TRANSPORT IN VASCULAR PLANTS
● Plant: “sponge”
● Essential components:
○ Minerals
○ O2
○ H2O
→ these are absorbed from the soil via root
hairs
Long Distance Transport through Xylem
● Xylem sap travels from roots to top of plants
through the tracheids and vessel elements of the
xylem3
● Root pressure can push up sap up a few meters
● Long distance transport of sap is explained by
the transpiration-cohesion-tension mechanism
Tension Cohesion Model
● Water vapor transpires from the surfaces of leaf
mesophyll cells to the drier atmosphere through
the stomata. This produces tension that pulls
water out of leaf xylem toward mesophyll cells
● Cohesion of water molecules caused by
hydrogen bonding allows unbroken columns of
water to be pulled up narrow vessels and
tracheids of stem xylem
● Pulls water up to the root xylem, forming a
continuous column of water from root xylem to
stem xylem
Transpiration Stream
● Water movement from soil to leaves to the
atmosphere
● Maintained by the ​water potential gradient
○ The more negative the value (mP), the
drier the water is; less water molecules
● Flow: Soil > root hairs > epidermis (roots) >
cortex (roots) > through the endodermis >
pericycle > xylem (root) > xylem (stem) > xylem
(leaves) > environment
*Transpiration is driven by the imbalance of solute
concentration of soil and atmosphere; there is less
solute in soil, and so water flows up to where there is
higher solute concentration
*Rain slows down transpiration
Types of Transpiration
1. Stomatal - most common
● Leaves and herbaceous stems
● Controlled by guard cells
○ Turgidity of guard cells is controlled by
movement of H2O and K+
○ Guard cells actively take up K causing
water to enter by osmosis; the guard cells’
walls are unevenly thickened causing cells
to bow as they become turgid
2. Lenticular
● Woody stems
3. Cuticular
● Surface of leaves and herbaceous stems
*Most transpiration occurs through the stems
Potassium enters plants because of…
● Carbon dioxide
○ Scarcity of CO2 causes opening of
stomata, allowing K+ to enter and guard
cells will become turgid
● Light
○ Stomata need to work when there is
light
○ Blue light will open the stomates and
potassium ions will enter
*in intense temperatures, stomata close, preventing the
entrance of CO2, and in turn, K+ and H2O
*herbaceous plants contain more water, and in turn lose
more water
Stomatal vs Cuticular Transpiration
● Herbaceous stems have a lot more water
compared to the woody stems
● Woody plants obtain nutrients from the
environment
Measurement of Transpiration
● Putting leaves inside a plastic bag (most
practical)
● Potometer
Benefits from Transpiration
● Mineral transport
○ Minerals are dissolved in water which is
transported throughout the plant
● Maintains optimum turgidity
● Removes large amounts of heat from leaves
● Energy exchange in the plant
Factors Affecting Rate of Transpiration
1. Root:Shoot ratio
- More roots than shoots: more
absorption, therefore higher
transpiration
2. Leaf Area
- Bigger leaf area, higher transpiration
3. Light intensity
- Cell membrane becomes more
permeable; higher light intensity, higher
transpiration
4. Humidity (Relative Humidity)
- Lower relative humidity, higher rate of
transpiration; Less water in the
 atmosphere so more spaces to fill up
- Absolute humidity – total vapor the
atmosphere can hold
- Relative humidity (rain due to too much
water vapor inside it) – in specific
durations and time only
5. Temperature
- 0°C, low transpiration
- Up to 30°C, higher transpiration
6. Wind-cooling effect
- Lower transpiration in higher velocities
which lowers temperature; closing the
stomates
- Summer days - high transpiration rate
initially, but beyond 30°C, stomates
close
7. Availability of soil water
● A shoot had its leaves removed but was
not ringed → grew 270mm
● A shoot was ringed and defoliated →
grew 5mm
- This confirms that assimilatory products move
primarily via phloem
FLOWERS
● Only found in ​angiosperms
○ “Angio” → exposed
● Sexual reproductive organs of angiosperms
*seeds in angiosperms are enclosed in the ovary
Flower Parts

Transport through Phloem

● Phloem transports sugars; organic substances
Pressure Flow Hypothesis
● Active transport (needs ATP)
● In leaves, companion cells actively load sugars
into sieve-tube elements
● Water flows osmotically
● The increase in pressure forces the fluid through
the sieve tube toward the root
● At the roots, sugar is actively/passively ● Receptacle - common structure where other
transported parts are attached
*Never goes against gravity since it is along the ● Floral whorls​:
gravitational pull Accessory Parts
○ Sepal → callyx
Translocation ○ Petal → corolla
● Transfer of Solutes Reproductive Structures
● Sources: active green parts, storages, organs ○ Stamen (Filament and anther)
● Sinks: active meristems, flowers, fruits, storage ○ Carpel (Stigma, style, or ovary)
organs when they are forming, living non-green
cells throughout the plant (no photosynthesis PERIANTH​ - petals and sepals
without the solutes)
Evidence
1. Girdling - removal of bark (living phloem), supply
is therefore cut; all sugars stop at the top half
2. Chemical analysis of phloem sap (N
compounds, sugars)
3. Insects (Aphids - plant suckers) - insert their
stylet only into the sieve tube elements
4. Growth requirements (Curtis, 1920)
● Perianth cycly - no. of whorls in perianth
● A leafy shoot was left intact with all its
○ Uniseriate → either no sepals, or no
leaves as control → grew 341mm
petals
● A leafy shoot was ringed at the base but
○ Biseriate → both sepals and petals are
otherwise left intact → grew 118mm
 present
● Perianth merosity - no. of parts present per
whorl; how many individual petals/sepals are ● Apocarpous
there? - all carpels are free
○ Pentamerous, tetramerous, etc.

May also be described as:

● Dichlamydeous - petals and sepals are very
distinct/ can be easily differentiated
● Homochlamydeous - petals and sepals look
similar, therefore called ​tepals
● Syncarpous - carpels are fused
Gynoecium ​- all female parts of a flower

Pistil Carpel

Ovary, stigma(s), Conduplicate

style(s) megasporophyll*

● Carpel can be a unit of pistil, if pistil is

compound (composed of one or more carpel)

Connation​: fusion of similar parts/floral parts from the

same whorl

Androecium ​- male parts of a flower

● conduplicate megasporophyll → “a folded leaf

containing female spores”
● Locule - space occupied by locules inside a
carpel

● Each lobe of an anther is called ​theca

○ Filamentous - filament which holds the
anther
■ Laminar - if it is leaf-like
○ Staminodia - sterile stamens/no fertile
pollen grains

Stamen Arrangement​ (All filamentous)

*The number of carpels can be counted by looking at the

number of ​placenta​/points where the ovules are attached
 1. Didynamous - inner taller pair, outer are shorter Floral Variations
2. Tetradynamous - four inner stamens which are 1. Floral whorls:
taller, and outer are shorter a. Complete - all four whorls are present
3. Didymous - all short b. Incomplete
2. Essential parts:
a. Perfect - both stamen and pistil present
Fusion (hermaphroditic)
b. Imperfect - either stamen or pistil is
absent
3. Symmetry

[this is an example of connation]

● Syngenesious - connate anthers, free filaments a. Radial symmetry - symmetry around a
● Diadelphous - one anther is separated, fused central axis
filaments i. Actinomorphic
● Monadelphous - connate anthers, fused b. Bilaterally symmetrical - north and
filaments south/east and west
Perianth Fusion i. Zygomorphic

Zygomorphic Flowers

● Aposepalous (polysepalous) - free sepals

● Apopetalous (Polypetalous) - free petals
● Sympetalous (Gamopetalous) - fused petals
● Synsepalous (Gamosepalous) - fused sepals

Adnation​: fusion of dissimilar whorls (ex. Fused petals ● Orchidaceous

and sepals) ○ three petals, three sepals (basically
three tepals)
● Papilionaceous - “butterfly”
○ Three petals (largest to smallest):
standard > wings > keel
● Caesalpinaceous
○ Three petals largest to smallest):
wings > standard > keel
● Bilabiate
○ Two-lipped
4. Nature of Corolla
a. Polypetalous - petals can be separated a. Axile - ovules are attached at axile angle
w/o disturbing others (e.g. roses) of ovary
b. Gamopetalous - forms a corolla tube b. Parietal - ovules are attached along the
(e.g. yellow bell) walls of the ovary
c. No petals c. Marginal - ovules are attached along
i. Bougainvillea (colored bracts) one side (beans)
ii. Powder puff (Filaments only; d. Laminar - ovules arise along the surface
colorful) rather than the margins (ex.
iii. Statice (Calyx are colored) watermelon)
*petals → attract pollinators e. Free central - ovules attached to the
5. Position of Ovary base of column; not attached to any
a. Superior parts of the ovary
b. Inferior f. Apical/pendulous - point of attachment
6. Insertion of Parts (with respect to the ovary) is the upper portion
g. Basal - point of attachment is at the
base (ex. mango)
a. Epigynous h. Apical (ex. avocado?)
- above the ovary 8. Inflorescence - a collection of aggregation of
flowers; boundaries defined by vegetative leaves
b. Hypogynous - below
below the ovary
Inflorescence Parts:
C. Perigynous - ● Peduncle - stalk of inflorescence
surrounding the ovary ● Inflorescence axes - branches of inflorescence
● Bract
○ Flower bract - subtends individual flower
○ Inflorescence bract - subtends entire
inflorescence or inflorescence axis
■ Involucre - group of
inflorescence bracts subtending
entire inflorescence
■ Spathe - specialized single
inflorescence bract that
7. Placentation Types subtends entire inflorescence

Inflorescence Position:
● Terminal - develops from apical meristem of
primary root or of an extended lateral branch;
with vegetative leaves
● Axillary - from the axillary bud

Inflorescence Development:
● Determinate - terminal flowers bloom first
● Indeterminate - basal flowers bloom first
 Specialized Inflorescences

1. Catkin/ament

2. Spadix

● Besides these indeterminate inflorescences,

there is a series of inflorescence types based on
determinate shoots ​(shoot cannot grow up
indefinitely)
○ e.g. ​dichasium
3. Hypanthodium 6. Head/Capitulum

4. Cyathium

Flower variations (F E N S P A P I)
1. Four whorls: complete/ incomplete
2. Essential parts: perfect/ imperfect
3. Nature of corolla: polypetalous (free petals)/
gamopetalous (fused petals)/ apetalous (no
petals)
4. Symmetry: actinomorphic/ zygomorphic
5. Position of ovary: superior/ inferior
6. Attachment of floral parts: epi- / hypo- /
perigynous
5. Spikelet 7. Placentation: marginal/ axile/ basal/ free central/
parietal
8. Inflorescence: solitary/ raceme/ cyme/ umbel/
corymb/ spike/ panicle/ catkin/ spadix/
composite