CHAPTER 1

COMPANY PROFILE

To carry on the business of providing quality technical education facilities to every student, to
develop professional skills that prepare them for immediate employment and for lifelong
learning in advanced areas of automobile and related field. To provide students with a sound
foundation in the automobile, scientific and engineering fundamentals necessary to formulate,
solve and analyses practical problems and to prepare them for training, to introduce them to
professional ethics and codes of professional practice. Encourage organizing and participation
of staff and students in-house and outside training programmers, seminars, conferences, and
workshop on continuous basis. Provide incentive and encouragement to motivate students to
actively involved in research innovative projects in collaboration with industry and R&D
center’s on continuous basis. Invite more number of students from industry from India and
abroad for collaboration and promote industry-institute internship. To provide training for
Designers, researchers, developers, manufacturers, assemblers, fabricate, modifiers, installers,
reconditions, dismantlers, repairers, operators, of all parts of automobile (like car, motor bike,
hybrid vehicle, truck ,other vehicles) to provide education for all type of engines, gears,
suspension, abs, navigation, hybrid cars and all automobile related sectors.

Baba Automobile Training Workshop is a Training company (Certified by Ministry of Micro

& Small & Medium Enterprises “MSME” and An ISO 9001 : 2015 certified company)
providing practical knowledge to engineering students and generating need of training in the
minds of students in the field of Mechanical, Automobile so that student can get good position
in the Industries. Our training workshop is well known for providing Practical education in the
advanced fields such as Automobile Training (Fully Assemble or disassemble the car by
student), I.C Engine Training (2-stroke, 4-stroke, 6-stroke single and multi-cylinder petrol and
diesel engine.), Car or Bike Modification Training, Go-kart Development training (Student
Formula-1 car generation), Space and Advanced Project Development Training, Car
Transformer Robot Training (First time in India). Currently, these are the hottest and largest
job-providing sector. Within reference to the same, we wish to start Training/Internship in
these fields. So Student is well placed in the market, but by getting professional training in the
courses like these, they definitely get an edge.
 CHAPTER 2

INTRODUCTION

Internal combustion engines are seen every day in automobiles, trucks, and buses. The name
internal combustion refers also to gas turbines except that the name is usually applied to
reciprocating internal combustion (I.C.) engines like the ones found in everyday automobiles.
There are basically two types of I.C. ignition engines, those which need a spark plug, and those
that rely on compression of fluid.

Spark ignition engines take a mixture of fuel and air, compress it, and ignite it using a spark plug.
The name `reciprocating' is given because of the motion that the crank mechanism goes through.
The piston cylinder engine is basically a crank-slider mechanism, where the slider is the piston in
this case. The piston is moved up and down by the rotary motion of the two arms or links. The
crankshaft rotates which makes the two links rotate. The piston is encapsulated within a
combustion chamber. The valves on top represent induction and exhaust valves necessary for the
intake of an air-fuel mixture and exhaust of chamber residuals. In a spark ignition engine a spark
plug is required to transfer an electrical discharge to ignite the mixture.

In compression ignition engines the mixture ignites at high temperatures and pressures. These
engines are high in power and fuel economy. Compression ignition engines take atmospheric air,
compress it to high pressure and temperature, at which time combustion occurs.

Engines are also divided into four stroke and two stroke engines. In four stroke engines the piston
accomplishes four distinct strokes for every two revolutions of the crankshaft. In a two stroke
engine there are two distinct strokes in one revolution.
2.1 IC ENGINE

In internal combustion engine, the combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder itself.

An internal combustion engine (ICE) is a heat engine where the combustion of a fuel occurs with
an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow
circuit. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure
gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component of the engine. The force is
applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, rotor or a nozzle. This force moves the component over
a distance, transforming chemical energy into useful mechanical energy.

2.2 IGNITION SYSTEM IN IC ENGINE

2.2.1 Spark Ignition (Carburetor Type) IC Engine

In this engine liquid fuel is atomised, vaporized and mixed with air in correct proportion before
being taken to the engine cylinder through the intake manifolds. The ignition of the mixture is
caused by an electric spark and is known as spark ignition.

Figure 1 IC Engine
2.2.2 Compression Ignition (Diesel Type) IC Engine

In this only the liquid fuel is injected in the cylinder under high pressure.Compression ignition
engines differ from spark ignition engines in a variety of ways but the most obvious one being
the way in which the air and fuel mixture is ignited. As stated above a spark plug is used to
create a spark in the combustion chamber which ignites the mixture. In a compression ignition
engine there is no spark to create the flame but rather high temperatures and pressures in the
combustion chamber cause a flame to initiate at different sites of the combustion chamber.
Combustion increases with increasing pressure and temperature.

Figure 2 Strokes

2.3 Four Stroke Cycle Engines

A four-stroke cycle engine is an internal combustion engine that utilizes four distinct piston strokes
(intake, compression, power, and exhaust) to complete one operating cycle. The piston make two
complete passes in the cylinder to complete one operating cycle. An operating cycle requires two
revolutions (720°) of the crankshaft. A four-stroke cycle engine completes five Strokes in one
operating cycle, including

• Intake

• Compression

• Ignition

• Power

• Exhaust Strokes.
2.3.1 Intake Stroke

The intake event is when the air-fuel mixture is introduced to fill the combustion chamber. The
intake event occurs when the piston moves from TDC to BDC and the intake valve is open. The
movement of the piston toward BDC creates a low pressure in the cylinder. Ambient atmospheric
pressure forces the air-fuel mixture through the open intake valve into the cylinder to fill the low
pressure area created by the piston movement. The cylinder continues to fill slightly past BDC as
the air-fuel mixture continues to flow by its own inertia while the piston begins to change direction.
The intake valve remains open a few degrees of crankshaft rotation after BDC.

Depending on engine design. The intake valve then closes and the air-fuel mixture is sealed
inside the cylinder.

2.3.2 Compression Stroke

The compression stroke is when the trapped air-fuel mixture is compressed inside the cylinder.
The combustion chamber is sealed to form the charge. The charge is the volume of compressed
air-fuel mixture trapped inside the combustion chamber ready for ignition. Compressing the air-
fuel mixture allows more energy to be released when the charge is ignited. Intake and exhaust
valves must be closed to ensure that the cylinder is sealed to provide compression. Compression is
the process of reducing or squeezing a charge from a large volume to a smaller volume in the
combustion chamber. The flywheel helps to maintain the momentum necessary to compress the
charge.

2.3.3 Ignition Event

The ignition (combustion) event occurs when the charge is ignited and rapidly oxidized through
a chemical reaction to release heat energy. Combustion is the rapid, oxidizing chemical reaction
in which a fuel chemically combines with oxygen in the atmosphere and releases energy in the
form of heat.
2.3.4 Power Stroke

The power stroke is an engine operation Stroke in which hot expanding gases force the piston head
away from the cylinder head. Piston force and subsequent motion are transferred through the
connecting rod to apply torque to the crankshaft. The torque applied initiates crankshaft rotation.
The amount of torque produced is determined by the pressure on the piston, the size of the piston,
and the throw of the engine. During the power Stroke, both valves are closed.

2.3.5 Exhaust Stroke

The exhaust stroke occurs when spent gases are expelled from the combustion chamber and
released to the atmosphere. The exhaust stroke is the final stroke and occurs when the exhaust
valve is open and the intake valve is closed. Piston movement evacuates exhaust gases to the
atmosphere.

2.4 CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES OF IC ENGINE

2.4.1 PISTON

The piston of an engine is the first part to begin movement and to transmit power to the crankshaft
as a result of the pressure and energy generated by the combustion of the fuel. The piston is closed
at one end and open on the other end to permit direct attachment of the connecting rod and its free
action. The materials used for pistons are grey cast iron, cast steel and aluminium alloy. However,
the modern trend is to use only aluminium alloy pistons in the tractor engine.

Figure 3 Piston
2.4.2 Piston Rings

These are made of cast iron on account of their ability to retain bearing qualities and elasticity
indefinitely. The primary function of the piston rings is to retain compression and at the same time
reduce the cylinder wall and piston wall contact area to a minimum, thus reducing friction losses
and excessive wear. The other important functions of piston rings are the control of the lubricating
oil, cylinder lubrication, and transmission of heat away from the piston and from the cylinder walls.
Piston rings are classed as compression rings and oil rings depending on their function and location
on the piston

Figure 4 Piston Rings

2.4.3 Spark plug

A spark plug (sometimes, in British English, a sparking plug,[1] and, colloquially, a plug) is a
device for delivering electric current from an ignition system to the combustion chamber of
a spark-ignition engine to ignite the compressed fuel/air mixture by an electric spark, while
containing combustion pressure within the engine. A spark plug has a metal threaded shell,
electrically isolated from a central electrode by a porcelain insulator. The central electrode, which
may contain a resistor, is connected by a heavily insulated wire to the output terminal of
an ignition coil or magneto. The spark plug's metal shell is screwed into the engine's cylinder
head and thus electrically grounded. The central electrode protrudes through the porcelain
insulator into the combustion chamber, forming one or more spark gaps between the inner end of
the central electrode and usually one or more protuberances or structures attached to the inner end
of the threaded shell and designated the side, earth, or ground electrode.
Spark plug is always placed 90° to the engine.

Figure 5 Spark Plug

2.4.4 Connecting Rod

This is the connection between the piston and crankshaft. The end connecting the piston is known
as small end and the other end is known as big end.

Figure 6 Connecting Rod

2.4.5 Crankshaft

This is connected to the piston through the connecting rod and converts the linear motion of the
piston into the rotational motion of the flywheel. The journals of the crankshaft are supported on
main bearings, housed in the crankcase. Counter-weights and the flywheel bolted to the crankshaft
help in the smooth running of the engine.
 Figure 7 Crankshaft

2.4.6 Valves

To allow the air to enter into the cylinder or the exhaust, gases to escape from the cylinder, valves
are provided, known as inlet and exhaust valves respectively. The valves are mounted either on
the cylinder head or on the cylinder block.

Figure 8 Valves

2.4.7 Camshaft

The valves are operated by the action of the camshaft, which has separate cams for the inlet, and
exhaust valves. The cam lifts the valve against the pressure of the spring and as soon as it changes
position the spring closes the valve. The cam gets drive through either the gear or sprocket and
chain system from the crankshaft. It rotates at half the speed of the camshaft.
 Figure 9 CAM Shaft

2.4.8 Flywheel

This is usually made of cast iron and its primary function is to maintain uniform engine speed by
carrying the crankshaft through the intervals when it is not receiving power from a piston. The size
of the flywheel varies with the number of cylinders and the type and size of the engine. It also
helps in balancing rotating masses.

Figure 10 Fly-wheel

2.4.9 Piston Cylinder

A cylinder is the central working part of a reciprocating engine or pump, the space in which
a piston travels. Multiple cylinders are commonly arranged side by side in a bank, or engine block,
which is typically cast from aluminum or cast iron before receiving precision machine work.
A cylinder's displacement, or swept volume, can be calculated by multiplying its cross-
sectional area (the square of half the bore by pi) by the distance the piston travels within the
cylinder (the stroke). A piston is seated inside each cylinder by several metal piston rings fitted
around its outside surface in machined grooves; typically two for compressional sealing and one
to seal the oil. The rings make near contact with the cylinder walls (sleeved or sleeveless), riding
on a thin layer of lubricating oil; essential to keep the engine from seizing and necessitating a
cylinder wall's durable surface.

Figure 11 Piston Cylinder

2.4.10 Electric starter

A starter (also selfstarter, self, or starter motor) is a device used to rotate an internal-combustion
engine so as to initiate the engine's operation under its own power. Starters can
be electric, pneumatic, or hydraulic. In the case of very large engines, the starter can even be
another internal-combustion engines.

Internal-combustion engines are feedback systems, which, once started, rely on the inertia from
each cycle to initiate the next cycle. In a four-stroke engine, the third stroke releases energy from
the fuel, powering the fourth (exhaust) stroke and also the first two (intake, compression) strokes
of the next cycle, as well as powering the engine's external load.

To start the first cycle at the beginning of any particular session, the first two strokes must be
powered in some other way than from the engine itself. The starter motor is used for this purpose
and is not required once the engine starts running and its feedback loop becomes self-sustaining.
 Figure 12 Electrical Starter

2.4.11 CLUTCH

A clutch is a mechanical device which engages and disengages power transmission especially from
driving shaft to driven shaft. Clutches connect and disconnect two rotating shafts (drive shafts or
line shafts). In these devices, one shaft is typically attached to an engine or other power unit (the
driving member) while the other shaft (the driven member) provides output power for work.

In the simplest application, clutches connect and disconnect two rotating shafts . In these devices,
one shaft is typically attached to an engine or other power unit (the driving member) while the
other shaft (the driven member) provides output power for work. While typically the motions
involved are rotary, linear clutches are also possible

Figure 13 Clutch
2.4.12 KICK - PEDAL

The kick pedal is attached to the output shaft with help of gears. The kick pedal rotates the output
shaft which in turn rotates the input shaft which then connected to the clutch rotates the crankshaft
thus starting the spark ignition.

Figure 14 Kick Pedal

2.4.13 GEAR-SET

A gearset is a set of gears that enable a rider to move from a complete stop to a cruising speed.
Transmissions on motorcycles typically have four to six gears, although small bikes may have as
few as two. The gears are engaged by shifting a lever, which moves shifting forks inside the
transmission.

Figure 15 Gear-Set
2.4.14 Carburetor

A carburetor is a device that blends air and fuel for an internal combustion engine in the proper
ratio for combustion. To carburate or carburet is to blend the air and fuel or to equip (an engine)
with a carburetor for that purpose.

In "constant depression" carburetors, this is done by a vacuum operated piston connected to a

tapered needle which slides inside the fuel jet. A simpler version exists, most commonly found on
small motorcycles and dirt bikes, where the slide and needle is directly controlled by the throttle
position. The most common variable Venturi (constant depression) type carburetor is the sided-
raft SU carburetor .

Figure 16 Carburetor
 CHAPTER 3

MERCEDES BENZ

Mercedes-Benz is a German global automobile marque and a division of Daimler AG. The brand
is known for luxury vehicles, buses, coaches, and trucks. The headquarters is in Stuttgart, Baden-
Württemberg. The name first appeared in 1926 under Daimler-Benz

In 2018, Mercedes-Benz was the biggest selling premium vehicle brand in the world, having sold
2.31 million passenger cars giving its products like Automobiles, Trucks, Buses, Internal
Combustion Engines & Luxury Vehicles worldwide.

The Mercedes – Benz Logo is one of the most famous in outer world. The Benz Logo is a simplistic
three-pointed star that represents its domination of the land, sea and air. The famous three-pointed
star was designed by Gottlieb Daimler to show the ability of his motors to land, air and sea usage.

3.1. Mercedes Benz C-200 CDI

Figure 17 Mercedes C-200 CDI

Mercedes Benz (Sedan) The C Class Sedan is the entry level sedan in the luxury segment. The C
class is a signature statement of the refined and the upwardly mobile. The Mercedes Benz C-
Class with its petrol and diesel variants targets the upper middle class consumer with Mercedes-
Benz car prices between rupees twenty five and thirty lakhs.

3.1.1 Specifications

Table 1 Specification

CONTENTS QUANTITY
Body Type 4D SEDAN
ARAI Mileage 15.8 kmpl

City Mileage 10.1 kmpl

Fuel Type Diesel

Engine Displacement (cc) 2148 cc

Max Power (bhp@rpm) 170 @ 3,700

Max Torque (nm@rpm) 42 @ 2,000

Seating Capacity 5

Transmission Type Automatic

Boot Space 475 Liters

Fuel Tank Capacity 66 Liters

Mileage 15.8 kmpl

Engine 2148 cc
Transmission Automatic
Boot Space 475 liters
 Air Bag Yes
Gear Box 6
Speed Drive Type RWD
No. of cylinder 4
Engine Type In-Line Engine
Brakes Type Disc
Suspension Agility Control
CAM Shaft type Duel-overhead CAM Shaft

3.1.2 Other Specifications

1. The piston head has a small area given for combustion to increase the input, because more
would be the area the less would be the pressure & the less would be the power transmitted
the lesser would be the impact.
2. The fuel is injected at the center of the cone in the small area of the piston head.
3. There are 3 piston rings same as other engines
i. Top Compression Ring
ii. Second Compression Ring
iii. Oil Ring
4. At the piston’s connection with the crank shaft there are 2 types of bearings
i. Begun Bearing
These are between Crank Shaft and Connection Rod
ii. General Bearing
These are between Crank Shaft and Crank Case
5. These bearings have a in-line system for transferring lubricating oil for fluent motion.
6. There is also a nozzle given targeting at the gudgeon pin. There by gudgeon pin the oil
further passes through the oil rings and lubricate the pistons for their reciprocating motion.
7. Another important thing is the Coolant Heating Element
i. This only works when the temperature goes down enough to freeze the coolant
ii. So, in that condition it heats the coolant to normal working conditions
 8. Another difference is of the oil pump. It is driven by the crankshaft directly through chain
mechanism. It is a centrifugal type oil pump.
9. Oil Cooler: - It got 6 passages
i. 2 for oil flow (IN & OUT)
ii. 2 for coolant flow (IN& OUT)
iii. 2 for break oil (IN & OUT)

The break oil and lubricating oil both are cooled by this cooler using another oil.

3.2 The Mercedes Benz C220 Engine

Figure 18 Mercedes Benz Engine + Transmission

Figure 19 Engine
 +

Figure 20 7-G Automatic Transmission

i) 7G Tronic Plus Automatic Transmission

ii) Basic Engine

3.2.1 Basic Engine

Figure 21 Basic Mercedes Engine Diagram

The Diesel engine from Mercedes Benz delivers 150kw 204hpdependent on engine variant with
maximum Torque as high as 500Nm. For fuel consumption it consumes 5.1 to 5.4 Liter fuel per
100 Km. CO2 emission 136 to 143 gm/km

The conventional Turbo Charger is used in this for maintaining quick & boosted pressure build
up. The compact turbocharger group consist of a large turbocharger low-pressure stage and a
small turbocharger high-pressure stage. For quick response the exhaust gas drive

3.2.1.1 Basic Engine Components

1. Fuel Injector
2. Battery
3. Injector Control Pressor Sensor
4. Generator
5. Variable Geometric Turbo Actuator
6. Fuel Injector Control module
7. Glow Plug
8. Exhaust Back pressure Sensor
9. Engine Coolant Temperature Sensor
10. Electronic Fan Clutch
11. Oil Cooler
12. Fuel Pump
13. Double Overhead CAM Shaft
14. Piston
15. Crank
16. Oil Filter
17. Starting motor
18. Clutch
19. Gears
3.2.2 7 G - Speed Automatic Transmission

Figure 22 Mercedes Benz Automatic Transmission

The AMG SPEEDSHIFT 7G-TRONIC automatic transmission is electronically controlled and

features three specially tailored shift programs which permit extremely sporty or comfort-
oriented driving. The driver can select the shift programs by means of a selector button in the
center console:

• C-mode (Comfort): Shift operations are performed at lower engine speeds for a comfort-
oriented driving style
• S-mode (Sport): Shift operations are performed at higher engine speeds with quicker
gear changes for a sporty driving style
• M-mode (Manual): Shift operations are triggered manually and with extremely short
shift times using the steering wheel gearshift buttons

3.2.2.1 Fully integrated transmission control (VGS)

The fully integrated transmission control system offers the following benefits compared to
conventional transmission control systems:

• Integration of all functions and components of the transmission in one installation module
 • Module is integrated into transmission
• Minimization of interfaces with the wiring harness
The fully integrated transmission control unit (VGS) is installed in the oil pan of the
automatic transmission.
It is continuously flushed with transmission oil to keep it cool.

3.2.2.2 Methods of operating automatic transmission

The automatic transmission can be operated in three different ways.

The desired gear range can be engaged via:

• The selector lever in the center console (gear range "R" or "D")
• Manual shifting by actuating steering wheel gearshift buttons
• Manual shifting by pressing selector lever to left or right

3.2.2.3. Positive torque function

The C 63 AMG is the first AMG vehicle to be equipped with an automatic positive torque
function for downshifting.
This function provides for almost load-free downshifting, which also reduces load change
reactions and is particularly beneficial when braking for oncoming curves (e.g. on race tracks).
Further advantages of the positive torque function include:

• Improved vehicle dynamics

• Improved driving safety
• Even quicker, load-free downshifting
• Reduction of braking torque on drive axle

3.2.2.4. Components of 7-speed automatic transmission

· 1. Torque converter
· 2 Turbine wheel
· 3 Stator
·4 Impeller
 · 5 Transmission housing breather
· 6 Oil pump
· 7 Multi-disk brake B1
· 8 Multi-disk clutch K1
· 9 Ravigneaux gear set
· 10 Multi-disk brake B3
· 11 Multi-disk clutch K2
· 12 Simple planetary gear system
· 13 Multi-disk brake BR
· 14 Multi-disk clutch K3
· 15 Multi-disk brake B2
· 16 Park pawl gear
· 17 Exciter ring for rpm sensing nout
· 18 Range selector lever
· 19 Ring magnet for rpm sensing n2
· 20 Shift valve housing
· 21 Ring magnet for rpm sensing nturb
· 22 Control solenoid valve
· 23 Force bridge over with torsional damper elements
· 24 Y3/8n4 Fully integrated transmission control (VGS) control unit

3.2.2.5. Transmission oil cooling

To prevent critical temperature peaks, the C 63 AMG is equipped with an auxiliary transmission
cooler which is integrated in the upper area of the radiator module.The transmission oil is
pumped through the transmission cooler by the oil pump of the automatic transmission.
The transmission oil is heated or cooled as follows:

• At T < 80 °C it is heated so that the automatic transmission reaches its operating

temperature more quickly
• At T > 80 °C it is cooled to prevent thermal overload
The auxiliary transmission cooler is equipped with a transmission oil thermostat.
 • At a transmission oil temperature of T < 80 °C, the transmission oil flows directly back
to the automatic transmission via the return line.
• At a transmission oil temperature of T > 80 °C, the transmission oil thermostat opens and
the transmission oil flows through the transmission cooler before it flows back to the
transmission through the return line.

3.2.2.6. Transmission oil cooling componants:

· 1. Auxiliary transmission cooler

· 2. Transmission oil thermostat
· 3. Radiator
· 4. Transmission oil cooler
· 5. Condenser
· A. Feed to cooling circuit from transmission
· B. Feed to transmission oil heat exchanger
· C. Return from transmission oil heat exchanger
· D. Feed to transmission oil thermostat
· E. Return from transmission oil thermostat
· F. Return from cooling circuit to transmission
 CHAPTER 4

TERMINOLOGIES RELATED

4.1 STEERING

Steering is the collection of components, linkages, etc. which allows any vehicle to follow the
desired course. An exception is the case of rail transport by which rail tracks combined together
with railroad switches provide the steering function. The steering system converts the rotation of the
steering wheel into a swiveling movement of the road wheels in such a way that the steering-wheel rim
turns a long way to move the road wheels a short way. The system allows a driver to use only
light forces to steer a heavy car.

The rack-and-pinion system

The pinion is closely meshed with the rack, so that there is no backlash in the gears. This gives
very precise steering. At the base of the steering column there is a small pinion (gear wheel) inside
a housing. Its teeth mesh with a straight row of teeth on a rack - a long transverse bar. Turning the
pinion makes the rack move from side to side. The ends of the rack are coupled to the road wheels
by track rods. This system is simple, with few moving parts to become worn or displaced, so its
action is precise. A universal joint in the steering column allows it to connect with the rack without
angling the steering wheel awkwardly sideways.

4.2 BRAKES

The brakes you probably think of when you hear the word are your service brakes. These are the
brakes that physically stop your car from moving and there are two types: the disc brake and the
drum brake. Each car features two front brakes and two rear brakes. Most will either have all four
as disc brakes or disc brakes in the front and drum brakes in the back.
 • Disc brakes: Disc brakes are made up of a disc brake rotor, caliper, and brake pads. When
pressure is applied through a hydraulic system the brake pads are pushed against the brake
rotor, which causes the car to stop.

• Drum brakes: The main parts of a drum brake system are the brake drum, brake shoes,
wheel cylinder and brake springs. The brake shoes are contained within the brake drum,
and when pressure is applied to the wheel cylinder, the brake shoes press against the drum,
which cause the car to stop. The brake springs reduce drag by pulling the brake shoes back
away from the drum when you take your foot off the brake pedal

4.3 BRAKING SYSTEM

The following are the most common types of braking systems in cars today. It’s always good to
identify which ones apply to your car for easier troubleshooting and repairs.

• Hydraulic braking system: This system works on brake fluid, cylinders, and friction. By
creating pressure within the system it forces the brake pads to stop the wheels from moving.

• Electromagnetic braking system: Electromagnetic braking systems can be found in many

new and hybrid vehicles. Electromagnetic brakes force the car to a stop by using an electric
motor.

• Servo braking system: Also known as vacuum or vacuum assisted braking. With this
system, the pressure applied to the pedal by the driver is augmented.

• Mechanical braking system: This system is one that powers the hand brake or emergency
brake. Brakes are applied through mechanical linkages.

4.3 ANTI-LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM (ABS)

The basic theory behind anti-lock brakes is simple. It prevents the wheels from locking up, thus
avoiding uncontrolled skidding. ABS generally offers improved vehicle control and decreases
stopping distances on dry and slippery surfaces.
 Figure 23 Showing ABS functioning

A skidding wheel (where the tire contact patch is sliding relative to the road) has less traction (grip
of the tire on the road) than a non-skidding wheel. For example, if your car drives over a road
covered in ice, it is unable to move forward and the wheels will keep spinning, since no traction is
present. This is because the contact point of the wheel is sliding relative to the ice.

ABS modifies the brake fluid pressure, independent of the amount of pressure being applied on
the brakes, to bring the speed of the wheel back to the minimum slip level that is mandatory for
optimal braking performance.

4.4 POWER BRAKES

Power brakes are a system of hydraulics used to slow down or stop most motor vehicles. It uses
a combination of mechanical components to multiply the force applied to the brake pedal by the
driver into enough force to actuate the brakes and stop a vehicle that can weigh several tons.

4.5 SUSPENSION

Suspension is the system of tires, tire air, springs, shock absorbers and linkages that connects a
vehicle to its wheels and allows relative motion between the two. Suspension systems must support
both road holding/handling and ride quality, which are at odds with each other
Types of Suspension Components There are three basic types of suspension components: linkages,
springs, and shock absorbers.

The linkages are the bars and brackets that support the wheels, springs and shock absorbers.
Springs cushion the vehicle by dampening shock loads from bumps and holes in the road. Shock
absorbers use hydraulic pistons and cylinders to cushion also the vehicle from shock loads. They
also serve to dampen spring oscillations, thus bring the vehicle back to a neutral position soon after
being shock loaded by a road obstruction.

4.5.1 Links

There are a number of various shaped links that are used for the different types of suspension
systems. They vary from straight bars to forged, cast or stamped metal shapes that best fit to
support the springs, shocks and wheels onto vehicle frames or body structures. The simplest
linkage is a straight bar that connects one wheel to the other on the opposite side of the vehicle.
Others can be intricately shaped to connect springs, shock absorbers and wheels to vehicles as
explained later.

4.5.2 Springs

There are three different spring types that are used in suspension systems: coil, leaf and torsion
bar. Coil springs are merely wound torsion bars. They are commonly used because they are
compact, easily mounted and have excellent endurance life properties. Leaf springs are long thin
members that are loaded in bending. They are used as an assembly being comprised of several
layers of thin metal to obtain the correct spring rate. Leaf springs serve as both the damping
member and the linkage. Torsion bars rely on the twist of a long bar to provide a spring rate to
dampen car shock loading. Torsion bars mount across the bottom portion of a vehicle and are more
difficult to package than others.

1 4.5.3 Shock Absorbers

Shock absorbers use a piston and cylinder along with adjustable valves to control the flow of
hydraulic fluid to set the damping force in both the retract (jounce) and extend (rebound) positions.
Shock absorbers are set to retract under a lower force than to extend. This action absorbs road
bump forces and dampens spring oscillations resulting in better vehicle ride and control.
4.6 AIRBAGS

Figure 24 Airbags under normal condition

Figure 25 Airbags during accident

Like seat belts, the concept of the airbag -- a soft pillow to land against in a crash -- has been
around for many years. An airbag (also referred to as an ‘airbag cushion’) is a type of safety device that
you can expect to find in almost every car these days. It is a flexible fabric bag that is designed to inflate
in a fraction of a second in the case of any situation when the vehicle comes to an abrupt halt, such as
during an accident.
The basic purpose of an airbag is to restrain the occupants’ rapid motion in the forward direction
after a sudden deceleration of the car, while providing some cushion to lessen the force of the
impact that the occupants are going to sustain.

The head is the most vulnerable part of the human body; therefore, a primary airbag (the frontal
airbag) is installed in the steering wheel of all modern vehicles. However, there are many other
types of airbags, like side airbags, knee airbags, and rear curtain airbags, among others

An airbag is managed by the ACU (Airbag Control Unit, which is a special type of Electronic
Control Unit). The ACU also monitors a host of other sensors present in the automobile, including
impact sensors, accelerometers, wheel speed sensors, gyroscopes, seat-occupancy sensors and so
on, all of which contribute to the deployment of the airbag one way or another.

4.7 CARBURETOR

Figure 26 Carburetor

The goal of a carburetor is to mix just the right amount of gasoline with air so that the engine runs
properly. If there is not enough fuel mixed with the air, the engine "runs lean" and either will not
run or potentially damages the engine. If there is too much fuel mixed with the air, the engine "runs
rich" and either will not run (it floods), runs very smoky, runs poorly (bogs down, stalls easily), or
at the very least wastes fuel. The carb is in charge of getting the mixture just right.
The carburetor has two swiveling valves above and below the venturi. At the top, there's a valve
called the choke that regulates how much air can flow in. If the choke is closed, less air flows down
through the pipe and the venturi sucks in more fuel, so the engine gets a fuel-rich mixture.

4.8 DECOMPRESSOR

The decompressor system reduces the cylinder compression at low rpm for easy starting.
Decompressors systems are often used with single cylinder 4-stroke engines, but manufactures
sometimes utilize these benefits on other engine configurations including V-twins. The
compression is reduced by momentarily opening an exhaust valve on the compression stroke of
the piston to partially vent the combustion chamber. Reducing the engine compression reduces the
force required to kick start or pull start the engine, and allows the use of smaller less powerful
electric starting components

Automatic decompressor systems often use spring loaded weights on the camshaft to operate a pin
located inside the camshaft or a special decompressor rocker arm. At rest and below idle rpm the
weight/s are held in by the springs and the decompressor rocker arm or pin will contact the exhaust
valve or rocker arm to release compression.

Figure 27 Decompressor
When the engine starts and the camshaft is rotating at speed the weight/s will sling out. This change
in position of the weight/s moves the decompressor rocker arm or pin into a position where it will
not contact exhaust valve or rocker arm and the engine will have full compression. Inspect the
decompressor mechanism functions smoothly and correctly as the weight/s are manually moved
out to a running position and allowed to return to a resting position. If the mechanism sticks or
fails to operated correctly inspect the components in more detail for condition and correct
assembly.

4.9 EGR

Figure 28 EGR System

The EGR system is one of several vehicle emission control systems. It helps to reduce the amount
of the nitrogen oxides (NOx) in the exhaust gases. Nitrogen oxides are normally formed in the
process of combustion in the engine cylinders. However, the formation of the nitrogen oxides
increases dramatically at higher temperatures (above 1600 °C or 2900 °F).

The EGR system reduces the combustion temperature by diverting a small portion of the exhaust
gases back into the intake manifold. How does it work? Exhaust gases are no longer combustible.
Diluting the intake air with exhaust gases makes the air/fuel charge less combustible.
4.10 EXHAUST BACK PRESSURE

Engine exhaust back pressure is defined as the exhaust gas pressure that is produced by the engine
to overcome the hydraulic resistance of the exhaust system in order to discharge the gases into the
atmosphere. For this discussion, the exhaust back pressure is the gage pressure in the exhaust
system at the outlet of the exhaust turbine in turbocharged engines or the pressure at the outlet of
the exhaust manifold in naturally aspirated engines. The term back pressure can be also spelled as
one word (backpressure) or using a hyphen (back-pressure).

4.11 BACK COMPRESSION

When the piston returns back, say after a power stroke , pressure is created in its bottom side too.
the leaked oil/ fuel etc gets compressed. its back compression and pressure die to them
is back pressure. they hamper in free movement of piston , like someone holding the car.

4.12 TURBO CHAGER

The turbocharger on a car applies a very similar principle to a piston engine. It uses the exhaust
gas to drive a turbine. This spins an air compressor that pushes extra air (and oxygen) into the
cylinders, allowing them to burn more fuel each second. That's why a turbocharged car can produce
more power (which is another way of saying "more energy per second").

A turbocharger is effectively two little air fans (also called impellers or gas pumps) sitting on the
same metal shaft so that both spin around together. One of these fans, called the turbine, sits in
the exhaust stream from the cylinders. As the cylinders blow hot gas past the fan blades, they rotate
and the shaft they're connected to (technically called the center hub rotating assembly or CHRA)
rotates as well. The second fan is called the compressor and, since it's sitting on the same shaft as
the turbine, it spins too. It's mounted inside the car's air intake so, as it spins, it draws air into the
car and forces it into the cylinders.
4.12.1 How a turbocharger works

The basic idea is that the exhaust drives the turbine (the red fan), which is directly connected to
(and powers) the compressor (the blue fan), which rams air into the engine. For simplicity, we're
showing only one cylinder. Here then, in summary, is how the whole thing works:

Figure 29 Turbocharge Working

1. Cool air enters the engine's air intake and heads toward the compressor.

2. The compressor fan helps to suck air in.

3. The compressor squeezes and heats up the incoming air and blows it out again.

4. Hot, compressed air from the compressor passes through the heat exchanger, which cools
it down.

5. Cooled, compressed air enters the cylinder's air intake. The extra oxygen helps to burn fuel
in the cylinder at a faster rate.

6. Since the cylinder burns more fuel, it produces energy more quickly and can send more
power to the wheels via the piston, shafts, and gears.

7. Waste gas from the cylinder exits through the exhaust outlet.

8. The hot exhaust gases blowing past the turbine fan make it rotate at high speed.

9. The spinning turbine is mounted on the same shaft as the compressor (shown here as a pale
orange line). So, as the turbine spins, the compressor spins too.
 10. The exhaust gas leaves the car, wasting less energy than it would otherwise

4.12.2 Supercharger

A supercharger is any device that pressurizes the air intake to above atmospheric pressure. Both
superchargers and turbochargers do this. In fact, the term "turbocharger" is a shortened version of
"turbo-supercharger," its official name.

The difference between the two devices is their source of energy. Turbochargers are powered by
the mass-flow of exhaust gases driving a turbine. Superchargers are powered mechanically by belt-
or chain-drive from the engine's crankshaft.

4.13 DISEL PUMP

There are 4 types of Diesel Pumps:

1. Common rail fuel injection pump. (CRFI)

An electronically controlled diesel fuel supply system, this pump was developed to meet
the strict 21st century exhaust gas regulations. It consists of a supply pump, common rail,
electronically controlled injectors, a variety of sensors to detect the engine’s running
condition, and a computer that controls all of these devices. The engine drives the supply
pump, which produces high-pressure fuel. The common rail distributes the fuel to the
injectors, which are mounted on each cylinder of the engine.

2. Distributor (rotary) fuel injection pump.

This diesel fuel pump is also controlled electronically by various sensors, an electronic
control unit, and an actuator. Similar to the common rail pump, the sensors detect the
engine’s running condition and send signals to the control unit. The actuator controls how
much fuel is injected and its timing according to the signals it receives from the control
unit. The control unit determines what signals it sends by calculating the optimum levels
for the engine’s running condition.
 3. In-line fuel injection pump.

One of two mechanically controlled diesel fuel systems, the in-line fuel injection pump
matches the engine cylinders in their number of fuel pressure mechanisms. This pump is
primarily used for medium to large trucks and construction machinery. A camshaft drives
the fuel pressure and injection quantity control mechanisms within the pump body. The
elements in that body follow an injection order to feed fuel to each engine cylinder.

4. Distributor injection pump.

Also a mechanically controlled diesel fuel pump, the distributor injection pump has just
one fuel pressure mechanism, despite the number of engine cylinders the vehicle may have.
The distributor is designed to follow the injection order to distribute pressurized fuel to
each cylinder. The pump housing holds all of its components, including the governor,
timer, and feed pump. As it is so compact, this pump is light and can operate at high speeds,
making it perfect for small engines.

4.14 FULE INJECTRS

1. Single-Point or Throttle-Body Injection (SPFI)

The earliest and simplest type of fuel injection, single-point simply replaces the carburetor
with one or two fuel-injector nozzles in the throttle body, which is the throat of the engine’s
air intake manifold. For some automakers, single-point injection was a stepping stone to
the more complex multipoint system. Though not as precise as the systems that have
followed, TBI meters fuel with better control than a carburetor and is less expensive and
easier to service.

2. Port or Multipoint Fuel Injection (MPFI)

Multipoint fuel injection devotes a separate injector nozzle to each cylinder, right outside
its intake port, which is why the system is sometimes called port injection. Shooting the
fuel vapor this close to the intake port almost ensures that it will be drawn completely into
the cylinder. The main advantage is that MPFI meters fuel more precisely than do TBI
 designs, better achieving the desired air-fuel ratio and improving all related aspects. Also,
it virtually eliminates the possibility that fuel will condense or collect in the intake
manifold. With TBI and carburetors, the intake manifold must be designed to conduct the
engine’s heat, a measure to vaporize liquid fuel.

This is unnecessary on engines equipped with MPFI, so the intake manifold can be formed
from lighter-weight material, even plastic. Incremental fuel-economy improvements result.
Also, where conventional metal intake manifolds must be located atop the engine to
conduct heat, those used in MPFI can be placed more creatively, granting engineers design
flexibility.

3. Sequential Fuel Injection

Sequential fuel injection, also called sequential port fuel injection (SPFI) or timed
injection, is a type of multiport injection. Though basic MPFI employs multiple injectors,
they all spray their fuel at the same time or in groups. As a result, the fuel may “hang
around” a port for as long as 150 milliseconds when the engine is idling. This may not
seem like much, but it’s enough of a shortcoming that engineers addressed it: Sequential
fuel injection triggers each injector nozzle independently. Timed like spark plugs, they
spray the fuel immediately before or as their intake valve opens. It seems like a minor step,
but efficiency and emissions improvements come in very small doses.

4. Direct Injection

Direct injection takes the fuel injection concept about as far as it can go, injecting fuel
directly into the combustion chambers, past the valves. More common in diesel engines,
direct injection is starting to pop up in gasoline engine designs, sometimes called DIG for
direct-injection gasoline. Again, fuel metering is even more precise than in the other
injection schemes, and the direct injection gives engineers yet another variable to influence
precisely how combustion occurs in the cylinders. The science of engine design scrutinizes
how the air-fuel mixture swirls around in the cylinders and how the explosion travels from
the ignition point
 CHAPTER 5

BIBILOGRAPHY

1. www.cedengineering.com
2. www.cars.com
3. www.autotrainingcentre.com
4. www.babaautomobile.com
5. www.mercedes-benz.co.in
6. www.forms.request-mercedes-benz.com
7. www.carwale.com
8. www.slideshare.net
9. http://www.micro-tronik.com
10. www.buyautoparts.com