnificent
writing.
—The New
York Times
review of
The Sun
Also Rises,
31 October
1926.[98]

Good reviews came in from many major

publications. Conrad Aiken wrote in the
New York Herald Tribune, "If there is a
better dialogue to be written today I do not
know where to find it"; and Bruce Barton
wrote in The Atlantic that Hemingway
"writes as if he had never read anybody's
writing, as if he had fashioned the art of
writing himself," and that the characters
"are amazingly real and alive."[19] Many
reviewers, among them H.L. Mencken,
praised Hemingway's style, use of
understatement, and tight writing.[99]

Other critics, however, disliked the novel.

The Nation's critic believed Hemingway's
hard-boiled style was better suited to the
short stories published in In Our Time than
his novel. Writing in the New Masses,
Hemingway's friend John Dos Passos
asked: "What's the matter with American
writing these days? .... The few unsad
young men of this lost generation will have
to look for another way of finding
themselves than the one indicated here."
Privately he wrote Hemingway an apology
for the review.[19] The reviewer for the
Chicago Daily Tribune wrote of the novel,
"The Sun Also Rises is the kind of book
that makes this reviewer at least almost
plain angry."[100] Some reviewers disliked
the characters, among them the reviewer
for The Dial, who thought the characters
were shallow and vapid; and The Nation
and Atheneum deemed the characters
boring and the novel unimportant.[99] The
reviewer for The Cincinnati Enquirer wrote
of the book that it "begins nowhere and
ends in nothing."[1]

Hemingway's family hated it. His mother,

Grace Hemingway, distressed that she
could not face the criticism at her local
book study class—where it was said that
her son was "prostituting a great ability ....
to the lowest uses"—expressed her
displeasure in a letter to him:

The critics seem to be full of

praise for your style and ability to
draw word pictures but the
decent ones always regret that
you should use such great gifts in
perpetuating the lives and habits
of so degraded a strata of
humanity .... It is a doubtful
honor to produce one of the
 filthiest books of the year ....
What is the matter? Have you
ceased to be interested in nobility,
honor and fineness in life? ....
Surely you have other words in
your vocabulary than "damn" and
"bitch"—Every page fills me with
a sick loathing.[101]

Still, the book sold well, and young women

began to emulate Brett while male
students at Ivy League universities wanted
to become "Hemingway heroes." Scribner's
encouraged the publicity and allowed
Hemingway to "become a minor American
phenomenon"—a celebrity to the point that
his divorce from Richardson and marriage
to Pfieffer attracted media attention.[102]

Reynolds believes The Sun Also Rises

could only have been written in 1925: it
perfectly captured the period between
World War I and the Great Depression, and
immortalized a group of characters.[103] In
the years since its publication, the novel
has been criticized for its anti-Semitism,
as expressed in the characterization of
Robert Cohn. Reynolds explains that
although the publishers complained to
Hemingway about his description of bulls,
they allowed his use of Jewish epithets,
which showed the degree to which anti-
Semitism was accepted in the US after
World War I. Cohn represented the Jewish
establishment and contemporary readers
would have understood this from his
description. Hemingway clearly makes
Cohn unlikeable not only as a character
but as a character who is Jewish.[104]
Critics of the 1970s and 1980s considered
Hemingway to be misogynistic and
homophobic; by the 1990s his work,
including The Sun Also Rises, began to
receive critical reconsideration by female
scholars.[105]
Legacy and adaptations
Hemingway's work continued to be
popular in the latter half of the century and
after his suicide in 1961. During the 1970s,
The Sun Also Rises appealed to what
Beegel calls the lost generation of the
Vietnam era.[106] Aldridge writes that The
Sun Also Rises has kept its appeal
because the novel is about being young.
The characters live in the most beautiful
city in the world, spend their days traveling,
fishing, drinking, making love, and
generally reveling in their youth. He
believes the expatriate writers of the
1920s appeal for this reason, but that
Hemingway was the most successful in
capturing the time and the place in The
Sun Also Rises.[107]

Bloom says that some of the characters

have not stood the test of time, writing
that modern readers are uncomfortable
with the anti-semitic treatment of Cohn's
character and the romanticization of a
bullfighter. Moreover, Brett and Mike
belong uniquely to the Jazz Age and do
not translate to the modern era. Bloom
believes the novel is in the canon of
American literature for its formal qualities:
its prose and style.[108]
The novel made Hemingway famous,
inspired young women across America to
wear short hair and sweater sets like the
heroine's—and to act like her too—and
changed writing style in ways that could
be seen in any American magazine
published in the next twenty years. In
many ways, the novel's stripped-down
prose became a model for 20th-century
American writing. Nagel writes that "The
Sun Also Rises was a dramatic literary
event and its effects have not diminished
over the years."[109]

The success of The Sun Also Rises

guaranteed interest from Broadway and
Hollywood. In 1927 two Broadway
producers wanted to adapt the story for
the stage but made no immediate offers.
Hemingway considered marketing the
story directly to Hollywood, telling his
editor Max Perkins that he would not sell it
for less than $30,000—money he wanted
his estranged wife Hadley Richardson to
have. Conrad Aiken thought the book was
perfect for a film adaptation solely on the
strength of dialogue. Hemingway would
not see a stage or film adaption anytime
soon:[110] he sold the film rights to RKO
Pictures in 1932,[111] but only in 1956 was
the novel adapted to a film of the same
name. Peter Viertel wrote the screenplay.
Tyrone Power as Jake played the lead role
opposite Ava Gardner as Brett and Errol
Flynn as Mike. The royalties went to
Richardson.[112] It was again adapted into
a film in 1984. It was adapted into a one-
act opera in 2000.

Hemingway wrote more books about

bullfighting: Death in the Afternoon was
published in 1932 and The Dangerous
Summer was published posthumously in
1985. His depictions of Pamplona,
beginning with The Sun Also Rises, helped
to popularize the annual running of the
bulls at the Festival of St. Fermin.[113]
References
1. The Torrents of Spring has little scholarly
criticism as it is considered to be of less
importance than Hemingway's subsequent
work. See Oliver (1999), 330
2. Hemingway may have used the term as
an early title for the novel, according to
biographer James Mellow. The term
originated from a remark in French made to
Gertrude Stein by the owner of a garage,
speaking of those who went to war: "C'est
une génération perdue" (literally, "they are a
lost generation"). See Mellow (1992), 309
3. Hemingway wrote a fragment of an
unpublished sequel in which he has Jake
and Brett meeting in the Dingo Bar in Paris.
With Brett is Mike Campbell. See Daiker
(2009), 85
4. "Use short sentences. Use short first
paragraphs. Use vigorous English. Be
positive, not negative."

Citations

1. Leff (1999), 51
2. Meyers (1985), 192
3. Wagner-Martin (1990), 1
4. Baker (1972), 82
5. Meyers (1985), 98–99
6. Meyers (1985), 117–119
7. Balassi (1990), 128
8. Nagel (1996), 89
9. Meyers (1985), 189
10. Balassi (1990), 132, 142, 146
11. Reynolds (1989), vi–vii
12. Meyers (1985), 172
13. Baker (1972), 44
14. Mellow (1992), 338–340
15. Mellow (1992), 317–321
16. Baker (1972), 76, 30–34
17. Oliver (1999), 318
18. qtd. in Leff (1999), 51
19. Mellow (1992), 334–336
20. Leff (1999), 75
21. White (1969), iv
22. Reynolds (1999), 154
23. McDowell, Edwin, "Hemingway's Status
Revives Among Scholars and Readers".
The New York Times (July 26, 1983).
Retrieved 27 February 2011
24. "Books at Random House" . Random
House. Retrieved 31 May 2011.
25. "Hemingway books coming out in audio
editions" MSNBC.com (February 15, 2006).
Retrieved 27 February 2011.
26. Reynolds (1990), 48–49
27. Oliver (1999), 316–318
28. Meyers (1985), 191
29. Ecclesiastes 1:3–5, King James
Version.
30. Wagner-Martin (1990), 6–9
31. Reynolds (1990), 62–63
32. Reynolds (1990), 45–50
33. Reynolds (1990), 60–63
34. Reynolds (1990), 58–59
35. Nagel (1996), 94–96
36. Daiker (2009), 74
37. Nagel (1996), 99–103
38. Meyers (1985), 190
39. Fore (2007), 80
40. Fiedler (1975), 345–365
41. Baym (1990), 112
42. qtd. in Reynolds (1990), 60
43. Daiker (2009), 80
44. Donaldson (2002), 82
45. Daiker (2009), 83
46. Balassi (1990), 144–146
47. Reynolds (1989), 323–324
48. qtd. in Balassi (1990), 127
49. Müller (2010), 31–32
50. Kinnamon (2002), 128
51. Josephs (1987), 158
52. Stoltzfus (2005), 215–218
53. Reynolds (1989), 320
54. Josephs (1987), 163
55. Bloom (2007), 31
56. Djos (1995), 65–68
57. Balassi (1990), 145
58. Reynolds (1990), 56–57
59. Elliot (1995), 80–82
60. Elliot (1995), 86–88
61. Elliot (1995), 87
62. Mellow (1992), 312
63. Davidson (1990), 97
64. Fore (2007), 75
65. Hemingway (2006 ed), 214
66. Oliver (1999), 270
67. Beegel (1996), 288
68. Knopf (1987), 68–69
69. Reynolds (1989), 297
70. Wagner-Martin (1990), 2–4
71. Meyers (1985), 70–74
72. Hallengren, Anders. "A Case of Identity:
Ernest Hemingway" , Nobelprize.org.
Retrieved 15 April 2011.
73. Wagner-Martin (2002), 7
74. Wagner-Martin (1990), 11–12
75. Hemingway (2006 ed), 221
76. qtd. in Balassi (1990), 138
77. Balassi (1990), 138
78. Baker (1987), 11
79. Mellow (1992), 303
80. Svoboda (1983), 9
81. Benson (1989), 351
82. Oliver (1999), 321–322
83. qtd. in Oliver (1999), 322
84. Balassi (1990), 136
85. Balassi (1990), 125, 136, 139–141
86. Balassi (1990), 150; Svoboda (1983), 44
87. "Star style and rules for writing"
Archived 2014-04-08 at the Wayback
Machine.. The Kansas City Star.
KansasCity.com. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
88. Aldridge (1990), 126
89. Berman (2011), 59
90. Bloom (1987), 7–8
91. Trodd (2007), 8
92. Mellow (1992), 311
93. Berman (2011), 52
94. Berman (2011), 55
95. Wagner-Martin (1990), 1, 15; Reynolds
(1990), 46
96. Mellow (1992), 302
97. Wagner-Martin (2002), 4–5
98. "The Sun Also Rises" . (October 31,
1926) The New York Times. Retrieved 13
March 2011.
99. Wagner-Martin (2002), 1–2
100. qtd. in Wagner-Martin (1990), 1
101. qtd. in Reynolds (1998), 53
102. Leff (1999), 63
103. Reynolds (1990), 43
104. Reynolds (1990), 53–55
105. Bloom (2007), 28; Beegel (1996), 282
106. Beegel (1996), 281
107. Aldridge (1990), 122–123
108. Bloom (1987), 5–6
109. Nagel (1996), 87
110. Leff (1999), 64
111. Leff (1999), 156
112. Reynolds (1999), 293
113. Palin, Michael. "Lifelong Aficionado"
and "San Fermín Festival" . in Michael
Palin's Hemingway Adventure. PBS.org.
Retrieved 23 May 2011.

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Wagner-Martin, Linda (2002).
"Introduction". in Wagner-Martin, Linda
(ed). Ernest Hemingway's The Sun Also
Rises: A Casebook. New York: Oxford UP.
ISBN 978-0-19-514573-1
Wagner-Martin, Linda (1990).
"Introduction". in Wagner-Martin, Linda
(ed). New Essays on Sun Also Rises.
New York: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0-
521-30204-3
White, William (1969). The Merrill
Studies in The Sun Also Rises.
Columbus: C. E. Merrill.
Young, Philip (1973). Ernest Hemingway.
St. Paul: Minnesota UP. ISBN 978-0-
 8166-0191-2

External links
The Sun Also Rises at Faded Page
(Canada)
Hemingway Archives , John F. Kennedy
Library

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title=The_Sun_Also_Rises&oldid=847426233"

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