ATA 21. Pressurization As-05-02 (PLAN-11)

ATITA AIRFRAME STUDY PLAN: 11
MODULE AS-05-02 REVISION: 00
BOOKLET:01
CONTENTS
Objectives/Advice 2
Introduction 2
Maximum Differential Pressure 3
Activity 1 5
Electrical Control 7
Negative Pressure Differential 8
Activity 2 8
Cabin Altitude and Rate of Change 10
Activity 3 12
Cabin Altitude Warning 13
Review 14
Self Assessment 15
Self Assessment Review 16
Summary 16
Recommended Reading 16
Suggested Practical Activities 17
Page 1 of 51
OBJECTIVES/ADVICE
 When you have completed the study of this b00klet you should
be able to:-
 Explain what is meant by maximum differential pressure and

why it is limited.
 State typical values of maximum differential pressure for

modern pressurized aircraft.
 Describe what happens when a pressurized aircraft both

reaches and exceeds its maximum differential pressure.
 Explain what is meant by negative pressure and describe how it

is controlled.
 Define the requirements for controlling cabin altitude and rate

of change.
 State the various methods used to warn the crew and protect
the passengers under conditions of excessive cabin altitudes.
This booklet will take you about one hour to study.
INTRODUCTION
Aircraft pressurization systems are designed to provide an

environment in the cabin comparable with the atmospheric conditions
which exist between sea level (SL) and 8,000 ft, irrespective of the
altitude of the aircraft.
Under International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) conditions, the air

pressure at an altitude of 8,000 ft is 10.9 psi whilst at a typical
aircraft cruise altitude of 40,000 ft, the pressure is only 2.7 psi, so
the difference in pressure across the fuselage structure will be 8.2
psi.
Aircraft design is dependent upon many factors, but particularly the

stresses imposed upon the fuselage by frequent pressurization and
depressurization cycles during the life of the aircraft. Although the
pressure in our example may In itself sound relatively small, when
one considers the total surface area upon which 8.2 Ibs is acting,
then the total forces involved become enormous.
Page 2 of 51
At the design stage, certain limits are imposed to ensure that the
aircraft operates safely and efficiently and one such limit concerns
the maximum pressure difference permitted across the fuselage
structure. In this booklet we shall examine the various methods used
to protect the fuselage structure and its occupants against the
dangers arising from exceeding the designed pressure differential
limits, the importance of controlling cabin altitude and rate of
pressure change, and the means of warning the crew when the cabin
altitude exceeds 8,000 ft.
MAXIMUM DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
The maximum differential pressure or Max. Diff. as it is more

commonly known is simply the maximum difference between the
pressure inside of the cabin and the outside (ambient) pressure. The
actual value of this difference is expressed in pounds (lbs) and is
established during the design of a particular aircraft. Typical values
for today's large aircraft range between 7 1bs and 9 1bs.
It is essential in the interests of safety and prolonging the life of an

aircraft, to ensure that the Max. Diff. design limit is never exceeded,
and most aircraft employ more than one means of controlling Max.
Diff. to meet this requirement.
In pneumatically controlled pressurized systems found in smaller or

older aircraft types, the main method used to control Max. Diff. is
similar to that shown in the pressure controller in Fig. 1.
CABIN PRESSURE
STATIC
CABIN
PRESSURE
STATIC
TO DISCHARGE VALVE
Fig. 1 PNEUMATIC PRESSURE CONTROLLER
Page 3 of 51
During normal flight conditions, the altitude capsule (A) within the
pressure controller controls the cabin altitude to that which has
previously been selected by the flight crew, by expanding and
contracting within the limits of its stops (B).
Movement of the capsule is transmitted to the control valve (C) to

regulate the pressure within the controller body. This pressure is
then transmitted to a discharge valve causing it to open or close. Low
pressure signals will open the discharge valve whilst higher pressures
will close it.
When the aircraft reaches an altitude where it’s Max. Diff. is about to
be attained, the capsule (A) will be against its upper stop and so
becomes ineffective as a means of controlling cabin altitude.
The Max. Diff. capsule (D) is sensitive to cabin pressure on its outer
surface, and ambient pressure is fed inside via a static pressure
pipeline. The capsule is in effect measuring the same difference in
pressures as is acting across the fuselage. When Max. Diff. is
reached; the capsule will collapse thus opening the Max. Diff. valve
(E).
Pressure within the controller will now escape to atmosphere through

the static pipeline, and the resulting low pressure signal will be
transmitted to the discharge valve causing it to move fully open. The
pressure within the cabin will now fall, thus reducing the pressure
difference across the fuselage to a value below Max. Diff.
If the aircraft continues to climb, then the cabin altitude will also
climb since the discharge valve is fully open. However, under such
circumstances the pilot is more likely to descend the aircraft in order
to prevent the cabin altitude from exceeding 10,000 ft, when oxygen
would be required. During the descent, the differential pressure will
reduce and once below the Max. Diff. value for that particular
aircraft; the Max. Diff. capsule will close thus restoring the control of
cabin altitude to the altitude capsule (A) as before.
Page 4 of 51
ACTIVITY 1 3 Minutes
If the Max. Diff. capsule in the controller developed a slight leak,

what effect would this have?
Page 5 of 51
COMMENTS ON ACTIVITY 1
You may have found it helpful to refer to Fig. I to answer this one. If
a leak develops in the Max. Diff. capsule it would require a greater
difference in pressures across it to cause it to operate. The effect on
the aircraft would be that it’s Max. Diff. would be higher than the
design limit. The crew would be aware of this situation by referring to
the Max. Diff. gauge in the flight deck. This type of failure is by no
means unique, and leads us neatly into the next topic.
Max. Diff. Back-Up
You may recall from your study of Booklet No. 1 in this Study Plan,
the layout and operation of a typical pneumatically operated
discharge valve which is shown here again in Fig. 2.
PRESSURE CONTROL SIGNALS
CABIN
PRESSURE
CABIN
PRESSURE
AMBIENT PRESSURE
Fig. 2 DISCHARGE VALVE
The discharge valve incorporates a Max. Diff. valve which is set to a

slightly higher value than the Max. Diff. capsule in the controller. The
valve (F) is sensitive to ambient pressure on its upper face via the
static pipeline, and cabin pressure on its lower face. If the Max. Diff.
capsule in the controller fails to operate, the valve will move up and
away from its seating under the influence of the differential pressures
allowing cabin pressure within the discharge valve to escape to
atmosphere via the static pipeline. Cabin pressure is also present in
area G via the louvers shown at H.
Page 6 of 51
Since cabin pressure is acting upon the lower surface of the

discharge valve, and its upper surface is now open to atmosphere,
the discharge valve will open fully allowing cabin pressure to be
reduced. Max. Diff. is once more controlled.
Not all pneumatically controlled pressurization systems use discharge

valves with a built in Max. Diff. control feature. Some may utilize
separate pressure relief valves such as that shown in Fig. 3.
However, all Max. Diff. valves work on the same principle we have
discussed here, they open at a pre-set differential pressure to reduce
cabin pressure to prevent the fuselage from being subjected to
excessive differential pressures.
CASTOR HINGS
CABIN
PRESSURE
D1
AMBIENT PRESSURE CASTORS COMPENSATE
FOR INCREASING
SPRING PRESSURE
VALVE OPENING VALVE FULLY OPEN
Fig. 3 PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE
ELECTRICAL CONTROL
In an electrically operated pressurization system where discharge

valves are driven by two or more electric motors, the maximum
differential pressure is controlled in much the same way as for
pneumatically operated systems. In this case however, the Max. Diff.
capsule is replaced by a pressure transducer which simply converts
the air pressure signals into electrical signals. When Max. Diff. is
reached; the transducer operates and sends an electrical signal to
the discharge valve to drive it fully open.
Page 7 of 51
NEGATIVE PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL
Let us move on now to another problem that is liable to cause

damage to the fuselage structure under pressurized flight conditions.
We have seen that the fuselage structure needs to be designed to

cope with the stresses of repeated pressurizing cycles, where the
pressure inside the cabin is always greater than ambient pressure to
a greater or lesser degree. However, we need also to consider the
possibility of ambient pressure exceeding cabin pressure, or a
negative pressure differential as it is known.
Under what conditions would negative pressure differential

occur?
Page 8 of 51
If an aircraft were flying at its cruise altitude, the pressure in the

cabin would be higher than ambient pressure. But if the aircraft had
to descend rapidly to a lower altitude for any reason, the rate of
ambient pressure change would be very high. In the cabin however,
the rate of pressure change would be maintained by the
pressurization system to a rate previously selected by the flight crew.
There would be a point during the aircraft's descent where the
ambient pressure exceeds that which exists in the cabin, and unless
the situation was corrected, there would be a risk of damage to the
fuselage structure from the crushing effects of this negative
differential pressure.
Let us consider this condition.
To design a fuselage structure capable of withstanding any

appreciable negative differential pressure would incur a severe
weight penalty. A more simple solution is to incorporate inwards
relief valves or blow-in panels which would allow pressures external
to the fuselage to be relieved into the cabin. They are usually
designed to operate at a negative differential of 0.5 psi.
Fig. 4 shows again the discharge valve we discussed earlier, note

that it incorporates an inward relief feature.
CABIN PRESSURE
CABIN
PRESSUR
AMBIENT PRESSURE
Fig. 4 DISCHARGE VALVE WITH INWARD RELIEF VALVE
Page 9 of 51
Cabin pressure is fed into the valve operating head at (A) via the
louvers at (B). Ambient pressure is felt directly beneath the valve
and should it ever rise 0.5 psi above cabin pressure, it will force the
valve fully open to relieve the negative differential pressure.
Fig. 5 shows inward relief panels fitted to a typical large, modern

passenger carrying aircraft.
CARGO DOOR SKIN
FWD CARGO DOOR
AFT CARGO
DOOR HINGE DOOR
FWD
INBD
DOOR OPENS INWARDS
AGAINST SPRING PRESSURE
Fig. 5 NEGATIVE PRESSURE RELIEF
CABIN ALTITUDE AND RATE OF CHANGE
In order to ensure maximum passenger comfort at any particular

aircraft altitude, the cabin environment is normally controlled to the
atmospheric conditions existing between sea level (SL) and 8,000 ft.
Under ISA conditions, the air pressure at an altitude of 8,000 ft is

taken to be 10.92 psi and this would be the minimum pressure that
the pressurization system would normally allow in the cabin. It is
more usual to express cabin pressure in terms of the altitude
equivalent, and the flight deck of pressurized aircraft will be
equipped with a cabin altitude gauge to enable the crew to monitor
this condition in the cabin.
Page 10 of 51
If, for example, the aircraft climbed beyond its Max. Diff. altitude the
cabin altitude gauge would indicate this by showing a reading greater
than 8,000 ft, because as you will recall, the discharge valves will be
driven fully open to prevent the Max. Diff. being exceeded.
The rate at which cabin altitude is changed must be controlled to

limits which will not interfere with the comfort of the passengers. The
normal rate of change (ROC) of cabin altitude is regulated by crew
selection to approximately 300 ft/min. This rate ensures that the
passengers do not suffer unnecessary discomfort to their eardrums.
In the interests of fuel economy, the aircraft will climb or descend far
more rapidly, but whatever its rate, the cabin ROC will remain at the
value selected by the crew.
Some of the more sophisticated electronic pressurization systems

automatically regulate the cabin ROC to a lower value during descent
than during ascent. This is to allow for the fact that our eardrums are
more sensitive to the increasing pressures which are encountered
during descent, than they are to decreasing pressure. The effect is
particularly noticeable when descending through the lower altitudes,
18,000 ft to SL.
Page 11 of 51
Using the ISA chart below, calculate the minimum permitted cabin
altitude for an aircraft which is flying at 33,000 ft and who’s Max.
Diff. limit is 7.8 psi.
THE INTERNATIONAL
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (I.S.A.)
Page 12 of 51
If your answer is approximately 6,500 ft cabin altitude well done, you

can now move on. If not, let me explain.
If the aircraft is flying at 33,000 ft, then using the ISA chart we can
see that the ambient pressure will be 3.8 psi. Since the Max. Diff.
limit is 7.8 psi, adding these two factors together will tell us the
maximum pressure that can exist within the cabin without exceeding
the Max. Diff. limit. Adding the two values 3.8 psi and 7.8 psi = 11.6
psi, and referring to the chart, we see that this equates to the
conditions existing at approximately 6,500 ft. This then, is the
minimum cabin altitude permitted, since to allow a lower cabin
altitude would mean exceeding the Max. Diff. pressure.
e.g., cabin altitude of 6,000 ft = 11.78 psi

aircraft altitude is 33,000 ft = 3.8 psi
differential pressure = 11.78 - 3.8
= 7.98 psi
This figure exceeds the aircraft's Max.Diff limit of 7.8 psi, so cabin
altitudes less than 6,500 ft can not be permitted at an aircraft
altitude of 33,000 ft.
CABIN ALTITUDE WARNING
We have seen in this Booklet, the need to maintain a cabin altitude

which does not exceed 8,000 ft. We have also seen that in order to
prevent the Max. Diff. from being exceeded, the pressurization
system will automatically allow the cabin altitude to exceed this value
should the aircraft exceed its Max. Diff. altitude.
Although it would do the passengers no real harm to be subjected to

an altitude of say 12,000 ft, legislation and safety reasons dictate
that a supply of oxygen must be available to passengers at 10,000 ft
cabin altitude and higher. In order to provide the flight crew with
additional warnings of excessive cabin altitudes, pressurized aircraft
are fitted with pressure sensitive devices, such as transducers, which
are set to operate at a cabin altitude of 10,000 ft.
These cabin altitude switches will, when activated perform several

tasks, some of which are listed below:-
 Aural warning to the flight crew.

 Visual warnings to the flight crew.
 The release of individual emergency oxygen masks at each
passenger location, including toilets!
Page 13 of 51
This now completes the information to be studied in this booklet, so

let's review the main points before trying the self assessment
questions.
REVIEW
 Max. Diff. is the maximum allowable pressure difference across

the fuselage structure of a pressurized aircraft.
 When the Max. Diff. value for a particular aircraft is reached

the discharge valve(s) are automatically opened to prevent the
value from being exceeded.
 In the event of failure of the system to control Max. Diff., back

up systems which are set to a slightly higher value will come
into operation.
 Negative pressure differential occurs when ambient pressure

exceeds cabin pressure. It is normally controlled to 0.5 psi by
inward valves.
 The rate of change of cabin pressure (ROC) must be controlled

to acceptable limits to prevent passenger discomfort normally
around 300 ft/min.
 Cabin altitude must not normally exceed 8,000 ft.
 Aural, visual warnings and oxygen drop-out masks are

activated by an altitude switch if the maximum cabin altitude is
exceeded.
Page 14 of 51
SELF ASSESSMENT
You should spend about 15 minutes on this to check your

understanding of this subject.
1. Why is it essential to prevent the Max. Diff. for an aircraft from

being exceeded?
2. Why is negative pressure differential normally limited to a

maximum of 0.5 psi and not higher?
3. Why do some modern electronic pressurization systems

automatically allow a lower ROC value during descent?
4. What is the maximum cabin altitude at which cabin altitude

switches are normally set to operate the various warning
devices?
Page 15 of 51
SELF ASSESSMENT REVIEW
Your answers should contain the main points given in my answers.
1. Basically, Max. Diff.· should never be exceeded to prevent

excessive stress or damage to the fuselage. You might also
have added, that operating the aircraft below the Max. Diff.
value will prolong the structural life of the aircraft.
2. Negative pressure differential occurs under unusual

circumstances, but should nevertheless be considered from a
safety viewpoint. The value of 0.5 psi is used because to allow
a higher figure would involve considerable strengthening of
the· fuselage to withstand the crushing effect of negative
differential pressure. This would result in a higher weight
penalty, therefore a reduced payload.
3. Our eardrums are more sensitive to increases in pressure, and

since this occurs during the aircraft's descent some electronic
pressurization systems compensate by automatically reducing
the cabin ROC during descent.
4. Although the maximum cabin altitude normally allowed is

8,000 ft, under emergency conditions it can rise to 10,000 ft
when the altitude switch will automatically operate the warning
devices and deploy the oxygen drop-out masks.
SUMMARY
Now that we have covered the main features of pressurization

systems in this and the previous booklet, it only remains for us to
examine some additional features used in emergency situations, and
the methods used to seal and lock cabin access doors. I am confident
that your understanding of pressurization systems will enable you to
cope adequately with the next booklet, but not before completing the
practical activities on the next pages.
RECOMMENDED READING
Civil Aircraft Inspection Procedures (CAIPs) Pt II, Chapter AL/3-23.
Airframe & Power plant Mechanics Handbook EA-AC 65-15A Airframe

Handbook.
Aircraft Maintenance Manual ATA Chapter 21.
Page 16 of 51
SUGGESTED PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES
If a pressurized aircraft is not available, use the Maintenance Manual

ATA Chapter 21 to answer the following questions.
 What is the procedure for checking the Max. Diff. operating

pressure during maintenance?
 Under what conditions are maintenance personal allowed inside

the aircraft during the checking of the Max. Diff. operating
pressure?
 What is the procedure for checking the Max. Diff. back-up

systems?
 How is the cabin ROC set for the aircraft and what range of
ROC is available?
 What are the indications given to the flight crew when the
cabin altitude switch operates?
 How many oxygen drop-out masks are available in the

aircraft's toilets?
Page 17 of 51
BOOKLET:02
CONTENTS
Objectives/Advice 19
Introduction 19
Manual Control - Pneumatic Systems 20
Activity 1 21
Manual Control - Electrical Systems 22
Emergency Dumping - Pneumatic Systems 23
Activity 2 25
Emergency Dumping - Electrical Systems 26
Ditching 26
Self Assessment 29
Summary 30
Page 18 of 51
OBJECTIVES/ADVICE
On completion of this booklet you should be able to:-
 Describe the need for and the operation of a typical manual

control in a pressurization system.
 Explain how manual control of an electrically controlled

pressurization system is achieved.
 Explain how a pressurized cabin may be rapidly cleared of

smoke and fumes in a typical system.
 State the ditching requirements for a typical pressurized

aircraft.
 Explain how a pneumatically operated discharge valve is

operated by a ditching system.
This booklet should take you about one hour to study.
INTRODUCTION
Previous booklets in this Study Plan described the operation of both

pneumatically and electrically controlled pressurization systems
under normal conditions of flight. Also covered were various methods
of providing a back-up to the systems in the event of a malfunction
or an abnormal flight condition. In each case, the particular system
under discussion controlled the cabin pressure completely
automatically, even coping with certain emergency situations.
There are, however, some additional requirements to consider which
will enable the crew to:-
 Operate the pressurization system manually when required.
 Rapidly clear the cabin of smoke and/or fumes.
 Seal the cabin in the event of a crash landing on water

(ditching).
The methods used to provide for these requirements depend largely

upon the type of pressurization system installed in the aircraft, i.e.
pneumatic or electric. We shall be looking at the methods used in
both systems.
Page 19 of 51
MANUAL CONTROL - PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS
In the unlikely event that both the normal and back-up (or
secondary) pressurization systems fail to function as designed, the
crew will need some method to control the situation manually. In a
pneumatically operated system, this would normally be achieved by
operating the rate of change (ROC) and/or cabin altitude selector
knobs manually in the appropriate directions while descending the
aircraft to a safer altitude.
Fig. 1 below shows the pneumatic controlled with which you should
by now be familiar, and we can use this diagram to illustrate a
particular case.
STATIC
PRESSURE
BULKHEAD DISCHARGE
VALVE
Fig. 1 PRESSURE CONTROLLER
Under normal circumstances the cabin ROC and altitude would be set
before take off by operating the selector knobs A and B respectively.
The pressure controller would then automatically control the cabin
ROC and altitude by transmitting pressure signals to the discharge
valve, causing it to open or close by the required amount.
Let us now suppose that due to a malfunction within the

pressurization system, the cabin altitude is not being controlled to
the value selected by the crew. Assuming that the fault does Lot lie
in the discharge valve, the crew can adjust the position of the valve
by turning the controller altitude selector knob B in the appropriate
direction.
Page 20 of 51
Referring to Fig. 1, list the sequence of events if the pilot were to

rotate the selector knob clockwise (increase cabin altitude).
Page 21 of 51
Check to see if your list contains these points:
 The spring H will be further loaded.
 Pressure in the controller will be reduced by escaping through

the open control valve.
 This reduction in pressure will be transmitted to the discharge

valve, causing it to move towards open.
 Pressure within the cabin will fall, and this means, therefore,
that the cabin altitude will increase.
If your answer contained these key points, you have really done well!
By operating the altitude selector knob in the opposite direction, the
crew can also decrease cabin altitude. Use Fig. 1 to satisfy yourself
that this reversal of operations will have the desired effect.
The crew would need to adjust the altitude selector knob carefully to
avoid any sudden pressure changes within the cabin which could
cause discomfort to the passengers.
MANUAL CONTROL - ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
In electrical or electronic pressurization system, the procedure for

operating the system manually is very similar, and to some extent
even simpler.
Fig. 2 on the next page shows the pressurization control panel for a
typical electronically controlled pressurization system for a modern
large passenger aircraft.
The mode select switch, which determines how the pressurization

system will be controlled, has two manual positions. This is because
the discharge valve has two separately controlled electric actuators
or motors. One is operated by the aircraft's a.c. electrical system and
the other by its d.c. electrical system. The crew can therefore elect to
use whichever system suits a particular set of circumstances for
manually controlling the pressurization system.
Page 22 of 51
MODE SELECT SWITCH
Fig. 2 PRESSURISATION CONTROL PANEL
The control panel also houses a switch which is labeled open/closed.

This switch is used to motor the discharge valve towards either
position under the influence of the electrical power system selected
on the mode switch. A valve position indicator above the switch
enables the crew to monitor the position of the discharge valve at all
times.
To summarize, then, manual control of a pressurization system

enables the crew to provide adequate pressurization of the cabin
should the system fail to operate automatically.
Now let us look at another feature of a typical pressurization system,

the dumping of cabin pressure.
EMERGENCY DUMPING - PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS
This feature, which allows the crew to reduce cabin pressure rapidly
under certain circumstances, consists of a gate type valve which
connects the pressurized area of the aircraft to atmosphere. The
valve is usually manually opened or closed by the crew remotely
from the flight deck.
Fig. 3 on the next page shows a typical dump valve for an aircraft
incorporating a pneumatic pressurization system.
Page 23 of 51
RAM AIR DUCT
VALVE
SPINDLE VALVE
OPERATING
ROD
SEAL
DUMP VALVE
V CLAMP
RAM AIR
EXHAUST
Fig. 3 DUMP VALVE
Before pressurization of the cabin can begin, the valve would need to
be closed. If during flight, the cabin began to fill with smoke or
fumes, the crew would gradually open the dump valve to allow a
fairly rapid escape of the smoke or fumes. This would; of course,
result in the cabin altitude rising above the level originally selected,
and unless controlled, would climb to an altitude high enough to
cause automatic deployment of passenger oxygen masks. Control of
cabin altitude by the crew under such circumstances, will largely
depend upon the situation requiring such action.
Dump valves will usually only be found on older aircraft which utilize
pneumatic control of the pressurization system.
Other uses for the dump valve include:-
 Reducing back pressure on engine driven superchargers by

opening the valve before starting engines.
 Manual control of cabin pressure if the discharge valve should

fail to open.
 Releasing any residual cabin pressure on landing.
Page 24 of 51
Give two additional uses for the dump valve when the aircraft is on
the ground.
(a)
(b)
Page 25 of 51
The clue here is that the aircraft is on the ground. The two additional
uses are:-
(a) To provide additional cabin ventilation, particularly useful in hot

climates if passengers happen to be kept waiting in their seats
before departure.
(b) To release cabin pressure following completion of a ground

pressure test.
EMERGENCY DUMPING - ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
Modern aircraft tend to use electrically controlled systems, and

manual control of the discharge valve(s) to the open position will
normally be sufficient to meet the dumping requirements. This is
particularly true of the larger aircraft where airflow rates through the
cabin are relatively high.
It now remains for us to consider one final emergency situation

requiring suitable treatment that in which the aircraft is forced to
land upon water - ditching.
DITCHING
Apart from any intakes or other orifices which are likely to allow
water into the aircraft structure, the main consideration is to ensure
that the discharge valves are closed before impact, and remain
closed to allow the aircraft to float long enough for the survivors to
escape.
Fig. 4 on the next page shows the arrangement of ditching controls

for a pneumatically controlled pressurized aircraft. Operation of the
ditching handle on the flight deck will close off the ram air intakes,
and raise ditching cocks at each discharge valve.
Page 26 of 51
CONTROLLER DITCHING COCK
DISCHARGER VALVE
DUMP
VALVE
DITCHING
HANDLE
DITCHING CONTROL
CABLES
DISCHARGE
VALVE
RAM AIR DICTS
Fig. 4 DITCHING CONTROLS
By taking a closer look at one of the discharge valve, shown below in

Fig. 5, we can see the results of the ditching cock being operated.
DITCHING
COCK
DUMP
VALVE
A/C SKIN LINE
Fig. 5 DISCHARGE VALVE
Page 27 of 51
Operation of the ditching handle in the flight deck will cause the
discharge valve ditching cock to be raised via the ditching cable
mechanism. This will allow water to flow into the upper chamber of
the discharge valve. On ditching, there will be water pressure acting
on both faces of the discharge valve body, but since the upper area
is greater, and is influenced by a spring, the valve will remain closed.
The dump valve will also have been closed whether or not the cabin
was pressurized before ditching. This ensures that the cabin remains
as watertight as possible after ditching, to allow time for the crew
and passengers to escape.
Page 28 of 51
SELF ASSESSMENT
1. Briefly describe how operation of the altitude selector knob on

a pneumatic pressure controller causes movement of the
discharge valve.
2. In an electrically controlled pressurization system, why is it

that manual control can be achieved by using either d.c. or a.c.
electrical power?
3. Give five reasons why the flight crew might wish to dump cabin
pressure.
Page 29 of 51
1. Operating the altitude selector knob on a pneumatic pressure

controller causes the internal mechanism to open or close the
interior of the controller to atmosphere via a static pipe. The
resulting pressure changes will be transmitted to the discharge
valve, causing it to open or close as selected.
2. By providing two separate electrical supply systems to operate

the pressurization system, failure of either electrical source will
still enable the crew to operate the discharge valve manually
via the serviceable power source.
3. Any five of these will do.
(a) To clear the cabin of smoke or fumes.
(b) To allow manual control of cabin altitude if the discharge

valve(s) fail to operate.
(c) To reduce back pressure on engine driven superchargers.
(d) To release residual cabin pressure on landing.
(e) To release cabin pressure following a ground pressure

test.
(f) To provide additional ventilation while the aircraft is on

the ground, usually in hot climates.
If you managed to answer the self assessment questions without too

much trouble, well done. You are now ready to deal with the final
booklet in this Module. If you had any difficulties, take another look
at the appropriate section.
SUMMARY
Let's now review the main points that we have covered in this
booklet:
 Manual control of a pressurization system is necessary if the

system fails to operate automatically.
 Manual control of pneumatic pressurization systems is achieved

by crew operation of the cabin altitude and/or ROC selector
knobs.
Page 30 of 51
 Manual control of electrically operated pressurization systems

is achieved by the crew manually selecting the electrically
driven discharge valves to the required position.
 Cabin pressure can be dumped or reduced by opening a dump

valve, or by manually opening the discharge valve(s).
 A separate ditching system, where fitted, allows the crew to

ensure that the discharge valve is firmly closed to prevent the
ingress of water.
RECOMMENDED READING
Civil Aircraft Inspection Procedures (CAIPs) Part II, Chapter AL/3-24.
Airframe and Power plant Mechanics Handbook, EA-AC 65-15A,

Airframe Handbook.
Aircraft Maintenance Manual, ATA Chapter 21.
If you are able to gain access to a pressurized aircraft, make a note

of the following. If not, use a pressurized aircraft Maintenance
Manual, ATA Chapter 21.
 What kind of manual control facilities are provided?
 What indications are provided in the flight deck for monitoring

the effects of manual control?
 How is the discharge valves operated in manual control?
 What facilities are provided for reducing cabin pressure rapidly?
 What facilities and procedures are available for ditching the

aircraft?
Page 31 of 51
BOOKLET:03
CONTENTS
Objectives/Advice 33
Introduction 33
Entrance Doors 34
Activity 1 40
Door Seals 41
Indications and Warnings 42
Activity 2 43
Emergency Hatches 44
Baggage/Cargo Compartment Doors 46
Access Panels and Hatches 46
Self Assessment 49
Summary 50
Page 32 of 51
OBJECTIVES/ADVICE
When you have completed this booklet you should be able to:-
 State the main design requirements for entrance doors in

pressurized aircraft.
 Describe the various types of door locking indication.
 Explain the potential danger associated with incorrectly

performed door opening procedures.
 Explain how doors and emergency escape hatches can be

prevented from being opened during flight.
 Explain the reasons why proper door adjustments are

necessary.
 Describe how pressurized area doors and hatches are sealed

against leakage.
 Sketch the operating principle of plug type doors and hatches

stating the main reason for their use.
The study time for this booklet is about one hour.
INTRODUCTION
To pressurize a sealed container with air, such as a scuba diver's air

supply tank, presents no real difficulties. When we consider the
pressurized area of a fuselage structure, however, and the need for it
to incorporate various access areas such as entrance doors, cargo
doors and emergency escape hatches, then the problems associated
with maintaining the required level of pressurization become
significantly greater. The main difficulties to consider are:
 Sealing access areas against leakage.
 Positive locking against inadvertent opening.
 Indications to the flight crew that access areas are closed.
 Warnings to the flight crew of unsafe locking of doors or

hatches.
Page 33 of 51
 The need for doors or hatches to be opened quickly and simply

in an emergency.
 Provision of a means of adjusting doors or hatches and their

mechanisms to ensure correct fitment and operation.
In this final booklet of this study plan, we shall examine the features
of the various types of access door and hatch to see how these
difficulties are dealt with.
First let us remind ourselves of the areas of the fuselage structure

which are usually pressurized. A typical example is shown in Fig. 1
PRESSURE REAR PRESSURE

BULKHEAD BULKHEAD
WING TORQUE BOX

(UNPRESSURISED)
Fig. 1 PRESSURISED AREA - TYPICAL
ENTRANCE DOORS
In this section we shall include in the discussion all major access

areas including:
 Passenger entry/exit doors.
 Service doors or doors which are used during the loading of

catering supplies, or cargo In the case of cargo only aircraft.
One of the safest methods of ensuring adequate sealing and to

prevent inadvertent opening during flight, is to design a door which is
slightly larger than the entrance so that when closed, the door fits
like a plug into the frame. Fig. 2 on the next page demonstrates this
principle.
Page 34 of 51
EXTERIOR
FUSELAGE DOOR FUSELAGE
CABIN INTERIOR
Fig. 2 PLUG DOOR CROSS SECTION
Such doors can usually only be opened inwards into the cabin, but
there are exceptions. The door shown in Fig. 3 on the next page is a
plug type door and therefore larger than the opening. However,
initial movement of the door opening handle will cause both the
upper and lower portions of the door to partially retract, and
simultaneously allow the hinge mechanism to position the door at an
angle to the entrance. At this angle, the door can be swung through
the entrance to lie flat against the outer fuselage skin.
Page 35 of 51
UPPER
GATE
ATITA
MODULE AS-05-02
Page 36 of 51
AIRFRAME
DOOR
GATE
FWD
INBO
STUDY PLAN: 11
REVISION: 00
DOOR OPENING SEQUENCE
Fig. 3 INWARD/OUTWARD OPENING PLUG TYPE DOOR

Doors on some of the larger wide bodied aircraft may be provided

with spring struts or electrical motors to provide assistance due to
their weight. The example shown in Fig. 4 opens inwards and
upwards into the cabin ceiling area to provide additional space. It can
be operated manually or electrically.
FLIGHT ATTENDANT’S
PANEL
DOOR
UP
DOOR
DOWN
DOOR OPEN
ELECTRICAL ASSIST
BUTTONS
DOOR
CLOSED
FUSELAGE CROSS SECTION
Fig. 4 MOTORISED DOOR AND CONTROL PANEL
A small viewing window is usually incorporated into the main

entrance doors to allow the flight attendant to ensure that the area
outside is clear of obstructions or personnel before opening the door
during routine disembarkation of the passengers.
Page 37 of 51
Door locking mechanisms can be extremely complex and are often

further complicated by the addition of other features such as:-
 Mechanically operated lock indicators.

 Differential pressure locks.
 Speed sensitive locks.
 Door escapes slide and automatic deployment mechanisms.
However complicated a particular door mechanism may be, it usually

relies upon the 'over-centre' or geometric lock principle to ensure
that the mechanism is positively locked, and can only be unlocked by
the door operating handle or lever.
Fig. 5 on the next page shows a door which incorporates most of the
usual features. The door is not of the plug type, but relies on six claw
catches which butt against the door frame when the door is closed
and locked.
The sequence of events when opening the door from inside the
aircraft is:
 Inner handle pulled inwards, releases secondary slide locks and

moves mechanical indicators to show red (unlocked), and
operates warning light micro switches.
 Rotating the door handle downwards operates the primary
(geometric) locking mechanisms and retracts the claw catches.
 The door, which hinges at its top edge, can then be pushed out
and upwards.
 A separate mechanism (not shown) holds the door in the open
position.
 If the door outer handle is used, the same sequence of
operations takes place, the secondary locking mechanism being
operated during initial rotation of the handle.
To close the door, the sequence is repeated in reverse. If a

differential pressure of 0.5 psi or more exists, the pressure lock
bellows will prevent the mechanism from being unlocked.
Due to their complexity, door operating mechanisms will invariably

include a means of adjustment. This permits the mechanism to be
correctly rigged during maintenance operations, and ensures that the
door can be adjusted to lie flush with the fuselage when closed.
Page 38 of 51
Fig. 5 MAIN DOOR OPERATING MECHANISM
Page 39 of 51
ACTIVITY 1
List four possible effects on aircraft performance should a pressurized

cabin door not lie flush with the fuselage skin.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Page 40 of 51
Your answer should include four of the following points.
(a) Increased drag.

(b) Turbulence, with possible effects on wing performance from
doors in front of the wing.
(c) Increased fuel consumption.
(d) Reduced range.
(e) Additional wind noise.
DOOR SEALS
One of the often neglected areas of a pressurized cabin door

concerns its sealing against pressure loss. Various sealing methods
may be employed but the more commonly used include a simple flat
section rubber seal which separates the pressurized area from
ambient pressure, and a one piece ‘P' section inflatable rubber seal.
In both cases differential pressure forces the seal against the door
frame. An example of both tyres is illustrated in Fig. 6.
SEAL DEFLECTOR
FALT SEAL
SEAL
DOOR
STRUCTURE SEAL RETAINER
INFLATABLE
SEAL
SEAL DEFLECTOR P SECTION SEAL
DOOR SEAL
RETAINER STRUCTURE
Fig. 6 DOOR SEALS
Page 41 of 51
The ‘P’ section seal has a series of perforations incorporated along its
length and these allow cabin pressure to be felt inside the seal. The
outer edge of the seal is in contact with the door frame and ambient
pressure, and therefore tends to inflate whenever a pressure
differential exists. The greater the pressure differential, the greater
the effectiveness of the seal.
Since the main entrance doors are subjected to a high level of traffic,
both passenger and maintenance staffs, the seals in these areas are
more likely to suffer damage which will have an adverse effect upon
their sealing abilities. It is therefore important to ensure that all
pressurized area seals are inspected frequently and replaced if
damaged, as not only will cabin pressure be allowed to escape, it will
invariably create noise when doing so, much to the annoyance of
passengers in the vicinity.
INDICATIONS AND WARNINGS
These will vary from aircraft to aircraft but will usually include the
following:
 Mechanically operated 'locked' or 'unlocked' indicators at each

door. The indicators usually comprise a colored disc or flag
which can be viewed from both the inside and outside surfaces
of the door.
 Electrically operated 'locked' or 'unlocked' indicators operated

by micro switches or electronic sensors in the door mechanism.
The switches or sensors will illuminate warning lights to
indicate that the door is unlocked, and these lights may be
situated on the flight deck and/or on a flight attendant's panel
located near the main entrances.
 Some warning system may include an aural warning of a door

unlocked situation to the flight crew.
In the interests of safety, knowledge of the opening and closing

sequences of a particular door is essential. Unless operated in the
correct sequence, initiation of the door opening sequence, initiation
of the door opening sequence could causes the inadvertent
deployment of an emergency escape slide and/or the operation of
built in powered air stairs.
Page 42 of 51
ACTIVITY 2
Before commencing a ground pressure test to check that the leak

rate is within limits:-
(a) In what position should internal doors (toilet, flight deck,

ovens, etc.) be placed?
(b) Why should this be so?
(a)
(b)
Page 43 of 51
(a) All internal doors should be placed in the open position to

prevent the likelihood of damage caused by a pressure
differential across such doors.
(b) Because internal doors tend to be relatively weak in structural

terms, if they were left closed even the slightest pressure
differential could cause distortion or damage.
EMERGENCY HATCHES
Although main entrance doors are used in an emergency, additional

doors or hatches are usually also provided and situated adjacent to
the wings. Because these escape hatches are normally only large
enough to allow one person at a time to climb through, they are
designed to be completely removed from their frames, to be placed
either outside on the wing, or somewhere inside the cabin,
dependent upon the escape procedure for a particular aircraft.
As with the main entrance doors, escape hatches can be opened from
either within the cabin or from outside. Since escape hatches are not
usually hinged, their opening/closing mechanisms tend to be less
complicated. However, the main features associated with an entrance
door, are included in the design of escape hatches, and on wide
bodied aircraft, may be large enough to serve as a 'normal' entrance,
Fig. 7 on the next page.
Page 44 of 51
STRIKER PIN
(FOR SLIDE MECHANISM) LATCH ROLLER
MAINTENANCE
EMERGENCY HANDLE
EXIT SIGNS
EMERGENCY
HANDLES
PULL
MAINTENANCE HANDLE
HANDLES
ESCAPE
HATCH
WINDOW
STOP
FITTING
ESCAPE HATCH
PIVOT FITTINGS
ASSIST
HANDLES
Fig. 7 EMERGENCY ESCAPE HATCH
The over wing emergency escape hatch shown in Fig. 7 is a typical

example and incorporates the following features:
 Plug type design.
 Simple to operate in an emergency.
 Hatch seal dependent upon differential pressure.
 Hatch closed and locked warning indications to flight crew.
 Automatically deploys escape slide when opened in an

emergency.
 Maintenance handle allows hatch to be without deploying

escape slide, useful during maintenance operations.
Page 45 of 51
BAGGAGE/CARGO COMPARTMENT DOORS
The design features of doors or hatches in this category depend

largely upon whether or not the area in which they are situated is
pressurized. In modern passenger carrying aircraft, these areas
usually are pressurized; therefore the doors or hatches need to meet
most of the requirements previously discussed.
Although such doors are only required for the loading of baggage or
cargo, the method of opening or closing should still be kept relatively
simple to reduce the possibility of errors by ground handling staff.
The larger cargo area doors, such as the example shown in Fig. 8,
will usually be electrically operated, being controlled from an
adjacent control panel in the fuselage structure.
PANEL ATTACH BOLTS
EXTERIOR CONTROL PANEL
INTERIOR
CONTROL
PANEL
Fig. 8 CARGO COMPARTMENT DOOR AND PANEL
As with passenger doors and escape hatches, cargo doors are

required to maintain the structural integrity of the fuselage when
closed. Their structure, operating mechanisms, and in particular their
latches, are so designed that pressurization loads are transferred to
the surrounding fuselage structure via the latch pins or claws.
ACCESS PANELS AND HATCHES
If located within the pressurized area, panels or hatches used for

gaining entry to areas for servicing or maintenance activities will be
of a similar design to emergency escape hatches. They will invariably
be of the inward opening plug type design to reduce the possibility of
their being lost through pressurization loads. Most will also be linked
to the 'door unsafe' electrical indication system. If not, they may
Page 46 of 51
have a mechanical means of ensuring their proper closure and be

included in the pilot's pre-flight check list for inspection. Fig. 9 shows
a typical service hatch.
FWD ACCESS PANEL
HOLD OPEN
LATCH
INTERIOR
HINGE LATCH
DOOR CLOSED SENSOR
PIN STOP
FWD
Fig. 9 ACCESS DOOR
Now that we have covered the basic requirements of doors, hatches,

and panels located within the pressurized area of an aircraft, let us
review the main points. The requirements are:
 Adequate sealing against pressurization loss.
 Plug type design.
 Positive locking against inadvertent operation.
 Simple opening procedures in the case of emergency hatches.
 Means of adjusting the operating mechanisms and hinges.
Page 47 of 51
 Indications to verify correct locking.
 Warnings to flight crew of an unlocked door or hatch.
 Structural integrity.
Page 48 of 51
SELF ASSESSMENT
1. Upon what principle do door locking mechanisms depend for

their efficiency?
2. How are doors or emergency escape hatches prevented from

being opened during pressurized flight?
3. What are the two main features of a door seal that ensure
maximum efficiency against pressurization losses?
(a)
(b)
4. Whilst emergency escape doors and hatches are deliberately

designed to be simply opened, why is it essential for you to be
familiar with the correct opening procedure on the ground?
5. How is the flight crew alerted to a door unlocked situation?
Page 49 of 51
1. The principle upon which doors rely for effective locking is

usually the geometric lock, sometimes referred to as an over-
centre lock.
2. To prevent hatches or doors from being opened during

pressurized flight, they are often fitted with a pressure lock,
usually comprising a bellows operated mechanism which is
sensitive to differential pressure.
3. The two main features of door seals to ensure maximum

sealing of the pressurized cabin are:
(a) The seal is in one piece, moulded to the shape and size
of the door.
(b) The seal is sensitive to differential pressures when the

door is closed.
4. If the proper procedure for opening an emergency· door whilst

the aircraft is on the ground is not followed, one may easily
cause injury to personnel or damage to escape slides and/or
rafts, and perhaps powered air stairs, during their subsequent
automatic deployment.
5. The crews are alerted to a door unlocked situation by warning

lights on the flight deck. The warning lights may also be
accompanied by an aural warning. The cabin crew can check
the situation by referring to their own warning light panel in
the cabin where fitted, or by checking individual door
mechanical indicators.
SUMMARY
You have now completed the final booklet in this study plan and,
provided you have made the effort to complete all the practical
activities and reading recommendations in the plan, you should have
a good understanding of pressurization systems. With this knowledge
you should be able to troubleshoot most systems, identifying the
faulty component(s).
Page 50 of 51
Ref: AS-05-02 AIRFRAME (Study Plan-11)
RECOMMENDED READING
Civil Aircraft Inspection Procedures (CAIPs)
Pt II Leaflet AL/3-24.
Airframe and Power plant Mechanics Handbook
EA-AC 65-15 A Airframe Book.
Aircraft Maintenance Manual
ATA Chapter 21.
If you have access to a pressurized aircraft, check the following

points. If not, refer to the aircraft Maintenance Manual Chapter 21.
 What type of main entrance door is fitted and what are the
opening and closing procedures on the ground?
 What indications are provided to show that the door is locked?

How is the door sealed?
 What emergency equipment is automatically deployed by

opening the door and how is this achieved?
 Are there any safeguards against opening the door during

pressurized flight?
 How do the emergency escape hatches differ from the main

door?
 What indications are provided to the flight crew and which

doors or hatches are affected?
 By what means are pressurization loads on the doors and

hatches transmitted to the fuselage structure?
51 of 51

ATA 21. Pressurization As-05-02 (PLAN-11)

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ATITA AIRFRAME STUDY PLAN: 11

MODULE AS-05-02 REVISION: 00

Maximum Differential Pressure 3

Negative Pressure Differential 8

Cabin Altitude and Rate of Change 10

Cabin Altitude Warning 13

Self Assessment Review 16

Suggested Practical Activities 17

 Explain what is meant by maximum differential pressure and

 State typical values of maximum differential pressure for

 Describe what happens when a pressurized aircraft both

 Explain what is meant by negative pressure and describe how it

 Define the requirements for controlling cabin altitude and rate

This booklet will take you about one hour to study.

Aircraft pressurization systems are designed to provide an

Under International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) conditions, the air

Aircraft design is dependent upon many factors, but particularly the

MAXIMUM DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE

The maximum differential pressure or Max. Diff. as it is more

It is essential in the interests of safety and prolonging the life of an

In pneumatically controlled pressurized systems found in smaller or

Fig. 1 PNEUMATIC PRESSURE CONTROLLER

Movement of the capsule is transmitted to the control valve (C) to

Pressure within the controller will now escape to atmosphere through

If the Max. Diff. capsule in the controller developed a slight leak,

Max. Diff. Back-Up

Fig. 2 DISCHARGE VALVE

The discharge valve incorporates a Max. Diff. valve which is set to a

Since cabin pressure is acting upon the lower surface of the

Not all pneumatically controlled pressurization systems use discharge

Fig. 3 PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE

In an electrically operated pressurization system where discharge

NEGATIVE PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL

Let us move on now to another problem that is liable to cause

We have seen that the fuselage structure needs to be designed to

Under what conditions would negative pressure differential

If an aircraft were flying at its cruise altitude, the pressure in the

Let us consider this condition.

To design a fuselage structure capable of withstanding any

Fig. 4 shows again the discharge valve we discussed earlier, note

Fig. 4 DISCHARGE VALVE WITH INWARD RELIEF VALVE

Fig. 5 shows inward relief panels fitted to a typical large, modern

CARGO DOOR SKIN

FWD CARGO DOOR

Fig. 5 NEGATIVE PRESSURE RELIEF

CABIN ALTITUDE AND RATE OF CHANGE

In order to ensure maximum passenger comfort at any particular

Under ISA conditions, the air pressure at an altitude of 8,000 ft is

The rate at which cabin altitude is changed must be controlled to

Some of the more sophisticated electronic pressurization systems

If your answer is approximately 6,500 ft cabin altitude well done, you

e.g., cabin altitude of 6,000 ft = 11.78 psi

CABIN ALTITUDE WARNING

We have seen in this Booklet, the need to maintain a cabin altitude

Although it would do the passengers no real harm to be subjected to

These cabin altitude switches will, when activated perform several

 Aural warning to the flight crew.

This now completes the information to be studied in this booklet, so

 Max. Diff. is the maximum allowable pressure difference across

 When the Max. Diff. value for a particular aircraft is reached

 In the event of failure of the system to control Max. Diff., back

 Negative pressure differential occurs when ambient pressure

 The rate of change of cabin pressure (ROC) must be controlled