FIRE HAZARD ABOARD SHIPS

Throughout history mariners have gone to sea in all types of watercraft, and, more often than not, with very limited
protection against the threat of shipboard fires. In the event of fire, persons ashore often have available the
immediate assistance of well-trained firefighting professionals. Mariners are alone aboard ship, and. when
fires occur at sea they must remain onboard and cope with these incidents to the best of their own abilities.
These efforts, often because of lack of knowledge, training, and experience, have produced less than
satisfactory results and at times have resulted in tragedy.

1. Draw and explain a fire triangle and Tetrahedron. (3) (May 2012)
2. What is fire? State the chemical reactions occurred during occurrence of fire? (3) (June 2015)
3. Explain a fire triangle and fire tetrahedron. (3) (June 2016)
4. What is fire triangle and Fire Tetrahedron? (3) (June 2018)

1.1 FIRE TRIANGLE

The three basic requirements for a fire then are fuel, heat, air (oxygen), these can be represented by triangle with
sides representing fuel, heat and oxygen. Fire is the energy released in the form of heat and light due to a
chemical reaction when three basic elements meet. These elements are as follows:
1. Fuel - in the form of solid, liquid or gas
2. Heat - in the form of spark,(by mechanical, electrical, chemical or biological reasons) or flame or continued rise
in temperature (Which will result in more and more heat resulting in self/auto ignition)
3. Oxygen – air which contains 21% of oxygen by volume
Fire takes place due to a chemical reaction in between fuel and oxygen in the presence of heat. Combustible or
flammable substances give off vapour, which burn if ignited when mixed with an appropriate quantity of
oxygen.
The above three can be represented by a triangle called “FIRE TRIANGLE”. Whenever these three factors meet, fire
will be created.

The Fire Triangle

If one of the sides in the triangle is not present a fire cannot start. i.e.
If any one of these factors is removed, fire will be extinguished.
Therefore, in order to prevent or fight fire one of the above three
elements must be removed or isolated.
Fires can be controlled and extinguished by removal of heat, fuel or
oxygen (air). The main aim while fighting fire must therefore be to
reduce or to remove the fuel or exclude the supply of air with the
greatest possible speed. Throughout this manual we would be
referring to this triangle as this forms the basic principle on which any
fire is fought.

1.2 FIRE TETRAHEDRON

It is more appropriate to use a fire tetrahedron to illustrate the nature
of fire.
Three sloping surfaces in the tetrahedron represents fuel, heat & oxygen and the base represents the chain reaction
between the short lived chemical species following ignition.
The basic difference between the fire triangle and fire tetrahedron is this : The tetrahedron illustrates how flaming
combustion is supported and sustained through the chain reaction. The chain reaction face keep other faces
from falling apart.
As the temperature rises, the reaction rate increases resulting in a further rise in temperature. There is however an
opposition influences due to the depletion of the fuel and its replacement by the combustion products.
In case of a flammable gas mixture, the speed of reaction is sufficiently high to result in explosion.
THE FIRE SQUARE

If the chain can be broken, the fire will be extinguished, i.e., the base of the tetrahedron (which may be considered
as maintaining the sloping faces in place) is destroyed.
The halon extinguishing agents and certain dry chemicals effectively break the chain reaction by attacking the
structure of the active chemical species and preventing the reaction and killing the reaction in one hundredth
of a second.

Oxygen: When Oxygen in the air combines with flammable vapours given off by Fuels they create a form of heat at
a molecular level. Then, a source of ignition (a match or spark, say) can cause it to combust. Without enough
Oxygen, ignition cannot happen. In the opposite way, if there is too much Oxygen then the vapours won't be
concentrated enough to ignite. The ratio of vapour to Oxygen is known as the 'explosive' or 'flammable' limit
and is different for each gas or vapour.
Heat: Combustion occurs when flammable vapours mix with air (Oxygen) and are ignited by a spark or flame. Solids
give off flammable vapours by being heated. Certain solids such as paper or flour appear to ignite almost
instantly. This is because they give off vapours and reach a flammable temperature almost immediately. In
fact, fine dusts dispersed in the air can explode because they give off vapours and ignite so quickly it appear
to happen instantly. Other solids like timber take longer to ignite because they are more dense and so don't
give off flammable vapours so easily. Liquids are a bit different to solids. They are a lot more runny for a start.
But, where solids need to be heated to give off flammable vapours, some liquids give off vapours even in cold
weather.
Fuel: Fuels can take almost any form: Solids like wood, fabric, rubber and plastic. Liquids such as petrol, oil, cooking
oil or even nail varnish remover. Gases like propane, butane and 'natural' gas. Different fuels burn at different
rates and with different intensities.
SPREAD OF FIRE
Heat, which is a critical element in the fire tetrahedron, can be transferred from a fire by one or more of three
methods: conduction, radiation and convection. Each of these methods of heat transfer must be considered
when engaging a fire.
Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of heat through a solid body. It is the transfer of heat from high temperature to low
temperature by direct contact between the particles of solid, by means of elastic waves, by diffusion of atoms
or molecules and by diffusion of electrons.
Conduction may occur in solids, liquids and gases, although very clearly present in solids. Here the heat energy is
passed from one molecule to the next, where it vibrates at its mean position, and thereby heat passes on. The
ability to conduct heat known as a thermal conductivity, varies between materials. Best conductors of heat
are silver and copper. Aluminium has half of the value of silver, I iron has 1/8th . Nonmetallic are non
conductors of heat. Almost all the liquids are poor conductors except mercury.
Since most vessels are constructed of metal, heat transfer by conduction is a very real potential hazard. Fire can and
will move from one hold to another, one deck to another and one compartment to another via heat
 conduction through the steel structure, unless structural fire protection arrangements are provided to
prevent such propagation. Wood is ordinarily a poor conductor of heat, but most metals are good conductors.
Convection
Convection is the transfer of heat through the actual physical movement of heated matter, normally fluid particles
(e.g., through the motion of smoke, hot air, heated gases produced by the fire and flying embers). The fluid
is set in bodily motion due to either difference in density because of heating or external force such as fans
etc.
Normally limited to the liquids and gases. If they are heated, they expand and becomes less dense. Lighter fluid
moves to colder portion, and so colder fluid moves to hot zone. This sets up circulation, and due to this heat
transfer takes place.
On board ships, the fire produces lighter-than-air gases that rise toward high parts of the vessel. Heated air, which
is lighter than cool air, also rises, as does the smoke produced by combustion. As these heated combustion
products rise, cool air takes their place. The cool air is heated in turn and then rises to the highest point it
can reach. As the hot air and gases rise from the fire, they begin to cool, and as they do, they drop down to be
reheated and rise again. This is the convection cycle. It is important to recognize that heat originating from
a fire on a lower deck will travel horizontally along passageways and then upward via ladder and hatch
openings, and it can ignite flammable materials in its path.
Radiation
Radiation is the transfer of heat by temperature excited electromagnetic waves. Heat radiation is the transfer of heat
from a source across an intervening space. No material substance is involved. Thermal energy is converted
into radiant energy and vice versa. Radiated heat is transmitted in straight lines through an empty space,
without use of a medium. This method of transmission popularly known as radiation, and it does not require
any contact, any material. Its intensity reduces as the distance increases.
All the form of radiant energy travel at the speed of light in straight lines. The heat travels outward from the fire in
the same manner as light. When it contacts a body, it is absorbed, reflected or re-transmitted. Absorbed heat
increases the temperature of the absorbing body. For example, radiant heat that is absorbed by an overhead
will increase the temperature of that overhead, perhaps enough to ignite its paint. Radiant heat travels in all
directions, unless it is blocked, and can extend a fire by heating combustible substances in its path, causing
them to produce vapor and then igniting the vapor.

1.3 CHEMISTRY OF FIRE

Recognizing that the fire or combustion process is actually a chemical reaction (involving the oxidation of the fuel
molecules) is critical to understanding the basics of the fire phenomena.

1. Explain Spontaneous Combustion. (3) (July 2012)

2. With reference to fire or explosion explain the significance of the following properties of a
flammable gas:
a) Relation of vapour pressure with explosive limits (3) (Dec 2012)
b) Auto Ignition temperature of vapour of fuel (3) Dec 2012)
3. What is spontaneous Combustion? Give a few examples. (3) (June 2013)
4. State how does oil vapour density affect safety? (3) (June 2015)
5. Explain the term LFL. (3) (June 2014, June 2017)
6. Define – Spontaneous combustion. (3) (June 2018)

Oxidation
Oxidation is a chemical reaction between the molecules of a substance and the oxygen molecules in the surrounding
atmosphere. There are many common examples of oxidation, including the rusting of iron, the tarnishing of
silver, or the rotting of wood.
The oxidation reaction is an exothermic process (i.e., one in which heat is given off). The molecules oxidize by breaking
apart into individual atoms and recombine with the oxygen atoms to form new molecules. During this
process, a certain amount of energy is released.
Oxidation rate - In the examples of rusting iron or rotting wood, the amount of energy released is minimal since these
oxidation processes occur at a very slow rate.
Slow oxidation, such as a piece of iron rusting, a small amount of heat is generated. However, this heat usually
dissipates before there is any noticeable rise in the temperature. Slower form of combustion, such as rusting
which is the oxidation of iron. But we do not think of these as fire.

Combustion or burning
Burning or combustion is actually the continuous rapid oxidation of millions of fuel molecules. The burning of a
substance in air or oxygen is commonly known as combustion, is a rapid form of oxidation. But in wider
sense any chemical reaction attended with evolution of heat and light is called Combustion. Fire is also called
combustion. Most combustion involves rapid OXIDATION, which is the chemical reaction by which oxygen
combines chemically with the elements of the burning substance.
Combustion is a rapid chemical reaction that releases energy in the form of light and noticeable heat. For this to
occur there must be an adequate intermixing of the oxygen and fuel molecules.
Combustion is possible even in absence of oxygen. e.g., Powdered arsenic or antimony, if sprinkled over chlorine,
burns spontaneously, when sparks are seen. Hence chlorine is the supporter of oxygen and the metal concern
is combustible.

Fire is actually a chemical reaction involving the oxidation of the fuel molecules. However, the reaction occurs at a
much faster rate and only under certain conditions (e.g., elevated temperatures, proper mixture, etc.).
However in a fire, the oxidation rate of the fuel molecules is much faster. Because of this rapid reaction, energy is
released at a much greater rate. The released energy is actually felt and seen in the form of heat and light.
The more rapid the oxidation rate, the greater intensity in which the energy is released. An explosion is, in
fact, the oxidation of a combustible media at an extremely fast rate.

State of fuel in “Fire” – in Oxidation Process

All substances exist in one of three states: as a solid, a liquid or a vapor (gas).
Burning Rate -The burning rate of a solid fuel depends upon the rate at which vapors are generated, which depends
on a number of criteria, including the configuration of the fuel surface. Solid fuels in the form of dust, that
will burn much faster than bulky materials (i.e., small wood chips will burn faster than a solid wooden beam).
For fuel molecules in either a solid or liquid state, the molecules are tightly bound and cannot be effectively
surrounded by the oxygen molecules. Therefore, molecules in either a liquid or solid state are not directly
involved in the rapid chemical reaction of oxidation in a fire.
However, fuel molecules in a vapor state are free to mix with the atmosphere. These molecules become effectively
surrounded by the oxygen molecules in the atmosphere and are available to become involved in the
oxidation process. In fact, only fuel molecules in a vapor state are actually involved in the oxidation process.
So fire is regarded as an external sign of chemical action. Only gas can be ignited.
Finely divided fuels have a much larger surface area exposed to the heat. Therefore, heat is absorbed much faster,
vaporization is more rapid and more vapor is available for ignition, allowing the fire to burn with great
intensity and the fuel to be quickly consumed. A bulky fuel will burn longer than a finely divided fuel.
Dust clouds are made up of very small particles. When a cloud of flammable dust (such as grain dust) is mixed well
with air and ignited, the reaction is extremely quick, often with explosive force. Such explosions have
occurred on vessels during the loading and discharging of grains and other finely divided materials.
While fuel molecules in the solid or liquid states are not directly involved in the oxidation process, when heated,
these molecules will move about more rapidly. If enough heat (energy) is applied, some fuel molecules break
away from the surface to form a vapor just above the surface. This new vapor can now mix with oxygen and
can become involved in the oxidation process. Accordingly, the fuel molecules in a solid or liquid state do
serve as the source of additional fuel vapors when exposed to heat.

FOUR PHASES OF DEVELOPING THE FIRE

Ignition – Incipient fire
Developing – surface fire
Absolute fire – fire in depth of solids
Burning out

Ignition – Incipient fire

To start, it is necessary to apply a flame or spark having a certain minimum energy to a substance, which has been
raised to a temperature sufficient to release flammable vapours to ignite.
Molecules of flammable vapor can be mixed with air, and they will not ignite until a source of ignition is provided.
The source of ignition breaks up the vapor molecules into radicals which will then react with oxygen. The
energy liberated by this reaction breaks up other molecules and fire spreads in a molecular chain, and flame
the fuel.

Developing – surface fire

The heat released by the oxidation of the fuel molecules is radiant heat. Once started, heat energy released will
radiate in all direction, heating the surface exposed to it. Thus, part of it moves back to the seat of the fire, to
the “burning” solid or liquid (the fuel). So the amount of gases liberated more and of the burning material
increases and the fire spreads even more rapidly. However, once oxidation is initiated, it is an exothermic
process. If sufficient energy is released during the reaction to maintain the elevated temperature of
surrounding oxygen and fuel molecules, and there are sufficient oxygen and vaporized fuel molecules
available, then the oxidation process will continue.
For a fuel source with a limited amount of surface area available, the amount of vapor released from the fuel reaches
a maximum rate and begins to level off, producing a steady rate of burning. This usually continues until most
of the fuel has been consumed.
When there is less fuel vapor available to oxidize, less heat is produced and the process begins to die out.

Absolute fire – fire in depth of solids

The heat that radiates back to the fuel is called radiation feedback. This part of the heat serves to release more
vapors and also serves to raise the vapor (fuel and oxygen molecule mixture) to the ignition temperature. At
the same time, air is drawn into the area where the flames and vapor meet. The result is that the newly-
formed vapor begins to burn and the flames increase, which starts a chain reaction. The burning vapor
produces heat, which releases and ignites more vapor. The additional vapor burns, producing more heat,
which releases and ignites still more vapor. As long as there is fuel and oxygen available, the fire will continue
to grow.
Heat release rate - flammable liquids produce about 2.5 times more heat than wood when involved in a fire, and the
heat is liberated 3 to 10 times faster from liquids than from wood. These ratios illustrate quite clearly why
flammable liquid vapor burns with such intensity.
Burning out
A solid fuel may leave an ash residue and continue to smolder for some time, while a liquid fuel usually burns up
completely.

IGNITION TEMPERATURE
The ignition temperature of a substance (solid, liquid or gas)is the lowest temperature at which sustained
combustion will occur. Ignition temperatures vary among substances. The ignition temperature varies with
bulk, surface area and other factors. Generally accepted ignition temperatures of common combustible
materials in various standardized configurations are provided in various handbooks.

Liquid - are mainly Hydrocarbons only

Grade A : F.P. below 23 0C , petrol, spirits  Highly flammable
Grade B : F.P. below 23 0C – 66 0C, Kerosene Highly flammable
Grade C : F.P. above 66 0C, cooking oil, lub oil, diesel oil  safe for marine use
Volatile – Flash point below 600 C as determined by the closed cup method of testing.
Non-volatile - Flash point of 600 C or above as determined by the closed cup method of testing.

FLASH POINT.
It is the lowest temperature at which the vapours will flash momentarily but not continue to burn, upon application
of spark or flame. For a combustible fuel or substance to catch on fire, it must have an ignition source and be
hot enough to burn.
Flash point is indicative of fire and explosion risk.
For example, flash point of the fuel oil carried shall not be less than 600 C.
FIRE POINT / Flame point
It is the lowest temperature at which the vapours will flash and continue to burn, upon application of spark or flame.
The fire point is usually a few degrees higher than the flash point.

Pyrolysis. Before a solid fuel will burn, it must be changed to the vapor state. In a fire situation, this change usually
results from the initial application of heat. The process is known as pyrolysis, which is generally defined as
“chemical decomposition by the action of heat.” In this case, the decomposition causes a change from the
solid state to the vapor state. If the vapor mixes sufficiently with air and is heated to a high enough
temperature (by a flame, spark, hot motor, etc.), then ignition results.

1.4 SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION /AUTO-IGNITION

The temperature at which the vapours will commence to burn without the application of spark or flame is called
Spontaneous ignition temperature. This is sometimes referred to as Auto ignition temperature. Spontaneous
combustion or spontaneous ignition is a type of combustion which occurs by self-heating (increase in
temperature due to exothermic internal reactions), followed by thermal runaway (self heating which rapidly
accelerates to high temperatures) and finally, auto-ignition. Oxidation processes are exothermic, they give
out heat and if this oxidation took place where the heat could not escape then the heat level may build up
above ignition temperature and a fire is caused without spark or flame being necessary.
So the AUTO-IGNITION or SELF-IGNITION POINT is the lowest temperature to which a substance must be heated to
give off vapors that will burn without the application of a spark or flame in the surrounding temperature. In
other words, the auto-ignition point is the temperature at which spontaneous combustion occurs. The auto-
ignition point is usually at a much higher temperature than the fire point.
Causes
A substance with a relatively low ignition temperature (hay, straw, peat, etc.) begins to release heat. This may occur
in several ways, either by oxidation in the presence of moisture and air, or bacterial fermentation, which
generates heat.
The heat is unable to escape (hay, straw, peat, etc. are good thermal insulators), and the temperature of the material
rises.
The temperature of the material rises above its ignition point (even though much of the bacteria are destroyed by
ignition temperatures).
Combustion begins if sufficient oxidizer, such as oxygen, and fuel are present to maintain the reaction into thermal
run-away.
Examples – Coal - Coal can ignite spontaneously when exposed to oxygen which causes it to react and heat up when
there is insufficient ventilation for cooling. Self-heating in coal has been extensively studied. The tendency to
self-heat decreases with increasing rank of the coal. Lignite coals are more active than bituminous coals,
which are more active than anthracite coals. Freshly mined coal consumes oxygen more rapidly than
weathered coal, and freshly mined coal self-heats to a greater extent than weathered coal. The presence of
water vapor may also be important, as the rate of heat generation accompanying the absorption of water in
dry coal from saturated air can be an order of magnitude or more than the same amount of dry air.
Charcoal
Charcoal, when freshly prepared, can self-heat and catch fire. This is separate from hot spots which may have
developed from the preparation of charcoal. Charcoal that has been exposed to air for a period of eight days
is not considered to be hazardous. There are many factors involved, two being the type of wood and the
temperature at which the charcoal was prepared
Another example, Pile of oily waste contains free carbon which will readily oxidize, but waste prevents the
dissipation of the heat. Action of bacteria on certain organic materials can cause a rise in temperature and
can cause fire.

1.5 LIMITS OF INFLAMMABILITY

Because the combustion process involves the oxidation of the fuel molecules, the availability of oxygen is vital for
the process to exist. Accordingly, the second side of the fire triangle refers to the oxygen content in the
surrounding air. Air normally contains about 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen and 1% other gases, principally
 argon, and therefore, sufficient oxygen is typically available unless some type of controlled atmosphere (i.e.,
inerted, etc.) is involved.
Range of Flammability
A flammable gas or the flammable vapor of a liquid must mix with air in the proper proportion to make an ignitable
mixture. So it will only burn in air if the composition lies between certain limits. There is a level of
concentration of vapours below which it will be too lean to burn and above which too rich.
The lower limit of flammability is defined as the lowest concentration of fuel that will just support a self-propagating
flame. So it is the smallest percentage of a gas (or vapor) that will make an ignitable air-vapor mixture is
called the Lower Flammable Limit (LFL) of the gas/vapor. If there is less gas in the mixture, it will be too lean
to burn.
1) A mixture of hydrocarbon gas and air cannot ignite, unless
its composition lies within a range of gas-in-air
concentrations known as the flammable range. When
1% and 10% hydrocarbon & rest normal air.-- known
as the Flammable Range.
(2) The lower limit of the range, known as the “lower
flammable limit”, is any hydrocarbon concentration
below which there is insufficient hydrocarbon gas to
support combustion. Below 1% - lower explosive limit
(LEL) - the mixture is too lean, weak to bum rapidly,
(although a lean mixture will burn slowly in the
presence of a naked flame or a spark,)
(3) The upper limit of the range, known as the “upper
flammable limit”, is any hydrocarbon concentration
above which air is insufficient to support combustion.
Above 10% - Over rich mixtures - UFL – where gas
contains insufficient air to support combustion.

Similarly, higher limit of flammability is defined as the highest concentration of fuel that will just support a self-
propagating flame. The greatest percentage of a gas/vapor in an ignitable air-vapor mixture is called its
Upper Flammable Limit (UFL). If a mixture contains more gas than the UFL, it is too rich to burn.
Flammable Range. The range of percentages between the lower and upper flammable limits is called the flammable
range of the gas or vapor. It is therefore important to realize that certain ranges of vapor-air mixtures can be
ignited and to use caution when working with these fuels. The flammability ranges of specific types of fuels
are published in various handbooks. Refer to such documentation for the particular product of concern.
The range between the smallest and the largest amounts of vapor in a given quantity of air that will burn or explode
when ignited is called the FLAMMABLE RANGE or the EXPLOSIVE RANGE. For example, let’s say that a
substance has a flammable or explosive range of 1 to 12 percent. This means that either a fire or an explosion
can occur if the atmosphere contains more than 1 percent but less than 12 percent of the vapor of this
substance. In general, the percentages referred to in connection with flammable or explosive ranges are
percentages by volume.
Refer to chapter 1 of ISGOTT

The flammable limits vary somewhat for different pure hydrocarbon gases and for the gas mixtures derived from
different petroleum liquids;

Limits of flammability ( Percentage fuel / air by volume )

Gas Lower Limit Upper Limit
Hydrogen 4.1 74
Methane 5 15
Butane 1.9 8.5
 Ethylene 2.7 28.6
Crude oil 1.3 6.0
Domestic Kerosene 1.7 5.0
propane 2.2 9.5
pentane 1.5 7.8

Fig Flammability Composition Diagram – Hydrocarbon Gas/Air/InertGas Mixture [ISGOTT]

1.6 CONTROL OF CLASS A, B, C & CLASS D FIRES

1. Write about the advantages of CO2 as extinguishing agent. (4) (July 2012)
2. What are the advantages of Water Mist as Engine Room Fire Extinguisher? (4) (July 2012)
3. Explain the phenomenon of boil over. (3) (July 2012)
4. What are the expansion ratios of low, medium and high expansion foam? (3) (Dec2012)
5. Write the advantages of CO2 as an extinguishing agent. (3) (June 2014)
6. What are the advantages of Hyper Mist/High Fog System over conventional fixed fire fighting
systems. (4) (June 2014)
7. Explain the term BOIL OVER. (3) (June 2014)
8. Considering that the engine room is the most common single space on board ship for fires to break
out, discuss the merits and demerits of the following fire fighting systems:
i. CO2,
ii. Pressure Water Spray,
iii. High Expansion Foam. (10) (June 2015)
9. What are the expansion ratios of low, medium and high expansion foam? (3) (June 2016)
10. Explain the term BOIL OVER. (3) (June 2016)
11. State the reasons why water cannot be used as extinguishing agent on Class B fire. (3) (June 2017)
12. How FIRE is classified? Explain clearly with example. (14) (June 2018)

CLASSIFICATION OF FIRES
The International Maritime Organization (IMO) mentions two standards in IMO Resolution A.602(15) which define
the various classes of fires. The first is the International Standards Organization (ISO) Standard 3941, and
the second is the National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) 10 Standard.
 Fire types Description Extinguishing media
Class A Dry fires (wood, paper, textiles, Water & Water/CO2. Foam is recommended to
fabrics, plastics etc) be used in special circumstances.
Class B Fires involving combustible liquids or Water spray, Foam, Dry Chemical powder
liquefiable solids. (DCP), CO2 etc.
Class C Fires involving gases or liquefied Shut off supply. Use ABC Chemical dry powder
gases
Class D Fires involving metals Special Dry extinguishing medium used.

Some sources give Electrical Fire as a different class of fire and in such a case only dry powder extinguisher or CO2
extinguisher should be used.

Fire classifications are generally indicated as A, B, C, D and F (or K). There are currently two standards, defining
classes of fires according to the nature of the material undergoing combustion, as follows:

International Organization for Standardization National Fire Protection Association

(ISO standard 3941)* (NFPA 10)
Class A: Fires involving solid materials, usually Class A: Fires in ordinary combustible materials such
of an organic nature, in which as wood, cloth, paper, rubber and many
combustion normally takes place with plastics.
the formation of glowing embers.
Class B: Fires involving liquids or liquefiable Class B: Fires in flammable liquids, oils, greases, tars,
solids. oil base paints, lacquers and flammable
gases.
Class C: Fires involving gases. Class C: Fires, which involve energized electrical
equipment where the electrical non-
conductivity of the extinguishing medium is
of importance. (When electrical equipment is
de-energized, extinguishers for class A or B
fires may be used safely.)
Class D: Fires involving metals. Class D: Fires in combustible metals such as
magnesium, titanium, zirconium, sodium,
lithium and potassium.
Class F: Fires involving cooking oils. Class K: Fires involving cooking grease, fats and oils.

CONTROL MECHANISM -
EXTINGUISHMENT CONSIDERING THE FIRE TETRAHEDRON
A fire can be extinguished if any one side of the fire tetrahedron can be destroyed.

Removing the Fuel

Methods of Fire-Fighting - Starvation
The extinction of fire by starvation is applied in three ways:
1. One way to remove fuel from a fire is to physically move it. Examples of this are, the drainage of fuel from
burning oil tanks; the working out of cargo at a ship fire; Sometimes the supply of liquid or gaseous fuel can
be cut off from a fire, by closing the proper valve, by shutting down pump etc.
2. By removing the fire from the neighborhood of combustible material as, for instance, pulling apart a burning
haystack or a thatched roof.
3. By sub-dividing the burning material, when the smaller fires produced may be left to burn out or to be
extinguished more easily by other means. Zones in ships.
Removing the Oxygen
Methods of Fire-Fighting - Smothering
A fire can be extinguished by removing its oxygen or by reducing the oxygen level in the atmosphere. If the oxygen
content of the atmosphere in the immediate neighborhood of burning material can be sufficiently reduced
combustion will cease.
The general procedure in methods of this type is to prevent or impede the access of fresh air to the seat of the fire,
and allow the combustion to reduce the oxygen content in the confined atmosphere until it extinguishes
itself.
Smothering - Many extinguishing agents (e.g., carbon dioxide and foam) extinguish a fire with smothering action by
depriving the fire of oxygen. Examples -
- the use of foam which forms a viscous coating over the burning material and limits the supply of air. Small fires,
such as those involving a person’s clothing, can be smothered with a rug, blanket etc., while the use of sand
or earth on a small metal fire is a further instance of the same principle.
Gaseous smothering agents like carbon dioxide in enclosed areas; To extinguish a fire in an enclosed space such as a
compartment, engine room or cargo hold, the space can be flooded with carbon dioxide.
Tank vessels that carry petroleum products are protected by foam systems with monitor nozzles on deck.
It is also important to note that there are some cargoes known as oxidizing substances that release oxygen when they
are heated or, in some instances, when they come in contact with water.
Substances of this nature include the hypochlorite, chlorates, perchlorates, nitrates, chromates, oxides and
peroxides. All contain oxygen atoms that are loosely bonded into their molecular structure, that is, they carry
their own supply of oxygen, enough to support combustion.

Eliminating the Heat- cooling

The fire will go out if you can remove enough heat by cooling the fuel to below temperature at which it will support
combustion. Heat may be transferred in three ways as follows:
1. By radiation
2. By conduction
3. By convection
In the process known as radiation, heat is radiated through the air in all directions. Radiated heat is what causes you
to feel hot when you stand near an open fire. In conduction, heat is transferred through a substance or from
one substance to another by direct contact from molecule to molecule. Therefore, a thick steel bulkhead with
a fire on one side can conduct heat from the fire and transfer the heat to the adjoining compartments. In
convection, the air and gases rising from a fire are heated. These gases can then transfer the heat to other
combustible materials that are within reach. Heat transferred by convection is a particular danger in
ventilation systems. These systems may carry the heated gases from the fire to another location several
compartments away. If there are combustibles with a low flash point within a compartment served by the
same ventilation system, a new fire may start.
Methods of Fire-Fighting - Cooling
If the rate at which heat is generated by combustion is less than the rate at which it is dissipated through various
agencies, the combustion cannot persist. To eliminate the heat side of the fire triangle, cool the fire by
applying something that will absorb the heat. Example, water is the most commonly used cooling agent.
Water may be applied in the form of a solid stream, as a fog, or used together with aqueous film-forming
foam (AFFF).
This also reduces the amount of fuel vapor being generated, after cooling.
Water also absorbs much of the radiation feedback.

The extinguishing medium like water operates by absorbing heat from the fire, and undergoes one or more of the
following changes:
- its temperature is raised;
- it is converted to the vapour state;
- it is decomposed;
- it reacts chemically with the burning material.
 Breaking the Chain Reaction
Another mechanism for destroying the fire
tetrahedron, and therefore, extinguishing the fire, is
by the interruption of the chain reaction. Once the
chain reaction sequence is broken, the heat generation
is reduced, so reduces the fuel vapor generation, as
well as the heating of the vapor oxygen mixture, and
as a result, the fire is extinguished.
The extinguishing agents commonly used to attack the
chain reaction and inhibit combustion are dry
chemicals. These agents directly attack the molecular
structure of compounds formed during the chain
reaction sequence by scavenging the “O” and “OH”
radicals. The breakdown of these compounds
adversely affects the flame-producing capability of the
fire.

1.7 ADVANTAGES OF VARIOUS FIRE

EXTINGUISHING AGENTS
(including vaporizing fluids and their suitability for
ship’s use)
Choosing Extinguishing Medium

Medium is Electrically Medium is Electrically Non-Conducting

Conducting
Fuel Water Foam Carbon Dioxide Dry Powder Halons
(CO2)
Carbonac Yes – Mechanical foam For surface fires For surface fires BCF
eous Preferred or high expansion only only
spray or fog foam in cargo
holds
Low Flash Only in the Yes – preferred Yes – with With high Yes – BCF or
Point form of fog AFFF most sweeping action application rate, BTM
Liquids effective on open Fires sweeping action
High Yes as spray Preferred Yes, if used Yes, if used quickly Yes BCF or
Flash or fog Fluoroprotein quickly BTM but large
Point Provides most quantities of
Liquids security if oil is break-down
hot products if oil
is hot
 Gaseous Only in the No. High Yes, but in a Yes, preferred high Yes
form of fog expansion foam limited way in pressure flame,
may reduce rate of case of small fires Powder has to be
burning of LPG entrained into gas
spill jet
Metallic No No No Only special No
powders or dry
sand

A) Water
Advantages
1. The finest cooling medium and the most universally available.
2. It is freely available. Cheapest and readily available cooling agent on board. Even in dry dock shore connections
are made with the system.
3. Very stable and non toxic.
4. High expansion ratio – water : steam = 1 : 1680
5. Water is the most efficient, as it possesses very good heat absorbing qualities. It has high specific heat and high
latent heat. Latent heat of steam at atmospheric pressure – 2256.7 kJ/Kg = 566.76 K.Cal / Kg
6. It takes 5 times as much heat for a quantity of water to be converted to steam, as to raise its temperature from
freezing point to boiling point
7. Absorbing power of water is much greater than other fire extinguishing media.
8. Due to its penetrating effect water jet should be used to extinguish a fire in solid materials. The jet should be
aimed at the burning material and not against smoke or flames.
9. Water spray and water fog may be used effectively against oil fires and for making a screen between the fire
fighter and the fire
10. A wetting agent may be added to water when it is used on tightly packed combustible materials. This has the
effect of lowering its surface tension and thus increasing its effective penetration
11. Burnt or injured persons are protected from further injury.
Another advantage of water spray as an extinguishing medium is that associated with the saving of life. Abandon the
space may not require. Water spray is especially suited for cooling burning materials, however, water spray
has a short reach and is less capable of penetrating into burning solid materials. When using water spray for
extinguishing a fire the quantity of water may be reduced considerably. Water spray can be used as a
protection against the heat while advancing towards a fire and is perfect for cooling large areas. In an
enclosed space a water spray has its greatest effect when aimed at the hottest spot in the room.
Disadvantage
 Use of water in oil fire :- Most flammable liquid are lighter than water. Some of them( H.O. ) having boiling point
much higher than water. Water in jet form will enter the oil and flash into steam with high expansion ratio
throwing burning oil into air. So a water jet, although excellent for fighting fires involving combustible
materials, should not be used on burning oil or on burning cooking oil or fat in galleys, because of the danger
of spreading the fire. Therefore direct cooling of Crude, Petrol etc. is not possible. So, water spray may be
used provided,
- Oil has not been burning too long.
- Flash point of the oil is not too low.
- It would not cause the oil to flow elsewhere.

 High surface tension stops water penetrating bales, mattress etc.

 Conducts electricity (especially salt water ) Owing to the danger of electrical shock, water should not be directed
towards any electrical equipment.
 Reacts with some materials.
 It should be noted that when large amount of water is used for fire-fighting it may have a fatal influence on the
ship’s stability.
 Water may aggravate fire if used on cargo, which emit flammable gases when wet’
B) Carbon Dioxide
1. Colourless, odourless, non flammable & Non-corrosive
2. It is quick, clean non-conductor of electricity, does not harm most of the different cargo as it does not leave any
residue. So, it is suitable for most fire including electrical fire (except those liberate oxygen whilst burning).
It does not damage delicate machinery and instruments and can be safely used on or around electrical
equipment
3. It is about 1.5 times heavier than air.
4. It can be stored for long periods and is easily available
5. It can be easily be liquefied and bottled normally under pressure approximately 150-200 bar in a steel cylinder
6. Carbon dioxide is an excellent smothering agent for extinguishing fires. When used on fire, the liquid carbon
dioxide (CO2) boils off rapidly into CO2 gas taking away some heat. The gas extinguishes by smothering or
reducing oxygen (O2) At normal temperature and pressure, the expansion ratio of CO2 from liquid to gas is
450. When used as a fire agent the CO2 will displace the air and thus smother the fire.
7. This rapid expansion into gas form produces a refrigerating effect. The characteristic appearance of discharging
CO2 is that of a cloud of snow. This snow rapidly sublimes into gas, absorbing heat from surrounding
atmosphere. (But it has a very limited cooling effect.)
8. CO2 is suitable for extinguishing minor fires in flammable liquids and is very suitable for extinguishing fire in
electrical installation and plants as CO2 is not electrical conductive.
9. CO2 has ability to penetrate in a three dimension action into inaccessible spaces.CO2 is very effective in enclosed
areas such as machinery spaces, pump rooms and electrical switch rooms where it can penetrate into places
that can not be reached by other means.

Disadvantage
 Due to the possibility of static electricity generation, and the solid particles in the cloud of CO2 may become
electrostatically charged. CO2 should not be injected into any space or tank containing a flammable
atmosphere of gases which is not on fire. So, CO2may be used as a fire extinguishing medium but never as a
fire prevention medium where a flammable atmosphere may exist.
 Before releasing CO2 into the space, it must be ensured that no human beings are present in the space
Toxic - CO2 is highly asphyxiating and cannot be detected by sight or smell. About 9% concentration causes
unconsciousness. No one should enter confined or partially confined spaces when CO2 extinguishers have
been used unless supervised and protected by suitable breathing apparatus and lifeline. Any compartment,
which has been flooded with CO2 must be fully ventilated before entry without breathing apparatus (when
inhaled can cause dizziness with headache and irritation of the eyes), does not deteriorate and does not
damage. (Nontoxic at low concentration, but high concentration of CO2 necessary for fire extinguishments,
which makes lethal to human occupant.)
The release of CO2 into an enclosed space will “build up” from the bottom and thereby induce a shortage of oxygen,
which depending of the concentration is dangerous to people.

Note - The following table should be considered as a guideline:

 Relatively low latent heat.

 Deep seated fires involving fibrous material such as jute, cotton etc., are quite unlikely to be final extinguished by
CO2or any other smothering gases. Such fire will continue to smoulder and may re-ignite.
 Its vapour pressure is approx. 40 bar at 00 C, hence if it is liquid at ambient temperature its pressure must be
greater than 40 bar. The CO2 cylinders are heavy and there is a problem of maintenance.
 Recharging of C02 bottles in port causes expensive delay and cost.
 Further use of CO2need recharging. Any mechanical failure prevents their proper actuation. Even any leakages
may cause failure of system.
 C02 can be liquefied by cooling to –780C , or applying pressure to approx. 50 kg / sq.cm, but it becomes a gas at
room temperature.
C ) Foam
Foam is produced by the combination of three materials:
• Water
• Air
• Foam making agent
Foam is formed by first mixing the foam-making agent (foam concentrate) with water to create a foam solution. The
actual foam bubbles are created by introducing air into the foam solution through an appropriate aerating
device. The correctly chosen foam concentrate, when properly proportioned with water and expanded with
air through an application device, will form finished foam. Two of the most common concentrations are 3%
and 6% foams. (if 3% concentrate is used, three (3) parts of concentrate with 97 parts of water; & for 6%
concentrate is used, six (6) parts of concentrate with 94 parts of water).
Extinguishing Effects of Foam -Foam is an aggravation of small bubbles and thus becomes lighter than oil or water,
which flows across the surface of a burning liquid and forms a smothering blanket. The blanket prevents
flammable vapors from leaving the surface and prevents oxygen from reaching the fuel. In addition, the water in
the foam also has a cooling effect.
Foam is a mixture of three components: foam compound, water, and air. Depending on the quantity of air foam is
categorised by its expansion ratio ranging from 0 to 2000
Low Expansion Foam: Heavy foam - has an expansion ratio up to 20:1; usually ranging between 5:1 to 15:1. Low
expansion foams are with an expansion ratio of 12:1 are mostly used and are effective in controlling and
extinguishing most flammable liquid (Class “B”) fires. This type finds its uses in ships for the protection of cargo
deck area of oil and chemical tankers, also used on oil spill fires or small fires in engine room platforms, bilges,
galleys, decks.. Foams typically used on tanker deck foam systems are of the low expansion foam type.
Medium Expansion Foam: has an expansion ratio between 20:1 to 500:1; usually ranging between 75:1 and 150:1.
This is produced by self-aspirating branch pipes or supplied pre-mixed from a foam control station, but the
nozzle has specially enlarged outlets with nets allowing more expansion to take place. It finds very little
application for shipboard operations. It is not suitable for open spaces.
Mid Low Expansion Foams - Mid expansion foams refer to those foams with an expansion ratio of between about
20:1 to 100:1. Few applications of mid expansion foams are found in shipboard applications.
High Expansion Foam: has an expansion ratio between 500:1 to 1500:1. This is produced by foam generators with
air fans, nets and ducts. It finds application in shore-based industry and rarely on board ships.

Advantage
smothering effect- Foam is a very effective smothering agent. Foam is a toughed skinned / strong durable skinned
bubbles, sometimes containing CO2 which would covers the surface and prevent the supply of air.
Cooling it provides cooling as a secondary effect - It also reduces the surface temperature of the liquid by absorbing
some heat. Water content of the foam converted to steam, this provides cooling action.It will also reduce the
surface temperature of the liquid by the absorption of heat, although the heat absorbing effect is limited.
Foam is effective in blanketing oil spills. Due to its low viscosity, the ability of the foam blanket to spread across a fuel
surface or around any object in order to achieve complete extinguishment. Therefore foam is suitable for
extinguishing fires in flammable liquids, fatty substances etc. (e.g. fires in oil) as it flows across the surface of
a burning liquid and forms a coherent smothering blanket
Heat Resistance-Foam extinguishes oil fires by providing a heat radiation blanket from the flame burning above the
oil and this cuts of supply of fuel to the fire. The foam is able to resist the destructive effects of heat radiated
from burning material.
Fuel Resistance. Foam is most suitable for fighting fire of flammable liquids. It does not mix with fuel.
Vapor Suppression-Foam sets up a vapor barrier that prevents flammable vapors from rising. A layer of small bubbles
formed on the surface of the burning liquids prevents fuel from vapourising and restricting oxygen supply.
It is capable of suppressing the flammable vapors to break the fuel-oxygen-heat fire triangle.
Foam is effective only in the horizontal plane. The foam have good cohesion properties to maintain the blanket affect,
at the same time not be so viscous to prevent the foam to flow over the area and form a self-supporting
blanket.
Foam is of some use on Class “A” fires because of its water content. AFFF is especially effective, as are certain types
of wet-water foam.
Foam can be made with fresh water or seawater, and hard or soft water.
Foam uses water economically.
Foam concentrates are not heavy, and foam systems do not take up much space.

Disadvantage
Foam compound is expensive and because it deteriorates, it need replacement over a period of time. Therefore the
foam should be replaced after about 2 years or as recommended by the makers.
Foam system are difficult to test so that there is little guarantee that the installation will function properly when
required.
In case of bulk foam system, formation of sludge in the tank is a problem.
Like water, foams should not be used on combustible-metal fires.
Foams are not suitable for fires involving gases and cryogenic (extremely low temperature) liquids.
Conductor of electricity; Foam should not come in contact with any electrical equipment.
Once the space has been filled with foam great difficulty would be experience in having it cleared.
Restricted to horizontal plane use only. Normally the practice is to lay a blanket of Foam 15 cm deep . But fire in the
fuel pipe lines, steam pipes, exhaust manifold, electric motors, etc are higher up in the space. So, very few of
this could have been controlled by means of the fixed foam system.
A foam jet is most effective when directed against a bulkhead, the side of an engine or the like, from where the foam
can slide down and spread over the burning surface. If the jet is aimed directly at the burning surface it will
be considerably more difficult to achieve an effective foam blanket and there will even be a risk of spreading
the fire from squirting burning liquids.
A person lying injured in the foam would be killed by suffocation(can experience disorientation, and other
psychological and physical discomforts ). Foam produces unnatural atmosphere of total silence and nil
visibility. Any person in its midst of it may loose all sense of direction. Even person who are wearing
breathing apparatus would find it very difficult to escape from a foam filled engine room.
It is essential when using foam to ensure that there is a sufficient supply of foam solution available to maintain the
adequate rate of discharge to control fire (mainly for tanker fire) . If the supply is interrupted or otherwise
inadequate the heat will breakdown the foam blanket and the fire will burn back.
High expansion foam is unsuitable for use in outside locations as it cannot be directed readily on a fire and may be
dispersed easily even by light winds. This foam is extremely light and will be blown away by air movement,
hence its use is restricted to enclosed spaces
Many types of foam must not be used with dry chemical extinguishing agents. AFFF is an exception to this rule and
may be used in a joint attack with dry chemical.

SLOP OVER AND BOIL OVER

If foam is placed on burning liquids (like asphalts) whose temperatures exceed 100°C (212°F), the water content of
the foam may cause frothing, spattering or slop over. Slop over is different from boil over, although the terms
are frequently confused. Boil over occurs when the heat from a fire in a tank travels down to the bottom of
the tank and causes water that is already there to boil and push part of the tank’s contents over the side.
Certain oils with a high water content, such as crude oil, have a notorious reputation for boil over. Slop-over
occurs when foam, introduced into a tank of hot oil [surface temperature over 100°C (212°F)] sheds its water
content due to the high heat. The water forms an emulsion of steam, air and the foam itself. The forming of
the emulsion is accompanied by a corresponding increase in volume. Since tanks are three dimensional, the
only place for the emulsion to go is over the sides of open tanks or into the vents of enclosed tanks.

D ) Dry powder
On board vessels only one type of powder is used, the ABC-powder. A, B and C refer to the fact that this powder is
suitable for extinguishing:
- Class A-fires
- Class B-fires
- Class C-fires
- Powder charge usually Sodium bicarbonate, Potassium bicarbonate, Ammonium Phosphate etc., depending
on the class of fire, being blown out of the extinguisher through a hose having a controlled nozzle.

Advantage
Dry Chemical Powder, or simply called dry powder, is a flame inhibitor. It is especially effective against fire in
liquefied gases or oil.
Dry chemical powder is a non-conducting agent and as such also suitable for extinguishing electrical fires, though
there is a risk of damage to the electrical installation due to the powders abrasive nature.
The powder is non-toxic, non-abrasive
A non-conductor of electricity
Frost proof down to –500C.
Is not toxic but may cause irritation if inhaled

It is effective on burning liquids such as liquefied gas, or oil escaping liquid lines, joints, and on vertical surfaces, i.e.,
diesel equipment lines. These are very good in petrol & spirit fire. Dry powder interferes with the
complicated reaction chain in which the energy for molecular breakdown spreads through the vapours. Dry
powder effectively break the chain reaction by attacking the structure of the active chemical species and
killing the reaction in seconds. Dry chemical (and other agents such as the halogen) attacks this chain of
reactions. It does so by reducing the ability of the molecular fragments to recombine and form additional
radicals. It also combines with the fragments of fuel and oxygen molecules so that the fuel cannot be oxidized.
Although the process is not completely understood, chain breaking is the most effective extinguishing action
of dry chemical.

It is most effective in dealing with afire resulting from an oil spill on the deck but can also be used in confined spaces.
It is especially useful on burning liquids escaping from leaking pipelines and joints and vertical surface like
diesel equipment fires
The action of Dry powder commences by blanketing the fire in a cloud thereby excluding the air. There are some
other type of dry powder i.e., Potassium compound like, Potassium chloride, Potassium bicarbonate,
available whose action is to coagulate on the surface of the burning material thus preventing the release of
vapour. This type suitable for A or B class fire is termed ‘universal’ though they are more expensive.
Dry powder extinguishes fire mainly by inhibition, but by a smothering effect, as the powder melts on the surface of
the burning substance, which thereby insulate the oxygen. The bicarbonate powder will, due to heat from
fire (if not enough ) decompose to form Sodium carbonate, water and CO2. This CO2 should further assist in
smothering the fire, though it has very little effect on fire.
For gas fires, when dry chemical reacts with the heat and burning material, some carbon dioxide and water vapor
are produced. These dilute the fuel vapors and the air surrounding the fire. The result is a limited smothering
effect.
Certain powders like combination of sodium, potassium and barium chlorides can be effectively used for metal fire.
Here the powder form the crust over the metal, by the action of heat on the powder and thereby excluding
oxygen thus smothering the fire.
Shielding of Radiant Heat - Dry chemical produces an opaque cloud in the combustion area. This cloud reduces the
amount of heat that is radiated back to the heart of the fire, i.e., the opaque cloud absorbs some of the
radiation feedback that is required to sustain the fire. Less fuel vapor is produced, and the fire becomes less
intense.
Dry chemical powder is discharged from an extinguisher under pressure or can be injected by the release of gas
under pressure

Disadvantage –
Powder has no cooling effect and it should be noted re-ignition caused by heat radiation is likely unless the surface
is cooled by water.
Dry powder will clog and become use less if it is allowed become damp when stored or when extinguishers are being
filled. Magnesium Stearate is added to prevent the powder from caking / compacting.
Its disadvantage is lack of cooling effect. It has a negligible cooling effect and affords no protection against re-ignition
due to presence of hot metal surfaces
It is non-conductor and therefore suitable for dealing with electrical fires but can cause some damage to electrical
machinery and is not safe if voltage is more than 1000 volts. It must be directed into the flames in
concentrated clouds by specially made nozzles; the cloud screens the operator from the flames and enables
a relatively close attack

Halons
The supply of new halon extinguishers and system is prohibited. As a substitute CO2 or various alternatives
may be installed. The alternatives may be:
Halocarbons (e.g. FM200 or FE13). These gases, which are non-conductive, extinguish a fire through an inhibitor
effect by breaking the chemical chain reaction. The volume needed is about twice that of halon 1301.
Inert Gases (e.g. Argon). The volume needed to extinguish a fire is nearly ten times that of halon 1301.
The term Halo carbons covers a wide range of halogenated hydrocarbons (i.e, one molecule of hydrocarbon contain
halogen- Cl, Br, I, F ) of which following two had been accepted for ship’s use.
a) Bromochlorodifluromethane ( CBrClF2 ) – known as BCF or Halon 1211
b) Bromotrifluoromethane ( CBrF3 ) – known as BTM or Halon 1301
Characteristics of both somewhat similar, BCF is slightly preferable.

BCF
- Colourless, odourless, high density and low boiling point.
- High electric resistance.
- Its vapour pressure is about 1.2 bar at 0 0C. Hence containers of BCF are slightly pressurized, therefore light and
portable.
- Higher latent heat than CO2 . So, it has a better cooling effect.
- Better throw characteristics than CO2.
- It extinguishes ( not by smothering like CO2 ) fire by breaking the chain, i.e, it acts as a ‘Negative catalyst’ and
extinguish a flame in milliseconds.
- BCF is less toxic and 40 % more effective by weight than CO2. This means less storage space and only 5 – 5.5 %
saturation of compartment is requirement.
- Stored in a compartment away from the protected place and stored like CO2 bottles. As storage pressure is very
low this liquid is further pressurized by CO2 or Nitrogen for rapid discharge. They have to be discharged very
quickly ( in fixed insulation about 20 secs max. )
- Expensive and difficult to obtain.
- When BCF is in contact with flame or burning substances the gases and vapours produced ( hydrogen fluoride and
hydrogen bromide ) at 510 0 C are toxic and irritate the eyes.
- Halons are not suitable for deep seated smothering fires. Hence for large spaces and holds will remain the mist
popular.
- As only 5 % of the volume of the space filled with Halon, this amount is not harmful to personal for upto 5 mins
provided breakdown of gas does not occur.
- Halons are to be phased out due to their ozone layer depletion effect ( no new installation after 1992 ).

F ) Steam
 Steam smothering is not very satisfactory or efficient method of extinguishing a fire because the vapour condenses
on cool surfaces and easily dispersed by a draft of air. Not used in open spaces.
 Use of steam be positively dangerous in certain circumstances and in respect of explosives, the use of steam is
statutorily banned.
 Very limited cooling effect
 Water droplets issuing at high velocity in a jet of steam may become charged in passing through a nozzle and
could produce a charged mist. For this reason steam should not be injected into a tank or piping system
which contains a flammable mixture.
 Its higher temperature makes the control of smoldering fires somewhat protected.
 It is not easily available and large quantities are necessary.
 Once applied steam must be maintained or a partial vacuum may be formed if starts to condense.
 Use of steam in fixed fire extinguishing system not permitted by administration. If permitted by the
administration, it shall be used only in restricted areas as an addition to the required fire fighting medium
and with the provision that the boiler / boilers shall have an evaporated rate of at least 1.0 kg per hour for
each 0.75 m3 of the gross volume of the largest space so protected.

G) Sand / Asbestos blanket

Fire Extinguishing Agents – Sand
Sand is suitable to extinguish small fires in flammable liquid spillage and for preventing spillage from spreading over
a larger area. Dry sand may be used to extinguish fires in carbide.
 It serves as a blanket so excluding the oxygen.
 Used for small fires
 Sand can be used in some metal fire.
1. Sand is poor fire extinguishing agent and is useful on small fires on hard surfaces. Its basic use is to dry up small
spills. Dry sand is effective on some metal fires as a smothering agent.
2. Dry sand can also be used to prevent burning liquids like paints and oils from flowing down drains and for
confining shallow layers of such liquids
Sand must never be used for extinguishing fire in machinery spaces such as electric motors as their use will
necessitate dismantling the entire machinery for cleaning even though the fire damage may be negligible

1.8 COMBUSTION PRODUCTS & THEIR EFFECTS ON LIFE SAFETY

EFFECT OF COMBUSTION PRODUCTS ON HUMAN BODY

Effect of oxygen concentration on human body :-

Oxygen content The effect on human body

19 % Minimum O2 content (by mine safety law)
16 % Fire goes out
15 % Breather and pulse beats faster
11 % Hard to breath and action becomes sluggish
10 % Complexion becomes pale, unable to move, hard to breathe
07 % Starts panting, pulse beats severely fast, complexion becoming gray, mental derangement
06 % No reaction in muscles, lose consciousness
below 04 % Fall down in a faint in 40 secs without any sign.

Effect of Carbon di-oxide on human body :-

Allowable concentration 5000 ppm, 9000 mg/m3
The CO2 content Effect
UPTO 2% NO EFFECTS
2% Heavier breathing – increase of respiration
3% Respiration is increased by 100 % , Breathing is deeper and slight headache may
occur,
5% Headache and increased secretion of sweat, Breathing is serious, with sweating
and bad headache,
6 to 8 % Staying longer than half an hour is dangerous
8 to 10 % Stay is highly dangerous
Severe headache and breathlessness develops rapidly, perhaps with ringing in the
ear, dim vision, unconsciousness and death follow if exposure continues.
10 to 20 % Unconsciousness
20 to 25 % Instantly lifeless

Effect of Carbon mono-oxide on human body :-

- Allowable concentration 50 ppm, 55 mg/m3
- There is a great affinity between CO & hemoglobin than O2 & Hemoglobin.
- If a person remains in atmosphere containing CO, it is progressively absorbed into the blood to the
exclusion of O2, and O2 can no longer be carried to the brain, 4 mins without O2 and brain cells begin to die.
Effect of Sulphur di-oxide on human body :-
- Allowable concentration 5 ppm, 13 mg/m3
- When inhaled gets poisoned.
Effect of Nitrogen on human body :-
- The gas itself is not poisonous, but Nitrogen gas may drive away the air in the atmosphere and conditions caused
by lack of O2 may occur.
Effect of Hydro carbon on human body :-
Hydrocarbon liquid - Tissue damage and frost bite on eyes and skin
Hydrocarbon vapour – Asphyxiation in high concentration, headache, dizziness, drowsiness
Effect of Helium on human body :-
- Not poisonous specially