SUMMARISE UNIT 8-10 ENGLISH

M
A
D
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BY:

Harry Kurnia
UNIT 8
Modal verbs
The modal verbs include can, must, may, might, will, would, should. They are used
with other verbs to express ability, obligation, possibility, and so on. Below is a list
showing the most useful modals and their most common meanings:

Modal Meaning Example

can to express ability I can speak a little Russian.
can to request permission Can I open the window?
may to express possibility I may be home late.
may to request permission May I sit down, please?
must to express obligation I must go now.
must to express strong belief She must be over 90 years old.
should to give advice You should stop smoking.
would to request or offer Would you like a cup of tea?
would in if-sentences If I were you, I would say sorry.

Modal verbs are unlike other verbs. They do not change their form (spelling) and
they have no infinitive or participle (past/present). The modals must and can need
substitute verbs to express obligation or ability in the different tenses.

Past Modals
Should have, could have, and would have are sometimes called “modals of lost
opportunity” because they describe situations when we are imagining that the past
was different.

Before we study those terms in the past, let’s review the difference
between should, could, and would. The general rule is:

 Should for recommendation / advice

“If you want to lose weight, you should eat healthy food.”
  Could for possibilities
“I have the day off tomorrow.”
“Great! We could spend the day at the beach. Or we could go shopping.”

 Would for imagining results

“If I were rich, I would buy a boat.”

Should Have

Use should have to say that a different action was recommended in the past.

If you arrive late to English class, you can say:

“I should have left my house earlier.”

If you regret an argument, you can say:

“I shouldn’t have yelled at you yesterday. I’m sorry.”

You can also use should have / shouldn’t have to tell other people that a different
action in the past would have been better. If your son fails a test, you can say:

“You should have studied. You shouldn’t have played video games all weekend.”

Could Have

Use could have to talk about possibilities if something had been different in the
past.

For example, someone who didn’t go to college can say:

“If I had gone to college, I could have gotten a better job.”

When talking about a gymnast who didn’t win a competition, you can say:

“She could have won the gold medal if she hadn’t fallen three times.”

Could have is often used with “if + had + past participle” (If I had gone / if she
hadn’t fallen) – these “if” phrases express the imaginary past situation. However,
in some cases you can use could have without the “if” phrase. Imagine you’re
driving with a person who makes a dangerous maneuver on the road. You can say:
“Are you crazy? We could have gotten into an accident.”

Would Have

Use would have to imagine a result (if something had been different in the past):

If you arrive late at the airport and miss your flight, you can say:

“If we had arrived earlier, we would have caught our flight.”

If you forget your umbrella, and it starts to rain, and you get wet, you can say:

“If I had brought my umbrella, I wouldn’t have gotten wet in the rain.”

Would have expresses more certainty about the result than could have:

“If I had worked harder, I could have gotten a promotion.”

(maybe I’d get a promotion… but maybe not)

On a test where you need 70% to pass:

“I got a 68 on the test. If I had gotten two more points, I would have passed.”
(with the two points, passing the test is CERTAIN)
UNIT 9
Use and non-use of articles
Definiteness

 A/n signals that the noun it modifies is indefinite, that it refers to any
member of a class.

 The signals that a noun is definite, that it refers to one particular member of
a class.

Thus, specifying phrases occur freely with the, but only in certain contexts with a.
The exception is when a noun is mentioned the first time. (See newness.)
Indefinite Definite

the dog
a dog
ie: the one in the
ie: any dog
corner

a book the book

ie: any ie: the one that I'm
book reading

Note: The is also used when what its noun refers to is unique.

The White House

The theory of relativity

The 1996 federal budget

Newness

 A/n is used to introduce a noun when it is mentioned for the first time in a
piece of writing.

 The is used afterwards, each time the noun is mentioned.

An award ceremony at the Metrodome would not

normally have attracted so much attention. Nonetheless,
when it was leaked that Clinton would be presenting
medals to three athletes, interest in the ceremony
intensified.

Specificity
Both a/n and the can indicate that the countable noun is referring to the whole
class. This use of articles is called generic, from the Latin word meaning "class."

Example Meaning

A snake may be a sign of the poisoning

every snake
society performs upon our values.

The snake is representative of strength, snakes as a

power, ferocity, and cunning. whole class

The difference between the indefinite a/n and the generic the is that the former
denotes any one member of a class while the latter denotes all the members.

To single out one particular member, the must be used:

The panda brought to the New York Zoo is a unique

example of his species.

Note: A generic (or general) meaning can also be expressed by omitting the article.
 Example Meaning

Plural Count
Tigers are fearful animals. all tigers
Noun

Anger is a destructive all sorts of

Noncount Noun
emotion. angers

Omission of Articles
While some nouns combine with one article or the other because they are
countable or noncountable, other nouns simply never take either article:

 Names of languages: Chinese, English, Spanish.

 Names of sports: volleyball, basketball, soccer.

 Names of academic subjects: mathematics, biology, political science.

Different ways of giving emphasis

1.Intensifiers

Absolutely,completely,really,so

We use these words to add emphasis to adjectives.

+Her new book is absolutely brilliant.

+it’s so annoying.

Absolutely and completely are usually used only with ungradeable adjectives (for
example fantastic,awful,etc)which already describe am extreme or absolute quality.

+The weather was absolutely perfect.(Not Absolutely good)

+The second half of the match was completly awful.(Not completely bad)
FAR
Far is used for emphasis with too +adjective or too much/many +noun.

+It’s far too much trouble.

We also use far with comperative adjectives.

+Your’re far taller than I’d expected.

2 so and such

So is used before adjectives to intensify them.

Such is used before an adjective +noun.

We’re having such beautiful weather!

a/an are used after such.

Notice that with much/many +noun,we use so.

+We’ve had so much problems!

+it takes so much time!

3 Use of auxiliary verbs

We often add an auxiliary verb in the positive for emphasis.
+your father does make me laugh.
We also use auxiliary verbs in the positive to emphasis a contrast.
+Donna is a vegetarian ,but she does eat fish.
4.Emphatic questions
Informally,we can use the phrase on earth after a wh- question word to
emphasise surprise,annoyance,or the fact that we do not know the
answer to a question.
You’re over two hours late-where on earth have you been?

Unit 10
Direct speech and Reported speech
Direct speech is a representation of the actual words someone said. A direct speech
report usually has a reporting verb in the past simple. The most common reporting
verb is said. The reporting clause may come first or second.

reporting clause first reported clause reporting clause second

Jimmy said, ‘Let me have a look.’

Then the child asked, ‘Are there any toys?’

‘Hand it over at once!’ he demanded.

‘I believe that too,’ she added.

The reporting clause may sometimes come in the middle of the reported clause,
especially in literary styles:
“No,” she said, “I’ve never seen it before.”

‘Was it,’ he asked, ‘the first time you had spoken to Mrs Dalton?’

We can use adverbs with the reporting verb to describe the way someone said
something. This is more common when the reporting clause comes second:

“I will not accept it!” he said angrily.

‘Can I speak to the doctor?’ she asked rather nervously.

See also:

 Reported speech: punctuation

 Reported speech: reporting and reported clauses

Direct speech: inversion of subject and reporting verb

In narratives, especially novels and short stories, when the reporting clause comes
second, we often invert the subject (s) and reporting verb (v):

“Things have always been the same in this village,” [V]said [S]the old man.

‘Hold on! I’m coming!’ [V]cried [S]Maurice.

Direct speech: present simple and continuous reporting verbs

Informal narratives

In informal conversation, we sometimes use the present simple in the reporting

clause. This makes the direct speech more vivid and dramatic:

So then this guy says, “I’ve got something for you. Come over here.” And he
picked up a box and he says, “Open that.”

We can make the direct speech even more vivid and dramatic by using the present
continuous. This is very informal:
And he’s looking at me and he’s asking, “Who are you?” and I said, “I’m your
nephew” and he’s mumbling, “I don’t know you. I’ve never seen you before in my
life.”

In very informal conversation, people sometimes use says as a reporting verb for
all persons (I, you, she, he, we, they):

She says, ‘What’s going on here?’ and I says, ‘Nothing. There’s nothing happening
– everything’s okay.’

Warning:

Many speakers consider the above examples to be incorrect. This applies especially
to the use of says with all persons.

Newspaper headlines

We also use the present simple in newspaper headlines. This makes the reported
words more dramatic:

‘I WON’T RESIGN,’ SAYS MINISTER

See also:

 Go

 Like

 Say or tell?