COGNITIVELY GUIDED INSTRUCTION & ITS IMPACT TO 6th GRADERS

LEARNING OF MATHEMATICS

Ms. Kim Arong1, Dr. Liza Lorena C. Jala2

Basic Education Department
University Research & Statistics Office

INTRODUCTION

Problem-solving is defined as the application of the concepts in mathematics which

aims to develop the analytical and creative thinking of the students. It also serves as the
basis for assessing the students understanding of the mathematical concepts taught to
them. Students possess the ability to solve simple to complex equations and word
problems. In this manner, their creativity and analytical thinking are being enhanced.

Since students have different levels of logical skills, their ability to solve word
problems also differs. There are some who manage to answer word problems easily but
others cannot. They need to analyze the word problems over and over again to come up
with a solution that will lead them to the correct answer.

Problem-solving enhances their higher-order thinking skills (HOTS). It also

conceptualizes mathematical concepts which make learning more meaningful and
exciting in the sense that it relates to students’ real-life scenarios. Every day students
have to deal with word problems however the correct way of solving it matters the most.

In formulating solutions, students should not be restricted to solve such in just one
procedural way. It is because word problems are intended to be answered in a variety of
ways since students have different mathematical thinking and understanding. In dealing
word problem, students should be allowed to engage in diverse solutions as long as it
suffices the word problems.

Students should be taught how to apply their learnings through solving word
problems rather than teaching them to solve tasks that require merely numerical
computations and memorization of facts and formulas to make learning more relevant
and meaningful. Consequently, there are still some students who find solving word
problem hellacious. Thus, educational programs were implemented to close the gap of
solving word problems.

Thus, this study was orchestrated to determine the impact of using the cognitively
guided instruction to the academic performance specifically in solving word problems in
mathematics among the sixth graders of the university.
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Literatures Cited
Cognitively Guided Instruction (CGI) is a professional program which aims to help
students who encountered difficulty in solving word problems. It models classrooms which
spend most of the time-solving word problems. It focuses on developing students’
mathematical thinking, the instruction that influences that development, and how
teacher’s mathematical knowledge and instructional practices influence the way they
perceive students’ logical skills (Carpenter and Fennema, 1989).

Thomas Carpenter and Elizabeth Fennema in the 1980s developed this program.
In this program, the students’ tasks are to provide representations and solutions to word
problems. Instead of the usual math classes requiring students to calculate values for
equations and rote memorizations of formulas, in CGI, students construct their
mathematical understanding of different concepts through applying it in solving word
problems. Students also collaborate with peers to assess individual’s mathematical
knowledge by asking questions and justifying their solutions and answers. Thus their
higher-level thinking in mathematics in either computational or problem solving are
enhanced (Carpenter and Fennema, 1992).

Cognitively Guided Instruction (CGI) pointed out that students already possessed
a great deal of informal, intuitive knowledge of mathematics. This knowledge served as
the foundation of their mathematical understanding. The teacher’s role is on mere
facilitating and guiding their logical thinking in finding multiple solutions to word problems.
Since there are various techniques for solving word problems and it varies from one
mathematical word problem to the other, students’ logical skills are deepened and
sharpened (Carpenter, 2003).

Solving word problem has been an essential part of mathematics; teachers’

guidance and assistance are required to make the learners successful in solving word
problems. Lev Vygotsky termed this as scaffolding, which means the support that is given
during the learning process, which fits the needs of the student with the intention of
helping the student achieve his/ her learning goals thus promote a deeper level of
learning. (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_scaffolding).

Vygotsky pointed out that knowledge is not merely handed-on nor discovered by
the students, but rather, a part of a process of co-construction. He suggested that
teachers should assess students’ capabilities both when performing alone and when
doing tasks with assistance. In this sense, a comparison of student’s success in
accomplishing specific tasks was found out. Students who collaborate with each other
and who were provided with the assistance needed through scaffolding perform more
difficult tasks compared to those who were doing it by themselves. Doing so also
promotes a deeper level of learning (Vygotsky, 1962).

Since Vygotsky stresses out the co-construction process of learning, in his theory;
he emphasized the fundamental role of social interaction in the process of children’s
cognitive development. Through collaboration and cooperation, learning first occur
interpersonal level and it will be internalized as intrapersonal through reflective thinking.
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He also believed that scaffolding between an adult and a child in the ZPD (an essential
principle of Vygotsky’s theory which refers to task a child can perform with the help and
guidance of adults but cannot achieve it independently) may enhance higher order
thinking skills and beneficial for children’s independent problem solving in the future
(Vygotsky, 1978).

In addendum, solving word problems requires analysis and higher cognition

activities. Aaron T. Beck explained cognition, emotion and behavior interrelationship in
his Cognitive Behavioral Theory. He pointed out that how a person thinks (perception)
affects the emotion and behavior towards the different stimulus. Moreover, this theory
aims to change the person’s irrational or faulty thinking and actions through educating the
person and reinforcing positive experiences that will eventually lead to fundamental
changes in the way a person copes especially if facing problems (Beck, 1960).

Further, Beck (1967) pointed out that one’s thoughts determine one's feelings and
behaviors, however; most students have negative views towards mathematics explicitly
solving word problems. The more they dread the subject- the more they exercise faulty
thinking. These negative and unrealistic thoughts cause distress resulting in the difficulty
of understanding, analyzing and applying a particular solution to word problems given.
This theory helps students to develop alternative ways of thinking to reduce psychological
distress.

Also, Beck contends that people with emotional difficulties tend to commit “logical
errors” that tilt objective reality in the direction of self-destruction. Cognitive Behavioral
Theory is the basis of cognitive therapy; it perceives that psychological problems are the
central area of faulty thinking thus incorrect inferences towards a question is made. This
distorted thinking incorporates difficulty in problem-solving methods.

Problem-solving is a necessary competency in a child’s mental health. The skills

developed through problem-solving activities is essential for children as they face
challenges of daily life activities and in the future, which will require logical skills for solving
a particular problem. It has been pointed out that approaching mathematics through
problem-solving can stimulate and justifies the essence of this subject in the real world.
In this sense, children are thought positive attitudes towards a specific problem (Beck,
1967).

Various mathematical programs were proposed and implemented by different

educators to lessen the difficulty of problem-solving and to let the students see the
practical role it serves in the society. Augmenting students’ interests in solving word
problems is a great help in enhancing their logical skills and applying the essence of
mathematics in their real-life activities rather than treating mathematics as an end in itself.

Research conducted found out that large groups of elementary students in the
United States were performing below grade-level in Mathematics. Thus, this study of
using Cognitive Guided Instruction (CGI)- based instruction was suggested to provide
below-grade-level students a lot of opportunities to engage themselves in solving word
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problems. It also will build conceptual understanding and critical thinking which will, later
on, play a crucial role in the future mathematical success of the students. Therefore,
instead of explicitly teaching isolated skills and procedural way of solving word problems,
educators must continue to provide challenging opportunities to solve severe word
problems and let students be led by their thinking (Munday, 2016).

The study conducted by Munday (2016) dealt with the effectiveness of cognitively
guided instruction practices in below grade-level elementary students. The results
showed that below-grade-level students were able to internalize and utilize new and
increasingly complex solution strategies after four weeks of CGI based math instruction.
The findings from field notes, work samples, and other articles, audio-recordings of
conversations between participants and the researcher, pretest and posttest were
collected throughout the study were obtained. These indicated that a CGI based
intervention is a practical approach for imploring below-grade-level students foundations
and understanding of mathematics. Their developed conceptual mathematical thinking
will significantly impact their numerical growth.

In a study conducted by Dixon (2015) dealt with the effect of teachers attending
cognitively guided instruction professional development on students’ problem-solving
strategies and the effect of students’ use of strategies on their mathematics achievement
showing a significant difference between students of CGI and non-CGI teachers.
Students under the CGI supervision were able to invent their approach and have the
better understanding of mathematical concepts as they own their plan towards solving
word problems compared to those who are with non-CGI teachers.

Berry and colleagues believed in their article “Nurturing Persistent Problem

Solvers" that teacher and students should dedicate a substantial portion of their time
presenting and solving problems since the heart of mathematics is solving word problems.
She pointed out that teachers must teach the students the attitude of perseverance upon
solving challenging word problems. In this condition, students will be able to identify and
apply strategies needed in solving word problems based on their learnings from
previously presented lessons and procedures.

Czocher and Moss stressed out that prior experiences in Mathematics fall into
three categories namely classroom experiences, general knowledge about the world and
personal lived experiences. As they study the processes in which students understand
and engage themselves in different problem-solving activities, they found out that due to
various life and classroom experiences it leads to clear but acceptable mathematical
solutions and models. Thus teachers must respond to different answers and build on prior
experiences to support their students in mathematical modeling. Teachers must value
students’ interpretations of the problem, scaffold student thinking by asking questions,
invite students to share and explain their mathematical models with the class and choose
modeling problems that do not constrain students’ mathematics to cater their logical
thinking skills.
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In a local study conducted by Calinawan (2013) which dealt with the performance
in problem-solving in grade four mathematics using Polya’s 4-step strategy among the
pupils of Alaska Elementary School, Mambaling, Cebu found that there is a significant
increase in the performance of the students. The action plan was undertaken to help
those struggling students specifically in problem-solving.

Moreover, Roble (2015) studied dealing with the pattern of problems solving and
performances among students in Grade 7 Mathematics in Daantabogon National High
School, Tabogon Cebu. He found out that majority of the students involved in the study
were the convergent type of thinkers. Thus, a shift in the teacher’s questioning strategies
from concurrent to the different style to enrich the students learning experiences
especially in solving mathematical problems to develop their critical thinking skills.

Objectives

This study determines whether the use of cognitively guided instruction impacts
the achievement in mathematics and problem solving of the Sixth graders. It further looks
into the pretest and posttest scores and check whether there is significant increase in the
posttest scores that ca be attributed to the CGI.

METHODOLOGY
Research Design
This study determines whether the use of cognitively guided instruction impacts
the sixth graders achievement in Mathematics and problem solving. There are only two
sections for the sixth grade, then the researchers employ a pretest-posttest without a
control group.

Research Environment
The study is conducted at a university located in the City of Mandaue. This
university has Basic Education Department and College Department.

Research Participants
The research participants are the sixth graders of the Basic Education Elementary
Department. The distribution of the profile of the participants of this study is shown on
Table 1:
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Table 1
Profile of Grade- Six Students

Basis Six-Respect Six-Patience

Age Frequen Percentage Frequen Percentage
cy (%) cy (%)
11 years old 11 28 12 32
12 years old 23 59 20 54
13 years old 4 10 4 10
14 years old 1 3 1 3
Total: 39 100 37 100
Gender
Girls 23 59 20 54
Boys 16 41 17 46
Total: 39 100 37 100
Second
Grading
Grade
70-75 2 5.40
76-80 12 30.77 14 37.84
81-85 9 23.08 11 29.73
86-90 6 15.38 7 18.92
91-95 9 23.08 3 8.11
96-100 3 7.69
Total: 39 100.00 37 100.00

Research Instruments
The researcher utilized teacher-made tests. The focus was on solving word
problems involving Basic Algebra. A pretest and posttest questionnaires were used
separately. The scores obtained from the word problem solving test were the recorded
and tabulated.

Dry Run Testing was conducted in the Basic Ed Department of the other campus
among the four sections of the said department. Pretest was conducted last January 09,
2018. Post test was conducted last February 28, 2018 around 9:45-10:45 for Grade Six-
Respect and 12:30-1:30, 2018 for Grade Six- Patience.

Research Procedures
Gathering of Data. The researchers send letters to the Basic Ed Department
Principal of the university requesting permission to conduct a study. Then a dry run testing
was conducted among four sections of Grade Six Pupils of the Basis Ed Department of
the main campus. After which, the academic achievement of the grade six pupils’
participants on solving word problems were assessed through lectures, individual and
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group activities involving solving algebra word problems dated January 10, 2018 to
February 27, 2018. Pretest and Posttest were conducted to assess their academic
achievements. Results were subjected to further presentation, tabulation, statistical
analysis and interpretation.

Treatment of Data:

The following statistical tools are used to summarize, analyze and interpret the
data from the participants:
The simple percentage was used to summarize the pretest and posttest
performances of the participants. The mean and standard deviation were used to
analyze further the pretest and posttest performances of the participants. The paired t-
test is used to determine the significance of the difference between the pretest and
posttest performances of the participants.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

As shown in Table 1, majority of the students aged twelve (12) years old. Thus,
their ages follow the normal age-level of grade six students. Nevertheless, there were
eight (8) students who aged thirteen (13) while two (2) students aged fourteen (14) years
old. Moreover, more than half of grade six student’s population were female. Thus, it
indicates that there are more female compared to male based on the census. As seen in
their second grading grade, it is very evident that more students were performing well in
Grade Six Respect due to number of students who got grades from 86-90, 91-95 which
sums as into fifteen (15) students and three (3) who excels in the class for attaining 96-
100 grades however there were twelve (12) students who got grades of 76-80. On the
other hand, half of the Grade Six-Patience was not performing well because two (2) of
them got grades 0f 70-75 and fourteen (14) got grade of 76-80. Nobody attained the
grades of 91 and above. This table had shown the difference of mathematical
achievement of the two sections.

Pretest Performances of the Participants

This section presents the pretest performances in solving word problems of both
Grade Six-Respect and Grade Six-Patience. Table 2 summarized the results.

Table 2
Pretest Performances in Problem Solving of the Participants

Pretest Scores Grade Six-Respect Grade Six-Patience Description

No. of Percentage No. of Percentage
Students Students
16-18 5 12.82 1 2.70 Good
11-14 16 41.03 12 32.43 Poor
10 and below 18 46.15 24 64.87 Very Poor
Total: 39 100.00 37 100.00
Mean 9.59 8.76
SD 4.76 3.84
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As shown in Table 2, the Grade six- Respect obtained a mean score of 9. 59 with
a standard deviation of 4.76, and majority of them (46.15%) got a score of 10 and below
out of 20 items interpreted as Very Poor. The passing score of 20 is 15. Based on the
scores, only 5 out of 39 students got the passing score in the pretest. The mean is lower
than the passing score and it implied a poor performance from the group. Though twenty-
one (21) students got scores of 11 and above, the mean value was still lower than the
passing score due to eighteen students (18) who got scores of 10 and below which affects
the mean value.

Item numbers 7,8,9,11,12,18 and 19 had difficulty index which ranges from 0.21-
0.40 which is interpreted as moderately difficult and item numbers 3,4,5,6 and 16 had a
difficulty index of 0.41-060 which is interpreted as difficult. In these items, students were
able to answer and were able to apply the following competency of defining a variable in
an algebraic expression and equation and finding the value of expressions and equations
in letters and symbols. However, tem numbers 1, 2, 10, 13, 14, 15, 17 and 20 had difficulty
index which ranges from 0.00-0.20 which implied that the Grade Six-Respect students
found the items Very Difficult. (Please see Appendix E). These items are composed of
concepts of fractions with competency of expressing one value as a fraction of another
given ratio; age problems with competency of finding the value of one variable when sum
is given in order to suffice the solution; and ratio with competencies of finding how many
times one value is as large as another and finding a missing term in a proportion.

On the other hand, the Grade Six- Patience obtained a mean score of 8.76 with
standard deviation of 3.84, and majority of them (64.87%) got a score of 10 and below
out of 20 items interpreted as Very Poor. Out of 37 students only 1 passed the pretest.
Item numbers 6,7,8,9,10,14,18 had obtained the difficulty index of 0.21-0.40 interpreted
as Moderately Difficult, while item numbers 4, 11,12,15 and 16 had difficulty index of
0.41-060 interpreted as Difficult. These items belonged to acceptable level of difficulty
index. In addition, these items having competency of defining a variable in an algebraic
expression and equation and finding the value of expressions and equations in letters
and symbols and most of the students show mastery on these items. Consequently, item
numbers 1, 2, 3, 5, 13, 17, 18, 19 and 20 had difficulty index which ranges from 0.00-0.20
which implied that the Grade Six-Respect students found the items Very Difficult.
(Please see Appendix E). These items are composed of concepts of fractions with
competency of expressing one value as a fraction of another given ratio ; age problems
with competency of finding the value of one variable when sum is given in order to suffice
the solution ;number problems with competencies of formulating the rule of finding the
nth term using different strategies such as looking for a pattern, guessing and checking
so as working backwards) ;and ratio with competencies of finding how many times one
value is as large as another and finding a missing term in a proportion.

It is evident that more items were difficult for Grade Six-Patience. Nevertheless,
grade six students’ poor performances in their pretest needed to be given an action thus
Cognitively Guided Instruction was used as a strategy in solving mathematical word
problems.
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Posttest Performances of the Participants

This section presents the posttest performances in solving word problems
of both Grade Six-Respect and Grade Six-Patience. Table 2 summarized the results.

Table 2
Posttest Performances in Problem Solving of the Participants

Posttest Grade Six-Respect Grade Six-Patience Description

Scores
No. of Percentage No. of Percentage
Students Students
19-20 5 12.82 3 8.11 Very Good
16-18 13 33.33 7 18.92 Good
15 2 5.13 4 10.81 Fair
11-14 10 25.64 12 32.43 Poor
10 and below 9 23.08 11 29.73 Very Poor
Total: 39 100.00 37 100.00
Mean 13.82 13.03
SD 4.48 4.09

As shown in Table 3, the Grade six- Respect obtained a mean score of 13.82
with a standard deviation of 4. 48, and majority of them (33.33%) got a score between 13
to 16 out of 20 items interpreted as Good. Based on the scores, twenty (20) students
pass the posttest. It is five more than half of those who passed their pretest. The mean
value increases from 9.59 to 13.82 which implied that the Cognitively Guided Instruction
impacts the grade six students. Only item number thirteen (13) obtained the lowest
difficulty level which is 0.23. This item together with item numbers, 1, 2, 7,8,9,
10,11,13,14,15,17,18,19 and 20 were interpreted as moderately difficult. While item
numbers 3, 4,5, 6, 12 and 16 had difficulty index which ranges from 0.41-0.60 interpreted
as difficult. All the items belong to acceptable level of difficulty index. Thus most of the
students were able to solve the word problems applying the cognitively guided instruction
in their posttest.

On the other hand, Grade Six- Patience obtained a mean score of 13.03 with
standard deviation of 4.0, and majority of them (32.43 %) got a score of 11-14 interpreted
as Poor. Though, it is still below the passing score but students from six-Patience showed
improvement in their mathematical achievement from Very Poor to Poor, with fourteen
(14) students who were able to pass the posttest. The increase of the mean value implied
an improvement in their scores. Some of the very difficult items during the posttest such
as item numbers 1, 3, 5 and 18 have fallen to acceptable difficulty index of 0.21-0.40
interpreted as moderately difficult thus most of the students got it right.

Based on the increase of score from their pretest to their posttest showed that the
use of Cognitively Guided Instruction helped the students in solving word problems.
Carpenter and colleagues (2015) found out that as teachers learned to better understand
the ways in which children’s mathematical thinking develops, their teaching pedagogies
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shifted ways that were reflected in students’ learning. In this manner, the deeper
conceptual understanding of students in mathematics was promoted.

Table 4
Tests of the Significance of the Differences Between the Pretest and Posttest
Performances of the Participants

Pretest vs p-value Level of Decision on Interpretation

Posttest Significance Ho
Sections
Grade 6-Respect 8.39 0.05 Reject Ho Significantly
different
Grade 6- Patience 4.05 0.05 Reject Ho Significantly
different

As shown in Table 4, the two sections (Grade Six- Respect and Patience) have
computed p-values of 8.39 and 4.05 respectively, greater than the level of significance
which is 0.05, this led to the rejection of the null hypothesis. It means that there is a
significant increase of the performances in the posttest results. The findings implied a
significant improvement in the scores of the pupils in the posttest. Hence, it also implied
that Cognitively Guided Instruction (CGI) impacts the mathematical achievement and
problem-solving skills of the grade six students. The significant increase implied good
performance and the need to encourage and incorporate the use of Cognitively Guided
Instruction (CGI) in solving word problem activities.

According to Carpenter et. al (1999) that if we want to give children the opportunity
to build their understanding from within, we need to understand how children think about
math. By this, they can assess their mathematical thinking accompanied with the teachers
’guidance to improve gradually. Thus, providing students opportunities of solving word
problems will allow them to exercise their higher order-thinking skills in arriving with
various solutions. Different strategies should be applied in mathematics rather than one
procedural way in order to make learning more relevant and meaningful.

Carpenter and Fennema (2003) found out that the conceptual understanding built
by children in their elementary school will provide them with a solid basis for extending
their knowledge of arithmetic in order to learn algebra. Carpenter pointed out that students
who learn to articulate and justify their own mathematical ideas, reason through their own
and others’ mathematical explanations and provide a rationale for their answers develop
a deeper understanding that will contribute to their mathematical success.

Vygotsky defined cognitively guided instruction (CGI) analysis as a scientific

research on the development of children’s mathematical thinking that provides a basis for
teachers how to interpret and reframe their thinking towards the mathematical thinking of
the students. Research conducted showed that CGI helped teachers to understand better
the different logical skills of the students and to create challenging word problems to
enhance their problems solving skills. Thus, Cognitively Guided Instruction should be
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implemented in Mathematics class to improve the abilities of the students in solving word
problems.

CONCLUSIONS

Cognitively Guided Instruction (CGI) impacts the achievement in mathematics and

problem solving of the grade six students. Students’ performances were improved when
they are given opportunities to solve word problems in multifarious ways instead of
following one procedural way taught by their teacher. Detailed procedural instruction
supports students in the short term but runs the risk of undermining students’
independence. Being explicit about mathematical practices that lead to effective problem
solving has the potential to increase equitable access to high-level learning about
complex mathematical word problem tasks. (Kress, 2017)

RECOMMENDATION
The following are the recommendations:
1. The proposed action plan be adapted on the Math-Tulungin
2. A similar and wider comparative study should be conducted involving private and
public schools.

REFERENCES

Books

Beck, A. (1979). Cognitive Therapy of Depression. New York: Guilford Press.

McDevitt, T., & Ormrod, J (2013). Child Development and Education, United States of
America: Pearson Education Inc.

Carpenter, T., Fennema, E., Franke, M.L., Levi, L. & Empson, S. (2015). Children’s
Mathematics Cognitively Guided Instruction (2nd Edition) Retrieved from
http:/assets.pearsonglobalschoos.com/assest mgr/pending/ Carpenter
SampleChapter.pdf.

Periodicals/ Journals

Berry, M., Davis, J., Kelley, P., and Snow, M. (2017). Nurturing Persistent Problem
Solvers. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Vol. 111 No. 3.

Czocher, J., and Moss, D. (2017). Mathematical Modeling: Are Prior Experiences
Important? National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Vol. 110 No. 9.
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Kress. N., (2017). 6 Essential Questions for Problem Solving. National Council of
Teachers of Mathematics. Vol. 110 No. 9.

Unpublished Materials

Calinawan, B. (2013). George Polya’s 4-Step Strategy in Grade Four Mathematics.

University of Cebu. Unpublished master’s thesis.

Roble, R. (2015). Patterns of Problem Solving and Performance Among Students in

Grade 7 Mathematics. University of Cebu. Unpublished master’s thesis.

Munday, K. (2016). Effectiveness of Cognitively Guided Instruction Practices in Below

Grade-level Elementary Students. University of St. Paul, Minnesota. Unpublished
master’s thesis.

Sahin, N. (2015). The Effect of Cognitively Guided Instruction on Students’ Problems

Solving Strategies and the Effect of Students’ Use of Strategies in Their Mathematics
Achievement. University of Central Florida Orlando. Unpublished doctor of philosophy’s
Thesis

Internet Sources

Carpenter, T.,and Fennema, E. Cognitively Guided Instruction : A Research-Based

Teacher Professional Develop Program for Elementary School Mathematics. Retrieved
on July 23, 2017 from http://ncisla.wceruw.org/publications/reports/RR00-3.PDF

Online Math Resource (undated). Cognitively Guided Instruction IOWA Department of

Education. Retrieved on July 20, 2017 from https:// www.educateiowa.gov/pk-
12/educator-quality/cognitively-guided-instruction-cgi