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Marine Engineering Roy L Harrington 1971 PDF
Marine Engineering Roy L Harrington 1971 PDF
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a Group of Authorities I
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ROY L. HARRl NGTON I
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Engineering Technical Pepartmelit
Newport News Shipbuilding and
Published by
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THE S ~ C I E OF
~ Y NAVAL ARCHITECTS AND MARINE ENGINEERS I
One World Trade Center, Suite 1369, New York, N.Y. 10048
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Since 1942 and 1944 when the two volumes of MARINEENGINEERING were published, the
basic body of knowledge constituting marine engineering has greatly increased. Recognizing
that the original MARINEENGINEERING was substantially out of date, the Society in 1964 under-
took the task of compiling a reviged edition. That same year a Control Committee was ap-'
pointed by the president to guide the revision, carrying on the objective of the original work,
that of producing a comprehensive treatise reflecting the important technical progress of the
last several decades. Also, the intent is that this text should complement the Society's two com-
panion volumes, Principles of Naval Architecture and Ship Design and Construction, which deal
similarly with the subjects of naval architecture and ship construction practices.
When the task of revising the original MARINEENGINEERING was undertaken, it was quickly
found to be considerably larger in scope than anticipated. The original text had to be com-
pletely rewritten, not simply revised. At the putset, it was decided that, for ready use and
reference, the text should be a single volume limited to about 850 pages. Therefore, discussion
of engineering subjects.covered in other textbooks had to be greatly abbreviated. Every effort
. has been made, however, throughout the text to make reference to appropriate source material
for the individual or self-taught reader as well as the resourceful teacher (who may in some
cases prefer to use his own references).
Each chapter is written by a separate author (or authors). The committee felt that this
precept should be continued because of the advantages of professional specialization it affords.
Some unevenness in style results, but this has been minimized by the technical editor. In
May, 1968, Mr. Roy L. Harrington was selected as technical editor by the committee. Mr.
Hanington received a Society scholarship in 1960 to pursue an M.S. degree in marine engineer-
ing and also has had twelve years of technical ship design experience in a major shipyard. With
this background, plus his extensive literary capability, he was considered well equipped to
bridge the academic and the practicing professional points of view of the Society members.
This book is not intended to be either a handbook or conversely a definitive text on any specific
engineering discipline which may be used in marine engineering. Its purpose is to acquaint a
person already familiar with basic engineering fundamentals with the various engineering dis-
ciplines and applications which constitute marine engineering. The need for such a book becomes
apparent when it is recognized that many practicing marine engineers have had little formal
education in the field of marine engineering as such, but instead have come into it from other
related engineering activities.
The Control Committee appointed to guide the revision of MARINEENGINEERING consisted of:
Ernst G. Frankel
Jens T. Holm
William E. Jacobsen
John R. Kane
John H. Lsscaster '
Lauren S. McCready
Andrew I. McKee
Laskar Wechsler
John B. Woodward I11
@ Copyright 1971 by Robert E. Yohe
The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers
Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 78472362
Printed in the United States of America
Second Printing 1976
TMrd Printing 1980
There have been so many technological advancements since the original MARINEENQINEER-
INQ was published that the'content of this book bears little similarity to the original text. For
example, in a manner of speaking, a nuclear power chapter has been substituted f o ~the old
reciprocating steam engine chapter, and other differences are almost as dramatic. However,
the same basic philosophy was used in writing both works except that, insofar as practicable,
this text covers naval practice in addition to merchant practice.
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In order to ensure that this book is comprehensive and factual, and accurately represents the
consensus of opinion of the marine industry as a whole, the chapters were subjected to a series
of reviews. After the manuscripts were prepared by the authors and reviewed within their
respective organizations, they were then reviewed by the editor, Control Committee, and selected
members of the marine industry who were experts in each particular area. The entire Sociehy
, owes a large debt of gratitude to this last group as they were largely responsible for transforming
good manuscripts into excellent manuscripts.
With few exceptions, it is a gross injustice to suggest that the chapters have been prepared
by only the authors indicated. In several cases, the contributions of single individuals who
assisted were almost as large as that of the author; and in $1 cases, the comments and discussion
I provided by the Control Committee and other members of the marine industry were an invaluable
asset. Mr. John Markert (author of Chapter 19) accurately expressed the sentiment of the
chapter authors when he stated that the generous cooperhtion and assistance received from the
- numerous contributors, often persons not acquainted with the author, were a revelation; it
should, however, be noted that such cooperation is characteristic of the marine fraternity.
An accurate listing of those who assisted in the preparation of this book would include many
names. Several hundred people made direct contributions (by assisting in the preparation of
manuscripts, supplying reference material, reviewing manuscripts, or supplying illustration
material); and when those who made indirect contributions are added, the number of names
would become even larger. - It is, however, considered proper to acknowledge some of the con-
tributions as follows:
Mr. Catlin (Chapter 3) acknowledges the valuable contributions of Mr. George W. Kessler,
vice resident. Babcock & Wilcox. Mr. L. E. Triggs, chief engineer, Marine Dept., Combustion
n ~ , Mr. W. I. signell, chief marine engineer, J. J. Henry Co., Inc., and Professor
~ n ~ i h e e r i~nc.,
J. T. Holm, Webb Institute of Naval Architecture, in the development of the chapter dealing
with boilers and combustion.
Dr. Illies (Chapter 8) states that he received help from a large number of individuals while
preparing the low-speed directrcoupled diesel engine chapter. The material that was made
available by diesel engine manufacturers (MAN, Fiat, Sulzer, Burmeister and Wain, Gotaverken,
, Stork, and Doxford) was particularly helpful as was the valuable advice and personal assistance
that ww provided by Mr. Klaus Knaack.
Mr. Semar (Chapter 9) acknowledges the contributions made by Mr. W. S. Richardson, the
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Falk Corporation, Mr. Norman A. Smith, General Electric Company, and Mr. Frederic A.
Thoma, DeLaval Turbine, Inc., in the development of the chapter on reduction gears.
Mr. J. F. Sebald (Chapter 13) acknowledges the valuable contributions made by Mr. P. D.
Gold of the Worthington Corporation, Mr. William J. Bow of the Foster Wheeler Corporation
and Mr. J. J. Biese of the Ingersoll Rand Co. h providing illustrations and for their critical
review of the manuscript. The cooperation of the Heat Exchange Institute and The American
t Society of Mechanical Engineers in permitting the publication of technical data and the techni-
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cal support provided by Gilbert Associates, Inc. are also gratefully acknowledge4.
Messrs. Smith and Nickerson (Chapter 16) gratefully acknowledge the assistance provided
by Mr. A. Taplin of the Naval Ship Engineering Center, who prepared the active fin stabilizer
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section of the hull machinery chapter.
Mr. Stephenson (Chapter 18) gratefully notes that the machinery arrangement illustrations
and many of the piping diagram illustrations in the piping systems chapter were included with
the permission of Mr. W. L. Baptie of American Mail Line, Ltd.
The typical chapter author is a highly competent engineer who enjoys his field of specializa-
tion and has devoted the majority of his life to it. By studying the various chapters, it will
become apparent that a book such as this is published only once per generation.
Division 1
1'
Introductory
Chapter I GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS I N MARINE ENGINEERING
J. R. KANE,
Director of Engineering, Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company
Power Plants
I Chapter I1 THERMODYNAMICS AND B E A T ENGINEERING
Jws T. HOLM,
Professor, Webb Institute of Naval Architecture
J. B. WOODWARD
111, Professor, University of Michigan
I Page PW~
1. Review of Fundamentals. .............. 38 4. External Thermodynamics of the Steam
2. Heat Transfer in Boilers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Internal Thermodynamics of the Steam
Tutbine. ...........................
/ Turbine ............................ 55
5. ~herniod~namics of steam Cycles. . . . . . . 61
/ 49 6. Waste Heat from Diesel and Gas Turbine
i Engines ............................ 73
b
Chapter I11 BOILERS AND COMBUSTION
EVERETT
A. CATLIN,~ a x i n Engineer,
e The Babcock & Wilcox Company
pa@
1. Classification of Marine Seam Generatom 78 3. Boiler Pesign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2. Considerations in the Selection of a Boiler 90 4. Boiler Operation.. ..................... 125
I page
Page
1. Basic Fundamentals. .................. 130 3. . Nuclear Propulsion Applications. . . . . . . . 149
2, Reactor Design Considerations. . . . . . . . . 138
vii
I ELECTRIC PROPULSION DRIVES
Chapter X
unrtpucr v STEAM TURB1,NES 1
WILLIAMI. H. BUDD,Assistant to Manager of Engineering, Marine Systems, DeLaval Turbine, Inc. W. E. JACOBBEN,
Manager, Marine Systems Engineering, General Electric Company
Turbine Control.. .................... 1. Introduction.. ........................ 334 4. The Turbine Alternating-Current Drive
1. Nonreheat Main Propulsion Turbines. .. 180
2. The Diesel Direct-Current Drive System. 339 System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
2. Reheat Main Propulsion Turbines. ..... Rotors and Blades. .................. 185
Norzlea, Diaphragms, and Stationary 3. The Turbine Direct-Current Drive System 347 5. The Diesel Alternating-Current Drive
3. Main Propulsion Turbine-Nuclear
Cycle. ............................. Blading.. .......................... 190 System. ........................... 356
Casings &adPackings. ................ 193 6. Electric Couplings.. ................... 360
4. Combined Steam and GaB Turbine Main
Propulsion Cycles. ................. Lubrication and Bearings. ............ 196
5. Turbine Speed, Number of Stages, Di- Main Propulsion Turbine Operation. . . . 199
mensions. ....................... : . Auxiliary Turbines. .................. 201 Chapter XI PROPELLERS, SHAFTING, AND
SHAFTrNG SYSTEM VIBRATION ANALYSIS
C. L. LONG,
Assistant Chief Engineer, Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company
Chapter VI GAS TURBINES Page Page
. A. 0. WHITE, Manager, Advanced Applications Unit, Medium ~k Turbine Operation, General b- 1. Introduction.. ........................ 362 b5. Bearings.. ............................ 379
Electric Company I 2. Arrangement Considerations.. . . . . . . . . . . 365 e 6 . Propellers. ........................... 384
p - 3 . Shafting Loads.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 -7. Torsional Vibration.. .................. 388
' '/4. Shafting Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 8. Longitudinal Vibration.. ............... 393
1. Basic Considerations.. .................. 206 6. Axial-Flow Compreseor Design. . . . . . . . . 225 9. Whirling Vibration.. ................... 397
2. Arrangement and Structural Details. . . . . . 213 7. Turbine Design and Construction. ...... 229
3. Accessories. ........................... 218 8. Combustion Systems. ................. 235
4. Controls. ............................. 219 9. Bearings, Seals, and Lubrication. ....... 239
5. Centrifugal Compressor Design. ......... 222
Division 4
Auxiliary Co~aponents
MEDIUM AND HIGH-SPEED DIESEL ENGINES PUMPS, FORCED-DRAFT BLOWERS,
LASKARWECHBLER,Technical Director, Machinery Systems ~ i v i s i o n ,Naval ship ~ n ~ i n e e r i n ~ COMPRE$SORS, AND EJECTORS
G. W. SOETE,
Supervisor, Centrifugal Pump Engineering Departmen;t, DeLaval Turbine, Inc.
ELECTRIC PLANTS
Chapter XXII CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
W. LEE WILLIAMB, Assistant Bead, Materiala Department, Naval Ship Research and Development
Laboratory, Annapolis, Maryland
M. ROBERTGROSS,Head, Materials Engineering Branch, Materials Department, Naval Ship Re-
1. Introduction.. ........................ 605 6. Lighting and Power Distribution. ... :... 640 search and Development Laboratory, Annapolis, Maryland
2. Generating Plants. .................... 607 7. Interior Communications.. ............. 654 Page Page
3. Switchboards and Panels. .............. 614 8. Electronic Navigation and Radio
4. Powe~Equipment. .................... 621 Communication..................... 659 1. Prefacing Remarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810 5. Applications of Materiala.. .............. 824
5. Lighting Fixtures and Equipment. ...... 635 9. Wiring Application and Methods. ....... 663 2. Corrosion of Metals.. .................. 810 6. Glossary of Metallurgical Terms Used in
3. Fatigue ............................... 817 Materials Engineering.. .............. 835
4. Behavior at Elevated Temperatures. .... 821
Chapter XVIII PIPING SYSTEMS
E. E. STEPHENBON,Manager, Piping Design '~epartment,Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Chapter XXIII PETROLEUM FUELS
Dock Company
CARLE. HABERMANN, Manager, Technical Services, Marine Sales Department, Mobil Sales and
Supply Corporation
', 1. Machinery Space Arrangement.. ........ 670 " '2. Piping Design Details.. ................ 676
;'3. Piping Systema........................ 682 Page Page
1. Fuel Manufactureand Characteristics. ... 842 2. Fuel Procurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853
1 General Considerations in
J. R. Kane
I Marine Engineering
Section 1
Introduction
The first efforts to apply mechanical power to the Ocean engineering. The conception, design, construc-
propulsion and operation of ships date back to the early tion, and operation of vehicles, submersibles, and fixed
oighteenth century, nearly concurrent with the start of or floating structures and their integration into systems
the Industrial Revolution. By the beginning of the for the conduct of oceanographic research, exploration of
nineteenth century, almost a full century before the ocean resources, and the utilization of ocean resources
Wright brothers made their first sporadic flights in a are encom~assedin this categorv.
glider at Kitty Hawk, ~ t e a m - ~ r o ~ e ships
ied
had become a commercial reality, and marine engineering The division of responsibilities between the naval
was born. Considering such an early beginning, it architect and the marine engineer differs from one
mems paradoxical to have to say now, well along in the activity to another. However, the marine engineer is,
in general, responsible for the engineering systems
twentieth century, that it is difficult, if not impossible,
to write a definitive text on the subject. Such is the required to propel, work, or fight the ship. More
case, however, since the field continues to enter new specifically, the marine engineer may be responsible for
oras of activity and evolution. the main propulsion plant, the powering and mechaniza-
tion aspects of ship functions such as steering, anchoring,
One of the reasons this subject is difficult to treat is
that ships have never been simple products but, to the cargo handling, heating, ventilation, air conditioning,
oontrary, require an exceptional number of specializa- electrical power generation and distribution, interior and
tions to plan, design, and build. Thus marine engineer- exterior communication, and other related requirements.
ing is not as simply categorized as, for example, civil, The naval architect, in general, is primarily concerned
machanical, electrical, or chemical engineering, but is anwith the hydrodynamic and hull form characteristics of
integrated engineering effort comprising parts of many the ship, the structural design of the hull, the control
ongineering disciplines directed to the development and aspects of the vehicle, habitability considerations and the
dosign of systems of transport, warfare, exploration, and ability to survive and endure in the service environment.
tlstural resource retrieval which have only one thing in The naval architect, assisted in appropriate areas by the
earnmon; namely, that they operate in or upon the marine engineer, is responsible for the overall arrange-
crurface of a body of water. ment or configuration of the ship extending to both the
The field of engineering activity designated as naval exterior and interior arrangements. I n addition, the
wrohitecture and marine engineering is concerned with at naval architect is generally charged with the responsi-
let~stthe following areas: bility for the overall esthetics of the design, the interior
decoration, and the general suitability and pleasing
Inland waterway and ocean transportation. The con- quality of the architecture.
usplion, design, construction, and operation of vehicles Certain aspects of the design of marine vehicles are
utilizing the waterways and oceans, especially the ocean difficult gto clearly assign as the responsibility of either
murfaces, for transportation of commodities, goods, and the naval architect or the marine engineer. The design
personnel, are included in this category. The integration of propellers or propulsors is one of these, being in the
of tho operation of these vehicles with land transport& minds of some a hydrodynamic device in the domain of
tion via harbor and terminal facilities is an extremely the naval architect, and in the minds of others to be an
I hportant consideration. In the case of small boats, energy conversion device similar to pumps, turbo-
ymbts, and cruise ships, transportation may be secondary machinery, and the like, thus in the sphere of the marine
h lsi~ureor sport as an objective. engineer. Hull vibration, excited by the propeller or by
Naval engineering. This category includes the con- the main propulsion plant, is another such area. Noise
aegt,ion, design, construction, and operation of naval reduction and shock hardening, in fact dynamic response
rtcrfaoo ships and submarines and their integration into of structures or machinery in general, usually must be
wsrf~bre systems. Means of appraising the military the joint responsibility of both the naval architect and
effrotivenessof these systems and the optimal utilization the marine engineer. Cargo handling, cargo pumping
of thoir properties are major considerations. systems, environmental control, habitability ,. hotel
2 MARINE ENGINEERING
1
I GENERAL' CONSIDERATIONS 3
services, and numerous other such aspects of ship design consider a larger number of factors, the computer makes c o w o n fuel. The steam turbine and diesel engine were longer. After the war, oil found preference either as
all involve joint responsibility and interfacing between mathematical simulation of complex problems feasible yet to make their debut. diesel engine fuel or for raising steam. It also reduced
the naval architect and the marine engineer. and is leading to a better optimization of designs. The decade from 1893 to 1903 was a period rich in crew requirements and made fuel storage an easier task.
The traditional distinctiowbetween naval architecture Furthermore, due to the period of large-scale industrial marine engineering development. The early recipro- The historical developments noted in the foregoing
and marine engineering in t k multifarious aspects of development into which we have entered, there is oating steam engine reached the point of development of were beginnings which, when viewed against the tech-
ship selection, design, construction, and operation are increasing acceptance of the principle of planned the six-cylinder quadruple-expansion engines of 10,000 niques and materials available a t the time, were magnifi-
tending to disappear, to be replaced by broader concepts technology which affects systems of all sorts, including indicated horsepower supplied with steam by Scotch cent conceptions. No effort has been made here to
of systems engineering and analysis. Because of the marine transportation, oceanography, and recovery of boilers a t 200 pounds pressure. The use of electric include the full roster of great names and pioneer events
multidisciplined nature of marine engineering and naval ocean or ocean-bottom resources. power generated by engine-driven "dynamos" a t 100 to in marine engineering. However, some familiarity with
architecture, they have been particularly affected by the By surveying the series of inventions and innovations I
112 volts was increasing rapidly. Water tube boilers, the background of the early days in marine engineering
impact of the explosive growth of technology during which have established the present state of the art of which would eventually replace the Scotch boiler on the is highly recommended for those entering this field to
recent years. Prevalent use of the electronic computer marine engineering, it becomes apparent that engineering seas, had become established in England and in the develop an appreciation of the hopes and disappoint-
has been particularly influential, in that complex rnathe- in the ocean environment is characteristically a dynamic, United States. ments, the dreams and disillusionments, and the blood
matical analyses once considered prohibitively laborious continuously advancing technology. As a result, this An important milestone in marine engineering was the and sweat which lie behind the present state of the art
are now routinely made. By providing the ability to text must be considered an interim report of the processeis development, by Sir Charles A. Parsons, of the first [I-81.
rapidly conduct an increased number of computations, that are developing in a broadening marine engineering successful application of the steam turbine for marine 2.2 Broader Concepts-Systems Analysis. The
readily store and analyze data, and simultaneously field. propulsion; this was accomplished aboard the Turbinia, concept which motivated the majority of the early
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a small vessel similar to a torpedo boat. The rotative attempts in marine engineering was quite simple; namely,
speed of the Turbinia's three series turbines was about to develop a superior system to overcome the vagaries of
I 2000 rpm, and they were coupled directly to relatively the wind and the feebleness of muscle power in the
Section 2 primitive screw propellers in a triple shaft arrangement. propulsion of ships. However, marine engineering to-
Parsons was dismayed on his earliest trials to discover day entails much broader system requirements and con-
Concepts and Concept Formulation that the wheels more or less "bored a hole in the water," cepts than most developments of that time. By way of
developing disappointingly low driving thrust. Much introduction, one particular historical undertaking is
2.1 Early History. In about the year 1712, an en- and France, and a t least seven reasonably practical developmental work was necessary before this new given special note since it contained, in a primitive way,
terprising blacksmith from Dartmoor, England, by the steamboats were developed before 1807 when Robert prime mover was successfully adapted to the require- elements of systems analysis.
name of Thomas Newcomen, successfully developed a Fulton inaugurated the first commercially successful use ments of marine propulsion. In 1776, a year which should strike a familiar note with
rudimentary steam engine for the purpose of pumping of steam marine propulsion in the small wooden paddle In what must certainly be considered one of the most Americans, a Connecticut Yaxikee named David
water out of mines. This engine consisted essentially of wheel vessel Clermont [I]. The Clermont operated up the earliest efforts at model tank testing of propellers, Bushnell built the Turtle, the first submersible craft to
a single-acting piston working in a vertical open-topped Hudson River from New York to Albany, a distance of Parsons investigated the subject of cavitation and make an undersea attack during warfare. The Turtle of
cylinder. The piston was packed with hemp since the 150 miles, in about 32 hr. succeeded in redesigning his propellers (three per shaft the American Revolution, so called because it could be
state of the metal-working art was very primitive and a Although paddle wheel vessels were promptly adopted were ultimately employed) such that in 1897 a t a naval likened to two turtle shells clamped together, was built
tolerance of about one-sixteenth inch out of round or for river service, twelve years elapsed after the launching review of the British fleet a t Spithead, England, the of barrel staves and iron, contained ballast tanks which
"the thickness of a thin sixpence" was about the best of the Clermont before the steamer Savannah made the Turbinia astounded the British admirals by steaming were flooded to submerge, and was moved by primitive
that could be expected. The piston was connected to first ocean voyage from America to Europe. It should past smoothly a t a speed of 34 knots, belching smoke like spiral screws. Reference [8] contains an interesting
one end of a rocker arm by a chain without a piston rod be noted, however, that even in this instance the an angry bull tossing dust. Lord Kelvin described this description of the Turtle and its precocious concepts.
or guide. The differential working pressure was derived machinery was not operated continuously during the development as "the greatest advance made in steam The Turtle was not by any means the first successful
primarily from the vacuum which was created below the outbound leg of the trip and the inbound leg was made ongine practice since the time of James Watt" [4]. submersible craft, but was one of the most significant,
piston by water spray into the steam space a t the end of under sail. Prior to 1893, a number of internal-combustion engines since among other things it was one of the earliest, and
the upstroke. The steam and water valves were worked The era of the paddle wheel steamships reached a were attempted using anything from gunpowder to gas. perhaps boldest, attempts to develop a military system
by hand. Some sixty years later, radical improvements climax about 50 years later when the steamship Great One of these was a radically different type of engine in involving an evolutionary marine vehicle.
were made by James Watt, whose name is more frequently Eastern was built. This was a steel-hulled vessel almost which the combustion air charge was compressed to a The operational concept of the Turtle d i e r e d some-
associated with the early development of the steam 700 f t long and 22,000 tons burden, which is large even pressure and temperature above the ignition point of the what from most other inventions of that era since it
engine. I n the course of time, numerous other.improve- today for a cargo vessel, and which had the principal fuel; it was patented by Dr. Rudolf Diesel, a German related in a primitive way to an entire system. It was
ments followed, of which the most important was fault that it was too advanced for its time. engineer, in 1892. There were very serious Wculties intended that the pilot dive the vessel under the water
probably the double-acting inverted vertical engine The introduction of the screw propeller in 1837, which to be overcome with the diesel engine, development in order to evade lookouts on an enemy vessel, attach a
which proved to have so many advantages that it has was a revolutionary development, similarly did not proceeded slowly, and it was not until fifteen to sixteen time-delayed explosive mine to the ehip's bottom, and
remained standard ever since. immediately displace sailing vessels. As late as 1860 years later that a successful commercial diesel enginc of make a safe escape. The initial target of the Turtle was
Accounts of the work of men such as Savery, the speed of the best clippers still exceeded that of any 25 hp was produced. Once this had been achieved, Admiral Howe's 64-gun flagship, HMS Eagle. The
Newcomen, Papin, and Watt in connection with the steams hi^ and the greater d art of the work a t sea con- however, rapid progress waq made, and in a few years story of this initial venture is fascinating; the Turtle did
invention and development of steam engines are truly tinued td be accomilished inder sail. many firms in Continental Europe were actively building not in fact succeed, kt.it came perilously close to doing
exciting [I, 2,3].l Despite the much earlier development diesel engines with as much as 500 hp per cylinder. so. George Washington wrote to Thomas Jefferson a t
of steam engines, their application to the propulsion of B y the year 1893, the year of the founding of The
Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, the Already a t that early date experimental cylinders of the time of the Turtle, "I then thought and still think
ships was not undertaken until about 1784. Attempts 2000 horsepower were under test. that it was an effort of genius, but that many things were
to adapt the early steam engines to ship propulsion were screw propeller.. driven by a triple-expansion steam
engine had become the,predominant means of propulsion The challenge to the coal-fired low-pressure recipro- necessary to be combined to expect much from the issue
carried out almost simultaneously in America, Scotland, aating steam engine came from the steam turbine and the against an enemy who are always upon guard" [91.
of seagoing ships although t addle wheels were still used
with river-and- excursion steamers. Steam was almost 'dio~elengine about the same time a t the turn of the Although the development of the first ironclads, the
aantury. World War I retarded developments, however, Merrimac and the Monitor, almost a century later had
Numbers in brackets designate References at end of chapter. universally produced by Scotch boilers and coal was the
etld maintained the supremacy of coal for a little while probably a more revolutionary effect on the evolution of
MARINE ENGINEERING GENERAL CONSIDERA'I'IONS 5
I
STATE intuitive perception and upon chance. Today, in this the term for such a process when limited to basic expression denotes a measure of the degree to which the
SYSTEM
age of institutionalized knowledge and electronic com- engineering processes. Systems analysis is the more achievement of the tasks or missions of a system (e.g.,
OBJECTIVES
puters, such factors are still important, but are being general term for the process when social and economic revenue earned or national protection provided) has
largely transcended by systematized approaches and by factors in addition to basic engineering processes are been maximized relative to the costs associated with the
DETERMINE
team activity. The ship, which once was viewed as a included. Operations research is the name of the process system. Since the effective life of a ship is approxi-
CONSTRAINTS highly subjective entity, possessed of feminine and when operability, that is, the optimum deployment or mately twenty to twenty-five years, a period long
almost human attributes, is now looked upon more utilization of components, men, and machines, is the enough for economic and political factors to undergo
objectively as a link in a transportation system, a principal objective. Work study is another term of substantial change, the projection of life cycle costs
military platform, or as a medium in a system of trans- related connotation, although in this case the emphasis associated with ships is inherently less accurate than life
ferring people, commodities, national presence or I
is placed on optimum utilization of man, and reduction cycle cost estimates made in connection with vehicles
authority, and the like from one point to another. in manning requirements, by taking a fresh look at work such as automobiles or aircraft which have a much
-- DELINEATE
SYSTEM
REQUIREMENTS
- From a functional point of view, a ship is a most patterns and habits that have come to be taken for shorter life cycle. When conducting life cycle cost
analyses with ships, which are relatively long lived,
complex vehicle which must be self-sustaining in its granted.
considerably more importance must be attached to the
\:
r
DELINEATE
DESIGN - I element for long periods of time with a high degree of The objectives and constraints upon which the policy
events which occur during the early stages of the ship's
REQUIREMENTS i confidence. A ship is perhaps the most multipurpose for systems analyses is based have differing motivations
DEVELOP vehicle having more built-in functions than any other for military systems and for merchant marine transport life. There is little question that the basic vehicle will
DESIGN
type; and, as a part of a transportation or military systems; but in both instances they ultimately reduce to perform satisfactorily for a 25-year life; however, there
ALTERNATIVES
system, the ship envelope contains a greater variety of
1
have been' many cases in which ships have been re-
the same base-cost effectiveness. I n the case of
~r
- PERFORM
TRADE-OFF - components than any other vehicle in the system. A merchant systems, the proposed system must be cost
equipped, modernized, jumboized, converted, etc., a
-- STUDIES ii
ship's mechanical, electrical, and structural systems are 1
effective as compared to other potential investments in
number of times during their lives. As a result, the
\ = ESTABLISH
OPTIMUM -
L
quite complex and are further complicated by the fact order to command the necessary venture capital under
credibility of projections for the first five or ten years of
a ship's life are considerably better and are often given
t DESiGN 1L
that they must be environmentally oriented. the free enterprise system, or they have to be justified
DELINEATE
Due to the complexity of ships and their interfaces in more weight than more distant forecasts. However,
\ & DETAILED for governmental support by subsidy. Military planners
ln SPECIFICATIONS despite the uncertainties associated with long-range
transportation networks, the design of optimum ship are charged with the national defense, but there is in forecasts, attempts to project them are being made and a
DETAILED
systems cannot practicably be undertaken in a random fact a limit to the amount of money available for such new branch of systems analysis termed assurance engi-
manner. The design of complex systems involving ships purposes as there are more military systems competing neering has been developed to give numerical expression
is best accomplished by utiliing the systems analysis for funds than can be supported by the funds available. to characteristics such as reliability, maintainability,
approach [lo-141 as schematically illustrated by Fig. 1. Consequently, the analysis of military budgets becomes a logistic aupport, operability, safety, and similar factors
I n this way, the design process can be organized in process of identifying systems, or combinations of which augment the standard design performance
logical steps so as to ensure that, when completed, every systems, which have the maximum military cost estimates traditionally made. Also, producibility anal-
facet of the design has been given proper treatment. As off ectiveness. yses, requiring a combination of design and industrial
indicated in Fig. 1, a systems analysis is initiated by Cost effectiveness seems simple to comprehend, but engineering skills, are sometimes made to assure a design
Fig. 1 - Functional processes in a systems analysis establishing a system objective. Beyond that point the
. . usually is difficult to quantify [15]. In general, the best adapted to economy in construction.
systems analysis approach is a continuously iterative
process with each of the functional processes possibly
having an impact on those remaining. For example,
warships, Bushnell's submarine is of special interest
because of the singularity of its operational concept and referring to Fig. 1, the initial system objective could Section 3
its primacy. Actually it contained all the elements of a be to transport cargo between two points at a given
modern problem in concept formulation for a planned
rate and a t the lowest possible cost. Proceeding with Ship System Formulation
technological development: a mission objective or this objective, constraints such as time and capital 9.1 Mode of Utilization. Before proceeding with a
limitations must be established. Since the constraints in terms of deadweight and cubic requirements, must be
primary task, an analysis of the objective to establish mview of the marine engineering phase of a ship system very carefully analyzed as the latter will have a control-
specific operational requirements, trade-offs concerning may alter the original objective (e.g., preclude trans- formulation, which as indicated by Fig. 1 does not
porting cargo at the desired rate or make higher rates ling effect on the vessel configuration.
alternative methods of accomplishing the mission, oornmence until the broader aspects of the system have (b) As a mobile fighting base. Seaborne bases for
constraints imposed by limitations of techniques, attractive), the original objective must be reevaluated. boen tentatively formulated, it is useful to review some
The various aspects of the design process continue until force groups, weapons systems, missiles, aircraft, or
materials, manpower, money, and time, and last but af the broad considerations. In particular, the modes other sJrstems of warfare either tactical or strategic and
not least, the necessity of obtaining the interest and all factors in the analysis are compatible, at which time in which ships can be utilized and the payload and speed
the design is complete. either offensive or defensive are included in this group.
support of the controlling authority for what must have oharacteristics of ships are of great importance in that In this instance, the design of the ship is subordinated to
seemed, in this case, to be a radical venture. In more general terms, a combination of theory and they must be compatible with the overall system
facts (including a careful statement of the constraints the military system and weapon requirements except
In the early historical stages of the basic engineering oonsiraints.. for certain inescapable essentials such as seaworthiness,
process, the concepts formed and the decisions made, upon the system) is used to ~roducean abstract study or From the viewpoint of utillation, marine vehicles
model of the actual situation. The model, in turn, is habitability, etc. Payload in this case will generally be ,
although frequently ingenious, were of sufficiently mny be classified in the following three categories: defined in military terms relating to militaw effective-
narrow scope that a single individual could become combined with a set of aims to produce a plan of action
intimately familiar with all facets of the undertaking. or a proposed technical approach. Working with such (a) As a link in a tramportation ~ s t e m . Inthis case, ness, and the speed requirement will be a function of the
The stakes were high for a successful development; analyses and with checks against experience and data payload, mean effective speed between t e d n a l s , turn- expected speed of the hostile forces and the successful
rugged individualism was the rule since society had not gives rise to a body of correlated information which feeds mound time, and the number of vessels are the ~rimary accomplishment of the n~ission.
yet embraced the role of technological development, and back to modify the designs which are acceptable, the vmiables and must be considered in relation to their (c) As a* special-purpose vehicle or platform. This
support by the existing governing bodies was scanty or facts which are relevant, the controls which are efficient, gffeot on the initial and daily operating costs as well as category includes many diversified craft which have little
nonexistent. Success depended to a large extent upon and the aims which are realistic. Systems engidng is tho other facets of the transportation system. Payload, in common except that they all work or operate in an
6 MARINE ENGINEERING GENERAL Cob
I
Table 1 A Comparison of Constraints Imposed upon istics of wings and fuselages by means of extensive varied systematically, using the electronic computer as
Merchant and Military Ship Systems research developments. As the speed in flight is appropriate, are often made. The sensitivity of the
increased, the basic configuration of the aircraft must be system to variation of the independent variables begins
Tramportation market poten- Type of war situation antici- changed appropriately also, because, as compared with to emerge and can be identified. Because of its value in
tiak cargo and/or passengers pated diplacement-type ships, vehicles in the aircraft or decision-making, the sensitivity of system characteristics
Type of tran ort system con-
texnplated:?ulk, break bulk,
containerl passengeFcar o
,,
Tactics, strategy, mission pro- surface-effectsupported category tend to be size-limited
and weight-sensitive.
to such systematic variation of the system parameters is
often specifically explored in a formalized sensitivity
combinatmliquid and buk As may be evident from Fig. 2, the displacement type analysis. Exercise of such techniques should result in
etc. of vessel has very definite limitations with regard to the sufficient background to support decisions regarding a
Most likely itine terminal Most like1 operational locale, speed at which it can be efficiently driven. The inherent
facilities, h a r b ~ h t a t i o m , support8aaes, replenishment policy and a plan of action. This plan of action will
c d limitatiom, and fueling means, etc. speed limitations for ships are most appropriately generally result in decisions which will further limit the
ports expressed in terms of the so-called speed-length ratio range of variables to be considered; for example, the
Linking services: shore d@ri- Force pou compatibility, po- (the ship's speed in knots divided by the square root of range of the size and the numbers of ships required may
bution systems, new termma1 tential dies
facilities, cranes, and so on the ship's length in feet) in conjunction with various be more confined, notional ship design arrangements
Competing services Enemy threat in weapons and ratios of the ship's dimensions such as the beam-draft may be selected, approximate manning requirements
ship types ratio and the prismatic and block coefficients (see determined, first approximation of costs projected, and
Socio/political considerations Socio/political considerations reference [21] for a comprehensive treatment of this so forth. A description of some of the procedures which
and union relations
Fiscal environment and bud- subject). may be used during the preliminary design of a ship is
Economic projections, financial
support, government subai- g e t pressures
~ The most spectacular growth in the size of ships has given detailed treatment in references [22-31.1.
dii&etc. been in tankera. During the early 19509s,the so-called In the case of cargo ships, the fundamental concept of
Technologid development, Technolo 'cal development, supertankers were in the cargo deadweight range of the cargo transportation system must be established at
state of the art state o&he art 20,000 to 30,000 tons; whereas during the latter 19609s,
G c t o bodies, such as ABS Military specifications this point as the design of the entire system is predicated
and U%G tankers as large as 200,000 to 300,000 tons were being on this decision. General cargo transportation systems
built with projected giants in the 1,000,000-ton range which employ intermodal containers (i.e., systems in
appearing feasible. The theoretical problem of optimiz- which cargo is packed in containers that are transported
ing a transport system would appear to be simply that of by trucks, ships, barges, and trains in any combination
parison of alternative means of transportation in that maximizing payload times mean effective speed from before being delivered and unpacked) are becoming
the feasiblerange of speed for the various types of vehicles point to point while a t the same time minimizing initial increasingly popular. The use of intermodal containers
becomes evident. costs and yearly operating costs. If this were the only offers several advantages, the major one being the
Although payload considerations are still a factor, consideration, ships would be in much greater favor as minimization of the number of times the cargo must be
size restrictions are less stringent in connection with compared with aircraft than they are. handled on an individual basis with a corresponding
Fig. 2 Specitlc power Venus speed for various vehicles
ships than with the alternative modes of transportation. Systems analyses of typical transport missions usually reduction in damage, pilferage, and handling costs.
An investigation of a systematic family of ships (a para- include another highly important factor which puts a The iterative process of assessment/adjustment de-
metric study in which size is the principle characteristic great premium on higher speed; namely, flexibility, or scribed in the foregoing results in an initial design
that is varied) will demonstrate that ships are not size- the ability to be in the right place at the right time with configuration baseline which is essentially a preliminary
ocean or waterway environment and that much support limited and can be built as large as one may wish with-
for the systematic design of them is derived from the body the right payload. The great increase in the speed of statement of the ship system requirements. Such ship
out encountering limitations from the laws of physics. communications and the resultant great increase in the system requirements include the followingfor a merchant
of marine engineering knowledge obtained from less Dimensional analysis will show that geometrically
specialized vessels. Oceangoing tugs, salvage vessels, rapidity of affairs in recent decades has resulted in a vessel :
similar ships of a diierent scale will float at the same higher premium on speed and time in many instances
oceanographic research ships, submersibles, dredging proportionate draft since both the water displaced
vessels, yachts, ferryboats, towboats, pushers, barges, whether justifiable or not. Aircraft, therefore, usually a Payload (cargo/passenger capacity and de-
(buoyancy) and the weight of the ship tend to increase transport a substantial proportion of the people, special scription)
hydrofoil craft, surface effect ships, and many others as the cube of the scale. A corollary conclusion from equipment, and lighter commodities in which cases speed a Sustained sea speed and endurance
are examples of such special-purpose craft. such systematic investigations is that displacement is of great importance, while ships continue to carry the a Number of containers, holds, refrigerated spaces,
Category (c) does not lend itself to generalization ships are not particularly weight-sensitive. larger proportion of the heavy cargos and commodities etc., for balanced service
beyond the fundamentals of naval architecture and Vehicles such as fixed-wing aircraft, hydrofoil craft, and bulk cargos in both military and nonmilitary trans- Limits to overall diiensions such as length, draft,
marine engineering. Neither, one might conjecture, planing boats, and surface effect devices in general are oceanic routes. Beam, etc., for operability on required service
do (a) and (b). However, the constraints to be considered weight-sensitive and size-limited as may be seen from a 3.3 Deflnition of Fundamental Requirements. The
simple dimensional analysis. Such craft derive their Loading-discharging methods and capacities
in determining system requirements so as to ensure a constraints imposed by the intended mode of utilization
support in flight from lifting surfaces of various types; and requirements regarding payload and speed will Hotel requirements such as heating, ventilation,
reasonably optimum design configuration do parallel
when geometrically similar but larger versions of a proto- Ittrgely define the fundamental requirements of the ship, air conditioning, galley, public spaces, power,
between merchant and military applications to rs sur- and lighting
prising extent as indicated by the comparison in Table 1. type are considered, the weight of the craft, including its and an analysis of the ship system can now be conducted
3.2 Payload and Speed Considerations. I n addition payload, increases approximately as the cube of the scale for the purpose of establiahing a reasonably optimum Crew or manning requirements
to the constraints dealing with the mode of utiliiation, ratio while the area of the lifting surface increases only aolution. All of the positive constraints upon configura- Automation and mechanization objectives
payload and speed considerations have a strong influence as the square. As a result, the unit pressure loading on tion should be identified in the analysis, but as much Reliability and logistic support objectives
on the selection of the type of vehicle employed. Pay- the lifting surface increases directly with the scale. The freedom of selection retained as possible. Once the Special requirements for navigation and com-
load and speed constraints are important in that they increase in size of fixed-wing aircraft over the last objective and the constraints have been clearly stated, munications
restrict the types of vehicles which are feasible for several decades has been achieved largely by increasing tho analysis may often proceed to the development of a a Maneuverability (steering, handling, stopping,
parti~ularapplications. Figure 2, parts of w h i ~ hwere the forward speed by almost an order of magnitude and u~oful abstract model for the system. Parametric and backing)
taken from references [16-201, is an informative com- by greatly refining and improving the lifting character- &dies, in which the prin~ipalindependent variables are a Anchoring and mooring
8 MARINE ENGINEERING GENERAL cot
M I S S I O N PROFILE
POWER P R W I L ~ Main Propulsion System capacity, type of fuel required, fuel availability, space statistical method of estimating the weight, displace-
REQUIREMENT Shaft horsepower and weight requirements, and the adaptability of the ment, speed, power, and other principal characteristics
Propeller rpm propulsion system to the overall ship configuration are of a wide variety of dry cargo ships and tankers by averag-
A c n v SELECTION
Specific fuel consumption and bunker capacity closely related to the type of plant selected and must be ing plots of a substantial number of actual designs. A
@QUIP AVAIL & OST / EFFECTIVENESS
Space and weight objectives evaluated. Comparative costs, that is, first costs and number of marine engineering design activities have
CHUACTERlSllCS Adaptability to ship configuration operational costs, are also major considerations in trade- reduced their data on existing design series to a similar
CONFIGURATION
I F € CYCLE COSTS off studies. basis such that it is suitable for programming on an
OI SYSTEMS
Auxiliary Ship Systems Before entering into the process of selecting the main electronic computer; this enables approximate investiga-
Power and lighting propulsion plant, it is necessary that the power required tions of the parametric type to be made rapidly.
Steam-galley, deck, and heating systems for sustained operation and endurance be tentatively As noted previously, reference 1211 contains a detailed
Heating, ventilation, afid air conditioning determined. Since the space and weight requirements discussion of the methods which are employed to obtain
Firefighting, bilge, and ballasting for the propulsion plant can have a significant effect on resistance estimates for ships.
Fresh water the ship configuration, and since the dimensional and 4.3 Selection of the Propulsor. Once the ship speed,
CONSUMAILES &
form characteristics of the hull and its approximate requirements and resistance have been tentatively
tNDURANCE M & R AND displacement are required in order to arrive at an estimate established, it is necessary to select the type of propulsor.
LOGlSllCS SUPPORT Hull Engineering Systems
of the propulsive power required, it is apparent that the With considerations restricted to the type of propulsor
Fig. 3 Propulsion machinery preliminary design spiral Anchor handling marine engineer must coordinate his activities with the
Steering engine and bridge telemetering control for the moment, as indicated by Fig. 4, which was taken
naval architect from the earliest conceptual design stage from reference [35], some types are inherently more
Cargo handling gear, such as winching systems,
in an iterative preliminary design process such as that efficient than others for particular applications. The
burtoning, and swinging boom
discussed in the previous section and illustrated in the abscissa on Fig. 4 is in terms of the Taylor power
Crane systems preliminary design spiral, Fig. 3.
3.4 Speciflc Marine Engineering Requirements. Bulk cargo systems, self-unloaders, etc. coefficient,B,, which is defined as:
4.2 Determination of Ship Resistance. The general
The broad requirements of the ship system as just Container systems
subject of ship resistance falls within the domain of
established must be translated into specific performance Palletized systems
Tankering systems, such as cargo piping and pumps naval architecture as opposed to marine engineering.
capabilities by the naval architect and the marine For this reason, a detailed treatment of the subject is left where
engineer. Since the requirements established a t this to reference [21]; but for completeness purposes, some of
point are broad (e.g., unmanned engine room), subse- Electronic and Navigation System N = propeller rpm
the considerations involved warrant a brief review. The P = power, hp
quent investigations may show that some of the require- Commupication, exterior and interior most reliable means of determining the resistance of a
ments cannot feasibly be fulfilled; in which case, all Radar ship is to construct a scaled model of the underwater
V4 = speed of advance, knots
considerations must again be re-evaluated. Most of the Loran, Decca, RDF, etc., navigational aids portions of the ship and conduct model resistance tests The efficiency of propulsiop devices, including jet
broad requirements of the ship system cannot be analyzed Military electronics, sensors, command and control at one of the towing tank installations. .However, for propulsion, is presented in a somewhat similar manner in
independently of the others; and further refinement of systems, weapons directors, tactical data systems, several reasons such a procedure is far from feasible reference [36].
each, to a degree, involves yet another iterative design and electronic countermeasures during the preliminary design phase: one is that sufficient
process which is analogous to a slowly closing spiral The selection of the propulsor may not be a simple
time is not available; another is that the ship dimensions process, particularly in marginal cases, because in order
that gradually approaches a point of fixation. Figure 3, frequently change during the preliminary design phase;
which was taken from reference [23], is a diagram of, this The procedures which are used when designing the to establish the type of propulsor it may be necessary to
and another is that repeated testing would be prohibi- a t least tacitly select the type of main propulsion
sort of iterative spiral. The marine engineer utilizes a engineering aspects of a ship may best be illustrated by tively expensive.
procedure similar to that indicated by Fig. 3 when outlining the process of designing a ship from a marine machinery. For example, the gain in efficiency offered
When tentative values have been established for the by selecting contrarotating propellers versus a Troost B
performing the design comparisons and trade-off studies engineering viewpoint. This is done in the following
ship payload, sustained sea speed, and principal dimen- Series propeller (discussed further in the following), for a
required to establish specific design requirements in the sections and is initiated by a review of the procedures sions, an approximate assessment of the ship's resistance
area of his cognizance. Such specific design require- used in developing the main propulsion system require- cargo ship, must be assessed in light of the impact on the
aan feasibly be obtained by utilizing the results obtained main propulsion machinery and shafting arrangements.
ments will generally be of the following classifications: ments. from a series of tests with systematically varied hull Similarly, the selection of the number of propellers may
forms. There are principally two such test series: the be a multifaceted problem.
Taylor's Standard Series [32, 331 and the Series 60 [34]. I n general, vessels may be single, twin, triple, or
The Speed and Power of Ships [32], which was the original quadruple screw. That is to say, the total power
presentation of the Taylor's Standard Series data, is in required to propel a vessel may be distributed (usually
tm exceptionally clear and concise form for preliminary equally) between one, two, three, or four shafts and
Developme~~tof Main Propulsion System Requireme~~ts design purposes and is a classic that is extensively used propellers. From the point of view of initial and operat-
4.1 Overall Considerations. The basic operating more efficient lower speed for long-range endurance. A by practically all design activities; if not used directly, it ing costs, fewer numbers of propellers are preferred, but
requirement for the main propulsion system is to propel further restriction is that the main propulsion system la a t least used as a standard for evaluating the relative the magnitude of the ship effective horsepower require-
the vessel a t the required sustained sea speed for the must fulfill all of the basic operating requirements at a merits of any particular ship configuration. ments or restraints on the propeller diameter may force
range (or endurance) required of the vessel and to provide cost within that allocated during the preliminary Although the use of series test data to estimate the a multiple-screw arrangement because of excessive
stopping, backing, and maneuvering capabilities. I n studies of the ship system; otherwise the preliminary resistance of ships is straightforward, the process never- propeller loading and the attendant danger of cavitation
the case of a military vessel, which rarely operates a t its - studies must be re-evaluated. theless entails a considerable amount of tedious labor.
In the event that the accuracy of an estimate is somewhat
associated with unduly small propeller diameters. I n
addition, there may be other factors in a given case, such
maximum rating, the speed requirement may be partly Many factors must be considered in selecting the main
stated in terms of a mqimum flank or burst speed, propulsion system. Reliability is of the utmost impor- I&a important than the rapidity with which it can be as less vulnerability, more maneuverability, or take-home
which need be sustained for only a short percentage of tance since the safety and security of the vessel will made, a statistical method similar to that developed by capability in the case that propeller damage may be
the operating life of the vessel, in conjunction with a depend upon it. Specific fuel consumption, bunker Johnson and Rumble [28] can appropriately be used. likely in service, which favor an arrangement with a
Johnson and Rumble developed a simple approximate larger number of propellers. )
MARINE ENGINEERING GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Werent. - FIXED
4.5 Selection of Main Propulsion Plant. Consider-
ations concerning the selection of tbe main pro-
COMBINATION DIESEL
ENGINE AND QAS TURBINE
DIESEL, UEDIUI S ~ ~ E D O R U I ~ U S ~ E D ,
IncvCnsINeI
- MECHANICAL
REDUCT I O N GEAR-
1nEvEn.Iu.J
PROPELLCR
eA,~Un,lNE,Hc,vvOU
p h i o n plant cannot be deferred until the propulsor, ""'ICVEm8~*~)
InIVEn#luo) C
'
d--
Selection of a main propulsion plant entails the marry- REDUCTION GEAR
PITCH PROPELLER
ing of a power geeerator/prime mover, a transmission DIESEL CNGINES
8,EEoon ,
.,,,,, ,,,,,
system, a propulsor, other shipboard systems, and the tao* ~LVIIOIUSI
Fig. 4
- BP
Cornparim of opfimum ettlckncy valuer fv diiemnf Wpcn of propulm
'
ship's hull. A myriad of possible propulsion plant
arrangements may be considered by the marine engineer
in making the selection. As indicated in Pig. 5, even
Fig. 5 Alternatives in the wlection of a main propulsion plant
I
oonfiguration. In order to illustrate general dff%nces Heav
conducting trade-off studies involving the various types be consistent between various candidate power plants or ~ubricatin~ oils Not used as fuel
an allowance be made for the differences. in this respect between principal propulsion plant types, &~du& Residual fuel oils Boiler fuel
of main propulsion plants; the more important factors representative machinery arrangements in typical mer- Refinery sludges Refinery fuel
are : 5.3 Mai~tainability. Both preventive maintenance
ohant vessels are shown in Figs. 6,. 7,. 8, and 9 for a
1 Reliability and correctiye'maintenance requirements must be con- -
slteam turbine, diesel, nuclear, and a gas turbine plant
sidered in selecting the type of machinery to be used in a I n general, oils with higher viscosity are less expensive;
2 Maintainability respectively. There is a wide range of flexibility in the however, an additional major consideration js that
3 Space and arrangement requirements propulsion plant [&50]. Preventive maintenance has a
direct impact on manning levels and operating costs. If design of the propulsion plants illustrated; therefok, the higher viscosity fuels have greater concentrations of
4 Weight requirements oonfigurations shown should only be considered represen- impurities and harmful constituents. The fuel oil
5 Type of fuel required (including fuel treatment) the equipment installed requires frequent preventative tative.
maintenance, such as greasing, packing, cleaning, and selected should be determined on the basis of the lowest
6 Fuel consumption 5.5 Weight Requirements; The importance of the overall cost, taking into consideration factors such as
7 Fractional power and transient performance parts replacement, crew personnel must be provided to weight of a main propulsion plant varies depending upon
carry out these duties. This is an important considera- initial costs, handling costs, and equipment maintenance
8 Interrelations with auxiljaries the particular application. I n the case of tankers, costs which can be attributed to the fuel.
9 Reversing capability tion as the cost associated with one crew member over whose cargo capacity is limited by draft restrictions, the
the l i e of a ship is a startling sum, particularly if he Factors which must be borne in mind, relative to
10 Operating personnel weight of the main propulsion machinery represents handling and equipment costs, when selecting a petroleum
11 Rating limitations must be highly skilled; additionally, the cost of the oargo foregone. Cargo vessels, on the other hand,
materials required for preventive maintenance adds to fuel are fuel constituents, type of metals which will be
12 Costs
I
4
MARINE ENGINEERING GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 15
I
ELEVATION
ELEVATION
I. NUCLEAR STEAM GENERATOR
I BOILER 10. MAIN CONDENSER 12 CONTROL CONSOLE
I. MAIN ENGINE 9 MAIN AIR COMPRESSOR 2. MAIN BLOWER TURBINE 13 DISTILLING PLANT
2. H.P. TURBINE I I. MAlN CIRCULITING PUMP
3 AUX BLOWER
3. L.P TURBINE 12. THRUST BEARIUG 2. THRUST BEARING 10
I I. MAIN ENGINE
STARTING AIRFUEL
TANUHEATER 4. H P TURBINE 14. CONTAMINATED STEAM GENERATOR I. MAIN ENGiNE 9. M I I N SWITCHBOARD
4. REDUCTION GEAR 13. FORCED DRAFT FAN 3. MAIN ENGINE CONTROL CONSOLE 12. DISTILLING PLANT 5. L.P TURBINE 15. DEMINERALIZER a. AIR INTAKE PLENUM 10. MAlN CONTROL CONSDLE
5. CENTRALCD~~TROLROOM 14 STEAM AIR HEATER 4 MAIN SWITCHBOARD 1s CAUSTIC B ACID STORAGE a. EXHAUST DUCT I I. THRUST BEARING
6. REDUCTION GEAR
S. STEAM TURBO-GENERATOR 15. UPTAKE 5. TuRBD-GENERATOR I 3 LUBE OIL COOLER 17. COMPONENT COOLIN0 SYSTEM 4. COMPRESSOR 12. PORT USE BOILER
14 AIR COMPRESSOR 7. TURBO-GENERATOR 18 LUBE CONDENSER
OIL GRAVITY TANK 5. GAS TURBINE
7 WORKSHOP 16. DEAERATING FEED HEATER 6. DIESEL GENERATOR IS. WASTE HEAT BOILER 8. MAIN SWITCHBOARD 19. MAIN 13. DISTILLING PLANTS
7. DONKEY BOILER 6. REDUCTION GEAR 14. DIESEL GENERATOR
B. CONTAMINATED SThAM GENERATOR 17. LUBE OIL SUMP TANK I S EXHAUST SILENCER S. WORKSHOP
7. LUBE OIL SUMP TANK 15. WISTE HEAT BOILER
9 DISTILLING PLANT B. FUEL OIL PUMP 10. AIR COMPRESSOR 22 01 MAIN CIRCULATING
THRUST BEARING PUMP
a. STEAM TURBO-GENERAT~R 18. STEAM DRUM
Fig. 6 Steam turbine powor pknt * Fig. 7 Low-speed diesel power plant I I. AIR TANK 22. DEAERATING FEED TANK
23. LUBE OIL SUMP TANK h.9 Ggs turbine power plant
Fig. 8 Nuclear power plant
Table 3 (continued)
RATING
RATING
ITEM
~ l ~ ~ t ~ - m e c h adeck
n i dmounted
,
50 hp, 650 rpm, 230 volt d-c
eretors
Drum storwe
,
Section 7
Specifications
MARINE ENGINEERING GENkkAl CONSIDERA'I'IONS 33
Section 8
Final Design and Working Plans
16 Lifesaving Equip-
65 . Air Conditioningand
MARINE ENGINEERING GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
of contracts for ordinary merchant vessels where the interferences and the treatment of wstems in accordance
plans must be developed in a short time. Where with their relative importance must be accomplished by
oOmposite Plans are not made, the elimination of the cooperation of the various design groups iivolved.
Section 9
The design and construction of a ship is culminated by Sea trials are conducted as a means of demonstrating
broad array of tests which demonstrate that the ship is the adequacy and perfomance of those aspectsof a ship
in accordance with contract requirements. At the lower which cannot be realistically tested at dockside. sea
the test spectrum are those of a q ~ a l i @ - C ~ n t r ~trials
l are bmadly classified into twogroups; namely,
"ature which are conducted to ensure conformance of machinery trials and maneuvering trials. ~h~ former
lnaterial properties to specified requirements, soundness deals with the mechanical and economical performance
of cmtings, dimensional accuracy, and the like. Tests of the boders, the proeelling machinery and their
nuch these are not Peculiar to marine equipment and auxiliaries, and tests of evapowtors and distillers,
Ihu standard quality-control Practices of the manu- together with the anchor
Iaaturer Or and steeringgear and
are generally relied upon to other equipment which cannot be tested uader actual
nrluure the adequacy of equipment in this regard. conditions at the dock. The latter involves calibration
Shop and installation tests include those tests which of navigating equipment, the
of the
n o m a l l ~conducted in the shop after assembly or in ship, and the speed-power characteristics of the ship.
tho ~esselat dockside after the installation of the Tests typically conducted during sea trials are as
equipment or system to be tested is substantially follows:
aamplete. These tests are conducted to prove correct
rflnombly and proper installation and to demonstrate Calibration of navigating equipment
that control and safety devices are functional and Speed-power-rpm standardization tests
properly adjusted. References [81, 821 contain general Economy power teats
guidelines which may be used in connection with shop Full-power endurance tests
ihd installation tests for merchant ships; similar, Ahead steej n g tests
although generally more exhaustive, test requirements Quick reversal astern and head reach
I0r naval ships are invoked in the specifications prepared Astern endurance tests
for eech particular ship. Astern steering tests
Quick reversal ahead and stern reach
Anchor windlass tests
where the subscripts o and i designate the outside and either dropwise or film condensation. The names are
inside surfaces of the tube. quite descriptive of the processes. The rate of heat
Heat transfer problems frequently involve conduction transfer is much higher for dropwise condensation, and is
through successive layers of distinctly different con- comparable to that for nucleate boiling, since the drops
ductivity. Formulas for this type of problem are quickly fall off as they form and thereby expose the
readily derived, as are formulas for the transfer of heat surface to more vapor. In film condensation, the con-
through cylindric composite walls. densed film tends to cling evenly to the surface, and so
b. Convection. The convective heat transfer be- forms a barrier between the surface and the vapor.
tween a fluid at a largely constant bulk tempe~atu~e TB C. Radiation. All matter emits radiation of one or
and a surface at temperature T is expressed by more kinds. The thermal radiation of practical concern
requires only that the matter be at a temperature above
Q = h j # ( T ~- Ts) (16) absolute zero, and so is characteristic of all bodies.
Thp radiation is electromagnetic, and at industrial
where hj is the film coeficient of convective heat transfer. temperatures lies within the infrared part of the electro-
major practical problem in applying equation (16) magnetic spectrum; but the wavelength is a function of
in the evaluation of the fdm coefficient for the several temperature, and at higher temperatures it falls within
distinct mechanisms of flow and thermal behavior the range of visible light.
possible in the fluid. The radiation is not, however, monochromatic. A
Single-phase convection occurs when the fluid involved curve of its intensity, IA, against wavelength, A, shows a
uoither boils nor condenses at the solid surface. Familiar considerable spread with a peak intensity at a wavelength
axamples abound aboard ship; for instance the water side that is a function of temperature. The total energy
of condenser tubes, both sides of the tubes in liquid-to- emitted is thus the integral of IAover all wavelengths.
liquid heat exchangers such as lube oil coolers, and the For a black-body radiator, i.e., one that emits at the
gtM side of convective heating surface in boilers are maximum intensity at all wavelengths, the integration
typical locations where this mechanism is prominent. produces the Stefan-Boltzmann relation
Tho value of h, is generally a function of fluid properties,
property of the material conducting the heat. It is of the fluid' velocity, and of its degree of turbulence.
generally a function of temperature, particularly for Under conditions existing in a typical condenser tube, (17)
liquids snd gases, but the effect of temperature is far example, the value of h is likely to be in the neighbor-
sufficiently weak that conductivity can be treated as a hood of 1000 Btu/hr-sq ft-deg F, while on the gas side of for T in degrees Rankine and Eb in Btu/sq ft-hr.
constant in most problems. Fourier's Law can be ex- r boiler tube, the value of h j can be 10 Btu/hrmsq ft- But actual bodies are not black-body radiators, and
pressed for one-dimensional problem as their degree of imperfection must be accounted for by
always -ly modified by the transport of heat by where r is the radius dimension, and is the length of the
fluid in motion; this phenomenon called convection. tube. Integration of equation ges
a. Conduction. Conduction follows Fourier's Law1
which states that heat is diffused at a rate proportional
to the temperature gradient; the factor of proportion-
d t y is known the the~malconductwity, and is a
MARINE ENGINEERING
THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT ENGINEERING 43
(26) where
= emissivity of a cloud of i n f i ~ t ethickness, Solution of equation (25) is best accomplished by
In equation (33), the term LHV.+ q~ (ta + -
t*)CpR
,-..A
fa a t 1
assumed to be 0.95 trial-and-error methods by brealdog up the equation is the total sensible heat released to the furnace per
P = furnam pressure, atmospheres into three simultaneous equations, as follows: pound of combustion products and may be replaced by
(27) L = mean radiating path length; for ordinary qpA, the adiabatic sensible heat. q ~ may , be read
marine furnaces, L = 0 . 6 m from Fig. 2 at any assumed vdue of T g . With these
furnace volume, cu f t simplifications, equation (33) reduces to
where an empirical concentration factor, a function
ec = emissivity of the heat absorbing surface
of a time parameter W p/PpVp qith WP
representing the pounds of fuel burned per
+ U%(TB - Tc) (32)
e p = flame emissivity hour. Wp/P;Vp is a crude measure of
S B = refractory surface area The solution may then be achieved by assuming vdues of
S c = cooled surface area
article life but better data on the flame path T B and plotting solutions for equations (35) and (36).
is lacking. The point of intersection of the two equations is the
F R C= a geometric factor, dependent on the extent of
cooled surface The concentration factor, K, is evaluated from test solution.
results on various boilers and plotted against the firing T A may
~ be evaluated by cdculating the adiabatic
An ?ppmximation of FRCto a reasonable degree of density WP/PPVF, as on Fig. 7. This plot was cal- sensible heat
accuracy is
culated from the test results on five different boilers, all
SR
FRC = g when 0 < -- < 0.5 (28) burning residual fuels. The curve shown represents an
Sc average of the test results with 10 to 20 percent excess then Tnf may be read from Fig. 2.
air. The term U s- w ( T E - T c ) in aquation (32) is Usually, the convective term in equation (25) is
It is necessary dso to consider the question of effective Sc
generally negligible except for rear waIl impingement negligible; but when a rear wall ie fitted, especially in a
'
where ST = S R SC +
Faired intermediate values may be taken between the
cooled surface. A water wall consisting of tangent
tubes may be treated as a surface having an area equal effects. It is convenient to drop the term at this point shallow furnace, the convection effect of the flame
blasting against the rear wdl may be significant. An
to the projected area of the surface. If the tubes are and correct for the effect later. For most marine
two sets of limits quoted, as illustrated by Fig. 6. boilers the temperature of the radiant heat absorbing equation for the surface heat transfer coefficient WRW,
widely spaced, exposing the refractory surface behind the based on the actual surface exposed to the gas, is
The radiating temperature T p may be approximated tubes, the simple projected area of the tubes is not surface (RHAs~is close to 1000 R (540 F ) , so the term
by sufficient since the refractory receives some of the direct Tc/1000 is approximately unity. Since the value of
T p= ( T A ' T E ) ~ ~ ~ (30) radiation from the surface and returns only a portion of Tp/1000 is between 3 and 4, the relative value of
this heat to the furnace; the remainder goes to the tubes. ( T ~ / 1 0 0 0is) ~so much higher than 1 that the term
where TA' = adiabatic flame temperature with 100 Tc/1000 can be taken as equal to 1 with little error. Where
percent theoretical air. The effective radiant heat absorbing surface (RHAS)
may be calculated by multiplying the projected area of Further noting that T P = (TA.TE)112,equation (32)
Evaluation of the flame total emissivity presents a becomes
complex problem. The flame cloud consists of droplets the walls, including backing refractory, by an arrange- = Prandtl number
k
of fuel from the burner nosde which in turn are reduced ment factor from Fig. 8, for each area making up the GD
to smaller fragments by various air and gas currents and furnace envelope. - = Reynolds number
F
MARINE ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT ENGINEERING 49
invariably inside the tubes, with some type of extended manufacturers. ExtendedeUrface perfomance data are
surface outside. There is a large variety of extended- usually acquired by tests of the particular
surface types, ranging from cast iron fins shrunk on geometric design.
steel tubes, to stud fins, aluminum fins, and spiral- See Subsection 3.12 of Chapter 3 for an example
welded steel fins. Such elements are proprietary in calculation which illustrates the considerations involved
nature and performancedata must be obtained from their in designing boiler heating surfaces.
Section 3
internal Thern~odyna~nicsof the Steam Turbine
3.1 Nozzle Flow. A nozzle is a short flow passage of
converging or converging-diverging flow area whose
function is to convert thermal or pressure energy into
kinetic energy. It thus forms an essential feature of LOSSOFPRESSUREB~D~GRADAT~ON
OF ENERGY AT INLET
both steam turbines and gas turbines.
As the fluid passes through a nozzle, no external work
is performed, and no heat is transferred, so that the
general energy equation reduces to
Fig. 13 Temperature f ador
EXIT PRESSURE
upstream. This degrylation is evident as a loss of
A, calculate L from equation (47) and multiply L by stagnation pressure and, hence, of the pressure difference
pR,the total pressure of CO2 and HIO- Enter available to cause flow through the nozzle. ~t is
~ i 14~at the
. average gas bulk t e m p e r b e , and at the indicated on the enthalpy-entropy plot of the nozzle
proper p R value,~ read € Q on the left scale. Then process shown by Fig. 15.
ST= tramverse pitch, inches reenter at the gas bulk temperatme and read h?/rQ On There is degradation of energy within the nozzle
sL= longitudiial pitch, inches the right scale a t the appropriate tube surface temper- itself, so that the exit velocity is not as high as ideally
possible. The total degree of degradation is expressed ENTROPY, s
d = tube diameter, inches atme. hr is equal to the product E Q X h r / r ~ iincluded
by the nozzle efficiency, which is thus the ratio of the Fig. 15 The nozzle flow procer
l-he e ~ s s i v i t y of flue gas is a function of itsin the result is a tube surface emissivity of 0.g5. the energy actually converted to kinetic energy to that
temperature, the mem radiating length L, and the 2.4 Heat Recovery Equipment That portion
theoretically possible. In equation form, the definition
pressure Pa of its rdiating constituents (pfi- hest transfer equipment that absorbs heat at ternper-
of the nozzle efficiency q N is
watervapor and carbon dioxide). The flue gas atures below the saturation temperature of the generated such as,the angle through which the fluid is turned,
fuel oil in 15 percent
steam is considered to be heat recovery equipmenta nozzle dimensions, and the ratio of approach kinetic
produced when burning the q N = C?/(&~J)
p ~ t i a pressure
l of 0.114
Generally, such equipment absorbs the hest (50) energy to the total kinetic energy developed. Empirical
excess air has a water vapor h00 - hl'
atm/atmand a carbon dioxide partial pressure of 0.125 combustion air (gas air heater) or into the incoming curves, such as Fig. 16, give nozzle efficienciesfor blade-
atm/&tm, a total of 0.239 atm/atm. Values of r~ for feedwater (economiser). The meaning of hl' and the derivation of equation (50) type turbine nozzles for dry or superheated steam. T~
this mixture are plotted in Fig. 14 for a range of gks bulk Combustion air heaters are generally of either the are evident in Fig. 15. determine the efficiency of a nozzle (either fixed or
temperatures and a range of P R Lvalues, where PRis in rotary regenerative type or are tubular, with air An alternative designation of the degree of energy moving), the basic nozzle efficiency h-2 and height tor-
atm/atm' and L is in feet. The curves are usable from through tubes heated by combustion gM p a s a d mound ~ ~ ~ ~ e r iss i given
o n by the velocity coefficient kN, rection factor f~ are read from Fig. 16 and the nozzle
10 to 20 pementexcess air without appreciable error. the outside of the tubes in Cross flow- The mtar3' re- which is the ratio of nozzle exit velocity to that ideally efficiencyis computed as
generative type is and performance data is
Plotted on the same figure is the value manufacturer. Tubdm kN2 = fLk2 (52)
best from the proposed
air heaters can be readily evaluated by the methods (51) For wet steam, a correction is necessary to,account
reviewed in the foregoing for tube banbe for the impingement of the slower moving droplets of
~ ~ t ~ ~ d ~e~onomizers
d - ~ ~ are ~ femployed
a ~ e '
It may be seen that k~ is simply the square root of qN. water on the back of the blades. l-his correctionis
of equation (20). TO determbe to the exclusion of bare-tube units- The feedwater The nozzle velocity coefficient is a function of factors taken by some authorities to be
which is another
111
1 "
MARINE ENGINEERING 'CHERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT ENGINEERNG
NOZZLE PARTITIONS
NOZZLE HEIGHT
-
8 RADIAL CLEARANCE, IN.
NOZZLE OPENING
*' a OVERALL LABYRINTH PRESSURE RATIO FACTOR
CARRY-OVERCORRECTION FACTOR FOR STRAIGHT-
fked and blades (or buckets) as moving. T denotes the tip of nozzle
Fok nozzles or blades below the critical pressure.ratio, M denotes the diameter of nozzle
the area at exit is of primary importance. From Figs. 19 R denotes the root of nozzle
Sectio~~4
External Thenodynanrics of the Steam Tflrbine
''IIWe Line for the
compounded stages
a *@' a hrbine
unnll the
unit. The wheel horse- power output, thmttle pressure and temperature,and
is given by equation (68). exhaust
of Wa, WL, hoop hsO,and hpj
@@Qmowllt. The total Power delivered into the turbine
a
A
a
pressure are sufficientfor this task.
preliminary
steam rate
step is to express steamflow in unitfom
(or waterrate) thusly:
@h@fb
i h must
~ be expressed zw a summation of the
who01 horsepowers by
ENTROPY SR = W,SHP (74)
fig.22 propulsi~nturbine state line where
UEtW= -2544
SRVM (75)
since the pressure a t the condenser is very low, the Every turbine stage has a value of U/Cf for which its
preame ratio from the point of interest to the condenser efficiency is a maximum (this is shown by Fig- 18 of
is typically supercritical, and maximum flow exists Chapter 5). For example, it is 0.5 for an ideal impulse
for the pressure a t that point. Under such conditions, stage. And although a propulsion turbine Consists of a
flow theory predicts that the flow parameter number of stages for each of which the ratio may be
W 6is and in f m t hm a value of approxi- different, as when impulse and reaction stages are used
in the same machine,' there is always some vdue of
mately 0.40 for superheated steam when To is in degrees d ~ Nfor whi& the efficiency of the entire turbine
R, po in psi, W is in Ib/sec, and A is in squme inches- ( ~L ~ Z~ ~ 1
Further, for modest changes in conditions at a point
compared in is a maximum (Z implies sumation Over all
to the
the the in is his parameter is known as Lambda, and is conven-
change in Po, and A is fked, SO that the relation
r pofouom. m e premure a t a point should thus tiO*lly expressed
be to the flow from that point to the
condenser, and pediction is found to be essentially
true in practice; it
pmportiond to the flow is further
pastfound
the that theinpressure
point is wherein the constants, kcluding 0.5 for U/C', are
question.
included in the numerical mefficient- The efficiency at
This additional distinction is necessary because some of function of the Lambda
ateam a point may be extracted downstream, ofi-design points is a
ratio X/Xo, i.e.
and therefore does not reach the condenser.
The principle stated in the foregoing is used to find
shell pessures a t extraction points, and from them the
extraction enthalpies following small changes in flow-
The state line does not shift significantly because of Fig. 26 is a plot of the relative efficiency ofofa impdse
rsaeonable ortraction flows, 80 that the enthalpies can s g h t h/lo- This plot is
THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT ENGINEERING 61
MARINE ENGINEERING ICS AND HEAT ENGINEERING
BOILER
88% EFF 000 SHP ABS MAXIMUM
Eb ~ 0 . 8 5 2 7(SEE FIG.23)
EXHAUST ANNULUS AREA = 25 FTP
a = FLOW, L W H R f r ' I.O125(SEE FIG.24) A € = 1481.2-907.5 = 573.7
h = ENTHALPY, BTUILB. R L = 0 . 3 5 ~1 . 5 ~ 0 . 5
E x s ~,Xf,xAEn0.8527x 1.0l.25 x 573.7-495.3
LEAKAGEaMECHANICAL LOSSES = 3.5% hi h,- .,E, -
1481.2 495,3 = 85.9
Fig. 34 Simple steam cycle
ITERATION, STEAM FLOW =
W (I.o¶)(-) = 163,600 Le/HR
IPbxA 1163
.56~ 0~02 5=.4360
~ **. E L 5 10.8 (SEE FIG.25)
SECOND ITERATION, STEAM FLOW = (I .04) (245i,: !:60p)= [63,800 LBIHR
STEAM RATE = RL X 2 5 4 4
1 ~ ~ =, 5.46
' LB/SHP-HR
~ ~ ~ hc. hi + EZ+ STEAM RATE = 999'0
Ag. 35 S t a h one and steam rate for cycle cafculationr
BYadn
per hour, divided the m~chanicdequivalent divided by the net
t# b a d and the efficiency. Thus or 15,180~30,000=
O e 5 0 6 ' lb/sh~-hr. The heat rate is the quantity of *heat
t o produce one horsepower per hour and
144APvfQ~ t u / h r
~ ~ ~ u l aby t edividing
d the net heat added to the plant,
Per hour, by the horsepower produced.
MARINE ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT ENGINEERING 65
'I'llo quantity of fuel required is determined by dividing generally used in cycles where the feedwater is heated
l d I ~fr~el
~ j heat output by the boiler efficiency of 0.88 and to a maximum of about 285 F, so that economizers may
IIIIII higher heating vdue of standard fuel of 18,500 be used for heat recovery in the boilem. Where feed
llbl~/lb,to which is added 46 Btu/lb to account for the temperatures are higher, gas air heaters ape
ti~rlnibloheat added by the fuel oil heaters (100 deg F used.
rim tdt 0.46 specific heat) : Consider a simple single-heater cycle, using a de-
aerating feed heater, and otherwise identical with the
Ipuel required = 2509846,193 = 15,370 ,b/hr cycle of Fig. 36. Steam could be bled at the crossover
(0.88)(18,546)
pipe between the H P and LP turbines at 60 psis and
I)ividing by the 30,000 shp output, the specific fuel 1243 Btu/lb, and led through a pressure
~~t~ll~nrnption is found to be 0.512 lb/shp-hr.
set at 46 psia, to a deaerating heater. The bled steam
Sa2 The Regenerative Cycle. The power cycle shown and the incoming feedwater could be sprayed together
111 Itig. 36 is complete, but certain problems would arise
resulting in a saturation temperature of 276 F, 245
If oh a cycle were used. The feed temperature is Btu/lb enthdpy. Bleeding steam from the crossover
unkr('melylow; a result, the economizer in the boiler would reduce the horsepower developed since less
wclllltl condense sulfur ~roductsfrom the flue gas, which passes through the unit. To compensate for this, the
wnrlld cause corrosion. Further, the feedwater would throttle flow must be increased.
IIELVI! high oxygen content (no deaeration is provided), Let QI = the quantity of steam bled in lb/hr
wal,trr
wlriuh ~ides.
would cause corrosion and pitting in the boiler A&, be the increase in main throttle flow required.
m e n , using the figures developed in Fig. 35, the reduc-
1l)rltrainedoxygen and air can be released by bringing tion in heat available to the turbine is
tlrn foodwater to a boil. By using steam, bled from the
t\~rl~iaas, the feedwater can be raised to the boiling lost heat = Qr(1243 - 996.7)
I@lll~lorature and held there in a deaerating feedwater
I r e ~ b in
r an efficient manner as the bled steam has al- and the flow needed to replace this heat is
Q= FLOW. LB/HR ~entlydone useful work in the high-pressure turbine AQt(l481.2 - 996.7)
1 200 F
Q = 1050
---- h = ENTHALPY,
BTU/LB befo~~o being used for feed heating.
Illtrod feed heating may also be done after the de- Equating these gives
rcrr~~l~ing feed heater and feed pump. For highest
~ g 36
. Simple steam cycle with parasitic loads
rflinioncy, there should be N-1 feed heaters, where N AQt r: 0.5084 QI
(r lllro number of turbine stages, since this leads to Then, leaving the exhaust of the LP turbine, the steam
ta&. ~ ~ ~ j + b l ~ - ~ and system leakage are Uowance must be made for Pressnue and temperature lncxirnum regeneration, but such an array of heaters flow would be
bssed on reference [gl. soot,blowing requires 760
lb/hr, and system l e h g e losses are taken as 1/2 percent
drops in the main steam line. It is customm
about 2.5 percent on Pressure,
to allow
up to the nearest
&r&dbleed points is not justified in marine service.
flbltbionary practice employs an extensive number of 163,550 + AQt - QI = 163,550 - 0.4916 QI.
of the flow, or about 900 lb/hr. Both of 5 psi, and 5 deg I? for temperature. Thus, the Iie&llrrr8,but such plants are not restricted by the space Employing the procedure used in Section 5.1, the heat
these items lost mustbe replaced by makeup heater outkt conditions are taken to be 875 psig and llmill~~tions of a ship's engine spaces, and they develop entering the gland exhaust condenser is
feedwater introduced to the condenser. 955 F. NO dlowance for loss is made in the deSWer-
~h~ t h e r d enerw added to each pound of water heated system, so the desuperheater outlet enthalpy is
by the feed pump is the same in the example, 1250 Btu/lb- The total
is
so that the thermal energy added to 177,920 lb/h. is 175,620 lb/hr and the demperheated is 2300 lbhr'
1,060,384 Btu/hr. The flow of heat in the system illustrated by fig. 36 I b b Btu/lb Btu/hr
may be tabulated follows: Leaving the main condenser 176,325 - 0.4916Ql 58.7 10,350,278 - 28.8691
Air ejector intercondenser. . 1250 - 93)
Air ejector after condenser.
Gland exhaust condenser. .,
245
245
300 I
1250 - 168
(1281 - 1681
283,465
265,090
333,900
Total.. .............. 176,325 - 0.4916Q1 11,232,733 - 28.8691
.
Fuel heating at 200 F . ..............a. 1,050
~ b d dram a t 200 F................ 300
Air ejector after condenser drain a t 200 F....... 245
~ ~leavingt dsurge t and entering feed pump8 177,920
Feed -p ........................... 177,920
.fotd to boiler.. ......................... 177,920
The boiler output is t b n ................... 175,620 X 1483.5 = 260,53%270Btu/hr
2,300 x 1260 2,875,000
~ o t a l................................
. 177,920 1 b b 263,407,270 B t u b
--
-
After condenser.. ....... 245 Total makeup feed. .3330 lb/br
G h d condenser drain. .. 300 ...
Bleed flow. .....-......
fie1 oil heater drain.. ... NXo
DFT outlet flow. ....... 177,560 + O.M)gWr consumption) ...........lo00 l b / b
MARINE ENGINEERING 69
-------
TURBO-OENERATOR LOAD
L,,----- -
The f i s t step is to estimate optimum bleed points. the main turbine. Since the bleed pressure at any stage
The feed temperature leadng the deaerating feed tank is dependent on the flow through that stage, it is desirable
has been set at 280 F to prevent the condensation of to select a bleed point at (53/0.65) = 81 psia. Note
sulfur products from the flue ges in the boiler econo- that since this is a direcbcontact heater, there is no lbb Btu/lb Btub
misers. To achieve this temperature, a pressure of 49 terminal temperature
The optimum bleed difference.
point for the low-pressure stage is 154,865 58.7 9,090,576
p$a must be available from the auxiliary exhauatlinter-
mediate pressure bleed system. This pressure is then selected so that the temperature rise in the con-
controlled by a pressure regulator installed in the bleed densate is evenly distributed between heaters. ~ e a v i n ~
systems. To provide heating steam when no bleed the condenser a t 1.5 in. Hg abs pressure and 90.7 F, the
steam is available (as for example, when going astern), condensate will be heated by the air ejector inter-
makeup steam is supplied from the desuperheated condenser and after condenser and the dand condenser
system through a pressure regulator set at 45 psia. At to a temperature of about 100 F. The temperature rise 283,465
certain times, there may be too much auxiliary exhaust to the DFT is 180 deg F, approximately half of which
steam, so a b a ~ k - ~ r e s s ~
regulator,
re set at 53 psia, will should be achieved in the LP feed heater. ~ h u s ,a
- dischmge excess steam to the main condenser. Thus proper condensate temperature leaving the LP feed
the auxiliary exhaust system can fluctuate only between heater is 190 F. Since a 10 deg F' terminal difference is
53 psis and 45 psis. This limit should be sufficient to usually needed between the heating steam and heated
prevent the feed suction water from the DF'T from water in shell-and-tube-type heaters, the steam entering
flashing during maneuvering, especially if the DFT is the heater must have a saturation temperature of 200 F, 265,090
placed well above the pump (40 to 75 ft). Allowing a corresponding to 11.5 psis at the heater shell. With a
7 percent pressure loss through the bleed/exhaust 10 percent pressure drop in the piping, the turbine bleed
system, the bleed steam at the turbine must be at least point pressure must be 12.8 ~ s i a . Note that in this calculation, the weight of the drain
7 percent hi&er than the desired 49 psia, or 53 psia. For the preliminary heat balance then, the LP bleed is not added to the total, since the intercondenser &&n
operation to be point pressure is 12.8 psia at an enthalpy of 1138 ~ t u / l b goes to the condenser and the after condenser drain to
It is further desirable for this 154,865 lb/hr the freshwater drain collecting tank shown on the
able to continue bleeding to at least 65 percent flow in and the I P bleed point pressure is 81 psia at an enthalpy
MARINE ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT ENGINEERING
Entering the system lb/hr Btu/lb Btu/hr
Chde-te from LP htr.. .......... 154,865 158 24,468,670
Drains from drain tank. ............ 30,175 180 5,431,150
Exhaust from feed pump. .......... 12,700 1139 14,465,300
Feed pump recirculation............ ~lOO0 255.3 5,106,000
Bleed steam from turbine. .......... Q 1270 1,270 Qa
+
Total. ...................... 217,740 Qa 49,471,470 + 1,270Qe
system .................. (217,740 + Qe) 249 (217,740 + Qc)249
h v i the
~ subs &em
From LP heater at 190 F . ...........154,865
+
From gain t a d at 212 F............ (15,595 QL) 180 2,807,1°0
158 24,468,670
+ I80 QL --
Total. ..............................................27,275,770 + 180QL - 1139)(12,7m)
= 6.3 Btu/lb,
222,390
Section 6
Waste Heat from Diesel and Qas Turbine Engines
(1 I from Diesel Waste Heat. A large fraction ever, is the operation of a vacuum distillb for
#f tl!fl illput to an internal combustion engine is
Ilfldl freshwater production.
r @ a l e ls* ~l!ll*ibleand latent heat in the exhaust gases. Steam can be produced in a heat exchanger (waste
*h+rrllpr l l u 1 ~fii~llificantfractions are lost via cooling of heat boiler) in the exhaust duct. ~h~ maximum steam
)fi@lvl, nlLtcr1 lube oil, and inlet air (turbocharged pressure 9 b t ~ n a b l eis limited of course by the exhaust
nlllle@ "'ill1 ~bftercoolers only). For example, the gas temperature, but othelqrise the premure is set by
f ~ ~ ~ ~Ilt!atin~ut l l ~ l going
l ~ ' into
~ ~the waste heat streams considerations regarding the use of the steamand the
hf H k\~l'boal~larged two-stroke engine might be quantity needed.
0.35 to exhaust If steam is to be used solely for heating purposes, a
0.15 to jacket water relatively low pressure, say 15 psig, may be adequate,
0.05 to lube oil but usually the heat available is far in excess of low-
0.05 to aftercooler pressure heating needs. Often, the ship service electrical
needs at sea can be met by waste-heat steam applied
I I!r ~llnnt!loxlraust gas temperature is a t least 600 F to a turbine-generator. The higher the steam pressure,
*&11111 111bf1, it is feasible to extract part of its sensible the lower will be the turbine steam consumption, but
~lro(lllc~ usable steam. As the cooling water also the lower will be the quantity of steam that can be
I E + f l l l ~ l ' i l l J l l ' ( i~
! 1 ~than ~ s200 F, there are few uses for this produced. Figure 39 illustrates alternative steam
*' I ' One use of practical importance, how- production at 50, 100, and 150 psig, showing that with
MARINE ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT ENGINEERING
MINIMUM TEMPERATURE
DIFFERENCE("PINCH POINT*).
o Z 4 6 8 1 0 1 2
BACK PRESSURE, INCHES H,O
b~
4s IRect of back preoure and intercooler outlet tcwnperctture on exhaurt
tmpbroturq Sulser RD-type engine
VACUUM PUMP
(5-
MAlN FEED
MAlN
CONDENSER
2 . 5 " ~ABS.
~
DEAERATING
Q =5 8 9 7 6
MAIN CONDENSING
PUMP
Fig. 45 Design-point,heat-balancediagram for a combined gas turbine and steam turbine cycle
steam turbine is fired by the exhaust gas. Observe also maintain a governed gas-generator rpm. The steam
that the gas leaves the boiler a t 440 F, and thus still turbine is uncontrolled, with the output being deter-
has considerable thermal energy available for the mined solely by the energy available in the gas turbino
production of additional steam at a lower pressure. A exhaust.
second, low-pressure boiler is provided to make steam
References
for the deaerating feed heater.
The heat balance shown is for design power. It is 1 Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Steam,
also of interest to see how the important parameters ASME, 1967.
change as the load is reduced. Figure 46, also from 2 Joseph H. Keenan and Joseph Kaye, Gas Tables,
reference [ll], illustrates this. Actually, the effect on John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1948.
the system parameters is influenced by the manner in 3 Frank 0. Ellenwood and Charles 0. Mackey,
which the plant load is controlled. For the example Thermodynamic Charts, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
given, the fuel flow to the gas turbine is controlled to York, 1944.
BOILERS AND COMBUSTION
C H A P T E R Ill
Sedion 1
Classifisation of Marine Steam Generators
steamgenerator
are used to obtain the desired overall
efficiency. Attemperators are employed
arrangement and may be in the
ventional), roof, or sidewall.
some of these variations.
' (mart 'On-
Figures and indicate
in most new construction to control the steam temper*
operating range and thereby improve In most i~tallationssome form of air heater is used
ture over a
turbine performance. Desuperheaters are installed to with an economizer. The type and pmportions Of
provide low-temperature steam for audiary purposes these auxiliw heat exchangers depend On the 'yd0
arrangement. If two stages of feed heating are selected,
throughout the ship.
~~~k~~ c residual oil is the most widely used fuel, a steam air heater and an economizer are Often used'
MARINE ENGINEERING BOILERS AND COMBUSTION
83
of 150 to 300 psig. Boilers of this type are usually built I (11orlomisers of either the bare-tube or extended-surface
only in small sizes and supply up to 7500 lb of saturated t ~ v l ~ [we
c r used to increase the temperature of the incoming
steam per hour. Iwlwuter by cooling the flue gases leaving the boiler.
Because of the difficulties in maintaining feedwater Ail- I~oatersare used to increase the temperature of the
WATER INLET4
chemistry, adequate water flow through parallel tube a~)~t~l)ustion air so as to promote better combustion of
circuits which would be required for higher capacity Iilln fuel. In the case of gas-to-air heat exchangers, air
boilers of this type, and the control of superheated steam I ~ ~ n ~alsoc l r improve
~ the boiler efficiency by reducing
temperatures, the once-through boiler is not well-suited 1,110 tomperature of the flue gases. By using low-
for marine propulsion purposes. ~ l r n ~ ~ u low-temperature
re, exhaust or turbine bleed
3bnr1,rn to heat combustion air, as in the case of the steam
CONVECTION BANK e. Supercharged Boilers. The superchased boiler
has the characteristic of using combustion pressures dlu I~oeter, the overall cycle efficiency is improved.
higher than one atmosphere in the furnace to take 'I'llcmo various types of heat exchangers may be used
RADIANT HEAT
ABSORBINGSECT\ON advantage of higher gas densities and higher gas veloci- rrl~~yly or in combination with each other.
ties than are available in the usual marine boiler. a. Economizers. An economizer is a simple heat
Figure 11 is a typical supercharged boiler. This unit is u~c\l~nt~ger consisting of a bank of tubes connecting an
an outgrowth of the Velox boiler which has been used in I ~ ~ l nr~nd
b outlet header located in a relatively cool gas
~ g 9. Schematic of LaMant forced-circulafion boiler with economizer and a few stationary power plants for a number of years. In Iel111 mrature zone beyond the boiler main generating
superheater I~alllt. Supplied with water at a temperature near that
Iuavil~gthe last feedwater heater, the economizer supplies
~rlrlihionalheat to the feedwater by cooling the flue gas.
Irr lrlnrly installations the economizer is the final heat
cttallttnger in the exhaust gas path. I t may, however,
ko followed by an air heater where a higher efficiency is
of a superheated vapor.
Boiler hand.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boiler arrangement is de-
scribed by reference to the
location of the uptake gas
outlet with respect to the Fig. 13 Tubular air heahn
designated front of the
t I I
AIR OUT ROTOR G A S IN
(a) Assembly
R1111~rlv)ater.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . A group of tubes which ab- Tube sheet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The part of the drum or
sorbs heat from the products header which the ends of
of combustion to raise the the tubes penetrate.
temperature of the vapor Unheated downcomer. . . . . . A tube not exposed to the
passing through the tubes products of combustion in
above the saturation tem- which water may flow from
perature corresponding to the steam drum to the water
its pressure. drum or header.
(b) Replaceablebaskets
'I'rr11yr311l;-tube wall. . . . . . . . . A waterwall. , in which the Watertube.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A tube in a boiler having the
Rotary regenerative air heater with replaceable cold-end baskets
tubes are substantially tan- water and steam on the
Fig. 14
gent to each other with inside and the products of
practically no space be- combustion on the outside.
tween the tubes. Water-cooled furnace. . . . . . . A furnace wall containing
. . . . . . . . . . . The plates, centrifugal sepa- I'llllr I I I I I ~ ~.. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . A group of two or more rows watertubes arranged to
Radiant heat absorbing.. . . . The projected area of tubes Steam baffling.. rators, or baffles arranged
surface (RHAS) and extended metallic sur- of tubes forming part of a form a waterwall.
faces as viewed from the to remove entrained watcr watertube boiler circula- Welded, mono-wall, or. . . . . A waterwall in which the
furnace.
--- ~ Included are the from the steam. tory system and to which membrane wall tubes are welded together
walls, floor, roof, and par- heat is transferred from the (or to filler bars between
tition walls in the plane of products of combustion them) to form a continuous
the furnace exit screen. Steam or steam-and-. . . . . . . A pressure chamber located at, mainly by convection. furnace wall.
Heat-transfer apparatus for water drum the upper extremity of II
Reheater. . . . .
heating steam after it has boiler circulatory system i t 1
given up some of its original - which the steam generateti
heat in doing work. in the boiler is separated
A tube through which steam from the water and fro111
Riser. . . . . . . which steam is discharged
and water passes from an
upper waterwall header to a t a position above a watcr
the steam drum. level maintained therein.
90 MARINE ENGINEERING BOILERS AND COMBUSTION 91
i11nl oxcept perhaps in some remote parts of the world.
Section 2 ( I~r~-fired boilers are used primarily on power or drill
of severe slagging and tube metal corrosion problems.
Cold-end heat exchangers designed with full recognition
Consideratiofls in the Selection of a Boiler Imrgtrs which are fixed in location and can be supplied of the sulphur content present in the fuel will experience
~ I I I I I I~hore. At sea, tankers designed to carry liquefied a minimum of corrosion and expensive maintenance.
~iul,~rrr~l gas may use the natural boil-off from their cargo A boiler designed to take advantage of low-cost
2.1 General. Many factors influence the design and 2.3 Heat Balances. The fuel cost per shaft horse-
selection of steam generating equipment to produce the power is one of the deciding factors in establishing the &#a lllulks as a supplemental fuel. This cargo gas residual fuel oils can always burn lighter fuels if the
required quantities of steam at the design pressure and characteristics of the boiler installation and whether or I~~~iI-off is collected and pumped to the boilers where it is situation justifies it. However, a boiler with tightly
temperatures for a particular installation. Efficient not the installation is economically sound. The fuel I~~rrncrtl in conjunction with oil. The oil burners serve packed heating surfaces designed for light oils such as
rate can be decreased by the use of higher steam pres- BWpilots to provide ignition stability and also to augment diesel or aviation turbine fuels would not perform
operation when burning the various fuels available
throughout the world is a requirement. The boiler also sures and temperatures or a more sophisticated cycle tire l l t r l ~ available
t from the gas. The quantity of boil-off satisfactorily on residual fuels for very long. Gas-side
must fit easily and conveniently within a minimum of can be employed by the use of reheating, economizers, ~vrilt~ble from the liquefied natural gas is a function of fouling and oil burner and combustion problems in the
engine room space, yet be accessible for operation, and/or air heaters, more stages of feed heating, etc. The r t r ~ hiont
r sea and air temperatures, the ship's motion, and furnace could be anticipated.
inspection, and maintenance. Although light in weight, designer must analyze these factors in light of initial It10 trnrgo loading, among other things, and may vary 2.5 Effect of Ship Delign and Other Machinery on
it has to be sufficiently rugged to operate dependably cost, maintenance, weight, and space requirements I r c ~ nduy ~ to day. Boiler Design. Factors such as space, weight, and the
under adverse sea conditions. Operation over a wide versus the savings resulting from increased thermal C !old-lired boilers have persisted chiefly in older vessels requirements of the regulatory bodies are major con-
load range, with a minimum of attention, and operating efficiency. trljer~~l~irlg on lakes and rivers, and in ferries, colliers, siderations in the design of a boiler. In addition, how-
characteristics compatible with a high degree of auto- As steam pressures increase, it is essential to use tti&dI t~ndtowboats operating in coastal services. Their ever, the prospective vessel owner or his naval architect
mation are also required. The factors used in both the additional heat-reclaiming equipment in the boiler unit. t n ~ ~ l l l ~have o r ~ decreased steadily year by year as labor may have preferences regarding the boiler design and
thermal and structural design must be conservative to This is because of the corresponding increase in saturated ' r114tw rino and air pollution control is expanded. specific design requirements. These preferences may
provide assurance that continuous operation over steam temperature which results in a higher gas tempera- M o ~ lcoal-fired marine boilers used hand or stoker include the number of boilers, types of boilers and their
extended periods of time will be provided with minimum ture leaving the boiler bank and thereby reduces the n r i ~ ~ aThe . use of stokers, particularly the spreader arrangement, locations of major connections, the use of
maintenance. Finally, the boiler must meet the rules boiler efficiencyat a given firing rate. Bylre, gormitted firing rates per square foot of grate economizers and/or air heaters, fining, and evaporative
and regulations of the regulatory bodies. Reheating the steam improves thermal efficiency but l ~ ~ l r r u~tpproximately
o 40 to 50 percent in excess of those ratinga, and the type and method of firing. Life-cycle
2.2 Cycle Requirements. The design of a marine requires larger boilers and special provisions to protect tor ha~idfiring. This resulted in boilers which were far costs can have a bearing on the preference likewise, since
boiler is directly affected by the heat cycle selected by the reheater during astern operation. High steam nlura aompact and lighter than those designed for hand the total cost and labor involved in maintaining a
the ship's designer. Over the years steam pressures and pressures and temperatures, along with reheating, are I/glrrp; but even they were much larger and heavier than previous design or construction may be reflected in the
temperatures for marine power plants have advanced by more likely to be used in installations of 30,000 shp and u(i4rsd boilers designed for comparable steam outputs. owner's specifications and result in the selection of an
a series of broad jumps. After each jump there has been up, where the value of the fuel saved may well justify !3rllv~rizedcoal firing, widely used ashore, has seldom improved design and construction.
a pause to consolidate the gaina, review the operating greater initial cost and cycle complication. In addition, Rri~usud a t sea since the,furnace volume necessary for a. Space. The space provided for the machinery is
results, and plan the next jump. In general, marine the utilization factor or load factor in such vessels is apt d@iii~m,Lmvel, low heat release rate, and satisfactory held to a minimum by the naval architect because the
steam conditions have not advanced as rapidly as those to be much higher, giving added impetus to the establish- kmbuatian requires a tall boiler. The high fly ash space occupied by the machinery produces no revenue.
in use ashore. In part this has been due to the relatively ment of more efficient designs [9]. kdllrg of the flue gas aggravates tube erosion, slagging, The boiler designer is usually required to adapt the boiler
small horsepowers involved and in part ta the demands of It is from the detailed heat balances prepared by the dtaak emission problems. design to the available space. The boiler height may be
the ocean environment. As the safety of the vessel and marine engineer that the quantities of steam and feed- Qilwwore used as boiler fuels as early as the 1870's but limited by deck or machinery casing locations. The
its personnel is dependent upon a reliable power plant, water flow are determined. In the usual plant from two f#d nos aohieve widespread use until the automobile age fore-and-aft or depth dimension of the boilers may be
each new advance is made only after adequate experience to four stages of feedwater heating are used to supply fgqulrecl a world-wide petroleum industry. Compared controlled by bulkhead locations, access, or tube renewal
is accumulated with the last. water to the boiler at temperatures from 270 to 400 F. &$ ei,har fuels, oil is easily loaded aboard ship, stored, space requirements as well as the location of control
High steam pressures and temperatures may make Boiler efficiencies of over 90 percent are possible. lnbroduced into the furnace; and the firing equip- consoles, main engines, etc.
reductions in the size and weight of a given propulsion However, to minimize corrosion and maintenance in the ma6 lVequireslittle costly maintenance. The small To a large extent the aviilable space determines the
plant possible, or permit a higher horsepower installation cold-end heat exchangers and uptakes, it may prove l$#i@unCof ash and contaminants it contains does not economy of the design. A height restriction is partic-
in the same space. During World War 11,most combat advantageous to limit the boiler efficiency to 88.5-90 mdre t,ha extensive ash handling facilities required for ularly serious, since it usually necessitates increased
naval vesgels operated at 600 psig-850 F while steam to percent with some fuels. Fuel oils vary widely in @&jl
flrlng, boiler width or length to obtain the required heating
450 psig-750 F was widely used in merchant ships. In quality and often contain significant amounts of sulfur 1) ~lrelrldbe recognized that fuel oils from different surface. This generally results in a marked increase in
the postwar era the Navy advanced to 1200 psig-950 F which can form sulfuric acid if there is condensation in WIFOPH, while similar in heating value, have varying boiler cost, weight, and the base area occupied.
(nominal) for its combat vessel construction. In the the exhaust gas path. Corrosion and maintenance costs r n ~ u n b aof contaminants which may be harmful in b. Weight. With drum-type boilers, the minimum
late 1940,s and 1950's a significant number of merchant should be balanced against the possible savings in fuel mpiew ways. The major contaminants consist of weight f o maximum
~ efficiency is obtained with rninimuql
vessels appeared using steam at 600 psig-850 F and costs derived from a higher boiler efficiency. @@a of vfinadium and sodium. As a class, they are furnace depth, maximum tube length, and the maximum
850 psig-850 F. By the 1960's almost all new con- 2.4 Fuels and Methods of Firing. The character- ~ l e A"a~h"and their presence must be fully taken into number of tube rows. Limiting the height may restrict
struction used 850 psig-950 F steam; several large istics of the fuels which will be available to the ship in l@@@~irt by the designer. Likewise, the sulphur content capacity because of reduced circulation. It may also
vessels used steam (in some cases with reheat) a t 1500 its usual trade should be established early in the design a&& wry over a range from almost none to as much as result in tube slopes and in burner clearances less than
paig-950 F. Machinery plants utilizing steam st pres- process. This will permit the optimum selection of &f psroallt in "sour" crudes; sulphur has a decided the minimum necessary for a good design.
sures of 850 to 1500 psig and temperatures from 950 F equipment for burning the fuel and cleaning the boiler. en the cycle efficiency which can be obtained In header-type boilers the width is changed by increas-
to 1000 F are characteristic of most commercial steam- In addition, a suitable selection of uptake temperatures @t!t&rb tierious corrosion in the economizer, air heater, ing or decreasing the number of header sections, and the
ships built during the 1970's. and materials can be made for the entire boiler plant so ~ptrtlees. height is varied by changing the number of tube clusters
The quantity of steam produced by a marine boiler as to reduce corrosion and maintenance problems. Tkr oompounds of vanadium and sodium affect the in a header. Because of reductions in the number of
can range from as little as 1500 lb/hr in small auxiliary Most marine boilers are oil-fired, with wood, gas, and 11 af the superheater. If oils to be burned in a boiler sections and the length of the steam drum, it is
boilers to over 400,000 1b/hr in large main propulsion coal-fired boilers less common. Wood firing is generally trtde are especially rich in these constituents, readily evident that long, narrow, and high boilers lead
boilera. Steam outputs of 750,000 lb/hr or more per confined to riverboats operating on streams with an r sriperlla~tttorcan be designed with tube metal tem- to minimum weight. Further, since the maximum
boiler are practical for high-power installations. abundance of nearby timber and is not an important Cinltricrr lower than normal to avoid the possibility efficiency for a given heating surface is obtained with the
MARINE ENGINEERING BOILERS AND COMBUSTION 93
\
'I'll() temperature within a boiler furnace can be boiler has more demands placed on i i than a come-
veatest numb& of tube rows in height, header-type these limits may be modified in the special specifications
sponding shoreside boiler. In addition, the heat input
boilers always should be arranged with the maximum issued for a particular class of vessel. m he Maritime ~llilll~rolled
r~lno~~bing
to a large extent by the effective radiant heat
surface (RHAS) present in the furnace [lo]. and the steam output of the marine boiler are probably
height, rnmimum length, and minimum width which are Administration follows a somewhat similar procedure 1 IPIIII is radiated from the flame envelope to thee heat
and usually establishes evaporative and furnace heat higher than for a comparable application ashore.
compatible with the design conditions. It is customary to consider a momentary roll of 30 deg
The minimum weight of any type of boiler will vary release rates for each design. t~lluorhingsurfaces with the uncooled refractory surfaces
considerably with desi@ conditions;increases in evapora- . 2.6 Boiler Design Criteria. heo ore tical and practical r ~ ~an intermediary, receiving heat from the flame
n i \ l ~ i as from the horizontal and a momentary pitch of f5 deg
ru~dl111cnre-radiating most of the received heat back to when computing static and dynamic loads. In establish-
tive rating, burner capacity, or air pressure decrease the considerations have led to the establishment of boiler
1 II* ll~uneand cold surfaces. For a given heat input or ing circulation, boilers are u s p d y designed for a per-
weight of a boiler design@ for a specified steam output. design criteria in a number of areas not directly associated ~ ~ " rate, I I K the heat absorbed per unit area decreases manent list of 15 deg and a permanent trim by the bow
With a fixed evaporative rate per square foot of heat- with the regulatory bodies' rules, which concern mainly wlIllr ILILincrease in total RHAS. The greater the RHAS or stern of 5 deg. The latter, when coupled with the
absorbing surfaoe, the weight of a boiler per pound of pressure-part scantlings and construction techniques. ~ I I * ~t'aaterwill be the total amount of heat absorbed by momentary pitch of 5 deg, means that in the fore-and-aft
generated will be less for boilers with greater steam The design criteria are most important in the areas of (Itn Fllrnace. Therefore, the temperature of the gases direction, the boiler may be as much as 10 deg from the
output, since certah boiler parts remain fixed in size and combustion, heat absorption rates, circulation, and horizontal. The arrangement of the tubes and steam-
weight over a reasonable range in capacity. pressure drops through the boiler system. They provide
Weight is greatly dependent on space also. Generally the yardstick by which various boiler designs Can be ,
the larger the physical dimensions of a boiler for a given compared for their suitability for specific applications.
output, the greater its weight. a. Combustion. At the heart of a successful boiler
Regulations. The ocean environment is no place is a properly designed furnace and fuel burning system-
to test unproven principles. This became evident in the If the fuel supplied to the furnace is not burned cleanly
early days of construction when it was and completely within the furnace throughout the range
recognized that some rules and regulations were necessary of operation, it will not be possible to accurately predict
to protect life and property. These rules were not the performance of the evaporator-superheater com-
intended to inhibit the designer or innovator but rather bination. For example, the total steam generated may
to provide a sound basis and for comparison of be insufficient, the steam temperature may be incorrect,
new designs with older successful designs. or the efficiencymay be lowered by incomplete combus-
Disastrous boiler explosions, common to both marine tion Or improper excess air.
and stationary boilers, resulted in the establishment of a A number of criteria by which combustion in furnaces
boiler inspection senice and strict regulations can be gaged and by which different furnaces Can be
governing the care, and operation of compared have been developed. In"general1 with the
steam boilers. In the design of marine boilers the exception of the furnace heat absorption rate which is
applicable regulatory rules and standards must be rigor- derived from the actual heat transfer calculations
ously followed. Most units built for American-flag developed for the furnace, they are empirical relation-
ships the requirements of the United States C o ~ t ships with little theoretical value; however, they can be
Guard and the American Bureau of Shipping. used to compare similar boiler designs provided their
Boilers for naval combatant ships are built in strict limitations are recognized.
accordance with Navy specifications, although for The criteria most fI'equent1~ used for these comparisons
auiiliary naval vessels the use of the United States
Coast Guard or the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers codes often is permissible. For foreign-flag
..
are:
Heat
~ i rrate
rate per cubic foot of furnace volume.
~ ~square footof radiant heat absorbing
i per
ships, the rules and regulations of other midatory surface.
bodies would apply. In addition, many shipyards and .
operators of large fleets have established their own absorbing surface.
Heat absorption rate per square foot of radiant heat
supplementary rules and regulations.
Since the requirements of the various regulating and A brief review of these factors will sewe to indicate their
inspection groups differ, specifications must be clearly importance and usefulness.
defined to assure fabrication and installation of boilers The heat release rate per cubic foot of furnace volume
which will be approved by the boiler inspectors. Fur- is useful in comparing geometrically similar furnaces,
ther, it is important that all competitive designs be to the but while widely used because of its simplicity, it is not
same A design difference caused by the an important criterion. The heat released is the product
me of inapplicable specifications could be the deciding of the hourly fuel rate and its higher heating value,
factor in final cost or wei&t evaluations, particularly ignoring any heat above 100 F in the combustion air.
on high-pressure unito where a difference in pressure- If radiant heat absorption rates, furnace gss tempera-
part thickness might involve not only price and weight, tures, and furnace tube metal temperatures are satis-
but also design and fabrication changes. factory, the only limitation on the heat release rate Per
~~~t rules pertain to const~ctionand the inspection cubic foot of furnace volume should be that imposed
and of materials, and establish very few by the ability of the firing equipment to maintain good
The use of a high1 yet satis-
performance limitations. ~ l t h o u g hNavy specifications combustion conditions.
rates per cubic foot of furnace factory, furnace volume heat r f ? l ~ ~late e peat1y
limit the heat
volume, per square foot of radiant heat absorbing facilitates the installation of high-capa~ib~ lightweight
n
surface, and per square foot of total heating surface, boilers in a minimum of space.
MARINE ENGINEERING f
I BOILERS AND COMBUSTION 95
boiler must likewise be capable of prolonged periods of the required steam will prove to be the best selection for atttl in part on the space available for the installation
steady operation a t its design rating. Also, in port it any particular vessel. ant l its operating requirements.
may be subjected to long periods of operation at low or e. Automation. Widespread use of automatic con- 'I'ho quantity -of fuel required is determined from the RAOlATlON AN
minimum outputs. trols @ndmonitoring equipment has made bridge control ~ltwirod steam generator efficiency, the given steam REFERENCE 0
Cleaning, with the exception of the daily use of the of the power plant possible and has permitted a reduction prtrnHure, temperature, and flow, the feedwater tempera-
mot blowers or occasional attention to the atomizers in in the number of watch-standers in the machinery space. I,II~'o, and the heating value of the fuel.
the oil burners, is normally deferred to the annual or These desirable improvements have added additional 'I'ho fuel characteristics and quantities establish the'
biannual period when the vessel is in a shipyard for other -considerations
.- to the problem of designing a suitable I~lrlburning equipment to be employed. This in turn
maintenance. This must be fully taken into account by boiler. ICI~H the excess air requirements. Combustion calcula-
properly locating soot blowers so they are effective; by Of prime importance is a fuel burning system that can l l l r l r l ~are next made to determine the hourly quantities FOR UNITS WITHOUT STEAM AIR HEATER
using the optimum burner combinations for the range of respond rapidly throughout the range of operation from rlf llue gas flowing through the unit. The exit or stack
fuel-oil types anticipated to be bunkered; and by using standby to maximum power without a fireman's atten- baa tomperature to which the flue gas must be cooled
the best possible arrangements of economizer, air tion. It must do so to prevent excursions in steam b nohieve the desired efficiency is determined (Fig. 16);
heater, boiler furnace, and generating surfaces to pressure and reduce water level fluctuations (shrink and R I I ~if experience indicates that it is attainable or other-
pinimize fouling. swell due to changes of the volume of steam present in w l ~ t r natisfactory, the design can proceed. If not,
---- desim
The - must also include margins in the scantlings the boiler), which might
- - result in water carry-over into a~rr~t~hor selection of efficiency must be made and the
of tubes, supports, casings, and other parts exposed to the superheater [12]. ealaulations repeated.
corrosive flue gases or waterside contaminants. Simple Burners can be designed to operate over the full 'I'ba furnace exit gas temperature is next calculated.
and easily accomplished maintenance procedures can boiler range with all burners in service, or other burner Ell@ value is dependent on the radiant and convection
also do much to assure that the boiler will be available types with less range can be sequenced, that is, placed 11ewt-transfer surface installed in the waterwalls, floor,
to meet the ship's requirements. in or out of service on command by the control system. tr~nf,t~ndscreen (radiant only) as well as the extent of
The duty cycle may also have a pronounced effect on Suitable flame-monitoring safeguards and purge inter- refractory present. Next, the gas temperature drops STbCK GAS TEMPERATURE, F
the number of boilers selected. A single boiler may be locks are necessary in varying degrees of complexity &acl tho heat absorbed by the screen and superheater are
employed in ships of up to about 90,000 shp. Two or depending on the extent of manual supervision desired. dsbarmined. The size and spacing of tubes and the Rg. 16 Efficiency v* stack gar temperature
more boilers may be selected for higher power levels or Feedwater regulators, steam temperature controls, &mount of surface are assumed initially. These are
where redundancy is desired or required. Single-boiler d a t a logging equipment for flows, pressures, tempera- lhrn modified to provide the desired steam temperature
vessels have proven reliable in service and should con- tures, levels, etc. are all available from the simple to the rrild cronservative tube metal temperatures as necessary.
tinue to do so. This is in part due to the fact that a ultrasophisticated. The owner and his naval architect V~uallyseveral screen and superheater combinations are secondary function is to generate steam in the furnace
boiler kept continuously in service reaches thermal usually select the scope of equipment and advise the Invemtigated to determine the most economical solution. wall tube circuits. The theoretical aspects of combus-
equilibrium and can have the waterside chemistry boiler designer so that the boiler and burner combination r heater surfaces
can be made compatible with it. See Chapter 21 for tion have been well known for many years. However,
optimized. In general, from a boiler performance point ke gas tempera- the achievement of good combustion within the furnace
of view, the least number of boilers which can deliver additional discussion regarding automation and controls. st outlined, initial of a relatively small marine boiler requires practical
aterials for tubes, knowledge and experience. Complete combustion can
be obtained provided there is sufficient time (a function
the heating surfaces established, the draft loss of furnace volume), turbulence (provided by the geom-
all components is calculated. If the draft loss etry of the burner assembly), and a temperature high
Section 3 the capability of the fan desired, the heat enough to provide ignition.
drafts previously calculated are adjusted Combustion may be defined as the chemical com-
he tube spacing, number of rows crossed bination of oxygen with the combustible elements in the
3.1 General. The fundamental boiler design prob- 6. Attemperator (or control) and auxiliary desuper- or height of the boiler components.' A fuel. The common fuels have only three elemental
lem is to determine the proper proportions of the various heaters ers may be necessary constituents which unite with oxygen to produce heat.
heatrabsorbing surfaces to use the maximum heat 7. Circulatory and steam separator system ce of draft require- The elements and their compounds, as well as their
available in the products of combustion. A proper 8. Casing and setting molecular weights and combustion constants, including
design will accomplish this at the lowest cost on a life- 9. Cleaning equipment drops of water and steam through all com- heating values, are given in Table 1.
cycle basis. Each component must be integrated with 10. Safety valves and other mountings m the economizer feedwater inlet to the super- Oxygen combines with the combustible elements and
the other elements of the unit to provide a balanced 11. Feedwater and treatment uted. They, in turn, estab- their comgounds in accordance with the laws of chemistry.
design in which the first costs and fuel, maintenance, 12. Foundations and supports economizer design pressures Typical reactions for the combustible conatituents of
and operational costs will be a minimum over the useful 13. Combustion air supply system tho safety valve settings. A circulation analysis fuel oil, based on the assumption that the reaction is
life of the ship. In no way must safety or reliability be 14. Uptake gas duct system and stack @aprepared using the heat absorptions determined completed with the exact amount of oxygen required,
compromised by these cost considerations. These considerations require many interrelated steps.
. From this, the are :
bes are adjusted as
For the steam generator system, the following must be
considered :
In most cases, a number of assumptions must be made
in order to initiate the design. ks the design calcula-
for Carbon (to COa)
for Hydrogen (to HzO)
C +
0 2 = COZ
+
2H2 0 2 = 2Hz0
AQ
AQ
++
1. Fuel burning equipment tions proceed, the assumptions are refined to achieve the
desired accuracy in the final analysis.
for each design.
er can make very for Sulfur (to SOa) 2s +
302 = 2508 A Q +
2. Furnace ntially reduce the where A Q is the heat evolved by the reaction.
3. Boiler generating surface The first step is the selection of the basic type of boiler,
The heat evolved or heat of combustion is commonly
4. Superheater (and reheater if used) superheater, and economizer or air heater (or both) to @,P Fuel Combustion. The basic function of a
be used. This selection is based in part on preference called the "fuel heating value" and is the sum of the
5. Economizer and air heater ilrp frirnace is to generate the maximum amount of heats of reaction of the various constituents for one pound
rrb Imm a given quantity of a specific fuel. A useful of the fuel considered. The heating value of a fuel may
96 MARINE ENGINEERING BOILERS AND COMBUSTION
boilers the large amount of fuel and air to be introduced although there are highly rated boilers in service with Fig. 20 Furnace wall construction
into the furnace necessitates a multiple burner instal- furnace depths of only five feet.
The selection of the oil burner must also include the
Each size burner has a minimum rate of operation type of atomizer to be used. There is a wide variety of
below which it becomes unstable and there is risk of atomizers from which a selection can be made. The
losing ignition. In part this is a characteristic of the alternatives include: steam atomization (internal mix),
burner, but the forced-draft, fuel, and control systems steam mechanical (external mix), straight mechanical,
also have an influence. The minimum rate is of great return flow, rotary cup, and others. Of these types, the
importance a much simpler plant results when all internal mix steam atomizer has the greatest turndown
burners can be left in service at all times. When in and provides the smallest and most uniform particle
port or during rnanuevering conditions, the minimum size over its wide range of operation. Development0
oil flow capability must be less than that required by have materially reduced the quantity of steam required
the plant demand, if frequent safety valve popping or (80 to 120 lb/hr-burner depending on the maximum oil
steam dumping is to be avoided. Both of these actions capacity) so that earlier objections to the loss of evapo-
waste steam and lead to increased maintenance, rated water have been more than offset by the other
Burner sequencing can be used effectively to follow advantages. The uniform and finer article size has
the load demand where burners with limited range or provided more surface area for combustion of the fuel
higher-than-desired minimum flows are used. Solid- droplets. This has permitted less excess air and neces- lower
state, computer-controlled logic systems are often used draft losses since the high air velocity
to sequence burners; hovbever, this equipment canincrease sary to provide the turbulence to burn larger droplets i~
costs considerably [15]. no longer required.
Care must be taken in arranging the burners to The number of burners selected usually results in a
provide for even air distribution to each burner within burner draft loss equivalent to about 35 to 50 percent of
the windbox to combustion with a minimum of the total draft loss of the boiler unit. The burner draft
excess air. The clearances between the burners and the loss At
varies with the volumetric flow of air through it.
any given air flow, a change in the temperature of tho
furnace walls must be to prevent interference
and impingement. The furnace volume must be large air will increase or decrease the draft loss in the ratio of
enough to provide the time necessary for complete the change of absolute temperatures. In desiping a
to take place before the gases enter the super- boiler with an air heater, it is standard ~racticeto limit
heater screen. Satisfactory combustion has been ob- the air temperature leaving the air heater and enter in^
tained at furnace release rates of up to 1,500,000 the burners to no more than 600 F and refer ably l e s ~
Btu/cu ft in marine boilers. to assure long life and prevent overheating of the burher
Each burner manufacturer has his own recommended parts. If the preliminary design ~ i e l d san excessive air
clearances and the shape of the flame can be adjusted to temperature, the designer must reapportion the surface*,
some extent to modify them when necessary, This is possibly adding a small economizer, to reduce the air
done by changing the spray angle of the atomizer. A heater air outlet temperature to an acceptable value.
1 02 MARINE EN BOILERS AND COMBUSTION 103
estimates of furnace exit gas temperatures were not provides an indication of the water-cooled surface8 and
necessary because of conservative firing rates and the estimates can be made of the surface absorption effec-
use of saturated steam. Those units which generated tiveness and the expected furnace gas temperature. In
superheated steam usually had several rows of boiler approximations of this nature it is usually desirable to
tubes between the superheater and the furnace. Con- estimate both the furnace temperature and the heat
sequently, a large error in the calculated furnace exit absorbing surface on the low side when firing oil. This
gas temperature had very little effect upon superheater increases the estimated furnace heat absorption and
performance. In units with superheaters located dose assures a margin of reserve in the final design. However,
to the furnace, however, the furnace exit gas temperature with coal firing it is more important to estimate the
must be determined accurately to assure a satisfactory furnace gas temperature on the high side to preclude the
superheater design. In addition, an accurate deter- possibility of operating with furnace temperatures above
mination of the heat absorption in the various furnace the initial ash deformation temperature.
waterwall areas is necessary to provide adequate water In a boiler furnace, both the furnace exit gas tempera- EXIT-WITH 15%
circulation with a practical number of supply and riser ture and the heat absorption can be changed appreciably,
tubes. for a given firing rate, by varying the amount of radiant
When estimating the furnace gas temperature, most heat absorbing surface. The furnace gas temperature
designers use formulas based upon the Stefan-Boltzmam and heat absorption also can be lowered, at any firing
law, which states that the heat absorbed by radiation is rate, by increasing the excess air (Fig. 21), except when
proportional to the difference between the fourth powers operating with a deficiency of air. The additional air
of the absolute temperatures of the radiating bodies and increases the weight of the products of combustion per
receiving surfaces (see Chapter 2). However, in a boiler pound of fuel fired. This decreases the adiabatic
furnace the exact determination of radiant heat transfer, temperature since there is less heat available per pound
or heat absorption, is extremely complex and depends of products of combustion; and, as indicated by the
upon: the furnace size and shape; the radiant beam Stefan-Boltzmann law, lowering the radiating tempera-
(mean distance from the radiating gas mass to the ture reduces the heat absorption rate. Generally, the
absorbing and the re-radiating surfaces); the partial radiating temperature is assumed equal to one third of
pressure of the products of combustion; the amount, the adiabatic temperature plus two thirds of the furnace
type, and effectiveness of the heat absorbing surfaces; exit gas temperature.
the ratio of the heat absorbing to the refractory surfaces; c. Heat Absorption Rates. The furnace heat ab-
the type, quantity, and heat content of the fuel; the sorption rate per square foot of radiant heat absorbing FIRING RATE,PER CENT OF FULL OUTPUT
surface increases with larger heat release rates. How- FIRING RATE,PER CENT OF FULL OUTPUT .
amount of excess air; the temperature of the combustion
air; the latent heat losses; the emissivity of the various ever, the percentage of the total heat released which is I I l k c t of excess air on odlobotic tind furnace gar temperature Flp. 22 Relotianhip of rodlon) heat absorption ond Aring rote
surfaces and the radiating mass of gas; and the flame absorbed in the boiler by radiation decreases with an
luminosity. Designers usually calculate furnace exit increase in firing rate, and varies from as much as 50
gas temperatures and heat absorptions by rational percent, or more, at the lower firing rates to about 15
methods and then, as a check, plot the calculated values percent at the higher firing rates; see Fig. 22. This ratings, including port loadings. However, at t.he same
against empirical data derived from boiler tests 121. results from the fact that the adiabatic temperature time they should not be so high as to cause high casing
b. Radiant Heat Absorbing Surface. In evaluating remains practically constant, except for changes due to temperatures or excessive furnace maintenance.
the radiant heat absorbing surface, the flat projected variations in excess air and combustion air temperatures, Because of the requirements for exceedingly light-
areas of the walls and tube banks are used. The spacing over the entire range of boiler operation, while the weight and compact units for naval installations, evap-
of the tubes in the boiler bank adjacent to the furnace temperature of the gases leaving the furnace and ntly, with a steam pressure of 600 psig orative ratings in naval boilers are 3 to 4 times greater
has no effect upon the furnace temperature; but with entering the tube bank increases with the firing rate. steam temperature) and a heat input than those common to most merchant installations.
widely pitched boiler tubes, a large percentage of the Even though the furnace heat absorption rates may be Consequently, the furnace exit gas temperatures in the
radiant heat is absorbed in the tube rows behind the conservative, the furnace exit gas temperatures may be full-power to overload range are about 2800 to 3050 F
furnace row. Furnace waterwalls and roofs usually excessive with respect to ash fusion temperatures and when firing oil with approximately 15 percent excess air.
consist of bare or covered tubes (Fig. 20) and, with slagging. This is true particularly in coal-fired boilers Adiabatic, or theoretical, flame temperatures are about
the exception of bare tangent tubes or welded walls, the where the gas temperatures entering the tube bank 3450 to 3500 F with oil firing, 15 percent excess air, and
effectiveness of the absorbing surfaces is less than the should be less than the initial ash deformation tempera- 100 F combustion air. With combustion air tempera-
black-body coefficient of 1.0 considered for the furnace ture. Because of the lower ash fusion temperatures of appreciable and it is good design practice t o tures of 300 to 350F, the adiabatic temperatures
rows of boiler tubes. oil slags, they pass out of the furnace in a gaseous or L tolerance for variations in the quality of the increase to approximately 3650 to 3700 F.
The furnace gas temperatures usually are not accu- molten state and are not amenable to control by reducing Although furnace heat release rates vary considerably,
rately estimated in preliminary analyses since the the furnace exit gas temperature. They must be practically all oil-fired merchant boilers are designed for
general design characteristics are of primary interest, considered in the design of the superheater. heat release rates of 65,000 to 125,000 Btu per cubic foot
and an approximate estimate of furnace gas temperatures d. Tube Metal Temperatures. In boilers, the heat- of furnace volume per hour at normal rating-approxi-
and heat absorption rates can be made with knowledge transfer rate across the boiling water fdm on the inside mately 15 to 20 percent of the corresponding full-power
of the boiler and the firing conditions. Thus, with the of the tubes may be as high as 20,000 Btu/ft2-hr-F; heat release rates on naval boilers.
assumed excess air, the heat content of the products of however, when estimating tube metal temperatures, a The heat release rate per square foot of radiant heat
combustion and the adiabatic temperature can be transfer rate of only 2000 Btu/ft2-hr-F is usually a b s o r b i surface is generally in the range of 200,000 to
determined. Further, the approximate furnace size assumed in order to provide a margin against the resis- 250,090 Btu per horn on merchant boiler designs.
104 MARINE ENGINEERING
I BOILERS AND
Naval boilers are designed for ratings four to five times the minimum longitudinal tube pitch (direction parallel suc~(~ior~~. The section between the furnace and the
greater than those used for merchant marine boilers. to the drum and perpendicular to the gas flow) consistent +!~~l~n~~ltoater is known as the "waterscreen" and the other
Radiant heat absorption rates vary greatly depending with good manufacturing practice and acceptable drum F~UI~~~IO installed
II, beyond the superheater, is called the
upon the firing rate and the amount of cold (water- design, unless the draft requirement or the type of fuel " l ~ ~ ~ i l rbank"
ir. or "generating bank. "
cooled) surface in the furnace. Generally, a radiant fired dictates the use of a greater pitch. Manufacturing 'I'l~ti~ i z eand arrangement of the waterscreen greatly
heat absorption of 120,000 Btu per square foot of cold and fabricating practices permit the use of +-in. metal r1l;fecrln the design of the superheater. A superheater
surface per hour is considered satisfactory for con- ligaments between 1-in. or la-in.-OD tubes. I~~c~~iiCtsl d.oser to the furnace behind a few rows of widely
tinuous overload operation of merchant boilers with The circumferential, or back, pitch (direction parallel j~ll.irl~n(l tubes in the waterscreen provides a relatively
treated evaporated feedwater. This results in an absorp- to the gas flow) of the tube usually is set to maintain ili~l, nl,nl~mtemperature characteristic over a wide range
tion of about 100,000 Btu per square foot of cold surface circumferential or diagonal ligament efficiencies2 equal ~ r l1-abi11g since the radiant and convection heat-transfer
per hour at the full-load rating. to, or better than, the longitudinal ligament efficiency titten tmd to .complement each other. However, a
There are merchant boilers in continuous service with in the drums. Tube arrangements utilizing a minimum i ? ~ i l l ~ r I ~ ~located
t ~ t e r farther away from the furnace
radiant heat absorptions of approximately 150,000 Btu back pitch reduce the drum periphery required for a i.uiiat,inn behind a deeper waterscreen has a steam
per square foot of cold surface per hour; and most naval given number of tube rows and allow the use of smaller- i r ~ ~ ~ l ~ n ~ characteristic
, ature which rises steeply with
boilers have been designed for radiant heat absorption diameter steam drums provided the steam drum release ~IIIIIQ@B~MO~ rating, due to the greater effect of convection
rates of 150,000 to 200,000 Btu per square foot of cold rates are satisfactory. With such arrangements, the size 11111LIIN reduction in radiation heat-transfer rates.
surface per hour at overload rating, but operation a t this and weight of the boiler can be reduced. Navril boilers usually have waterscreens consisting of
rating is infrequent. When designing for high steam pressures, it is often t l l i ; ~or :four rows of tubes and merchant marine boilers
3.4 Boiler Tube Bank. The arrangement of the necessary to increase the tube spacing in order to improve
boiler tbbe banks is established after development of the the ligament efficiency and reduce the thickness of the
preliminary furnace size. The simplest type of tube drum tube sheet [l6]. If this is not done, large thermal
bank is that of a boiler delivering saturated steam. Usu- stresses may be set up in the tube sheet. It also i~ FIRING RATE. PER CENT OF FULL OUTPUT
ally two sizes of tubes are used in such banks. The tubes possible to maintain close tube spacing and yet reduce Fig. 23 Temperature characteristics of radiant and convection superheaten
in the rows adjacent to the furnace absorb considerably the drum tube sheet thickness by using tubes with the de a relatively constant steam
more heat than those in the other rows and, therefore, ends swaged to a smaller diameter. de range of rating.
should be of larger diameter to increase the water flow. The number of tube rows installed should be limited Superheaters. The superheater must deliver the
The total heat input to the furnace row tubes is the sum so that an impractically large steam drum diameter i~ ed ateam temperature during the operating life
not required and so that heat absorption in the last tube these two factors and the surface. Increasing the
of the radiant and convection heat transfers; in general, t during the initial trials or test temperature differential takes advantage of the available
the convection heat transfer is approximately 5 to 20 rows is adequate to maintain good circulation. The cted performance must be main-
tube length should be such that the total absorption per temperature potential, while an increase of the heat-
percent of the radiant heat transfer. This relatively variations in firing transfer coefficient necessitates a larger resistance to gas
-. wide range in convection heat transfer results from tube does not result in too high a proportion of steam it1 d excess air. The
the water-steam mixture leaving the upper end of tho flow. Full advantage should be taken of a high tem-
variations in tube diameter, tube pitch, gas mass flow necessity of unscheduled~oqtaiges perature difference, but the entering gas temperature
rate, and the temperature difference between the products tubes. rder to maintain performance. should not be so high as to result in excessive tube metal
of combustion and the tube surface. b. Header-Type Boilers. Single-pass header-typo temperatures or high-temperature fuel ash corrosion
The number of tube rows installed is primarily de- boilers (Fig. 3) generally have two rows of 2-in. t u b e ~
above the furnace and if-in. or 1-in. tubes in tho (these are primarily a matter of location). The change
pendent upon the circulatory system and the desired in steam temperature with firing rate should be a
gas temperature leaving the tube bank. The gas tem- remainder of the bank. In these boilers a group or
cluster of fourteen 1-in. tubes can be substituted for ono minimum in order to prevent excessive temperatures
perature leaving the boiler tube bank varies with during maneuvering and, again, this depends upon
changes in steam pressure, firing rate, and tube size and of nine la-in. tubes. Thus, in boilers having the samo
width, length, and number of tube clusters in height, location. Steam velocities should provide for good
arrangement (the tube arrangement may be either distribution of steam, minimum tube metal temperatures,
staggered or in-line). However, sufficient boiler heating 25 percent more heat absorbing surface can be installed
by substituting 1-in. for la-in. tubes. However, tho and acceptable steam pressure drops; all of which require
surface must be installed to obtain exit gas temperatures correlating the effects of size, location, and the arrange-
which result in economical operating efficiencies and do advantages resulting from the compactness of the 1-in.- ure dictates the thickness of the super- ment of the steam passes.
not require excessive stack and breeching insulation. tube boiler must be balanced against the greater tolerance which in turn is an important factor in the
provided by the la-in.-tube boiler for poorer feedwatcr a. Types and Characteristics. The radiant and
Generally, the exit gas temperatures should not exceed of superheater pressure drop and tube convection-type superheaters are the two basic types.
750 F unless economizers or air heaters are used. quality. For the new header-type boilers that arc1
installed, chiefly in motor vessels for auxiliary steam They are, as their names imply, superheaters which
The resistance to gas flow can be varied appreciably in receive heat by radiant or convection heat transfer and
drum-type boilers by changing the pitch of the tubes in a purposes and in drill barges and dredges, the feedwator
quality is apt to be such that the selection of larger tubo they may be arranged horizontaily or vertically.
direction perpendicular to the gas flow. This change is In the radiant type the steam temperature decreases
not possible on header-type boilers because of the fixed sizes will offer more reliability.
c. Boilers Delivering Superheated Steam. Practi- with increased rating since the quantity of heat absorbed
tube pitch and, therefore, variations in resistance to gas by radiation does not increase proportionally with steam
flow must result from changes in boiler width, tube cally all marine boilers built recently deliver super-
heated steam from convection-type superheaters. In flow; see Fig. -23. In the convection type, the steam
length, and the number of tube rows. temperature generally increases with increased rating
a. Drum-Type Boilers. Mbderately rated drum- these boilers, the generating tube bank is arranged in two are designed to have a because the heat absorption, due to greater heat-
type boilers usually have 13-in. tubes in the furnace roes, transfer coefficients and higher inlet gas temperatures,
but these are increased to 2 in. in boilers of higher urface can be obtained by increases a t a faster rate than the steam output.
rating. One-inch and I&-in. tubes are common in the hcnt-transfer coefficient and the Cempera- Most superheaters are a combination of the two basic
2 Ligament efficiency is the relative strength of the ligamenln
main tube There is no standard pitch for tubes between adjacent tube holes in a drum or header as compared with oducts of combustion and types in which the designer builds in a radiant com-
in drum-type boilers. However, it is customary to use a drum or header having no holes. bsorbed is the product of ponent to achieve a flatter temperature characteristic.
II 1 106
MARINE ENGINEERING BOILERS AND COMBUSTION 1 07
~ i24~ Schematic
. arrangement of hairpin and continuous-loop superheaters
GAS TEMPERATURE- F
,
108 MARINE ENGINEERING BOILERS AND COMBUSTION 109
Economizer elements (particularly the extended-surface nxt~rnpleof a regenerative air heater is shown in Fig. 14. tube rows, and the number of gas and air passes. This
Experience has shown that the diligent use of soot- I l,n gastight casing forms part of the boiler forced-draft
blowing equipment (particularly mass-action retractable type) are more expensive than boiler tubes. In air facilitates determination of the heat-transfer rates and
heaters, part of the advantage resulting from the rir nnd uptake gas ducts. The heater is separately the heating surface. The preliminary assumptions are
units) usually can keep superheater surfaces satisfactorily ~llourltedabove the boiler and suitable expansion joints
clean for a year, or more, of opelation and that manual improved temperature difference is offset by the high then adjusted, if necessary, so that the surface arrange-
resistance to heat flow across the air flm [17]. There- mBoused in the ducts joining the two [7]. ment and heat transfer provide the required heat absorp-
cleaning and washing of the external heat absorbing 'I'l~eessential component of the heater is the rotor in
surfaces are required only during scheduled overhauls. fore, the proportions of component surfaces must be tion.
studied carefully to obtain the most economical overall wllitill the heat-transfer plate elements are packed. The Gas and air flow patterns also must be analyzed since
h. Reheaters. The design of reheaters involves the aila for combustion is passed axially through one side of
same procedures and considerations that are pertinent to arrangement. maldistribution could reduce heat absorption, increase
The minimum temperature of the feedwater to most Llln lutor while the flue gas is passed through the other fan power, reduce or elevate tube metal temperatures, or
superheater design. However, the steam distribution
merchant marine economizers vaxies between 270 and aliltr in the opposite direction. As the rotor turns, heat restrict the capacity of the boiler unit.
and tube metal temperature problems are more critical I. nitltinuously transferred from the gas to the heating
since reheaters must be designed for exceptionally low 280 F. The standard feedwater temperature for most Air heater designs are usually predicated upon inlet
naval installatior~is 246 F. This lower temperature is r~l~*lrbco; heat is also continuously given up to the air as air temperatures of 100 F, and exit air temperatures
steam pressure losses if a high cycle efficiency is to be the lioated plates traverse the air side. Counterflow
obtained. satisfactory because a premium fuel with a low sulfur ranging from 300 to 450 F at the normal full-load
I I tl~e
~ gas and air insures efficient heat transfer. operating rate. Design exit gas temperatures of 290 to
Steam or combustion gas can be used as the heating content is used.
Since the gas temperature leaving the economizer 'I'l~n heat-transfer elements are made of corrugated and 320 F are common for tubular air heaters and result in
medium in reheaters. When steam heating is used, the flnl alloets which are alternately packed in the main sec-
temperature of the reheated steam usually is limited to cannot be less than the inlet water temperature, .it boiler efficiencies of 88.5 to 88 percent. Regenerative
follows that high feedwater temperatures limit the I11111 of the heater and in the cold-end baskets. The cold- air heaters can be designed for lower uptake gas tempera-
550 to 600 F, since it is customary to use condensing el111basket is designed to be readily removable for clean-
obtainable efficiency. Consequently, with high feed- tures for a given risk of corrosion since for the same air
rather than superheated steam as the heating medium illy or replacement when conditions warrant. For daily
water temperatures, economizers are not often used and gas temperatures the heating surface metal tempera-
because of the much higher rate of heat transfer. elon~irig,a cleaning device consisting of a mass-action ture is somewhat higher than that of the tubular heater.
The use of gas reheaters is necessary if high reheat unless they are installed in conjunction with air heaters.
I n an air heater, the minimum uptake gas temperature ar~ol~ blower is installed. Air and gas bypass dampers Gas temperatures from 240 to 260 F are common for
steam temperatures and cycle efficiencies are required. fiiw ctn integral part of the preheater and are useful in regenerative air heaters with boiler efficiencies of 90
is dependent on the entering air temperature. Therefore,
Such reheaters may be fired separately or installed in the rature to 89.5 percent respectively.
boiler proper. Separately fired reheaters are not the attractiveness of air heater installations is due to the
possibility of operating with a high boiler efficiency when sion at Both the weight of the gas produced and the specific
common because they require an individual firing aide imize soot heat of the flue gas are greater than that of combustion
and renewal
-. clearances. as well as additional piping, using feedwater temperatures in the range of 300 to
450 F. ers can be made air. Therefore, when firing oil with about 15 percent
controls, breechings, firing equipment, fans, etc. excess air, the reduction in the temperature of the
3.6 Air Heaters and Economizers. Air heaters When steam turbines are bled for regenerative feed
heating,'the plant efficiency is increased about 1 percent air heaters are of the horizontal type products of combustion passing through the air heater is
and/or economizers are necessary to obtain high boiler vertical type is no%often used since it is about 13 percent less than the rise in air temperature.
efficiencies. Preference alone should not arbitrarily for each 100 deg F rise in feed temperature due to the
reduced heat loss in the condensers. Whether this stall considerably more surface for a In air heaters the heat-transfer coefficients across the
influence the selection of either since the design of the eat absorption than would be needed for the gas and air films are of about the same magnitude, and
power plant and it? performance characteristics greatly improvement in efficiency warrants the expenditure
required for additional feed heating and other equipment e, it is customary high resistance to heat flow is encountered in the gas film
affect the choice. he gas across the on both sides of the tube.
The temperature of saturated steam at a pressure of should be carefully weighed for each application.
The use of an air heater necessitates an increased air In the vertical type the gas usually passes b. Economizers. Marine economizers can be
850 psig is 528 F and the temperature of the products of the tubes and the air crosses the tubes. grouped into two general classifications, the "bare-tube"
combustion leaving the boiler tube bank would be, for a pressure to the boiler unit because of the additional
resistance to air flow through the air heater. Air ontal tubular air heaters generally utilize in-line and the Uextended-surface"types. They are generally
conservative boiler design, approximately 150 deg F &rrangements. These facilitate cleaning of the nonsteaming and are usually arranged for counterflow
above this value, or about 675 F. When firing oil, and pressures also must be increased when using economizers
because of the relatively high resistance to the gas flow far more of the water and the products of combustion. This
operating with 14.0 percent COs in the products of r heat transfer results in larger temperature differentials, and greater
combustion (approximately 15 percent excess air), this across the economizer, but, for boilers of the same size
uptake gas temperature would result in an operating operating at comparable firing rates, an air heater heat absorption can be obtained. The counterflow
installation will usually require a higher total air pressure nt permits a higher boiler efficiencybecause the
efficiency of only about 80 percent as can be see" from temperature can approach that of the inlet
w:- 1R
rlg. IU.
than will a unit fitted with an economizer.
If the uptake gas could be cooled to a temperature Air heaters are not pressure vessels, so the tubes can be
equal to the steam's saturation temperature by the use of fabricated from mechanical tubing (less expensive than omizers use tubes ranging in size from to 2 in.
pressure tubing) that is lightly expanded into the tube arranged in the form of either hairpins or con-
an infinite amount of heat absorbing surface, the isite tinuous loops. The hairpin type consists of U-bend
improved efficiency would only be 83.75 percent. There- sheets. However, economizers are part of the pressure
tubes tubes that are welded, or expanded, into headers.
fore, air heaters or economizers must be installed to system and must be designed to withstand the main aximum
increase full-load efficiencies to the 88-90 percent range feed pump discharge pressure, to operate without leakage, Single or multiple rows of loops can be used as well as
the heat- two or more headers. I n the continuous-loop type, each
usually desired. Further, the use of high evaporative and to withstand thermal shock. across and
ratings a t any given steam pressure increases the need a. Air Heaters. Increased efficiency and reduced tube element consists of a length of tubing bent back and
boiler maintenance can be obtained by improving com- y as about forth to form the desired number of rows; the ends of
for additional heat reclaiming equipment. and, thus,
When air heaters or economizers are installed, the bustion. Preheated air can improve combustion, reduco the tube are attached to the inlet and outlet headers,
ses with a usually by welding. Since only two headers a& required,
proportions of the boiler, air heater, and economizer boiler sooting, and reduce the possibility of ignition loss
surfaces must be balanced. Usually, the temperature particularly at the extreme low end of the firing range. the number of tube joints is greatly reduced as may be
Practically all of the older marine air heaters were of s, both the tube size noted from Fig. 26.
differential between the products of combustion and the satisfactory, in most
heat absorbing fluids in the economizer and air heater is the tubular type; the regenerative types were not often There are many types of extended-surface economizers.
used. However, in recent years, particularly for high- bes with *-in. tube The most prominent are those having steel studs or
greater than that in the last section of the boiler tube de of the length of
bank. This is advantageous in reducing the heat powered installations, the rotary regenerative air circumferential fins of aluminum, steel, or cast iron (see
preheater has found wide application. A typical ow, the number of Fig. 12). Features common to all extended-surface
absorbing surface required for a given heat recovery.
110
MARINE ENGINEERING
cient varies as the 0.65 to 0.70 power of the gas mass flow
I BOILERS AND COMBUSTION
STEAM OUTLET upon the natural separation of steam and water. For llloat merchant units having 48 to 54-in. drums and most
higher boiler ratings a positive means of steam separation llnval boilers using 46 to 60-in. drums. As power levels ULATING FIREBRICK
is required and compartmenbtype baffles, Fig. 32(b), Ill(:rease,60 to 72-in.-dia drums are used more frequently
INSULATING BLOCK
are frequently used. 101) provide the necessary room for steam baffles and to
Centrifugal steam separators are used primarily in lw()videthe capability of accommodating the shrink and ASBESTOS CEMENT
highly rated merchant and Navy drum-type boilers; n w d l that occurs when maneuvering.
they are particularly desirable for boilers subjected to b- Headers. Headers for water walls or economizers
rapid maneuvering, fluctuating water levels, or high ~ 1 . ousually fabricated from pipe stock. &llow forgings
solids concentrations in the boiler water. Centrifugal 1lltU' also be used especially for superheaters. They may
steam separators may be arranged either horizontally or b~round or forged to a rectangular or other cross
vertically in the steam drum as in Fig. 3 2 ( ~ ) . @fl(ltion to facilitate tube installation. Tubes are
The resistance to flow through centrifugal separators is lll~lulledby expanding or by welding.
Htandard boiler and economizer tubes are fabricated
from either electric resistance welded or seamless stock.
(a) TRIPLE PERFORATED
PLATE BAFFLE t1:lo0tric resistance welded tubes are less expensive and
lllbvo been proven to be as dependable as seamless tubes
111 boilers and economizers. Superheater tubes are made
!TEAM OUTLET
supplied to the downcomers is greater than that of the
"frothy" water-steam mixture discharged from per-
forated-plate and compartment-type baffles.
e. Effect of Drum B d e s on the Circulatory System.
The steam-water flow through the steam drum baffles
is in series with all of the flow circuits in the circulatory
system. Thus, if the flow through one of the circuits is
increased, for example, by the installation of additional
downcorners, the flow through the steam baffles also is
increased. This imposes an additional resistance in the
circulatory system with the result that the flow
in downcomers will not increase in direct propodion
the additions made.
emperature to 130 F or less. Local areas, for
( C) CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATORS where superheater inlet or outlet nozl;les FIBERGLASS
give the operator a direct view of a light source which modulated but it is stopped manually. Although no
shines through the boiler uptake and the combustion operator function is ~erformed automatically, wide-
gases. Another type employs a photoelectric cell and range burners can be used with automatic comb us ti or^
provides a readout on a meter scale calibrated in smoke controls to facilitate dock-to-dock operation without
density units; it may also be fitted to sound an alarm manual participation. However, without boiler and
when a certain smoke density is reached. burner monitoring devices, the operator must remain in
d. Instrumentation and Controls. The need for close proximity to the boiler to provide the necessary
operating instruments and manual and/or automatic surveillance.
controls varies with the size and type of equipment, the In the local supervised manual system, Fig. 41, a burner
method of firing, the proficiency of the operating person- is purged and manually ignited, but certain ~ r o c e d u r e ~
nel, and the desired degree of automation. Chapter 21 and conditions are supervised by safety interlocks. ~ l l
covers the application of control equipment to ship's manual functions are performed and checked by tho
propulsion plants. operator a t the burner station during normal operation,
and if the demand for steam is within the capability of Fig. 40 Burner operation-local manual control
For safe operation and efficient performance, infor-
mation is required relative to the water level in the the burners, unattended boiler operation is attained.
boiler drum; burner performance; pressures of the Monitoring and safety interlocks are ~rovidedto alter
steam and the feedwater; temperature of the super- the operation if an unsafe condition develops, and to
heated (md reheated) steam; pressures of the gas and air trip the burner and/or the boiler, if necessary. After 11
entering and the leaving principal components; feed- trip-out, the operator must take the necessary correctivn
water and boiler water chemical conditions and particle action to clear the interlocks and recycle the burner Hlltrthm pressure, drum, approx.. . . . . .
carry-over; operation of feed pumps, fans, fuel burning, and/or the boiler. Hll(rfbmpressure, superheater outlet. . .
and fuel equipment; relationship of the The remote supervised manual system, Fig. 42, allow^
actual combustion air passing through the furnace to a burner to be purged and ignited by a ~ushbuttonor
that theoretically required for the fuel fired; temperatures selector switch, modulated automatically, and securcd nuperheated 185,520 Ib/hr
of the water, gas, fuel, and air entering and leaving the by a remote manually actuated pushbutton or selector (losuperheated 16,870 lb/hr
principal component parts of the unit; and feedwater, switch. I t also provides supervision of procedures by
steam, fuel, and air flows. safety interlocks. The burner is mechanized and all
operating functioris are ~erformedby mechanical device^ Pntdwater temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Icor many years, marine boilers have been equipped
with control equipment permitting steady operation at initiated from a remote control station which indicaton 41:Hiciency (based on 13% radiation Fig. 41 Burner operatiolr-local rupewhed manual conko]
sea with little operator participation except while whether or not each function has been performed cor- auld unaccounted for losses and 15%
maneuvering. However, the trend is toward complete rectly. This system of control does not relieve thtr flxcess air) . . . . . . . . .'. . . . . . . . . . . . .
automation of the boilers so that, with the exception of operator of burner manipulation. He must devote hin P'ud total heating value (standard
starting up, they can be operated throughout the full undivided attention to the step-by-step procedures fol- h n k e r C 4- added heat in air). . . . 19,264 ~ t u / l b
range from standby to full load without manual adjust- starting and securing burners, which is a time-consuminlr, Pll(!l required. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,349 lb/hr
process. This control system can only be justified i l l Alr temperature, leaving steam air
To attain fully automatic operation, the development installations where the turndown capabilities of tho houter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
of adequate control components and system designs is burners do not match the turndown requirements of tho
boiler, and, the burners must be manipulated to covclr. 811'flow (16.07 Ib/lb oil at 15% excess
essential. The operating characteristics of the principal nir) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , , . . . . . . . .
and auxiliary items of steam-generating equipment must the operating range. Its application will not meet thtr
be fully known since these characteristics affect the USCG requirements for an automatic boiler. Ylue gas flow = 244,937, say. . . . . . . . 245,000 lb/hr
degree of controllability, the scope of the controls The automatic (nonrecycling) control system, Fig. 43,
required, and the response obtained. These in turn involves a burner which, when actuated manually by 11 fpol' the example, only one rate of operation will be
affect the safety of the installation and establish its pushbutton, is purged, ignited, and modulated auto- lalsul~btedalthough for an actual boiler design it is not
economic justification. As an example, where the matically; and although secured either automatically or ilfitl@llfil to calculate three or more rates to establish
burners have a range of oper~tionor turndown capability
equal to or greater than that required by the boiler, the
necessity to sequence burners (or take them out of
remote-manually, the burner does not recycle auto-
matically. When start and stop sequences are manually
initiated from a remote control station, each function i l l
*
@l*kl'fi()~Ori~ti~ Curves of performance. Rated power will
orl(lulated since this establishes the design meeting
khr~ np(>eifiedefficiency and steam temperature. The
the start-up and stop sequence is performed and checltatl h m l - ~ ~ s fdatae r are derived from the cumes and pro-
service) is eliminated. This, in turn, eliminates many @@tlrlr.ao of Chapter 2.
decisions and functions that would otherwise be required automatically and all ~roceduresand conditions arc'
of an automatic burner management system, and a supervised by safety interlocks. Since the operator Boiler Layout. Two oil burners will be used to
simpler system may be selected. may be required to initiate the start-up and securing of n @MPP~,Ythe total oil flow of 14,349 lb/hr at rated power
burner to meet load requirements, this control systenl Mia ahout 8000 lb/hr each at overload. The necessary
The degrees of control which can be achieved, in
ascending order of sophistication, are manual, local does not meet the USCG definition of an automatic! @!@#r~lces for burners of this capacity are obtained from
supervised manual, remote supervised manual, auto- boiler. the ~(rlocted burner manufacturer. Based on this
matic (nonrecycling), and automatic (recycling). These With an automatic (recycling) type of control systenr, !ltfl1rllll~tionand experience, an approximate furnace and
various types of control can best be delineated by a burner is purged, ignited, modulated, and stopp(-tl bll@l' l h ~ o u is
t prepared (see Fig. 44) from which the
automatically, and the burner recycles within a prescribnd hlfllfitf(fvolume and heating surfaces can be estimated.
relating their functions to burner operation.
With the manual type of control, Fig. 40, a burner is load range. k~. Furnace Calculations. The furnace volume, cold
manually purged and ignited. I t may be automatically 3.12 Sample Design Problem. The steps followcxl @ul.f#fltr,and radiant heat abs~rbingsurface @HAS) are
MARINE ENGINEERING BOILERS AND COMBUSTION 123
To determine the shape emissivity factor, FBFA,the
following data are required: X. = tube equivalent thickness 21 Dolog, O-D
=- Di
R I I ~from -K
Fig. 7 of Chapter 2 the concentration factor = 1653 F
la 0,086. The mean radiating length is L = 0.6q2655 =
ft. Equation (31) of Chapter 2 can now be evaluated The temperature coefficientf~ [equation (40) of Chapter
&odotermine the flame emissivity 21 then becomes
641 F at drum saturation pressure of 975 psia The screen, superheater, and generating bank per-
formance calculations may be conducted as follows:
126 MARINE ENGINEERING BOllERS AND COMBUSTION 127
This practice is expected to becO1'lr'
used after proper treatment (19, 201. In essence, this from corrosion. I I I * ~ I I l~lr~nyfactors, and a feedwater specialist should be govern the time required for start-up and also, to some
entails: the removal from the raw water of those con- common, particularly at higher steam Pressures an(( p~tlrwtll~crtlto establish specific procedures. However, extent, for cooling after shutdown.
stituents which are known to be harmful; supplementary single-boiler installations. Filming amines introdl~(~~sl 1 iltr* I.P@(II~R obtained will depend upon the diligence and c. Boiler Cleaning. For mtisfactory and efficient
treatment (within the boiler or connected system) of into the feedwater or steam lines also provide ~rotec1,l~)ll ttrtygrl(~y of the routine sampling and the control measures operation, a boiler must be kept clean on both the
impurities to convert them into harmless forms; against corrosion, but by forming a coating on the mrlftll B + # I I l11trl~od
~ by the operating personnel. waterside and fieside. With adequate attention to the
and systematic removal, by blowdown of boiler water surfaces rather than by changing the PH of the watts. and by maintaining the boiler
of 4.3 Boiler Water. Boiler water is treated within I ~ I I I .
concentrates, to prevent excessive prescribed limits, there
solids within the unit. boiler to prevent corrosion, the fouling of heat-absorblll# the waterside. The fire-
The ultimate purpose of feedwater and boiler water surfaces, and the mntamination of steam. T h i S r e q ~ i ~ " ~ ~ rmal side, on the other hand, requires daily attention if the
treatment is to keep the internal surfaces free from the injection of chemicals into the steam drum W I I ( ~ I ~ wn; steam temperature and boiler efficiency are to be main-
deposits of scale or sludge and to prevent the corrosion they react with the residual impurities in the feedwi~ln-I tiny operation; inspection and maintenance; and tained a t their optimum values.
of these surfaces. Hard-scale formations, formed by Properly controlled, internal treatment can mai111.nlll rlb8o. In all phases the handling of the equipment Only distilled and deaerated water should be used for
certain constituents in zones of high heat input, retard boiler water conditions within satisfactory limits [6, 1x1 or, but the overall feeding the boiler and for feed makeup. Total solids in
the flow of heat rnd raise the metal to higher-than- Corrosion is minimized by maintaini~l~ an al1c:~li111~ tions and operation the boiler water should not exceed a of 500
temperatures. This can cause overheating and boiler water and this condition is usually expressed 111
The PH of w;lt1'l Suspended solids should
terms of '<pH" or "total alkalinity."
the failure of pressure parts, Sludge, or solid particles depends upon the relative concentrations of the hydrorlbll five percent of the total
normally carried in suspension, may settle locally and lower than 2 ppm and
restrict the flow of cooling water or, in some cases, may (H+) and h~droxyl(OH-) ions. A PH of 7.0 corrl' range of 10 to 25 ppm. The
deposit in the form of insulating layers with an effect sponds to pure water and values from 7.0 d ~ w nto n b n l o d d be in range of 10.2 to 11.5.
similar to that of hard scale. Oil and grease prevent are increasingly acidic while values from 7.0 UP to I.1.(1 r (sodium sulfite) should range
adequate wetting of the internal surfaces and, in areas are increasingly alkaline. The pH of a water sample ~':III
of high input, cause overheating; they also may carbonize be determined accurately by the measurement of its I ' I I ~ ~ ' stic maintained within these limits, will not form scale or
and form a tightly adberent insulating coating. Corro- trical ~otentialor approximated by chemical indicals'~~
sion due to acidic conditions, or to dissolved gases, can which change color in certain pH ranges by reactil'l~n
weaken the boiler by the removal of metal. This with the solution. The pH of boiler water usually 1s a steaming boiler should be given a good surface blow each
usually occurs in localized areas in the form of cavities maintained within the range of 10.2 to 11.5. frrCato maintain about 50 percent of the normal day. A test for total dissolved solids made before and
and pits which if may result in complete Total alkalinity (expressed in parts per million) I* I' ~bhrgpressure. This procedure facilitates the desired after the blow will indicate if additional attention is
penetration and leakage. Certain chemical reactions measure of all reactives that have the ability to neutr:~l~m g. required. The water drum bottom blowoff connection
produce an intereranular attack on the metal, leading to acids and is determined by titrating a water sample W I ~ J I
standard acid. I t is frequently expressed as "equiv:~I1~111 ing suspended or total solids in the
embrittlement and fracture.
4.2 Feedwater. Virtually all oceangoing vessels use calcium carbonate," which has a molecular weight of 101)
feedwater evaporated from seawater for the boilers, and When determined in this manner, total alkalinity is 11111 allowed to deteriorate to the point
thus, feedwater treatment is minimized. Some con- exactly comparable to the pH measurement of alkalil~ll.~. bakedqn sludges are found during water-
tamination may be encountered in the distillate due to due to the buffering action which occurs in conll)lltr side inspections, chemical analysis of the deposits will
the carry-over of water particles with the vapor and the solutions, but it is often used as a reference. ce to reduce indicate the cleaning method best suited for their
reabsorption of nonoondensable gases but additional The removal of dissolved oxygen is desirable in 1111
~olidsremoval is not required. However, dissolved boilers but it is mandatory for high-~ressureunits. 11 ~ f l s and scale cutters through each tube, and
gases must be removed to prevent corrosion. customary in removing oxygen to supplement feedw:ll1c*r a high-pressure water hose. The entire
Dissolved oxygen is usually the greatest factor in the deaeration by internal chemical treatment of the w:~lr~v. eaned as a unit more quickly and efficiently
corrosion of boiler surfaces in contact with water. I t using a scavenging agent such as sodium sul~hitewl1l('ll ng. A specialist should be consulted to
may be in the makeup water or in the feedwater, as a combines with the oxygen to form a stable s0dil1111 procedure, which entails the use of acid
result of previous contacts with atmospheric air, or it sulphate. Hydradne also may be used for the purl*~N~ rinsing agents. The acid strength,
may be added to the water by leakage into the system yielding end products of water and inert nitrogen. 'l'llllap the temperature at which they are used .
through low-pressure ppmp seals, storage tanks, etc. chemicals prevent the entrance or the retention of ( l m shutdown, are of vital importance if the cleaning process is to be
Fortunately, most of the oxygen can be readily removed solved oxygen and are maintained in the boiler water rilh nspect the kept within safe limits. Excessive acid strength or
from the water by the use of deaerating-type feedwater a small marginal excess. of normal unneutralizpd acid remaining after cleaning will pit and
heaters. The elimination of hardness in the boiler watcr 10 attack the metal possibly to the point that replacement
Corrosion may be experienced in the condensate piping necessary to prevent scale and it can be removctl
and the preboiler system due to diswlved gases, such as injecting one of the combinations of sodium or potassi~llll to facilitate the cleaning
carbon dioxide, sulphw dioxide, or hydrogen sulphide,, phosphate and thoroughly mixing the compound I V I ~ ~ I I surfaces of the superheater
in the water. These gases originate from the atmos- the boiler water. If the alkalinity is maintained at :I I ) ~ I well as the economizer and air
phere or from constituents in the boiler water. They of 10 or higher, the residual calcium ions entering wit111110 anged in in-line patterns which
are released in the steam generators, intimately mixed feedwater are precipitated as an insoluble phospll~ll. rough which inspection and cleaning
with the outgoiog steam, and finally exhausted to the sludge and the magnesium is ~ r e c i ~ i t a t eas d a 11011 hed. Staggered patterns are slightly
condenser. adherent magnesium hydroxide. Routine control rr eheater) more efficient from a heat-transfer standpoint but are
Although it is not common marine practice to treat quires the adjustment of the pH by the additioll 111 flow. more difficult to inspect and clean.
water in the preboiler system, a few installations have sodium hydroxide, or its equivalent, and the mainter~;ll~~'@ POS- In extreme conditions, hand lancing or watermu.ashing
I I S P ~cvclohexvlamine or other volatile amines to increase
of a moderate excess of phosphate ions in the boiler ~:11'1~1
MARINE ENGINEERING BOILERS AND COMBUSTION
boiler and its cleaning equipment have all but eliminated boiler water should be increased to a minimum of 400 H "Lexicon-Steam Generating Equipment, " Amer- Marine Technology, vol. 6, no. 4, October 1969, p. 406.
the need for hand cleaning. Soot blowers are used to ppm, and, with the addition of sodium sulfite in thv lllatb Ijoiler Manufacturers Association, Newark, N. J.
amount of 100 ppm, oxygen corrosion can be prevented. 15 J. J. Banker and M. G. O'Harra, "Some Con-
clean the fireside at regular intervals. The frequency i t "Marine Steam Power Plant State of the Art siderations for Automation in Marine Boiler Desim,
depends on the fuel ash characteristics, combustion During storage, boiler connections should be checkctl riec~~it~ar," General Electric and Babcock & Wilcox, 1969. Combustion Equipment, Boiler Control and Burner
efficiency, and the rates of operation. for leakage and frequent samples of boiler water shoultl 10 "Boiler Furnace Performance Criteria," SNAME
be taken and analyzed. If analyses indicate that t h Control, " SNAME, Great Lakes Section, January 1966.
Air or steam can be used as the blowing medium; 'I'd It Bulletin No. 3-14, December 1963. 16 "Section I ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
however, oil-fired boilers almost universally use steam. hydrate alkalinity is less than 250 ppm, the water in thth 1 I Code of Federal Regulations, Title 46-Shippiw, Code-Power Boilers," the American Society of Me-
Steam is available in large quantities and at a low cost. steam drum should be lowered to the normal operatirig p~~ldinhed by the Office of the Federal Register. chanical Engineers.
Air, often used in coal-fired units, is "puffed" inter- level and chemicals should be injected to bring tlic~ IS W. 0, Nichols, M. L. Rubin, and R. V. Danielson.
hydrate alkalinity back to 400 ppm. The boiler shoultl 17 William H. McAdarns, Heat Transmission,
mittently to permit repressurization of the air receivers "Homo Aspects of Large Tanker Design," Trans. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1954.
by the air compressor. then be steamed sufficiently to circulate the addctl IYNA ME, vol. 68, 1960.
chemicals, following which the process of wet storago 18 G. R. Fryling, Combustion Engineering, Com-
Superheated or desuperheated steam can be used with 13 "Recommended Practices for Preparing Marine bustion Engineering Inc., New York.
good effect. The steam should be supplied in a dry should be completed in the usual manner. WI~rrrn Power Plant Heat Balances," SNAME T&R
c. Steam Blanket. The steam blanket method pro- 19 Eskel Nordell, Water Treatment for Industrial
state, and the supply system must have adequate traps ll\lllotin No. 3-11. and Other Uses, Reinhold, 1961.
or be fitted with orificed drains to remove condensate so vides excelle~lt protection for short-time idle storagct, 14 R. P. Giblon, K. M. Shauer, and I. H. kolih, 20 "Betz Handbook of Industrial Water Condition-
as to prevent it from reaching the blower elements. but requires a continuous source of low-pressure steal11 "L jnnign Considerations for Boiler Forced-Draft Systems, " ing, " Befi Laboratories, Philadelphia, 1962.
Three basic types of steam soot blowers are used. (in order of 150 psig) and connections for maintainirr~
The long retracting mass-action type used in super- this steam pressure in the stored boiler. All vents arrtl
heaters; the rotary valve-in head line blower used in drains should normally be closed to allow the boiler arrtl
boiler banks, economizers, and tubular air heaters; and superheater to fill with condensate but the boiler can ht,
the stctionary-type unit which is used in hoppers and drained periodically if desired.
where fixed directions of blowing are desired to remove d. Nitrogen Blanket. The oxygen-free nitrogc!~~
localized deposits, such as those forming on top of the storage method is one in which nitrogen gas at a presstlro
water drum. of 10 to 15 psig is maintained in the unit at all tirntbn
The soot blowing system can be manually operated during its idle status. It can be used with very satin-
or sequential pushbutton controls can be employed to factory results if the boiler, terminal valves, and fittirlga
automatically program the cleaning process. Once are tight under normal hydrostatic pressure.
initiated, the automatic sequencing control opens the The boiler can either be emptied or a normal wahr
steam supply valve, warms the lines, blows the soot level maintained in the steam drum. The nitroger1 i#
blowers in sequence, and then shuts dourn the steam admitted when the boiler pressure has dropped below
supply. the gas pressure which will be maintained in the u~ril,,
Satisfactory protection against corrosion depends uport
4.5 Boiler Storage system checks and the renewal of nitrogen, as necessary.
a. Dry Storage. When a boiler will be idle for a To ready a boiler for sewice after storage, the nitrogtl~~
considerable length of time and there will be ample time supply is secured and the water level in the steam dr~llri
available to prepare for its return to sewice, the dry- is raised to that required for lighting-off. Any nitrogt~ll
storage method is recommended. To accomplish this, in the steam drum and superheater will be displaced I)y
the unit is emptied, thoroughly cleaned internally and the steam generated during the customary venting 01'
externally, dried, and then closed tightly to exclude both the steam drum and the superheater as steam pressure
moisture and air. is increased.
Trays of lime, silica gel, or other moisture absorbents,
are placed in the drums to collect the moisture trapped References
in the air when closing the boiler. To insure against a 1 George W. Melville, "Development of the Mnririi-
possible overflow of corrosive liquid after the moisture Boiler in the Last Quarter Century," The Engineer, 1!)1 I
has been absorbed, not more than 75 percent of the tray 2 G. W. Kessler, "Procedures and Influeriairtg
capacity should be filled with the dry absorbent. Care Factors in the Design of Marine Boilers," Z ' T ( L ~ I ~
must be taken to prevent water, steam or air leakage SNAME, vol. 56, 1948.
into the unit, and periodic inspections should be made to 3 W. I. Signell, "Marine Boiler Design Tod:~y,"
make sure that there is no corrosive action' The Trans. SNAME, vol. 76, 1968.
absorbent should be replenished as required. 4 Carl D. Shields, "Boilers, Types, Characterisbieo
b. Wet Storage. If boilers are to be placed in and Functions," F. W. Dodge Corp., 1961.
standby service but must be available for immediate 5 W. A. Fritz, Jr., and L. Cohen, "Development r u ~ t l
operation, before shutting d ~ w nthey should be steamed Evaluation of a Supercharged Steam Generafi,irl~
to stabilize the boiler water conditions and to remove System," ASME Paper 62-WA-279, November 196%.
oxygen bubbles from the internal surfaces. The boiler 6 Steam, Its Generation and Use, The Babcock r ~ i i t l
firing rate should then be decreased slowly and the steam Wilcox Co.
drum water level should be raised as high in the gage 7 F. P. Bergonzi, G. Cooper, and J . F. Moorny,
glass as is consistent with safe operation while still "Heat Recovery Equipment for Modern Marine Cyeltm,"
passing steam to the line. The hydrate alkalinity in the SNAME Southern California Section, November lNitl.
NUCLEAR MARINE PROPULSION 131
CHAPTER I V ~liitrl(1adds considerably to the size and weight of the minimum energy required to dissociate it into its component
neutrons, a control prevents the neutrons from causing Exclusion Area. An area immediately Surrounding a I"tamediate (e~ithermal) Neutron. A neutron having Neutron Economy. The degree to which neutronsin a
reactor where human habitation is prohibited to assure "IergY greater than that of a thermal neutron but less than reactor are used for desired ends instead of being lost by
further fission. a fast neutron. The range is generally considered
core. The centn] of a nuclar reactor containing the safety in the event of an accident. leakage or nonproductive absorption. The desired ends may
fuel elements and usually the but not the Excursion. A sudden, very rapid rise in the power level of b~ between about 0.5 and 100,000 electron volts. include propagation of the chain reaction, converting
a reactor caused by supercriticality. Excursions are Ion* An Or molecule that has lost or gained one or fertile to fissionable material, or producing isotopes.
usually quickly suppressed by the negative temperature r ~ ~electrons.
~ r o BY this ionization it becomes electrically Nudem Reactor, A device in which a fission chab reaction
Cdtid M ~ ~h~ ~ ~ . mass of fissionable material coefficient of the reactor and/or by automatic Control
that will supporta self-sustaining chain reaction under Examples: an alpha Particle, which is a helium can be initiated, maintained, and controlled. lts essential
Fast Neutron. A neutron with energy greater than approxi- minus two electrons; a Proton, which is a hydrogen component is a core with fissionable fuel. ~tusually has a
stated conditions. lttom minus its electron.
Cross Section. A measure of the probability that a nuclear mat el^ 100,000 electron moderator, a reflector, shielding, coolant, and control
reaction will occur. usually measured in barns, it is the Fast Reactor. A reactor which the fission chain reaction t"nlzatlon Chamber. An instrument that detects and mechanisms. Sometimes called an atomic ~ f ~ it ~ ~ ~
area presented by a target nucleus is sustained primarily by fast neutrons rather than by llloaBures ionizing radiation by measuring the electrical is the basic machine of nuclear energy.
apparent(or OIlrrent that flows when radiation ionizes gas in a chamber, Plutonium. A heavy, radioactive, man-made, metallic
(or to an or other nuclear thermal or intermediate neutrons. Fast reactors
radiation, such as a photon of gamma radiation. little or no moderator to slow down the neutrons from the making the gas a conductor of electricity. element with atomic number 94. Its most important
speeds at which they are ejected from fi~siOning Irotope* One or two or more atoms with the same atomic isotope is fissionable plutonium-239, produced by neutron
Cluie. ~h~ basic unit to describe the intensity of radio- llllmber (the same chemical element) but with different
activity in a sample of material. The curie is equal to 37 Fissile Material. While sometimes used as a synonym irradiation of ~rani~rn-238.~tis used for reactorfuel and
billion disintegrations per second, which is approximately for fissionable material, this term has also acquired a hlomic weights. Isotopes usually have very nearly the in weapons.
the rate of decay of 1 gram of radium. A curie is also a restricted meaning; namely, any material fiss~onableby nllme chemical Properties, but somewhat diierent physical Poison. ~ n material y of high absorption cross section that
quantity of any nuclide having 1 curie of radioactivity. neutrons of all energies, including (and especially) thermal absorbs neutrons unproductively and hence removes them
Named for Marie and Pierre Curie, who discovered radium (slow) neutrons as well as fast neutrons; for examplci t@akage. In nuclear engineering, the escape of neutrons from the fission chain reaction in a reactor, decreasing its
uranium-235 and plutonium-239. from a reactor core. Leakage lowers a reactor's reactivity. reactivity.
Fission. The splitting of a heavy nucleus into two approxi- Credible Accident. The most serious reactor Power Density. The mte of heat generated per unit volume
D e w Heat The heat produced by the decay of radioactive llucident that can reasonably be imagined from any adverse of a, reactor core.
rnately equal parts (which are nuclei of lighter elements),
accompanied large amount of c'ombination of equipment malfunction, operating errors, Pressure Vessel. A strong-walled containerhousing the
~ ~~ h ~ ~Neutrons
~ ~ emitted
d t by radioactive
~ fission
~ ~ . by the release of a
energy and generally one or more neutrons. Fission ~ l other
d foreseeable causes, The term is used to analyze
products in a reactor over a period of seconds or minutes core of most types of power reactors; it usually also contains
occur spontaneously, but usually is caused by '"la characteristics of a reactor. Reactors are the moderator, reflector, thermal shield, and control rods.
after a fission takes place. Fewer than 1 percent of the particles' rlesigned to be safe even if a maximum credible accident Ressurized-Water Reactor. A power reactorin which heat
neutrons are delayed, the majority being prompt neutrons. absorption of gamma rays, neutrons, Or
The nuclei (fission fragments) formed by nhould occur.
Delayed neutrons are important considerations in reactor Fission Roducts. Moderator. Material used in a nuclear reactor to moderate, is transferred from the core to a heat exchanger by water
design and control. the fission of heavy elements, plus the nuclides formed by kept under high pressure to achieve a high temperature
I-Q-i slow down, neutrons from the high energies a t which without boiling in the primary system. steam is generated
Depleted U r ~ u m . Uranium having a smaller percentage the fission fragments' radioactive decay. t'iray are Neutrons lose energy by scattering in a secondary circuit. Many reactors producing electric
of uranium-235 than the 0.7 percent found in natural Flux (Neutron). A measure of the intensity fi'llisions with nuclei of the moderator. A good moderator
radiation. I t is the number of neutrons passing through I power are pressurized-water reactors.
uranium. ~t is obtained from the spent (used) fuel 111~sa high scattering cross section and low atomic weight. Production Reactor. A reactor designed primarily for
elements or as by-product tails, or residues, of uranium square centimeter of a given target in 1 second. Ex~res'ncl 'I1 each
as nu, where n = the number of neutrons per cubic centi- there is a chance of absorption. +TO large-scale production of plutonium-239 by neutron irradirt-
isotope separation. ~ d u c ethis loss of neutrons during the slowing-down tion of uranium-238. ~l~~ a reactorused primarily for the
meter and V = their velocity in centimeters per second.
~ ~ ~ ~ isotope
~ off hydrogen
i ~ whose
. nucleus contains fuc'l I)roceSs, the moderator atoms also should have a low production of radioactive isotopes.
one neutron and one proton is therefore about twice as Fuel Cycle. The series of steps involved in ~l@utron-absorPtion cross section. A high-scattering cross Prompt Criticality. ~h~ state of a reactor when the fission
for nuclear power reactors. It includes refini1114~
heavy as the nucleus of normal hydrogen, which is only a roction implies frequent collisions; these give the neutron a chain reaction is sustained solely by promptneutrons; that
single Deuterium is often referred to as heavy the original fabrication of fuel elements1 their use in [latter chance of being slowed down before it is captured
reactor, chemical processing to recover the fissionah' is, without the help of delayed neutrons.
hydrogen; it occurs in nature as 1 atom to 6500 atoms of lt1ld also reduce the average net distance traveled in slowing Rad. The basic unit of absorbed dose of ionizing radiation.
ndrmal hydrogen. I t is nonradioactive. material remaining in the spent fuel, re-enrichment of th'' clown so that leakage is reduced. Small mass results in a
fuel material, and refabrication into new fuel elements. A dose of one rad means the absorption of 100 ergs of
D h t - c Y d e ~~~~t~~ Syptem- A nuclear power plant average energy loss Per collision (requiring few radiation energy per gram of absorbing material.
systemin which the coolant or heat-transfer fluid circulates Fuel Ellment. A rod, tube, plate, or other mechanica1 sh'~)" c'ollisionfJ)and 80 reduces both opportunities for capture Radioisotope. A radioactive isotope.
or form into which nuclear fuel is fabricated for use in lb unstable isotope
first through the reactor and then directly to a turbine. ll'ld distance t~aveled. fhme practical materials are' of an element that decays or disintegrates spontaneous~y,
Doppler Effect. The shift with temperature of the inter- reactor. (used in the form of graphite), beryllium and its emitting radiation. More than 1300 natural and artificial
action rate between neutrons and reactor materials, such Fusion. The formation of a heavier nucleus from two lightul' ciompoundg, and water.
radioisotopes have been identified.
as fuel rods, structural materials, fertile materials. ones (such as hydrogen isoto~es),with the attendant relenfln Yolecde. A p u p of a t o m held tosether by chemical Reactivity. A measure
of energy (as in a hydrogen bomb). of the departure of a nuclear reactor
The shift can appreciably affect the neutron density and foroes. A molecule is the smallest unit of matter which from critic$ity. ~t is about equal to the effective multi-
hence the reactivity of reactors. Gamma Rays. High-energy, short-wavelength electro- ofin exist by itself and retain all its chemical properties. ~licationfactor minus one and is thus precisely zero a t
D~~~ Rate. The radiation dose delivered per unit time and magnetic radiation. Gamma radiation acconl- NaturalCirculationReactor. A reactor in which the coolant criticality. If there is excess reactivity (positive reac-
measured, for instance, in rems per hour. panics alpha and beta emissions and always accompa11icrm ('lsua1ly water) is made to circulate without pumping, that tivity), the reactor is supercritical and its power will rise.
xleCtmn volt, ~h~ amountof Lioetic energy gained by an fission. Gamma rays are very penetrating and are bc'flIa IR, by natural convection. Negative reactivity (s~bcriticalit~) will result in a decreas-
through an electrical poten- stopped or shielded against by dense materials, such t~ lor'' Natural Uranium. Uranium as found in nature contains 0.7 ing power level.
electron when it is
tial difference of 1 volt. ~t is equivalent to 1.603 x 10-11 or depleted uranium. Gamma rays are essentially sirnil&' IIercent U-235, 99.3 percent of U-238, and a trace of Reflector. A layer or structure of material the
to X-rays, but are usually more energetic and are ~uclolll U-234. It is also called normal uranium. core of a reactor to reduce the escape of neutrons. I t is
erg. ~t is a unit of energy, or work, not of voltage. '@utron. An uncharged elementary particle that has a mass
Enriched Material. Material in which the percentage of a in located between the core and the shield. Neutrons enter-
givell isotope present has been artificially increased so that Half-Life. The time in which half the atoms of a particullw fllightl~.greaterthan that of the proton and is found in the ing the reflector are scattered randomly, some of them
radioactive substance disintegrate to another nuc1ear l'ucleus Of every heavier than hydrogen. A free many times; and a large fraction of them
it is higher than the percentage of that isotope naturally
Measured half-lives vary from millionths a seconc' "' lleutron is unstable and decays with half-life of about 13 may
foulld in the material. Enriched uranium contains more return to the core; it is possible to design a reflector by
billions of Years. lainutes into an electron, Proton, and neutrino. Neutrons which more than 90 percent of neutrons that would be lost
of the fissionable isotope uranium-235 than the naturally
occurring percentage (0.7 percent). Heavy water. Water containing significantly more thl~ll wstain the fission chain reaction in a nuclear reactor. may be returned. The returned neutrons can then cause
the natural proportion (one in 6500) heavy hydro~"l' Nautmn Caphue. The process in which an atomic nucleus more fissions and improve the neutmneconomy of the
E~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ t More i ~ treactivity
y . than that needed to
achieve criticality. Excess is built into a (deuterium) atoms to ordinary hydrogen atoms. Hcnvy Or captures a, neutron. The probability that a reactor. Common reflector materials are graphite, beryl-
water is used as a moderator in some reactors becau'o I' given material will capture neutrons is measured by its lium, and natural uranium.
reactor (by using extra fuel) in order to compensate for fuel l l ~ u ~ r capture
on cross section, which depends on the energy Rem. The unit of dose of any ionizing radiation which
burnup and the accumulation of fission-pro4uct poisons slows down neutrons effectively and also has a low crO"
section for absorption of neutrons. of the neutrons and on the nature of the material. produces the same biologic$ effect as one roentgen of
during operation.
134 MARINE ENGINEERING I NUCLEAR MARINE PROPULSION 135
power excursions. bo
~ h~ ~ ~ Neutrons
~ ~ ~in thermal
tl equilibrium
~ with
~ a state
~ of excitation
~ Such
. that their position
the substance in which they exist; most commonly, neutrons exactly determined. Atomic nuclei are built UP of two
with a kinetic energy less than 0.5 electron volts. kinds of primary particles; namely, protons and neutronu-
Thermal Reactor. A reactor in which the fission chain The proton carries a single-unit positive charge, equal ill
reaction is sustained primarily by thermal neutrons. Most to the electron charge. The neutron is
reactors are thermal reactors. electrically neutral particle carrying no charge. For Ib
Thorium.
number 80 A and,
naturally radioactive
as found in nature,element with atomic
an atomic weiCt of given element, the umber of protons present in th('
ahmic which is the same as the number
approximately 232. ~h~ fertile thorium-232 isotope is positive charges it carries, is called the atomic numb('r
and can be transmuted to fissionable uranium-233
of the element. It is identical with the ordinal numberof
by neutron irradiation.
uranium.A metal, symbol U, ninety-second element of the the element in the familiar periodic table of the
atomic series. Natural urallium is a mixture principally Thus, the atomic number of hydrogen is one, of helium21
of the isotopes U-235 and U-238, the former being about of lithium 3, and so on up to 92 for uranium, the elemelr'l and is thereby slowed down.
1/140 of the total. The nucleus of TJ-235 is capable of of highest atomic weight existing in nature to arY
absorbing a neutron of thermal energy and thereupon un- appreciable extent. A number of elements heavier thull
dergoing fission into two fragments, which fly apart with 92 have been made artificially.
great energy. The fragments are highly radioactive. The total number of pmtow and neutrons in an atomi('
neutrons are released almost immediately in each nucleus is called the mms number of the element.
fission (the prompt neutronsf. A small fraction (delayed
neutrons) is released later in the radioactive decay of some the of both
unity on the atomic maSs
and are ''('
and the mas.l electrO1'r
of the fission products. The fact that fission is induced by
NUCLEAR MARINE PROPULSION 3 37
MARINE ENGINEERING
(Icfinite probability of decaying in a given time; this charge collected on the is equal to that carried
docay probability has a constant value characteristic of by the primary ion-pairs. ~ l t h there ~ ~ are~ marked
h
Lhe particular I t remains the same differences even among the instruments in each category,
imspective of the chemical or physical state of the i o n i z a t i ~ n - ~ hinstruments ~ ~ b ~ ~ fall into two types;
('lement at accessible temperatures and namely, integrating and nonintegrating. with the
integrating instrument, the total.quantity of charge due
' In a given the rate of decay at any instant to a number of ionizing particles is collected over a
~ m ~ o r t i o nto
a l the number of parent period of time. I n the nonintegrating (or counting)
rrldioactive atoms of the isotope under consideration devices, on the other hand, each
present at that instant. capable of
causing ionization is recorded separately.
The decay constant of the radioactive species is a Integrating devices also can be divided into two
Ineasure Of its decay probability. Radioactive decay is
classes, which may be referred to as electrostatic and
nn pmcessi the actual decay rate being electrodynamic. Those the type are
by the decay constant and by the number of often called electroscopes, since they operate on the
the particular nuclei present. same principle as the familiar gold-leaf electroscope,
The most used method for representing the I n one form of this instrument, two thin sheets of
rate Of radioactive decay is by means of the half-life (the me given an electric charge. long as no ions are
time required for the number of radioactive nuclei of a present, the leaves will retain their charge and will
given kind to decay to half its initial value). Because remain in the same position. ~ f however, , ions are
the nature of the decay, this time is formed, those of the appropriate charge will be attracted
illdependent Of the amount of the radioisotope present. to the gold leaves, causing a reduction in the charge and
Other Types of Radioactive Particles. Gamma a decrease in the actual repulsion of the leaves.
rliys are theelectromagnetic radiation released when the For the detection of beta (or alpha)
nucleus emits its excess energy. These rays are tions are allowed to enter the chamber through the radia-
plies in nature are to be utilized as a source of Powor, a
significantly increased. in limilar in character to X-rays; they are highly penetrat- "window" of thin aluminum or other light material.
-6 lypeS
of ~ i ~ ~Material,
i ~ A~ nuclear
~ b reactor
l ~ then eventually reactors must be itkg and have short wavelengths. Although the term With the window "open" the instrument measures both
consists of fuel containing fissionable material, a moder- uranium-233 serves to maintain a fission chain and at "gamma ray1' was originally used to describe the electro- beta and gamma radiations; but if it is
to slow down neutrons (except in the case of f m t same time supplies neutrons for its regeneration from lnagnetic radiation which frequently accompanies radio- rays only will be detected. gamma
reactom), a coolant to remove the heat generated by thorium-232. llctive decay, the definition has now been extended to
1.8 Isoto~es and Rate of Decay. In a nuclc'r Simple forms of integrating ionization chambers of the
fission, a neutron absorber or neutron leakage control irwlude such radiations of nuclear origin. The rays electrostatic type, not larger in size than a fountain
device, and the necessary Although reactor the fission process results in liberation of ltre emitted when a nucleus undergoes transition from a
the fuel form is different for vmious reactor types and is and also in emission of nuclew radiation of differcllll pen, are used extensively in health physics work to
higher-energy to a lower-energy state. determine the total amount of radiation (or dosage) to
closely with the of the reactor kinds. In general, the remarkably large amount Gamma radiation is described in terms of its photon which an individual has been exposed over a period of
coolant, the choice of the fuel material subject to fission energy released in fission (about 200 per fis4i011
UnergY; for exampie, "1-Mev gamma rays." Apart time.
is limited to three possibilities; these are uranium-235, nucleus) manifests itself in the form of heat result ill^ fmm the fact that X-rays frequently have lower energies,
uranium-233 (an artificial produced in a from the kinetic energy of fission fragments. Th'' I n an electrodynamic type of integrating ionization
the difference gamma rays and X-rays chamber, a constant potential is maintained between the
reactor by irradiation of the fertile material thorium), and radioactive decay, neutmnic reactions, and radiativr lwthat the latter are produced outside the atomic nucleus. electmdes by means of a battery. ~f ionizing radiation
plutonium-23g, or (an artificial resulting from emissions are not pmductive in a primarily pow('r- The X-rays which, as their name implies, enters the chamber at a suficiently high rate, the ions
conversion of the essentially nonfisionable U-238 by producing reactor and must be provided for in the have definite energies (and wavelengths) characteristic produced are swept continuouely to the respective elec-
neutron absorbtion). of shielding, reactor operating characteristics, alltl of the particular element concerned result from transi- trodes and a steady current
-7 bnvenion and Breeding. Uranium-235 is the otherwise in reactor design. The majority Of tlv' flows. The strength of this
tion8 between electron energy levels of the atoms.
in nature to any naturally occurring elements are stable except for a ion current is a direct measure of the rate of entry of the
only fissionable material wl('
Radiation Detection Equipment. The intro-
extent, but in plutonium production reactors (such as of the high atomic weight elements such radium. "l ionizing particles and hence of the radiation
duction of nuclear Power devices introduced a stringent ~h~ ion current may be measured directly, or it may be
those operated by the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission) unstable element undergoes spontaneous radioactin'
excess h i o n neutrons are captured by fertile uranium- disintegration at a definite rate with the emission tiomand for a ~ u r a t eand reliable instruments for the determined by means of a high-impedance voltmeter
238 which is thereby converted into fissionable pluto- the nucleus of an electrically charged particle (either ''I1 connected across a mistance through which the current
nium-239. since natural uranium only 0.7 alpha particle, i.e., a helium nucleus or a beta particlr1
percent of uranium-235, it is expected that, with large- i.e., an electron). Often, the products Of decay '
scale use of nuclear reactors for power production the themselves radioactive, expelling either an alpha Or I'
available uranium-235 will be consumed at some point. beta particle. After a number of stages of disintegrati0l1l Ionization chambers with current-measuring devices
since nearly 140 times more nonfissionable uranium-238 an atomic species with a stable nucleusisformed-
is available than is the fissionable uranium-235, it is of In addition to naturally occurring radioactive slll)
major significance to ways in which uranium-238 stances, there have been pmduced artificial radioisotop(*
could be utilized for power production. Although not of of all the known elements. These have been obtai'l("l
immediate interest for marine propulsion, one promising either by bombardment of stable elements with
would be to use plutonium-239 to maintain the particles in cyclotrons, etc., by the capture of neutro"n~
container (e.g., a cylindrical vessel, which serves as the
fission ,,hain and at the same time regenerate more or as a result Of n ~ ~ l e fission.
ar A few Of them exl'"l a. Ionization Chambers. A number of different other electrode). The electrode to which the measuring
plutonium by utilizing the available ura,nium-23s. If alpha particles, but a large number, including most Of t'llr J1lstruments for the measurement of nuclear radiations instrument is attached is called the collecting electrode.
a reactor were to regenerate the same amount of fission products, are beta emitters. 'perate On the ionization chamber principle, where the This is frequently maintained at ground potential while
plutonium-239 as it loss by fission, i.e., if the conversion For a given radioactive species, every nucleus h&rI'
MARINE ENGINEERING NUCLEAR MARINE PROPULSION
141
Table1 Properties of Gases Suitable for Reactor cooling
Gas H2 He
IUolocnlar weight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Na Air CO \ COr A
2 4 28 29 28 44
'I'tlormal conductivity, ~ t u / h r - f t e ~ / f t 40
300 F... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.125 0.097 0.018
700 F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.199 0.135
0.018
0.028 0.017 0.013 0.012
1330 F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.172 0.028 0.027 0.042
0.028 0.025
Vinoosit centipoises at: ... 0.037 0.039 ... 0.018
200 g.. .........................
700 F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.010 0.023 0.020
0.031
0.021
0.020
0.015 0.033 0.017 0.027
1330 F.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.020 0.044 0.032 0.031
0.044 0.041
0.028 0.054
0.041
Hl)o(?lficheat, Btu/lb-F, at: 0.041 0.042
200 F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.47 1.24 0.249
700 F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.51 1.24
0.241 0.250 0.217 0.124
(330 F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.60 1.24 0.259 0.254 0.262 0.262
0.279 0.124
1 ' O I I H ~ ~ Ya>STP,lb/fta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0052 0.0104 0.0727 0.272 0.283 0.295 0.124
Volumetric speclfic heat at STp, 0.0748 0.0727 0.114 0.104
I#1u/fta-F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 0178 0.0129
lltrl~~tive heat transfer coefficient 0.0180 0.0179 0.0180 0.0238 0.0129
('ompared to He for same gas
(,ur?peratureand same power output 1.19 1 .OO 0.73 0.73 0.72
1tt31atlvepumping power compared to 0.79 0.68
110 for same gas temperature and
mne power output. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.17 1 .oo 2.2 2.2 2.2
lbflhtivepumping power compared 0.88 10
I,o He.. .......................... 0.17
lfdlbtlve cost of gas per IOOO fta at STP 1 .O 4.0 4 0 4.0
6 22.7 10 1.8 24
Italative total activity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 60 5 40
4.53 X 10-4 18.5 9294 7225
llflll~tivegamma activity. . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 0 0.0456 1284 0.51 1 .O 1392
0.5 1 .O 137,065
The fuel are sealed to prsvent a loss of fuel or conventional plant where the maximum temperatuE in
fission products to the reactorcoolant under all normal limited by the chemical reaction of fuel oxidation and
*he fuel elements are rnsembled rate of energy release is a direct function Of the rate of
in fuel bundles that mnsist of from 36 to 1~ fuel m h fuel injection, a nuclear reactor has no such limitation
assembled in a square array. zirmnium some A nuclear reactor hm a large quantity of
to steel for in the fuel contained within the Emtor) and the maxi-
economic advantages as mum temperature of the reaction is limited only by th'!
the same fuel bumup bemuse of its lower
neutron capture characteristics. The selection of clad ability to remove heat or, more properly) by the
spondence between the heat removed fmm the by
materiall pellet diameter, and other details of the fuel as a functio'l
assembly depends upon the design optimization for the the coolant and the Power level of the
,f the excess reactivity or neutl'0niCs Of the system-
particular application.
There is a significant amountof experience with This should be recognized as being true only On a
retical basis, since for Power reactors interest for
metallic fuel typesfrom the naval remtor program.
These fuels are by a high enrichment of marine pr0pUlSion the neutr0nics Of the system are
uraium-235 and are usually fabricated in the form of a that operation at Power levels above power 'I'
multitude of fiat msembled into a single fuel removal of the moderator, which has a negative Or
~~~h fuel plate is composed a so-called "shutdown" effect on the mactor, and all major 'ystemH
assembly. are designed to fail safe or shut the reactor dew'''
picture frame construction where the uranium metal is a
sandwich with ,,ladding material on each edge and on Nevertheless, the point is still valid that generally 'I1''
removl'l
both front and back surfaees. The uranium metal is
usually metallurgcally bonded to the fuel cladding to
most important aspect of l'HiCtor design is
and the most important single Of heat ''
improve heat transfer. the coolant selection.
ciharacteristiCs generally attributed to metal fuels are: A number Of possible gas molants for reactor systen'*
(1) high heavymatomdemity; (2) a significant and reliable have been considered. However, most Of the pOn*i-
Or
thermal-expansion coe~cient;(3) amenability to poten- bilities can be eliminated, either by 'Ir
tially inexpensive fabrication rnetho&j; and (4) high lurgical evaluations (air, hydrogen, carbon
thermal conductivity. ~~~~~~ldisadvantages of metal by heat-transfer considerations (neon! argon).
n'''
fuels (!) low melting temperatures; (2) high rates of ties of gases which are suitable for reactor
radiation-induced swelling; and (3) poor high-tempera- shown in Table [lo].
ture compatibility with austenitio stainless steels. A I n addition to relatively Poor heat transfer,am)1'
and neon
high thermal conductivity and low melting temperature also has problems of neutrofl
tend to ofisat each other in terms of the specific power very expensive. N i t w e n has a high n'utrOn-absorptiO1'
attainable, but metal fuels have the potential for some- cross section and might cause nitriding at high
tures. Thus, the list of gaseous Coolants of interest fol
what higher specific powers than oxides.
~h~~~are other typesof fuels may be considered. marine pmpulsion can be reduced to carbon dioxi(it"
A water coolant provides the capability of direct (excess N?aCtiVityto overcome the poison effect Of short- hecame, although the fast neutrons are slowed down to
lived radioisotopes immediately after shutdown) herma1 energy, there is excessive neutron absorption in
steam generation in a boiling-water reactor.
Water technologY is well known and system corn- Since the excess fuel a t start-up provides reactivity in
excess of that required to maintain
ponents are available, reliable, and relatively inexpensive.
essential aspect of reactor control is to provide margin
an
tho water as compared to fissile capture of neutrons in
Several important control characteristics of light-
NEUTRON -
ABSORPTION
I N MODERATOR
There are, however, a number of disadvantages of for shutdown at all conditions. In addition, since the water reactors Can be observed from Fig. 3. The most
water as a reactor coolant. As more advanced tech- power output of a given reactor is directly pmportional l'nportant is that light-water reactors are nonauto-
nology is developed, it is probable that water will be to the neutron density or the number of neutrons Per (jlltal~ticin that, if the reactor power is increased (even
replaced by a reactor coolant that will permit more unit volume fuel, the control system must sense and transiently) above the ability of the cooling system to
reactors. The general limitations associated limit any excessive rise of neutron flux during power level IVmove heat, the moderator-to-fuel ratio is reduced,
with the use of water as a reactor Coolant are: a
~'roviding a negative reactivity or shutdown effect. I
Itemoval of moderator from the fuel region may be
llccom~lishedby either steam void formation or by
njoction of water. I n the case of boiling-water reactors
which are normally designed to operate slightly under- WATER-TO-FUEL RATIO
and be provided Fig. 3 Variation in reactiGv as a function of wo+er-to~fuelratio for an
'10take care of reactivity lost due to steam voids. From
idealized, homogeneous, thermally critical lightmwater
Ipig. 3 it can be seen that for undermoderated systems a
#hamvoid would displace some of the moderator,
""'ulting in a 'light reduction of reactivity. I n addition, good moderators, they the energies of very fast
in temperature (mide from spectral effects) and neutmns ss a result of inelasticacattering collisions~
i'mssure a moderator (and therefore Elements such as lead, barium, or imn readily decrease
a)o1ant) can be expectedtoresult in changes in reactivity. the neutron energy down to about 0.05 M~~ where the
r'ight-water are designed to have a negative hydmgen (elmtic) scattering cross is relatively
moderator temperature coefficient. Themfore, a Cold large. Hence a combination of a moderately heavy or
r"ctor that is but has not reached operating heavy element with hydrogen will slow down
lamperature will be subcritical a t operating temperature. even neutmns of very high energies.
this provides good operating characteristics, Essentially, every neutron that undergoes an inelastic
da~ending 'POn the magnitude of reactivity swing collision is
between hot and because of tfie high
it does require sufficient excess probability subsequent slowing down and capture.
rwctivity to shut down in the cold condition. Further, even in an elastic collision, in which case the
2'5 Shielding' For such as marine decrease in energy may not be large, the acmmpanying
m"ctors, "IMiderable design attention must be given to change in the direction of motion of the
the attenuation of emitted nuclear radiations by an i n c m e d length of path through the shield such leads to
lome Of
that
Not only is such shielding the probability of slowing down and capture ia thereby
n@oessaq for the protection of Personnel, but a high increased. Consequently, as a first approximation the
r"diation backmund will interfere with the operation effectivenWsof a particular material for the attenuation
of used in various aspects of reactor Opera- of fast neutrons is determined by the total fast-neutron
cross section, which includes both inelastic and elastic
the radiation a reactor System includes scattering as well as direct capture.
'Ipha and beta particles, gamma rays, and neutrons Of For maximum efficiency,a shield should attenuatefast
'brious energies, Only gamma rays and neutrons need be neutrons and gamma rays at such a rate that their fluxes
since these are far the most penetrating. will be reduced to the maximum permissible values at
Any which attenuates these radiations to a the exterior of the shield. hi^ requirement
"lfiCient be
reduce all the others met if a of high mavl number and hydrogen (or
b negligible value.
the reactor hydrogen pompound) were uniformly distributed in the
three aspects; namely, proper proportions throughout the shield; hbwever,
'lowing down the fast neutrons, capturing the slowed- this is generally not a possibility for shipboard shielding
down and forms of gamma both because of ship arrangements and also because of
ruliution. since of low mass numbers are the structural requirements for the heavy
bat moderators, hydrogen in the form of water can used.
In marine propulsion maohm, the weight of shield
@'Itably be used ss the shield constituent for slowing is of major importance; if the shielding is too heavy, the
fast neutrons' However, at high neutron energies
reactor may not be suitable for its intended purpose.
'Iis acattenng cross Of h ~ d m g e nis Very small; this instance, the cost of the shield may be
considerable thicknm of hydrogeneous secondary in significance. In addition, shielding that
lluterial be required to down the fission results in a relatively concentrated loading distribution
'@'limns Of highest energy. The situation can be
impmved by must be carefully considered since such load distributions
an element of fairly may lead to problems with the ship,s structure.
'lKll mass such substances are not Wherever possible, advantage is taken in shield design
NUCLEAR MARINE PROPULSION
MARINE ENGINEERING 145
oI' life at Sea [25]; the classification societies [26]; and should, therefore, be designed to contain, control, and
of the attenuating effect of distance, according to the categories according to their functions: (1) heavy ele- I411t: rules and regulations of agencies having cognizance
possibly suppress the release of radioactive material
ments to absorb the gamma radiation and slow down over the ports of call [27]. Attention is called to indus-
inverse-square law, on the radiation intensity or flux. which could result from any credible accident. Con-
If the operating personnel can be kept a t an appreciable very fast neutrons to about 0.05 Mev by inelastic colli- i8t+ir~lsafety codes, which may be applicable in part.
sions; (2) hydrogenous substances to moderate neutrons sideration should be given to (1) the pressure and .
distance while the reactor is in operation, a significant ( lodes of this type include the American Society of
temperature of the coolant, (2) the energy released as a
saving in thickness of the shielding may be feasible. For having energies in the range below about 0.05 Mev; and Mtwhanical Engineers Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code result of any chemical reaction within the system, (3) the
example, a shield may be made thinner at the top and (3) materials, notably those containing boron, which JYNJ, and the applicable ANSI and IEEE codes nuclear heat generation, including afterheat, and (4) the
capture neutrons without producing high-energy gamma )2!),301.
bottom if access is restricted to the sides. energy stored in the structure. The processes involved
To protect the heavy structural components surround- rays. A riuclear ship should also provide a degree of safety in the release of this energy are heavily dependent upon
Heavy elements which have been employed in metallic foruthe non-nuclear portions sufficiently high to ensure
ing the core from possible damage from the heat form for ship shielding are iron and lead. Iron turnings the type and specific design of the nuclear power plant.
liberated upon absorption of radiation, a so-called rrdo operation of the entire ship. I n this respect provi- Each system should be evaluated on an individual basis
thermal shield is frequently introduced close to the or punchings, as well as iron oxides, have been incor- riolls such as watertight subdivision, stability, fire to determine the pressure buildup in relation to the con-
reactor. It consists of a substantial thickness of a porated in concrete for shielding purposes. protection, bilge pumping, fire extinguishing, electrical tainment d-esign.
Because of its high density and ease of fabrication, I~intullations,steering gear, astern power, and naviga-
dense metal of fairly high melting point (e.g., iron) lead is a good shield component. For gamma rays with Missiles resulting from a malfunction of the system
placed between the reactor core and the main shield, or l,iotlul aids should be evaluated in order to provide for components should not result in the release'of hazardous
biological shield (see Fig. 1). The thermal shield energies in the region of 2 Mev, roughly the same mass tjl~omaximum practicable safety for the ship. amounts of radioactive or toxic materials to occupied
consists of a material which effectively absorbs gamma of lead as of iron is required to absorb a specified fraction a. Containment. Containment constitutes the outer spaces or the ship's environment. The following com-
radiation and inelastically scatters fast neutrons. Since of the radiation. However, a t both higher and lower rrl~c:losureor other systems or arrangements which are ponents are typical of those which may be considered as
these two types of radiation carry most of the energy energies, the mass absorption efficiency of lead ill provided to prevent the uncontrolled release of hazardous potential sources of missiles:
leaking from the reactor, a large amount of the heat appreciably greater than that of iron. atnounts of radioactivity to normallv accessible snaceu ---
~roducedin the shield will be released in the thermal relatively The disadvantages of lead in reactor shields are its
low melting point and its softness. It cannot
or t,he ship's environment in the event r -
of an accident or High-speed rotating equipment. The installation
shield. ,tl,\lfunction of the nuclear system. I t is such withinthe should be
If the circumstances are such that passengers or other carry any appreciable portion of the reactor system tlInt any one of several containment methods may be kept to a minimum, but, if installed within the contain-
ship's personnel can be kept at a good distance from a load and, because of relatively low temperature limits, it ,no& suitable for a particular application. Separate ment~ be to reduce the probability of
may require cooling. prossure-tight containment vessels or containments rupture of the containment wall due to a failure of any
reactor when it is in operation, it is usually desirable to
do so. This may be accomplished by designating Masonite, with a density of about 1.3 g/cu cm, wun ~~bilifiing integral portions of the ship's structure are "tating
used
exclusion areas of several maximum permissible radiation reactors. as the hydrogenous material in some of the early rrtttnples of containment systems that may be utilized. Rods. Positive means be provided
The number of hydrogen atoms per cubio 111 the design of a containment system, the effects of to prevent rods from being ejected.
levels for passengers, ship's crew, and reactor operators centimeter is not much less than that for water. Is
on watch. pul-ification of radioactive loops, pressure relief or ' within the pressurized system. These
The reflector makes an important contribution to fast- addition it contains both carbon and oxygen, which can luppression systems,and systemswhich effectively should be located or protected so as to minimize the
neutron shielding. The reflector, especially for a thermal act as moderators. pmvont core meltdown or its consequences, should be p"bability damage to the containment walls in case of
reactor, is invariably a good moderator (e.g., water, As a general shield material, there is much to recom- failure.
heavy water, beryllium, beryllium oxide, or graphite) mend concrete since it is strong, inexpensive, tllltl 'he containment system should be designed to ensure
The primary objective under these circumstances
so that it will slow down an appreciable portion of the struction. toOrdinary
adaptable both block and monolithic types of toll-
concrete of 2.3 g/cu cm density
the basic integrity of the containment will be
should be to maintain the integrity of the containment
moderately fast neutrons escaping from the core. tained for any credible operating or twcident and, insofar as practicable, to prevent impairment of the
contains
Because of scattering, many of these slowed-down water when cured. Although somewhat less than 10 percent by weight of
the hydrogen concentrrb- The following factors are typical of those secondary shielding when materials particularly sus-
neutrons are returned to the core, thereby easing the hiah should be considered:
tion in concrete is considerably less than the concenh~l- ceptible to fire damage are used (e.g., lead, polyethylene,
shielding problem. r Maximum credible pressure buildup within the Or
An imoortant function of reactor shielding is to
----
tion in water, the larger proportion of oxygen (whioh
- --A
acts as an additional moderator) and the calcium ntlrl b~tninmentdue to an accident to the nuclear system. The containment should be designed to remain intact
capture the neutrons after they have been slowed down. r Maximum credible internal missile. if the ship sinks in shallow water, and consideration
silicon in concrete compensate,
This is done by inelastic scattering and subsequent difference. Nevertheless, ordinary concrete to a great extent, for thcr
alone is nol 0 Location as regards collision or grounding damage. should be given to provisions for decay heat removal.
capture by materials in the shield that have a large r Itupture of piping, ducts, or similar components Containment integrity should be maintained for a
neutron capture probability. This is accomplished if a very efficient a s a reactor shield material since it normtd ly
contains no element of high mass number. ~ i d eof the containment, and such components con- period of several years following such an incident in order
good moderating element such as hydrogen is present in tod to and passing t h r o ~ g h ~ t hcontainment.
e to provide sufficient time for salvage operations.
addition to materials of medium or high mass number. Various special ("heavy ") concretes incorporati IIK
heavy elements have been developed for reactor shieldi~~y. r External fires and explosions on board. b. Shielding and Radiological Safety. Shipboard
I n addition, an effective shield provides for the absorp- Fires within the containment. shielding and radiological safety are intended to provide
tion of the various primary and secondary gamma rays. In barytes concrete, for example, the mineral b a r y h ~ ~ ,
consisting mainly of barium sulfate, largely replaces t h ~ 0 Binking of the ship. standardd for protection against nuclear radiation for
The penetration of gamma rays is a function of their sand and gravel aggregate in ordinary concrete. 'I'l~n Forces due to ship motion. personnel on board ship and for persons in the vicinity
energy but they are effectively absorbed by a material r Itemoval of reactor decay heat in the event of loss of such ships in conformance with the cognizant regula-
of high density. The shield material, such as iron or density of barytes concrete is about 3.5 g/cu cm. Thw ti
shield of barytes concrete would have to be no thiokrr 81 aeolant circulation and provisions for preventing the tory agencies. Inasmuch as all regulatory agencies
lead, which serves as the inelastic scatterer of neutrons !@&atorcore from melting through the containment. normally follow the recommendations of the Federal
will also function as the absorber of gamma radiation. than an iron-water shield of the same effectivcncn~
although the total weight of the barytes concrete shioltl e Leakage and measurement of leakage rate. Radiation Council [16, 171, the recommendations of the
Within the energy range of interest, gamma absorption Federal Radiation Council should be considered to
is determined essentially by the mass of the shielding would be greater. All nuclear systems producing useful power contain anticipate changes to the criteria specified by the regula-
material. The thickness of shield required to produce a 2.6 Safety [14]. Nuclear ships must comply wiC11 @ ~ O T Oenergy
~ indicated by pressure and temperature. tory agencies. It is the intent to provide standards for
specified absorption of gamma rays is inversely propor- the rules and regulations of the cognizant agencierr,
l ~ d d r nuncontrolled release of this energy and any protection by means of shielding and control of personnel
tional to the density of the shielding material. Thus a inc1uding:athe United States Atomic Energy Comrni~~iol~ &idltiunal energy that might be generated in a nuclear access so that passengers and shore personnel will not be
smaller volume of lead than of iron would be required, [15-191; United States Coast Guard [20-231; Uniloll ~ ~ l d ( !provides
nt a potential mechanism for the diaper- exposed to radiation exceeding recommendations for the
but the masses would be approximately the same. States Department of Commerce; National Bureau of
~lo11of radioactive material. The containment system general population, and so that operating, maintenance,
Shield materials may be divided into three broad Standards [24]; International Convention for the Snfnbr
MARINE ENGINEERING NUCLEAR MARINE PROPULSION
Limits for Table 3 Radioactive Gas- Wane limb
as "'cl'datiom are subject to regular review a. increasing curve observed on large central-station nuclear plants
Table Liquid waste Disporal Specified for the NS Savannah
Discharge to h e Sea as Specified for the NS Savannah
""owledge is g ~ n e Of d the effects of nuclear radiation on has not been apparent in unitsof lower power levels.
LIMITSON ' human body' Dosages are set at such low levels
'"lf'''lrt I n fact, in 1969 the product lines for several manufac-
Over many years is unlikely to cause turer's of central-station units did not include power
injury. On the Other hand, the levels cannot be so
low as to make operation of a plant impossible. ratings as low as 300 megawatts electric lmw(e)l.
011 board One of the Primary r~pomibilitiesof
ThereforeJ the Capital costs of around $2@)-$220/kw(e)
I'O"lthphysicsisto monitor radiation. This involves the for than units must be
of grestermw(e) to capital costs
'l('tcrmination and recording of radiation dosages and In addition, it may kw(e) for unitsthat,
be expected to onmw(e).
of 50based
(lt)~c rates at nUmerOUS locations. Radiation dosage is
is rrloasured in terms of the energy absorbed from the radia- parisom of fossil-fired marine and stationary units,
a~aseouswaste discharges are to be made while the Ili(l11~ and the dose rate is the time rate at which such mobile Power Plants will cost about 35 percent more than
underway. f'Jlorg~ is absorbed. I n general, the total dose (or dosage) land-based units of the same rating. Studies 133-351
~*nouived is the product of the dose rate and the exposure have indicated that fol large marine reactors of 70,000
from shoreline at
depths greater to 50,000 shp, fuel costs will be as low as 2.2-2.0 mill/shp-
than 200 fathomsd
be used to pmtect against missiles and to provide con- [311' The prime function "I
tainment in case of an accident to reactor co~pOneIltS. d- Health
individu'd'
waste DiSposal. Radioactive wastes health physics is to safeguard the to nucl"lL'
c.
are defined rn the end resulting from the hSion whose work is likely to
which contain radioisotopes in significant radiations by taking all steps that are 'Onsidered ncc(u
liquids, sary to minimize such exPosure. In addition there "11'
quantities. Radioactive wastes include
and grnes. Some examples of solid wastes are con- responsibility of making sure that nothing escaping fr''ttl
~ ,spent the nuclear plant, even in the event Of an accid('l'l"
p ~ i C land
taminated dirt, ,,hips, or other
ion exchange ~ ~ ~ which
i has
~ become
~ e Would
~ represent
t a
the ma*mum ranit''
contaminated or radioactive may also have to be treated tion The regulatory bodies
exposure limits for personnel, maximum Permis~il'''
in The
the same manner a waste.
purpose of a radiosetive wastedisposal system is concentrations of certain radioisotopes in air and wd''l'
"lN'
and dispose of waste material and maximum permissible amounts Of such Such
to mlleot, audit, may accumulate in the human body. rcc('lll
in a manner that limits the of any area
NUCLEAR MARINE PROPULSION
1A8 149
round in the USAEC purchase agreement with United in the 75,OOU-shp range for three reactor cores and
Table 4 Summary of Fuel Cost Data Table 5 Nuclear Fuel Costs, mills shp-hr Ntatesproducers. Through 1968, theAECcontinuedto compare them with NS Savanruzh data. For the
PROPOSED PLANT A NS 1 1 t h ~the W/lb for later years however, the price advanced marine propulsion systems, core 1 is designed
P L A N A T
- Nf3 Savannah
MARINE Swannah 1 puid was equal to 85 percent of allowable costs plus for 20,500 megawatt days per metric ton of uranium
CORE 1 2 3 1 CORE 1 2 3 $1.6O/lb. Among the allowable coats was a fixed (mwd/mtu) for 2.72 full-power years; core 2 is designed
Basis-year 1974 1977 1981 1968 Resis
- -- 1974 1977 1981 1968 M.64/lb for royalty and exploration costa. Based on for 25,900 mwd/mtu for 3.45 full-power years; and core 3
Natural U $/lb UIO~ 8.10 8.55 8.80 8.00 Direct costs
2.29 2.29 2.50 net uranium 1.107 0.957 0.934 1.777 iistorical data, an allowable overhead of about $0.3O/lb is designed for 28,700 mwd/mtu for 3.82 full-power years.
Conversion $/kgU 2.29 plutonium credit -0.246 -0.200 -0.194 -0.450
Separative work $/unit 26.00 20.00 20.00 30.00 cjould be included among allowable costs.
Tmls com osition % 0.20 0.20 0.20 2.53 fabrication 0.611 0.426 0.335 1.667
Tables 4 and 5 are the results of a fuel cost analysis An analysis
marine of Table
propulsion 5 indicates
system thatathe
would have fuelfirst
cost advanced
incentive
shipping, repro., recon. 0.204 0.173 0.156 1.201
(U-235g f t after .
subtotal direct costs 1.676 1.356 1.231 4.195 (jonducted by the U. 8. Maritime Administration (351. of 3.5 mills/shp-hr over the NS Savannah with potential
separation processing)
Pu credit $/gm fissile 8.55 7.89 8.00 10.00 Working capital 'I'he purpose of these comparisons is to project fuel cost for an additional 0.5 mill/shp-hr fuel cost incentive with
Fabrication $ / I t @ 114.00 100.50 87.50 88.75 Outof-m-< latimatea for advanced marine nuclear propubion plants improved fuel performance.
Spent fuel shlpplng 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 on uramum 0.132 0.107 0.096 0.528
Reprocessing, $/kgU 29.10 31.80 31.80 52.35 on fab, Pu,shipping
Reconversion, $/kgU 3.00 3.00 3.00 5.60 and reurocessmg 0.025 0.017 0.014 0.030
Capacity factor 70% 70% 70% .. . Imre '
on uranium 0.317 0.323 0.320 0.912
on fab, Pu, shipping
and reprocessing 0.072 0.064 0.058 0.061 Section 3
Total cost, mills/shp-hr 2.222 1 .867 1.719 5.726
to UOz, and the cost of fabricating the U02 into fuel rod luclear Propulsion Applications
assemblies. 3.1 NS Sawnnah-Pressurized-Water Reactor [ 3 6
9 I n naval circles, the intereat in using nuclear This slight enrichment simplified the design of the fuel
Uranium occurs in nature in ores which grade from 2
to 5 lb/ton of ore. Yellow-cake can have several elements and the reador by permitting the use of struc-
finorgy a t sea led to the launching of the nuclear sub-
tural materials that are resistant to corrosion and
chemical forms, including U308or Na2U207,a11 of which of U-235 is fissioned per mwd, and about 0.6 gm of pluto- marine Nautilus in 1954 and subsequently to today's
are yellow, hence the name. It is conventional to express nium is produced per mwd (i.e., the conversion ratio i H r~~rolearNavy. The potential of nuclear energy for
radiation. The uranium, in the form of uranium
costs in the units of $/lb UaOs. Historically, U30a 0.50). Later in life, due to fissioning of some of tho rrommercial shipping influenced President Eisenhower to dioxide, is compreased into pellets. These are slipped
~ in 1968, plutonium, only about 0.6 gm of U-235 is consumed pclr
prices were over $10/lb in the late 1 9 5 0 ' ~$8/lb moommend construction of a nuclear-powered merchant into tubes of stainless steel called. fuel pins. Uranium
and $6/lb in 1969, all under AEC contract. Free- mwd, and no net gm/mwd of plutonium is producctl; dioxide was chosen because it does not react chemically
rhlp: I n 1956 the Department of Commerce and the with water, has a high melting point, and can hold its
market prices have historically been comparable. The that is, plutonium is fissioned at the same rate it irr Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) were authorized to
U-235 content of natural uranium is 0.711 weight produced. Lifetime averages are about 0.9 gm/mwd 01 develop and construct such a vessel. shape a t the high-temperature and high-radiation levels
percent, and it takes 14.3 lb of U&a to make 1 kg of 3.0 U-235 consumption and 0.3 gm/mwd of net fisuilo
plutonium production. Therefore, the net consumptiolr On National Maritime Day, May 22, 1958, the ship's within a reactor. The fuel pins are assembled into 32
weight percent (w/o) enriched uranium typically required ksol was laid, and a little more than a year later the NS fuel elements, each containing 164 pins, for a total of
as fuel for a marine nuclear plant. of fissile material (U-235 consumption less net fisnilu duvcmnah was launched as a successor to the earlier 5248. These fuel elements are designed to the standards
The process of enriching the U-235 isotope from 0.711 plutonium production) is only weakly dependent olr ~uvannah.
w/o to the 2 to 5 w/o required by light-water reactors burnup, its primary dependence being on conversiot~ The NS Savannah has a length of 595 ft, beam of 78 ft,
requires that the uranium be in the form of UFs. ratio. As a general rule, what burnup dependor~tn
&id draws 29.5 f t of water. She carries a crew of 110
The process of enriching makes use of the mass there is tends to decrease the net fissile material depletiotr L I I 9300
~ tons of dry cargo. Fully loaded, she displaces
difference between U-235 and U-238 isotopes. The cost as burnup increases. 90,000 tons. Like many modem cargo ships, she has
When fuel is discharged from the reactor, it is cool(d
greater speed of the U-235 F6 molecules enhances diffu- bkc, capability of carrying passengers and has cabins for
sion through membranes more easily. The gaseous for about 6 months and then is shipped to the reproccrlp- W. Her turbines develop 22,000 shp and her cruising
sing plant for recovery of residual fuel values. A
enriched UFs which comes out of the diffusion plant is %peedis about 21 knots.
delivered in standard cylindrical gas bottles. The UFO shipping cask can be rented and will make several tl*il)r The Savannah's nuclear power plant is simple in
is then converted to U02,the fuel form in wKich it is used. back and forth between the reactor and the procexsirrg principle. Uranium, artificially enriched to ensure
Direct fabrication costs include the cost of making plant. The shipping cost, therefore, is made up of C I L U ~ ~ nadily fissionable atoms, is contained in fuel elements
UOz pellets, the cost of cladding and end fittings, the rental costs and transportation charges in about ~ ( ~ I I I L ~ within the core. When the rods are withdrawn (see
cost of assembling pellets into fuel rods and assembling proportions. Ng. 4) a chain reaction starts in the fuel. Fissioning
fuel rods into fuel assemblies, and the costs of inspection, Spent nuclear fuel has substantial residual value i n ilr Unnium quickly heats the surrounding water to a high
losses, and scrap recovery. Quoted fabrication costs uranium and plutonium, and ~ossiblyin other f i ~ ~ i o l ~ bmperatlire; however, a pressurizer keeps the water
products or transuranic elements. The spent futd ir
can be specified to include all post-enriching processes ~ ~ l d,enough
er pressure to prevent boiling (hence the
and services up to delivery a t the plant. mechanically chopped and dissolved in acid, and the S ~ B O I ~ ~
fuel solution then proceeds through several chomicrkl tlrrtne pressurized-water reactor). The hot water is
The net cost of fissile material consumed in the reactor @lmulatedthrough the boilers, as illustrated by Figs. 5, UPPER GMD PUTE
is based on the reduction in U-235 enrichment associated process steps to purify the uranium and plutor~i~lrll 8, and 7, where it gives up part of its heat to generate
with hsioning of the U-235, less the credit obtained due Provision
- - - -. can also be made to recover desired spent-l'\~~l
by-products. The uranium and plutonium produot 11f obaem. Steam from the boilers drives the main turbines
to the production of fissile plutonium, the latter being
the plant is in the form of a nitrate. The uraniur~r,i ~ t
a d the turbogenerators. After passing through the LOWER GRID P U T
produced from neutron absorptions in U-238. In a turbines, the steam is condensed and fed back to the
practical reaction system, fission of about 1.3 gm of order to be marketable, must be converted to UFO. kllara. At full power the Savannah's reactor core gives
U-235 will produce 1 megawatt-day (mwd) of energy. Mining and milling costs and ore grade provide 1411c (IIheat energy equivalent to 80 megawatts. LamR FLOW
I n an actual reactor, however, about 8 percent of the minimum cost of production, allowing nothing for I1rs
RAFFLE ASSEMBLY
Fuel for the Savannah is uranium enriched to an
energy is produced by fissions induced in U-238 by high- exploration, depletion of reserve, plant write-off or prolil bverltge value of 4.4 percent. This means it has more
energy neutrons, and some of the plutonium production A significant assessment of what represents reasorl~~lllu Unaium-235 than the 0.7 percent in natural urtmniull.. F:. i Cutowoy of NS Awnnah'r complete reactor. Note cross-shopad
is fissioned. Therefore, a t the start of life about 1.2 gm prices (as distinguished from operating costs) C E ~ LIIY I~ control rods (hat fit between fuel elernenh
I
i
MARlNE ENGINEERING NUCLEAR MARINE PROPULSION
TOR VESSEL
uRBOGENERATOR
-
- CIRCULATING
~ l e c t k CO:,
c August 1958.
46 "Nuclear Powered Tanker-Design and Economic
Analysis-Pressurized Water Reactor,' George G.
Sharp, Inc., Contract No. AT(30-1)-2379, NYO-2860,
I.
I Steam Turbines
Combustion Engineering Co., January 1960.
Energy Community Euatom, 1966. 47 Frederic de Hoffman, "Gas-Cooled Reactor
39 "The Power Plant for the First Nuclear Mer- Concepts, * General Atomics Division, Nuclear-Powered Section 1
chant Ship (NS Savannah)," Nuclear Merchant Ship Merchant Ships Symposium, Washington, D. C., July
Symposium, Contract No. AT(30-3)-274, August 1958. 1957. Nonreheat Main Propulsion Turbines
40 "The Consolidated Nuclear Steam Generator 48 "Evaluation of Coolants and Moderators for the
11-A Conceptual Merchant Ship Nuclear Reactor Maritime Gas-Cooled Reactor," GA-570, Contract No. 1.1 Introduction. Although the early development (3) The turbine throttle steam pressure and tem-
Design." BAW-1280, Contract No. AT(30-1)-3206, AT(04-3)-187, General Atomics, December 1958. of steam power utilized the reciprocating steam engine as perature.
sep&ber 1963. 49 K. A. Trickett, "A Review of the Maritime Gas- s prime mover, the inherent advantages of the steam (4) The steam cycle arrangement, together with the
41 "The Consolidated Nuclear Steam Generator I11 Cooled Reactor Program," Maritime Gas-Cooled Reactor turbine soon became apparent and have made it the number and location of extraction points and
A Conceptual Merchant Ship Nuclear Reactor Design Program, General Atomic Division, GA-2603, Contract ohoice for all large modern steam propulsion plants. corresponding steam flows.
-Revision. " BAW-1289, (Rev. I), Contract NO. No. AT(04-3)-187, December 1961. Turbines are not size limited and can be provided for any (5) The turbine exhaust vacuum for design purposes.
~~(30-11-3206,December 1963. 50 R. J. Gimera and R. E. Stanbridge, "Reference power rating up to the maximum likely to be encountered (6) The type of power transmission to the propeller.
42 Proceedings of Conference on Nuclear Marine Design for an OMR-Powered 38,000 DWT Tanker," in marine service. High steam pressures and tempera- (7) The astern operating requirements.
Propulsion, C0NF.-640810, August 1964, p. 55. NAA-SR-1851, Atomics International Division, Con- tures can be accommodated safely and are limited only (8) Spacelimitations of the engineroom arrangement.
43 Proceedings of Conference on Nuclear Marine tract No. AT(11-1)-GEN 8, March 1957. by boiler problems. Rotary motion is simpler than (9) The importance of machinery weight and size.
Propul&on, C0NF.-640810, August, 1964, p. 107. 51 "Maritime Organic Moderated and Cooled Reac- reciprocating motion and the unbalanced forces (that
tor," NAA-SR-3859, Contract No. AT(l1-1)-GEN-8, produce vibration) which are present in many recipro- This chapter deals with the effects of these and other
44 V. A. Mize, B. G. Voorhees, and F. Weinzimmer, Atomics International, May 1959. factors upon the design of turbines.
"Marine Boiling Water Reactor Nuclear Propulsion oating machines can be eliminated in the turbine. I n
sddition, the turbine can efficiently utilize a low exhaust 1.2 Steam Conditions. Ever since the early days
pressure, and is characterized by light weight, minimum of the steam turbine, efforts have been made fo improve
apace, and low maintenance. the steam conditions in order to increase the economy of
~h~ -fine turbine operates in with the power plant. Steam conditions of marine steam
the same basic fundamentals as its land-based counter- power plants have tended to advance about every ten
parts in central station and industrial applications but years, with each advance followed by a period during
differs in many important respects. This chapter which experience has been obtained and the knowledge
emphasizes those features and characteristics peculiar to gathered for another forward step.
marine applications which are derived from the special Increasing the steam Pressure will reduce the heat rate
requirements of marine propulsion or auxiliary drives. and steam rate until a pressure of about 2500 psig is
The science, and often art, of turbine design is a highly reached. A rough rule states that "Doubling the pres-
rpecialized field and a number of textbooks have been sure will reduce the heat rate by 4-6 percent." More
devoted almost entirely to this subject [I-81.l Space accurately, a 100-psi increase in initial pressure will
IImitations prohibit a complete, detailed treatment of reduce the steam rate by the percentages given in Fig. 1.
turbine design and, therefore, the scope of this chapter is The gains decrease as the pressure increases because
limited to information useful to marine engineers, owners, the turbine efficiency suffers a t higher pressures. As
and operators in connection with the application and steam pressures increase, the specific volume of the
operation of marine steam turbines. steam decreases; therefore, the nozzles and blades become
Turbines are umd to propel many types of vessels smaller a6d less efficient. A limiting pressure is reached
having widely varying requirements with respect to for every capacity of turbine a t which the gain due to the
power, economy, weight, and arrangement. In the improvement in Pressure is offset by the decrease in
dection and development of a turbine design for a internal efficiency. For this reason, higher initial
8geciiic application, the following factors must be pressures may be used more effectively on large turbines.
oonsidered: The initial pressures given in Table 1are recommended
as practical upper limits for various sizes of propulsion
(1) The maximum ahead power needed to provide units. It should be noted, however, that somewhat
the desired ship's speed. lower pressures are determined to be optimum when all
(2) The relative amounts of time spent a t maximum of the economic factors are considered. The pressures
- power and reduced cruising powers.
CHROME-
MOLY.
INITIAL 750
TEMPERATURE
I R ~ u in
& *am
~ rot. far i n u a d inHial prasure or -Proturn -STANDARD STEAM CONDITIONS CARBON
STEEL
Table 1 Recommended Initial Steam Pressures For a given initial pressure, t h m is a minimum initial
temperature below which the moisture content in the
INITIAL
PREBBURE, low-pree8ure of the turbine is sufficient to 12aw PRESSURE, PSIG
RATEDBHP PBIG r n d e a b l e erosion of turbine blades and lo= of &age
efficiency. A moisture content of 12 pement in the Rg Standard 'team carditim in relatiail t0 preUUrshmperatura service ratings for ANSI s*dard fiangas,
exhaust is often accepted as limiting, and the c o r n valw, a d fltlings
spnding minimum initial temperature. m Y be noted
from .Fig. 2. Certain combinstions Of P m u r e and
temperature have become widely accepted; these s b - good vacuum- In special cases where more rapid heating and may limit the allowable qeed
&fied conditions are indicated in Fig. 2. Although SOrviceis limited areas of low seawater temperature, or period of operstion.
'perate at the increased and weight of turbines designed for 1.4 Nonextmdon Steam ~ ~ when
t ~the . rated
8tandsrds Institute as in Fig. 2. The r e d a t o n , marine s t a m turbines can be designed higher than vacuum should be subjected to an
tempemtms of Or higher) practical pmblems in oconomic evaluation. full power, the initial steam conditions, and the exhaud
bodies require adherence to these standards for merchant
marine propulsion units. the of marine boilers tend to impose an
The spec5c Of steam increases rapidly as the
vacuum have been selected, it is possible to establish the
steam rate which may be from well-designed
Increashg the initial temperature will a h reduce the upper limit Of g") F. vacuum is impr0vd. For example, an ~ncreaseof from equipment. Figure 3 gives typical nondraction
Concern has been expresad reg*ding the sudden
hest rate and steam rate. As an approximation, a 15 deg 28 in' meM:W' to a 30-in- barometer) rates for merchant type, geared-turbine units designed
F increase in temperatwe at full power or a 25 deg F imposition of high tempersture upon a practically doubles the sPec5c volume. TOhandle this
d l result in a 1-pnent d e astern turbine and exhaust casing; however, it is pomible for optimum pefiormnoe at full power with a
increase at lower at full load, it necessary balance between efficiency,size, weight, and cost. ~h~
crease in
M~~ accurately, a 100 deg F to accommodate the thermal shock and rapid e*ansion to increase pr0porti0nallY the flow areas of the turbine
rate without either distress or distortion- atages at the exhaust end. A more detailed discussion reduction in steam rate with improved steam conditions
increase in initial temperature reduce the is easily seen as well as the decrease in steamrate which
1.5 Exhaust Vacuum. A moderate vacuum of of exhaust losses is given in Section 1.7.
by the percentages given in Fig. 1.
-
unlike a change in initial pressure, a change tern- Hg become pneraly accepted a deaiy'
is po&ble with higher powered units. A method for
It is customry for high-speed, lightweight naval estimating s h m rates at other conditions is given in
afiects the specifio volume only a relativdy basis for merchant ProPuLaion turbines. This selectiol' to I'nakesome sacrifice ih economy by accepting a reference [g] and chapkr 2.
amount. a rssult, the physical dimensions of is considered a reasonable mmprOmLa 'On- hi@er exhaust Pressure (generally 2-5 P&) at hi&
the parts ,,hanged only slightly, and an increase in sidering the worldwide varbtionin seawater tempemtwo Merchant vessels generally operate at or near full
of h d h * and mndensin13 power in Order to reduce the weight and size of turbines power most of their service life; therefore, pefiormence
initial temperature d l improve the economy both and the she, weight, and condensers. At cruising Powers where economy is
equipment. at partial loah tends to be leas important. A typical
large and small turbines about equally. Part of the more important, the vacuum approaches merchant variation in steam mte at fractional
from an increase in LOWseawater t e m ~ e m t m Perfit Uhvacuum levels due to the reduced condenser loading. that
reduction in heat rate representative of turbine designs which incorporate no
i,,itial temperature (at constant initial is conversely, high seawater t e m p e ~ l ~ ~ limit
~ vacuum is for reasons other than special features to enhance pefiormnce
caud by an increase in turbine from attainable Vacuum. It is often mcdtat the 'On- Oconomy. When the element is developing
present in the lower pressure ~trU~ti0n to assure that the remsin On other than fiwdage nozzle contml is shown by the
a reduction in the power, the ahead blading is being driven backward in curve marked ~strsigh~thmugh,,in Fig. 4. When
stages. ~h~ rem~nderis due to the increase in the specific trade route t h u g h o u t its useful life; therefom) at essentiallJ' exhaust Premure. If the vacuum is
it is generally conaidered drsLable to design for 1' partbl-power performanCeis impofimt, as in the case
available energy. poor, the wiodage losses of the ahead &ages d l cause of naval combatant vessels, Evemi means my be
\
ENTROPY
POWER FRACTION
The converse of extraction, called induction, wherein Gear drive, double reduction vO1ocit~remain constant, but expansion now takes
excess steam in the plant is introduced to the turbine, * Electric drive pluce beyond the throat causing an increase in the efflux
reduction in the exhaust flow as compared with non-
extraction operation at the same power; therefore, there
generally discouraged. While this may improve the
heat balance, it (1) tends to congest the last stages of the External efficiency at ~ s r t i a powera
l may be approxi-
Vcrlocity(02") and a deflectionof the jet to angle r + 8". is a corresponding decrease in exhaust loss. hi^
by varying the external loss (one minus external Qsudition 111is reached with a further decrease in back improvement in p&omance is reflected in the so-called
turbine, (2) may introduce large slugs of water from ProSSure, when the axial component of the efflux velocity
syshms and thereby cause bid damage, and efficiency) at full power as the 1.7 power of the propellor * ~ u i v a l e n nonextrmtion
t steam rate, which may be
peaches the acoustic velocity. Any further decrease in 1-2 percent less than the unonextractionsteamrate,, at
(3) requires an automatic control valve to prevent speed.
induction when at standstill, operating astern, or in the ~ h ,thalpy
, of steam exhausted to the main Con- bnak pressure will result in expansion in the exhaust the same power. The equivalent nonextraction steam
Or at the condenser inlet, but there d l be no rate, therefore, is based upon specific extraction steam
event of turbine overspeed. denser is ol''mge in the conditions a t the exhaust annulus; and,
1.6 Condition Cuwe. The Mollier chart * a h, = h, - used energy UlOmfore~ the steam rate d l not be affected. Thk
quantitim required by the pafiioular steamcycle and
representation of pressures, temperatures, power for each application and should be used in heat-
of s t , . ~t & con- The exhaust loss is caused by the velocity energy in ee~lditionis sometimes referred to as "choking. balance ca!culations when extraction is involved.
superheat, and heat steam leaving the last row of blades which cannot b" Turbine last-stage annulus areas ordinarily are sized
venient to plot on this ,,hart the point" of steam 1.9 Toyue and Speed Characteristics. ~h~ inherent
recovered as useful work but is converted to lo 6000 to 8000 lb/hr of s b m per square ability of steam turbines to maneuver rapidly is due to
at any stagein the turbine; when th& & done for d l friction. Exhaust loss fa* annulus area at 1.5 in. Hg abs; for other back their speed-brque chmacteristics. Curves of turbine
stages of the turbine, a line drawn through the= points by dissipation in eddies and t)mssures, this range
includes any preasure-d~oplosses between the last who(r1 vary inversely as the output torque for typical ahead and astern turbines are
is called the "condition curve" Or "state line. " bbnolutepressure. The lower of these values ~epreeents
cwesn for rated full power and for exit and the exhaust flange- The magnitude of the Ovor= plotted against speed in Pig. 8 at rated ahead steam flow,
The
powem are urnally obtain& fmm the turbine all loss depends upon the particular turbine desi~"l mohineswhich have a very low exhaust loss and are The curves for the astern turbine show that the torque
steam flow, and exhawt vacuum. dfJni@edfor normal operation a t full load. The higher available to decelerate the unit while it is still rotating
desiper. They are in defining the characteristics a typical memhant propulsion turbine Vrlue represents machines that, for economy in weight in the ahead direction increases as the ahead speed from
of throughout the turbine, at, extrtw-
tion points and at the turbine exhaust. total exhaust loss (E.L.) at full power with rated ~ x h a u ~ ( ~ and size, are designed with relatively small exhaust hoods which the maneuver stads is increased. A similar
In the eventthat a rnndition curve is not available, an vacuum is about 12 Btu/lb and at partia1 powers vari"* ,nd are expected to operate at reduced load for the major relationship for the ahead turbine torque assists in
flow I*' portion of their life. decelerating the unit from astern rotation.
approximation of the fdl-power condition c-e may be approximately ae the Square of the ratio of
made for preliminary pwp"as indic&hd in Fi. 6.
The initw point is esbbli&ed at the intersection of the
the absolute exhaust Pressure-
The enthalpy of s t a m at the "state line end point " '* Equivalent Nonextraction Sleam Rate. When-
Ivm is extracted from a turbine, there is a
1.10 Machinery Arrangements. The steam turbine
is essentially a -speed machine, whereas the propeller
MARINE E,NGlNEERlNG STEAM TURBINES
is most efficient a t low rprns. In the early part of this including decreases in space, weight, and cost, reductions In the case of nonreheat marine power plants, turbine
century, before the development of speed-reducing in oil and steam piping, and simpler foundations. piwformance is specified in terms of the nonextraction
devices, a direct drive was necessary. This inefficient At least three arrangements of the low-pressure turbine sbnnm rate. This criterion adequately meets the require-
compromise produced large, heavy turbines operating and condenser are in use. I n one, the low-pressure ~rlonts of plant designers and purchasing activities;
far below their most efficient speeds, while propellers of turbine is supported by longitudinal girders forming an IIII-thermore,it is easily demonstrated on ship trials, and
small diameter turning at turbine speeds gave a poor integral part of its lower casing; the girders are supported i tln variations are reflected correctly in that portion of the
propulsive efficiency. by foundation structure at the forward end and by the I,otal fuel burned for main-propulsion purposes. When
Hydraulic reduction was considered in the early days gear casing at the aft end. This arrangement permits l,lio reheat principle is used, nonextraction steam rate is
but has had only limited application, chiefly because of the condenser to be hung from and located below the no longer a proper criterion of turbine performance, since
the low efficiency when compared to other forms of turbine and has the advantage that thermal expansion of ii, does not recognix the addition of heat in the reheater.
speed reduction. Electric drive has enjoyed much wider the condenser does not affect the turbinegear alignment. 'I'he steam rate varies with the reheat pressure that is
application than hydraulic drive, usually for special As an alternative, the turbine may be supported by mlscted, decreasing as the prewre is dropped; and
annlications, but reduction gearing is the common choice the condenser. I n this case, thermal expansion of the nvon if, in addition to defined steam conditions and
-r r
for higher-powered installations. condenser will raise the turbine centerline with respect vaouum, a specific reheat pressure is associated with each
Steam turbines, reduction gears, shafting, and pro- to the pinion, and this must be considered in the design alstlm rate, the result could not be used for comparison
pellers form a closely related system; and if an optimum of the flexible couplings between the turbine and pinion. of competitive turbine designs. This may be seen by
overall system design is to be achieved, it is important I n a third arrangement, the condenser is located for- c~onaiderationof the reheat turbine condition curve, Fig.
that the total system requirements be considered in the ward of the low-pressure turbine such that the turbine 1). Ipor example, two turbine designs could be developed
exhausts axially into the condenser. This arrangement rrwh that each has the same initial and reheat ateam
development of each component. This relates not only
to physical arrangement and choice of speeds, but also has the advantage of reduced overall height but the cr)nditions, the same condenser vacuum, and the same
to such things as the vibratory characteristics of the disadvantage of increased machinery length. rlosm rate, but the corresponding plant efficiencies and
overall system. The detail design of foundations for machinery is tho f ~ rates d could differ. The turbine having a higher
The most common geared steam turbine arrangement responsibility of the ship designer; however, it is in afliciency in the stages prior to the reheater and a lower
is the compound unit consisting of a high-pressure order for the machinery supplier to review and comment nlficiency following this point would require a greater
turbine and a low-pressure turbine driving a single upon the machinery foundation drawings to ensure that amount of heat to be added in the reheater at the expense
fixed-pitch propeller through reduction gears and shaft- proper support is afforded the equipment and that no of increased fuel to the boiler.
undesirable restraints are imposed. Emphasis must be It becomes necessary, therefore, to use some form of
ing. A complete astern turbine generally is provided in
the l~w-~ressure turbine casing. given to the provision of adequate foundation rigidity b a t rate as the criterion of reheat turbine performance.
to avoid vibration conditions. This is particularly Ileat rate may be defined in several ways, but a stan-
I n lieu of the compound arr'angement, all of the ahead
and astern blading may be provided in a single casing at important with respect to periodic variations in propeller tlnrdized method for marine units has been suggested
a small sacrifice of 1-2 percent in efficiency. This thrust which may excite longitudinal vibrations in tho ( I I]. I n general, the turbine heat rate in Btu/shp-hr
propulsion system. Reference [lo] gives a more com- 1~ expressed as
arrangement is suitable for rated outputs up to about
_
20,000-22,000 shp and offers a number of advantages plete discussion of foundation principles and problema.
Turbine heat rate
Heat added to turbine cycle by boiler (Btu/hr)
Power Output (shp) (4)
i
Section 2 The heat added is defined as
Reheat Main Propulsion Turbines I
S QT@T +
- ~ R W ) Q R ~ H H-RHCR) (5)
1.1 Reheat Principles. Marine steam propulsion temperature at which the heat is added since the reheal. i Where
part of the cycle increases the quantity of heat added nl I
plants generally are restricted to steam temperatures of
higher temperatures. A secondary but important effeoi h
*
&T = throttle flow, lb/hr
approximately 950 F because of boiler slagging and Q R A ~= reheater flow, lb/hr ENTROPY
corrosion problems arising from fuel impurities, and this is the reduced formation of moisture in the last stages of
H T = throttle enthalpy, Btu/lb Fig. 9 Turbine condition c u n a e h e a t cycle
imposes a constraint upon the turbine efficiency. Steam the turbine which improves the efficiency of these stago#. h g =~ final feedwater enthalpy, Btu/lb
temperatures higher than 950 F can be permitted with Referring to a typical condition curve for a reheat cyclcr,
HER
-- = enthalpy leaving reheater., BtuAb
- -,--
the use of cIeaner, but more expensive, fuels or by Fig. 9, it can be seen that reheat allows the use of high(w i HCA= enthalpy entering reheater, Btu/lb
pressures without the problems of higher temperatur~. corrective procedures. Typical extracting turbine heat
providing special fuel treatment systems. However, it is rates are given in Fig. 10 for a five-feed-heater cycle.
If the same moisture content were to be realized in r !
difficult to justify economically either of these two
methods; consequently, if the efficiency of a steam straight-through cycle, the initial temperature wouLl
have to be increased from T Ito TI'.
1 bnisTurbine heat rate may be defined on a nonextraction
which is relatively simple in that other components 2.3 G a s Reheat. Reheat may be accomplished by
returning the steam to a special section of the boiler,
turbine is to be improved, other approaches must be 1 Of the cycle are not involved. The demonstration of called the reheater, where its temperature is increased by
considered. The reheat cycle is the best means available 2.2 Turbine Performance. The considerations entor- / Ao~lextraction heat rate requires a special test with
ing into the selection of initial steam conditions a ~ a l blaoders closed. Alternatively, an extracting turbine flue gases. With a gas reheater, the steam can be
to achieve higher turbine efficiencies and better fuel rates. reheated to thelinitial temperature and maximum cycle
I n the reheat cycle, steam is withdrawn from the vacuum for reheat plants follow those for nonrehnab heat rate may be defined in a manner similar to land prac-
units. Marine reheat plants probably will continue to blue Ill] wherein the feed heating arrangement must be efficiency can be realized within the temperature
turbine after partial expansion and is passed through a limitation.
h e exchanger (reheater) where its temperature is have more modest steam conditions than land-ba~c~tl mmpletely specified. This type of heat rate can be
applications because of lower power ratings and tlln demonstrated during shipboard trials in the course of The improvement in plant performance offered by the
raised; it is then readmitted to the turbine for expansion gas reheat cycle is equivalent to an increase of about 125
to condenser pressure. The increase in cycle efficiency fact that the safety of a ship is dependent upon tl10 regular economy runs but requires additional measure-
reliability of its power plant. mants, more complex calculations, and more involved deg F in the initial steam temperature of a nonreheat
is due, primarily, to an increase in the mean effective plant. I n other words, a reheat plant with an initial
MARINE ENGINEERING
STEAM TURBINES
BASED UPON REHEAT CYCLES WITH THE FOLLOWING
CHARACTERISTICS:
-
THROlTLE PRESSURE, PSlG 850 1050 1450 18M)
FEED TEMP. TO BOILER, F
- -
426
-
446 419 502
--
THROTTLE TEMPERATURE, F 950
REHEAT TEMPERATURE, F 850
EXHAUST PRESSURE, 1" Hg abs. 1.5
NO. OF FEED HEATERS - 5 -
MARINE ENGINEERING STEAM TURBINES
171
Section 3
Main P ~ p ~ l s i oTnrbines-N~~clear
n Cycle
172 MARINE ENGINEERING STEAM TURBINES 173
MOISTURE
Section 5
Tllrbine Speed, Number of Sbges, nimensions PACKING BOX
There are Pmnounwd difIemnws, in the
5.1 and fieaction. 'I'heOretically there are Of
by which steam may be expanded in number of Stages and the constructional OIL DEFLECTOR PACKING BOX
two basic methods
a turbine, namely by impulse dges, where the entire impulse and reaction turbines, as may be noted
pressure drop occurs in the stationary nozzle, or by Figs. 14-17'. The impu15e type is charactehd by OIL DEFLECTOR
individual wheels and dhphrag-1 large 'learanoes
maction stages, where the drop is usually JOURNAL BRG.
moving blades, In between the blades and the caaasing,
divided equally thh
between and a
sharpfixed and generally does not
distinction between the diaphragm Packings and the JOURNAL ERG.
actual diameter at the
eficiency of pure impulse stages can be high-pressure psking of relatively
exist since the
improved by the use of pressure h o p in the moving first stage (see Figs. l4 and 15).
blades (the pressure hop variesfrom about 5-10 percent AS shown by Figs. 16 and 171 reaction turbines usual1y
in
in the high-pressure stagesto 3&40 Permnt in the low- employ a d n m - t y ~ erotor) Stationary
pressure stages). impulse stagesare more efficientthan the casing, close radial or blade-tip and
which acts sa
reaction stages at pressures above 4-00 psig, but a large-diameter h i g h - ~ r e s ~packing
e Of
equal eEciencies may be realbd in the intermediate dummy piston to balanw theaial
and low-pressure r e ~ o n s . Indeed, there is little differ- the pressure drops the moving in
enoe ih the blade profiles, heights, and angles between the double-flow turbines, such as shown in Fig. 17) which
exhauseend blading of mmparable impulse and reaction are inherently balanoed). turbines
turbines. E~~~the so-called reaction turbines generally 5.2 Variable S~.d* Marine
operate through a wide speed range) and the
use an impulse desip for their first or contml stage.
AHEAD STEAM INLET
THRUST BEARING
- AGES --
BLADE RING
1
IMPULSE STAQE ROTATING BLADE
r
IMPULSESTAGE N O n L E BLOCK
178 MARINE ENGINEERING STEAM TURBINES
80
E0
a
W
L
I
5 *
E0
K
K
W
w
5
m
4o
's
f
20
IMPULSE- 3 ROW
0 I 1 I I I
0 .2 .4 .8 .8 1.O
called a Curtis stage) has a lower peak diagram efficiency, 25,000 shp. At powers below this range, the single-
as may be noted from Fig. 18. cylinder turbine has some definite advantages, such as
Frequently, a two-row impulse wheel is used for the reduced initial, installation, and maintenance costs and
first or "control" stage. Theoretically it has the energy- more simple gland sealing, gland exhaust, lubricating oil
absorbing capacity of four single-row wheels and requires supply and drain systems, overspeed protection system,
less space. In addition, it is useful for control because it and machinery foundations.
permits the use of a lower first-stage exhaust pressure and The cross section of a typical single-cylinder turbine
temperature which reduces leakage and rotation losses. is shown in Fig. 19. T h i n impulse stages are
Because of this reduction in losses, there is very little provided in the ahead turbine; these consist of a two-row
difference in the overall stage efficiency of a Curtis wheel followed by twelve single-row wheels. The asten1
control stage and the equivalent Rateau stages at the turbine consists of two impulse stages, a two-row wheel,
design point. The overall efficiency of a Curtis control followed by a single-row wheel.
stage at part load exceeds that of an equivalent Rateau The steam rate for a single-casing turbine is approxi-
stage. mately one percent higher than a comparable two-casing
In some astern turbines, three-row velocity-com- or cross-compound turbine. This higher steam rate is
pounded wheels are used. For this type, the maximum due to several factors; namely (1) the total blade speed i~
efficiency is reached theoretically when the velocity ratio limited by the number of stages which can be accom-
equals approximately 0.16, as may be seen from Fig. 18. modated on a single rotor of practical length and also by
The peak dciency ie less than that for a two-row wheel, the maximum rotor speed for which the ahead exhaust
but it has the energy-absorbing capacity of nine single- stages can be designed, (2) the increased rotor length
row wheels. Experience indicates that two- and three- requires a larger-diameter shaft and consequently
row wheels reach their peak efficiencies when the velocity interstage leakage losses are greater, and (3) some
ratios are somewhat higher than the theoretical values. compromise is necessary with respect to the blade height
5.5 Single-Cylinder Turbine. It is possible to con- to diameter ratio selection.
tain all of the ahead and astern turbine stages within a 5.6 Cross-Compound Turbine. Historically, marine
single casing. While such an arrangement could be turbines have been built with as many as four casinm,
built for any power output, single-cylinder turbines but these units were directly connected to'the main
generally are not considered for powers above 20,000- shafts and operated at propeller speeds. The moder~i
C
I 80 MARINE ENGINEERING STEAM TURBINES 181
marine turbine, freed from the speed limitations of the
propeller by mechanical or electric transmission, normally
reduced diameter, this construction permits the low-
pressure turbine to operate a t higher rpm for the samtb
STEAM PRESSURE:
BEFORE THROTTLE
I
/L STEAM PRESSURE:
AFTER THROTTLEc'MAX. POWER
HAND CONTROL VALVES
does not require more than two cylinders. A cross- stress, which in turn makes possible a reduction in weigh I,. y:' -
r A F T E R THROTTLE LOW POWER
compound turbine consists of a high-pressure and a low- It is customary to provide an astern turbine a t each
pressure cylinder arranged so that the ahead steam flow end of a double-flow rotor. The astern steam flow iti
passes through both cylinders in series. The complete controlled by a single throttle and the flow is dividctl
astern turbine is incorporated in the exhaust end of the equally between the two turbines. The symmetricr~l
low-pressure turbine. arrangement and equal division of flow results in tho
The improved efficiency of a cross-compound unit, same pressure a t each ahead exhaust and therefore 11o
when compared to a single-cylinder unit, is due to the pressure differential across the ahead blading.
ability to provide suflicient stages to achieve an optimum 5.8 Design Selection. In trying to arrive a t the bo~l,
total blade speed. In addition, the high-pressure overall turbine design for a given set of conditions, tlrtr
4VAILABLE ENERGY PER POUND OF STEAM -
FULL POWERa ab
portion of the turbine can be made smaller, lighter, and designer is faced with the selection of proper values for rr LOWPOWER= cd
more efficient by running it a t higher speed than the low- s e a t manv variables, including,
u -. but not limited to, t,htl
pressure turbine. number of casings, revolutions per minute for etrcll
5.7 Double-Flow Turbines. As the rated power rotor, number of stages, and the nozzle and blade heigl~b ENTROPY
and steam flow of a cross-compound turbine are in- for each stage. An optimum design could be arrived rrl,
creased, the required diameter a t the exhaust increases Fig. 21 Efiect of thrMe governing
by an interative process consisting of a comparison of rr
correspondingly; and a point is reached where the size
becomes objectionable from both an arrangement and series of turbine designs in which each of the principr~l
variables, one a t a time, is tested through an approprith(rr One nozzle group normally has about one half of the Fig. 23 Throttb valve plus hand control~valves
a manufacturing viewpoint. To provide additional total nozzle area and is controlled only by the throttle
exhaust area, the low-pressure turbines of high-powered range. In the evaluation of the results, proper considor-
valve, while each of the remaining groups is controlled
cross-com~oundsets may be designed to have a double- ation should be given to weight, size, and cost as well nM
efficiency. However, a complex study of this typc in by the throttle valve and a hand control valve. Thus, if With the limited number of valves that it is practical
flow exha\& as &own in Fig. 15. With this arrange- the throttle is wide open, the nozzle area and therefore to use, there are powers which cannot be obtained by
merit, the steam flow is divided and flows through two seldom necessary because experience and comparirrorl the steam flow may be varied in a series of steps by
equal-capacity low-pressure elements to the condenser. with similar designs aided by the judgement of thn having combbtions of valves wide open or shut. Two
opening each hand control valve in proper sequence. modes of operation are possible for these intermediate
Since the same total exhaust area can be provided a t a turbine designer make short-cut procedures possible. When the throttle valve and all hand control valves in powers. One procedure is to fully open as many control
nervice a t a particular point are wide open, throttling valves as can be utilized and then partially open one
losses will be a t a minimum. The smooth curve AC in additional control valve to get the exact power desired.
Pig. 22 would result if it were possible to have an infinite The throttling loss of the partially opened valve pro-
lumber of hand control valves. duces the scalloped effect (or valve loops, as they are
Section 6
T~~rbine
Control
6.1 Power and Speed. Means must be provided to alone is not satisfactory for ahead turbines, but it i~
vary the flow of steam through the turbine so that its generally used for astern turbines where high efficiciltiy
power output and speed can be controlled. Steam flow a t part load is not necessary.
may be varied by: 6.3 'ThroWle Valve Plus Hand Control Valvmr.
A throttle valve Throttling losses a t reduced powers can be minimizetl if
w A throttle valve plus hand control valves
the first stage is of the impulse type and its total noesla
Bar-lift valves and cam-lift valves area is divided into groups as illustrated by Fig. 21.
. Bypass valves
Variable boiler pressure
6.2 Throttle Valve Control. The most simple method
Y I S ~ STAGE NOZZLES
Fig. 22 Typical efficiency nnver
THROTTLE fw various types of control
of regulating steam flow is by a throttle valve in the
steam supply to the turbine, as illustrated by Fig. 20.
If properly sized, the valve will have little pressure drop
when wide open; therefore, a t maximum power, practi-
cally full boiler pressure will exist a t the inlet to the
first-stage nozzles. As the valve is closed to reduce the
rate of steam flow, its pressure drop increases; con-
sequently, a throttling or constant enthalpy process
occurs a t the valve and causes a thermodynamic loss
since there is a decrease in the available energy per
pound of steam. Figure 21 illustrates the reduction in
available energy as a result of throttling.
70
25
1
50
I I
75 100
Because of throttling losses a t . lower powers, as
THROlTLE FLOW. PER CENT
illustrated by curve A A of Fig. 22, throttle valve control Fig. 2 0 Throttle valve control
MARINE ENGINEERING STEAM TURBINES
MARINE ENGINEERING STEAM TURBJNES
184 185
form. the Pilot valve B closed, the pree bypass valve for the internal pilot, as in ~ i29(,,1~. .
Rlre in the dotted area equals the inlet presswe, and the
pilot and main Although it can be more nearly balanced because the
are held tkhtly down upon their main valve disk is bed to the valve stem, and
mats' men the stem is lzted, the Pilot Valve is not susceptible to chattering, a hand-operated bypass
Opens firat,and the premure within the dotted area drops.
requires a @parah control, and it is pomible that the
It is to mntml the pressure in the balance operator may foget to it.
by limiting the lift of the Pilot valve SO that a The dOuble-eabd balanced valve can be used to
sufficient force is exerted downward on the disk minimbe the force required to open the valve, butit is
to prevent chattering, which can be caused by instability seldom used with high-temperature, high-pressure marine
Of the flow as the main valve starb to open This turbines a t locations where both mustbe tight under
Alternatively a centrifugal pump may be of valve is widely used with marine turbines. all conditions .Of operation. A valve of this design is
which case the discharge pressure t3Cts against a Piston It is possible to substitute an extmwd h a n d - o ~ a t e d shown in diagrammatic form in ~ i29(d). ~ ,
and an adjustable spring. The overspeed setti% is
obtained by an extrapolation of speed Versus spring
s e t t ~for within the operating range- A
centr3ugal pump tends to act as a centrifuge, and
small air bubbles present in the lubricating oil tend to
collect at the center of the impeller. Unless this air i8
vent,,d, the pressurespeed relationship will be affected. Rotors and Blades
~t has generally not been considered necessary to 7'1 'ladeDesign' The lexth of each row of
(D) BALANCED VALVE
provide overspeed protection while operating asten'; turbine When the angles and crowsectional shape of a blade
is governed by the volume flow, the mean are established, a blade width is such that the
however, when the astern throttle is power operated for diameter Of the flow path, the velocity Of the steam, and calculated bending streseesare weeptable. Bending
Fig. 29 Vario- typer of valver remote-control purposes, it is a relatively simple matter the active arc through which flow takes Plwe. Blade stresses are caused by axial and tangential forces exerted
to include astern overspeed protection. lengths gnerauy increase the high-pressure to the
A continuous supply of lubricating oil is essential for low-pressure end by the steam and by blade vibration. when the
the turbine, and the length of the centers of gavity of =tionsst
Without Lasestage is determined by the selected level of radii do not fall
the resulting complications in subeystem controls and the safe operation of a turbine on a radial line, bending stre69es ala, will be introduced
adequate of lubricating oil, turbine besings may exhaust lea* loss- Toward the exhaust end of the
operating procedures do not justify its use. by ppnWUgal forces.
6.7 Ovenpeed and Low oil Pnssun on. fail in a matter of minutes. If the lubricatix-oil as the Of increases, it is necessary
a safe a spring- to The centrifugal fore due to the mass of the blade and
Overspeed protection is desirable for every turbine that System Pressure the Outlet angles in order to obtain sufficient its rotation causes a tensile stresein the blade that with
can reach a dangerous speed upon a loss of load. lnthe loaded piston will actuate the Pilot flow however, this results in a decrease in efficiency
will if too far. sinceea~hbladeextends radially from 10% blades is significant at the blade This
of gesRd propulsion turbines this can occur if a to the servomotor, and the ahead varies with the blade len@h, the of the blade
propeller is lost or a
is broken, and periodic racing c l o ~ . Oil failure may Occur with the Operating
the the pitch is geater a t the tip than a t the speed, and for blades of uniform section it is
can occur in heavy weather when the propeller inter- a high ahead speed, and it is important that To keep this 'preading from causing great a independent of the section shape or width. T~ minimi%
the vePml
pit,&- be available to stop rotation of the shaft lorn in efficiency due to shape of the flow p s p
ing. *
rnittently emerges from the water due to the
speed-limiting governor is best suited for this is dead in the water. If this is not done, the coastilly
purpose since it will prevent an excessive speed while still period of most large vessels is so long that the
"
the length Of having a uniform Cross section
the centaugal foroes in the long blades at the low-
pressure end of a tub'me, the blsdes are often
Of the
their len@h is generally limited to 20 percent &ntrzugal forces and stressesare relatively steady in
governor emergency lubricating oil Willbe used up as the propellnr diameter Of the flow Path. This limitation nature and do not cause vibration or fatigue failures;
allowins continuous operationat the
setting (usually to 15 percentabove the is dragged through the and the rotati''' can be circumvented by the use of tapered and t*kd however, stresm due to centrifugal forces me
continuous rating). ~ rdevices, i ~ which shut off team may damage the gem and turbine bearin6s' having vmY from the root to the tip limited to one half of the yield strength of the
6.8 governor^ A governor generally is prOvidn'l ae tosuit the steam and blade velocities at each
flow completely, aR notmachinery. overspeed for the primary Blading must be d e s b d to kthand bendiw
of propulsion pmh- for the control of a turbineelectric prnPulsion unit. Tl'' 'long the length. It is usually possible to reduce stresses under the worstconditiom of lo&%. In the
tion is Standard for merchant turbines but is not fitted governor is adjustable 80 that it 'perate througl' ' the cross section from the mot to the tip, which decreases
the caee of the control or first the highest loadings
surface ship propu~s~on units where wide range Of speed and is designed so that it at the and permits a longer
to naval are experienced at reduced powers due to inCrebsed hest
simplification and reduced wek,t are important and approximately constant turbine 'pm irrespective Of 'Irn for the same limiting stress. The length of dmps and velocities. F~~ turbines having bypaas
where experience has indicated that, with but few load requirements a t the selected speed setting 'I' tapered and may 25 Percent to valves, the stages preceding the pointwhere the bypass
exceptions over many years, the risk of dawerous principle, Such a governor is similar to the 'peed contn)lr as much as 33 prcent Of the mean diameter of the flow steam is ,readmitted
seater their maximum load just
overspeeding is relatively slkhtht. Overspeed protection of turbine-generator sets, but it has a sre furnid"'d
is an ereential requirement when an electric drive is used, of speed adjustment. Governors
p o s s i b ~ ythat the generator for geared propulsion turbine except
since there is the overspeed-limiting protection.
m y lose its electrical load.
A typical overspeed system is shown in 6.9 Valve Des*n. Three types Of '"'
flow to a turbil'n
F ~z8. ~ . .The speed eemors me small pOsitive-displa~ commody used to control the 29(a) is siml"n'
pumps each driven by its corresponding turbine The single-seated Valve shown in
because Of ''l'
rotor and supplied from the -in lubriOatingngOil system. but it requira a large lifting
The pump discharge pressures at any dvensped may be unbalanced presswe across the valve when in the clOM"'
varied by adjustment of the variable Orifices. The position. To reduce the force required to open the ail'yl*
disohsrge pRwures operate a pilot valve by acting pilot vniv@
agsiost a spring-loaded piston. ~h~ pilot valve in turn seated, balanced valves hafing an
are w d . F i u r e m(b) shows this desknin diafTanl
power oil to the proper side of a hyhadic
STEAM TURBINES
MARINE ENGINEERING 1 87
RATED LOAD - KW
Fig. 44 Turbine-generatw steam rate
I n addition to the flyweight or mechanical type of The difference between this voltage and the reference
peed sensor, an hydraulic pump driven from the turbine voltage is supplied to the amplifier. The amplifier then
shaft may be used in a n hydraulic system. This pump supplies an output voltage to the electro-hydraulic
may be either a positive-displacement type or a centrif- transducer which causes the steam valves to increase or
ugal type and the system may be similar to the speed- decrease the steam flow to return the turbine speed to the
limiting governor for main propulsion units described in set value. Stability is achieved by a time delay in the
Section 6.7. negative feedback around the amplifier. Since there is
A third basic type of governor is available wherein only one speed a t which the speed signal and reference
npeed or frequency control may be accomplished by a voltages are equal and opposite, this type of control is
combination of electric and hydraulic components (see "isochronous"; that is, i t maintains the same turbine
Fig. 46). The speed signal is obtained from the fre- speed regardless of load variation. A load sensor
quency of a small permanent-magnet alternator driven measuring current in each lead of the generator is utilized
by the turbine rotor; its LGC voltage impulses are to anticipate speed changes and thus improve the
oonverted into a d-c voltage which is proportional to dynamic response of the control system. The load
~peed. A reference d-c voltage of opposite polarity, sensors of several similar units operating in parallel may
which is representative of the desired operating speed, is be interconnected to ensure equal load sharing with
a~tablishedby manual adjustment of a speed-setting isochronous operation. Operation in parallel with an
potentiometer. These two voltages are connected to the infinite bus or dissimilar governors is possible by the use of
input of an electronic amplifier. If the two voltages are electronic components which introduce droop character-
equal and opposite; as occurs during steady-state istics as required.
operation, they cancel and there is no voltage input to 12.3 Single-Stage Auxiliary Turbines. Single-stage
the amplifier and therefore no change in its output turbines, sometimes called mechanical-drive or general-
voltage.' The amplifier output voltage drives an electro- purpose turbines, may be used to drive pumps, fans,
hydraulic transducer, which directs the flow of oil to a blowers, and standby generating sets. The need for
norvomotor that adjusts the governor steam valves to small turbines has resulted in standardized sizes up to
maintain the turbines a t the speed corresponding to the 1500 hp with wheel diameters from 12 to 36 in. Rota-
position of the speed-setting potentiometer. If the tional speeds vary from 600 to 7200 rpm; the lower
Ourbine speed changes, the speed signal frequency and speeds apply to the larger wheel sizes used with direct-
Cherefore the voltage supplied to the amplifier change. connected turbines and the higher speeds to smaller
MARINE ENGINEERING
(a) Mechanical
CONTROL
VALVE
References
1 John F. Lee, Theory and Design of Steam and Gas
Turbines, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York,
1954.
2 Terrell Croft, Steam-Turbine Principles and
Practice, McGraw-Hill B o ~ Company,
k Inc., New York,
SENSOR
Q
1940.
3 C. B. Biezeno and R. Grammel, Engineerin(/
Dvnamics, Steam Turbines, Vol. 111, Blackie & So11 T RANSFORMERS
~ f m i k d London
, and Glasgow, 1954. Ro. 46 Electdc gwe-
4 E. F. Church, Jr., Steam Turbines, McGraw-Hill
SPEED CHANGER
~ o o Company,
k Inc., New York, 1950.
5 L. E. Newman, Modem Turbines, John Wiley the Reheat Cycle and a C ~ ~ t ~ ~Pitch
l l ~ b l ~
Sons, Inc., New York, 1944. l'rO~ller," The Society of Marhe Port EMneers, N~~
6 J. K. Salisbury, Steam Turbines and Their Cycl~9, York, September 1965. NOTE: REDUCE THE STEAM RATE
GIVEN BY THE CHART 0.8% FOR
John Wiley & Sons, I ~ c .New, York, 1950. EVERY 10°F SUPERHEAT AT THE
7 B. G. A. Skrotzki and W. A. Vopat, Steam anfd
Gas Turbines, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inca, New
York, 1950.
8 A. Stodola, Steam and Gas Turbines, Peter Smith,
New York, 1945.
g "Recommended Practices for Preparing Marinn
Steam Power Plant Heat Balances," Technical all(l
Research Bulletin NO. 3-11? SNAME.
10 R. M. Cashman, "Design of Marine Machincry
Foundations, " Trans. S N m E , 1962-
11 C. W. Stott, "Marine Reheat Cycles and S~stemfl
Evaluation," Man'ne Technology, ~ 0 1 .71 no. 31 ~ J ~ I Y
I
B
- HIGH 'PRESS. TURB.
Gas Turbines
TI
A- 0. white 12 - LOW PRESS. TURB.
FT- FREE POWER TURB.
r 8
R - REGENERATOR
(A) SIMPLE CYCLE I -INTERCOOLER
Section 1
Basic Considerations
1.1 Introduction. The gas turbine has developed At moderate turbine inlet pressures and temperatures
since World War I1 to join the steam turbine and the and with the component efficiencies attainable when gas
diesel engine as alternative prime movers for various turbines were first developed, the simple open-cycle gas
shipboard applications. Each year its development turbine operating with atmospheric air as the working I ( 1 ~ OUT 3
leads to improved performance and more attractive fluid and burning light distillate fuel was limited in out-
costs of installation and operation to the point that it put and specific fuel consumption (cycle efficiency).
gains on the other two prime movers as the economic However during the subsequent stages of progressive
selection for main propulsion and certain auxiliary drive development, the cycle efficiency has been greatly ( 6 ) REGENERATIVE CYCLE
machinery. This is caused by the fact that the gas improved by the following changes :
turbine inherently profits more than the other two from Higher compressor pressure ratios.
component improvements and cycle improvements Higher turbine inlet temperatures which were
allowed by aerodynamic, heat-transfer, and metallurgical permitted by metallurgical and cooling develop-
advances. Also, the gas turbine is attractive in that it is ments. CIR
inherently subject to ' "package" construction and Improved compressor and turbine stage efficiencies.
installation and to automatic control. Therefore, its Increased compressor pressure loading per stage.
very numerous variations should be given serious
consideration in the selection of a prime mover for the
main propulsion plant and the larger auxiliiry machinery.
. Improved combustion efficiency.
The introduction of intercooling in the process of
compression.
4
OUT
OUT
All gas turbine cycles are outgrowths of the Brayton The introduction of reheating (a second comb us ti or^
thermodynamic cycle. The Brayton cycle is an ideal chamber between the compressor turbine and
cycle in which the working fluid is a perfect gas (atmos- power turbine). (C) REGENERATIVE CYCLE WlTH REHEAT
pheric air in most cases) which is compressed isentropic- The introduction of regeneration (recovery of wasto (€1 REGENERATIVE CYCLE WlTH REHEAT AND INTERCOOLING
ally by a compressor, heated a t a constant elevated heat from the turbine exhaust and subsequent Rg. 1 Cyde arrangomonh
pressure in a combustion chamber, then allowed to flow addition to the compressor discharge air flow
through a turbine expanding isentropically back - to.the
- before it enters the combustion chamber).
compressor suction pressure. The power produced by Further waste-heat recovery.
the turbine is greater than the power required by the volved in the selection of the design pressures and
Different designs have used various combinations of
compressor. The excess power is used to drive the ship's
the foregoing to provide vast improvements in the cycb temperatures and the various components in the cycle combustion chamber (burner), from which it expands
propeller or some other a d i r y . back to atmospheric pressure through a high-pressure
efficiency and specific air consumption. These com- nre best illustrated by a n example. For discussion turbine (to drive the compressor), and free power
In gas turbines the efficiency of the components is purposes, consider a gas turbine cycle in which the turbine
extremely important since the compressor power is very binations modify but do not change the basic concept^ turbine (to drive the geared propeller). Figure 2 shows
of the Brayton cycle. At the same time they introducu tjxpansion takes place in a "two-shaft " turbine, one shaft
high compared to its counterpart in competitive thermo- baing the free turbine shaft which drives the propeller the performance attainable with this simple cycle within
dynamic cycles. For example, a typical marine pro- complications into the arrangements. the limitations just discussed. It should be noted that
Particular consideration must be given to the gaH lhrough a set of double-reduction gears. huther,
pulsion gas turbine rated a t 20,000 shp might require a unsume a plant rating of 20,000 shp using a fuel with a the values shown are not to be taken as absolute eince the
30,000-shp compressor and, therefore, 50,000 shp in turbine cycle selected (i.e., the simplest Brayton cyclo compressor, combustion, turbine, and other efficiencies
or the more complicated variations). The basic advan- lower heating value of 18,400 Btu/lb. Ambient condi-
turbine power to balance the cycle. Thus, with 80,000 vary with particular designs and their state of develop-
tages of the gas turbine for marine applications are ita llions are taken as 14.7 psia and 75 F. The common ment. Note that a t a turbine inlet temperature of
shp of machinery involved, a 1-percent improvement in r~llowancesmade for duct losses are 4-in. H 2 0 in the
the component efficiencies would improve the cycle by simplicity and light weight. As an internal combustiorl 1600 F, a fuel rate of 0.45 Ib/shp-hr is attainable a t a
engine, it is a self-contained power plant in one packa~a irilet duct and 6-in. H 2 0 in the exhaust duct. The gear
800 hp, which is 4 percent of the overall performance of IOM, about 2 1 percent, is allowed for in the performance high optimum compression ratio of 15 to 1and that even
the 20,000-shp cycle. The corresponding steam turbine with a minimum number of large supporting auxiliarien. lower values a n be attained a t higher temperatures and
The advantages this confers in space, weight, and reducorl hut no allowance is made for miscellaneous hotel ser-
cycle would have been improved by only about 1.05 vices and small non-engine-driven auxiliary power pressure ratios.
percent if the counterpart component efficiencies were maintenance are very significant. A reduction in fuol The performance indicated by Fig. 2 is very good
consumption is always desirable; but machinery cod,rr rnquirements.
improved by 1 percent. This example illustrates why Figure l(a) shows the basic components of the simple considering such a simple thermodynamic cycle. It is
year-+year developments result in such marked must also be considered, and this too will vary with tlrtr nearly attainable with engines derived from aircraft jet
cycle and the arrangement. ~rycle. Atmospheric air is drawn into the mmpremr,
improvements in the performance of gas turbines as where it is compressed, then heated under pressure in the engines in which the jet's exhaust nozzle is replaced by a
compared with alternative prime movers. 1.2 Cycle Performance. The considerations ia- specially designed power turbine. The jet engine's
GAS TURBINES
208 MARINE ENGINEERING
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE. O F
Fig. 7 Typical effect of ambient temperature on rpecitlc fuel rate, shaft horsepower, and air fkw
k
gas turbine's overall performance. A change of only Typical variations in the weight of gas turbine
10 deg F in ambient temperature will change the power machinery and "all purpose" fuel consumption are given
capacity of the unit by approximately 5 percent and there by Figs. 10 and 12 of Chapter 1; these data are only
are also significant changes in specific fuel consumption typical, and actual values for any specific application
and air flow. Figure 7 shows a typical ambient te'm- vary not only with the type of unit considered but also
perature correction curve for variations in these three with the manufacturer and with progress in the state of
variables. Note that if a unit designed for a 75 F the art. Reductions in weight and improvements in fuel
atnbient is operated on a 10 F day, the engine output consumption may be confidently expected in the future.
can be increased 28 percent, the air flow can be increased 1.4 Combined Cycles. The gas turbine is a very
14 percent, and the specific fuel consumption is reduced flexible power plant and can be applied not only alone
about 8 percent, provided the engine is designed to hold but also in combination with other prime movers.
up structurally and nozzled to pass the fuel flow a t the Various combinations have been proposed and some of
increased power. This variation with ambient con- them have been applied successfully. Some possible
ditions can vary in a small way between designs and types combinations include: combined diesel and gas turbine
of cycles. However, Fig. 7 is generally valid for simple plants, abbreviated CODAG; combined steam and gas
cycles and regenerative cycles of any design to a reason- turbine plants, COSAG; and combined gas turbine and
able degree of accuracy provided the machine is not gas turbine plants, COGAG. In these cycles gas
limited mechanically. turbines and other engines or gas turbines of two
Both output and efficiency are very sensitive to pres- different sizes or types are combined in one plant to
sure drops anywhere in the cycle, but those in the inlet give optimum performance over a very wide range of
and exhaust system are the only ones which the marine power and speed. In addition, combined diesel or gas
engineer can control. The inlet pressure drop is the turbine plants, CODOG, or even combined gas turbine or
more critical one since it not only introduces an efficiency gas turbine plants, COGOG, (where one plant is a diesel
loss into the cycle, but it also reduces the weight flow of or a small gas turbine, respectively, for use a t low or
air. A pressure drop of 1 percent (4 in. water) in the in- cruising powers, and the other a large gas turbine which
let reduces the net output by 2 to 23 percent and increases operates alone a t high ~owers)are also possibilities
the specific fuel consumption by 1 to la percent while 11-31.'
a pressure drop of 1 percent (4 in. water) a t the exhaust - he gas turbine can also be combined with a steam
reduces the output by 1 to 13 percent and increases the turbine plant in various ways. The designation COSAG
specific fuel consumption by 1 to 1 i percent. The normally implies a cycle in which the steam plant and the
increase in fuel rate corresponds, of course, to the increase gas turbine are essentially independent, but they may be
in heat rate and reduction in thermal efficiency. Marine geared to the mme propeller shaft [ P 5 ] . However,
units frequently are rated on the basis of 4-in. H 2 0 inlet
duct pressure loss and 6-in. Hz0 exhaust duct pressure -
Section 2
An'angernent and Structural Details
Genemi Amngemeni* In addition to the With this arrangement the power turbine and propeller
classificatiOn dependfig upon the choice of cycle, gas can be stopped if neceymry, and the gas producer kept
turbines can be acmrdhg to the mechanical in operation for rapid load pickup. The use of variable-
arrangement. speaking, f 3 S turbines are either area nozzles on the power turbine increases fledbility by
"single-shaft" units in which the compressor and turbine enabling the compressor to be &tained at or nw full
are attached to a single shaft, which in turn is connected speed and air flow, down to low-power turbine speeh.
to the load; or multishaft units in which the This makes nearly full power available by adding fuel
twbine~and sometimes the compressor, is divided into without the necessity of waiting for the to
sections, eachwith its own shaft which can run at different accelerate and increase the air flow. where low-load
and Weeds. Each comPreSmr must be driven economy is of importance, the controls be arranged
by a section of the turbine, and the load can be driven to reduce the compressor speed a t low loah
by One of thesections or by its own independent turbine. the maximum turbine inlet and/or exhaust temperature
Where the Compressor is divided into two successive and for best efficiency. Since a gas turbine inherently has a
sections with similar coaxial turbines in series, it poor part-load fuel rate performance, this variablearea
is a "twin-s~ool" machine. When a nozzle feature can be very advantageous. ~i~~~~ 8
flingle ComPreSsor is used and the turbine is divided into illustrates a typical comparative of part-loa,j per-
t~~ One which drives the compressor and the formance curves for regenerative and simplecycle units.
other the load at speeds, it is known as a The dotted curve indicates the min possible a t reduced
"two-shaft " machine. load by the use of a variablearea nozzle control for a
Both single-shaft and two-shaft machines can be used regenerative cycle.
in service- The single-shaft units are most The phisiml a m g e m e n t of the variouscomponents
oOmmonly used for generator drives, either a-c or d-C. (i.e., compressors, combustion systems, and turbines)
the a-c generator units are used only as auxiliary that make up the gas turbine is influencedby the thermQ
power units where they run a t constant fn3q~encyand dynamic factors (i.e., the turbine connected to a corn-
'peed. -* ~ropulsionunits, where the propeller pressor must develop enough power to drive it), by
must Operate Over a very wide speed range, a controllable mechanical considemtions (i.e., shafts must have ade-
and reversible-~it~hpropeller or some eq~ivalent quate bearings, seals, etc.), and also by the neoessity to
varisble-s~eed transmiasion, such aS an electric drive, conduct the very high ah and gas flows to and from the
be used with a single-shaft machine because of its various components with minimum pressure lossas.
limited range and poor acceleration characteristics. 2.2 Air Inlet Armngemenk. ~h~ provisionsfor
For main ~ ~ o ~ u l s units,
i o n a multishaft machine is handling the large inlet and exhaust volume flows are
'lormally used) the arrangement bekg a two-shaft particularly important. Not only must the ductwork
unit with an variable-speed power turbine. to and from the unit be accommodated within the con-
2 14 MARINE ENGINEERING GAS TURBINES 215
a.large plenum can be used, the compressor inlet can be ACCESSORY DRIVE GEARS
inserted in one wall of the plenum so that the air flows
axially into the compressor annulus. Model tests of
POWER TURBINE
the inlet configuration are often conducted to identify
undesirable flow distortions and resonant conditions. If
tests are not conducted, a good rule of thumb is that the
engine inlet should be a t least two engine diameters
away from the bullhead or far side of the plenum.
An arrangement which is very satisfactory, both
aerodynamically and structurally, is show11 in Fig. 9.
Air enters the passage radially from the inlet hood, which
is large enough-that is, has low enough velocities-to
insure equal distribution and essentially uniform radial
velocities around the circumference. The air is then
turned in a n axial direction, and accelerated by the
reduction in passage area, to the plane of the inlet guide
vanes. The squeeze and resulting acceleration suppresg
vortices and smooth the flow a t the inlet guide vanes.
Struts tie the two sides of the casing together.
PERCENT SHAFT HORSEPOWER
2.3 Exhaust Collectors or Hoods. Due to the higher
tmnneratures.
----- I-
--
the exhaust volume flow is larger than that
Fig. 8 Gas turbine part-load performance characteristics of the inlet. Maintaining velocities that provido
reasonable pressure drops is, therefore, somewhat morc!
difficult. The high temperature also introduces expan-
fines of the ship structure, but the total system pressure sion problems since the movement of the ducting due to
drop must be held to a minimum. thermal growth must be accommodated without intro-
I n addition, the actual configuration of the air inlet ducing high forces into the turbine structure. Tlai
to the compressor is important. Unequal air flow into allowable forces and moments depend somewhat up011
the
-- . inlet
- annulus or flow into the annulus a t varying the size of the unit and must be specified for the partia-
angles around the circumference (velocity and pressure ular gas turbine used.
distortion) can reduce the efficiency by the effect on the
firstrrow entrance angles. Also they can cause blade
The exhaust collector, or exhaust hood, is that part ol'
the turbine casing that collects the gases leaving the! 'AIR INLET ASSEMBLY
vibrations that can lead to early blade failure. Ideally last-stage turbine wheel and conducts them to tllo Fig. 10 Axial-Row tompressor and turbine, simple-cycle, two-haft design
the compressor inlet should pull from an infinite plenum, connection with the heat-recovery equipment or exhaunC
as with an aircraft jet engine in flight. Practically, the duct. It' usually, however, serves as more than n
engine must pull the air through a duct system; therefore, collector. Due to the limited annulus area that can bo
provided a t the normal gas turbine exhaust temperaturcn, the axial velocity and the corresponding absolute housing is supported by struts through the gas path.
some form of air inlet housing or hood must be used. If
velocity leaving the last-stage turbine blading is usually I n some cases, particularly with single-shaft machines,
high, 400 fps or more. The energy represented by this the rotor bearings may not require support through the
velocity, known as the leaving loss, is a rather high exhaust hood; but the inner wall of the diffuser usually
percentage of the turbine energy, and so for good shaft
must be supported by struts through the gas path. Such
efficiency a s much of it must be recovered as possible. struts should be located as far down the diffuser as
To recover this velocity energy, some form of diffuser is possible, as any obstruction in a diffuser, even when
employed. Since a good diffuser takes up considerable streamlined, markedly reduces its recovery efficiency ;
space, a judicious compromise usually must be made therefore, the lower the velocity region a t which this
between the space used and the energy that can be occurs, the better. I n addition, provision must be made
recovered by the pressure rise in the diffuser. A typical for the thermal expansion (particularly during starting)
straight diffuser is shown in Fig. 9, while a curved diffuser of the struts, which are completely immersed in the hot
is shown in Fig. 10. Most authorities agree that good gas stream. I n small units, distortion of the casings a t
diffusion cannot be obtained in a turn, so that the the attachment points may be sufficient; but in large
diffuser efficiency of curved diffusers like Fig. 10 is
units some radial flexibility is generally allowed. Tan-
probably low. However, they obviously take con- gential struts or a radii1 strut with a tangential spring
siderably less axial length, which usually is an important member a t the outer end are possible arrangements.
advantage. Air-cooled struts attached to cylindrical inner and outer
I n addition*to its aerodynamic function as a diffuser members that can distort sufficiently to allow for some
and collector, the exhaust hood must frequently act a s a expansion can also be used.
structural member and carry loads and bending moments The exhaust hood, or collector, is usually fabricated
through the gas path. This is the case of the arrange- from relatively thin material with suitable stiffening ribs
ment shown in Fig. 9 where the power turbine bearing
Fig. 9 Large axial-flow compressor and turbine, regenerative-cycle,two-shaft industrial design formed in the material or welded on externally. This
216 MARINE ENGINEERING
GAS TURBINES 217
serves to stiffen the structure to prevent drumming or purpose is the same. A rigid structural subbase also struction as illustrated in Fig. 11. Here the compressor CORRUGATED CENTERS
resonances and also enables the structure to withstand provides a convenient mounting for many of the gas discharge air is between adjacent plates with the turbine
the internal pressure due t o the back pressure imposed on turbine auxiliaries, particularly the lube oil tank and exhaust gas in the finned passages. The pressure load
the unit when heat-recovery equipment is used. Large other components of the lubrication system. When is then carried by the fins acting as columns and trans-
flat surfaces should be designed to withstand a t least properly applied, a three-point support of such a s u b mitted to the outer casing where it is restricted by
20 in. of water without bulging. base will prevent ships' structural distortions from "strongbacks" and ~iamied into the end structure.
Materials for exhaust hoods are frequently stainless rnisaliiing the various components. Details of course vary between different manufacturers;
steels, particularly for units with high exhaust tempera- 2.6 Regenerators and Recuperators. The recovery a typical arrangement and its development are described
tures. For large units, where thicker stock is required of heat from the gas turbine exhaust and its return to the in references [13, 141.
to give adequate stiffness, carbon or low-alloy steels can cycle to improve the overall efficiency are accomplished The materials used in fixed-surface heat exchangers
be used. In any case the exhaust system is usually with a regenerator or recuperator. Both terms are used depend upon the temperature range in which they must
covered with some form of insulation (blanket, block, more or less interchangeably although the term "regen- work. Where the maximum turbine exhaust tempera-
plastic, etc.) to reduce the temperature of the exposed erator" is sometimes considered to be limited to rotary
surface. heat exchangers in which a heat storage matrix is alter- used, but the metal thicknems chosen should provide
2.4 Structural Arrangements. Structurally, the sta- nately exposed to the hot exhaust gases, and then to the an adequate allowance for minor corrosion. For turbine
tionary gas turbine parts, compressor casings, comburc compressor discharge air stream, transferring heat from exhaust temperatures over 1000 F. or where the. design
tion casings, turbine casings or shells, and the related the former to the latter. The term recuperator is then has been optimized for minimum weight with resulting
0--
structural supports for the mtor bearings must withstand reserved for fixed-surface heat exhangers in which the thin-gage materials, corrosion-resistant materials such 10-s the astern rotor blade sections to reduce the rotatioh
hot exhaust is on one side of a wall and the air on the -----.
not only the internal pressure forces but also the external as stainless steel or one of the Inconels are necessary.
other, the heat being transferred through the wall by Lacking an internal reversing method, marine gas
forces imposed on the unit from its own weight and the 247 Reduction Gearing and Reversing Considera-
conduction. turbine installations must be reversed by an external
reactions from engine torque and external connections. tions. The gas turbine is a high-speed qachine with
The casings must be designed for the internal pressure Both types have been used successfully with gas output shaft speeds ranging from about 3600 rpm for means. Electric drives offer ready reversing but are
forces and must also be checked as a beam, under the turbines although the fixed-surface type is far more large machines up to 100,000rpmfor very small machines. usually ruled out on the basis of weight, cost, and to
common. Considerable effort, however, has gone into some extent efficiency, except for special applications
reactions due to the weight of the components, plus Approximately 25,000 rpm is an upper limit for units
whatever "g" loading may be imposed. Rotor and the development of various forms of rotary regenerators (Chapter 10). From a practical standpoint there are
suitable for the propulsion of small boats. With these two alternatives, a reversing gear or a controllable and
stator weights must be considered, and the supports are for small engines because of their advantages of small output speeds, a reduction gear is necessary to reduce the
frequently located so as to mini& the bending size, light weight, and high effectiveness. On the other reversible pitch (CRP) propeller. Both have been used
speed to the range suitable for a propeller. Smaller successfully in gas-turbine-driven ships. Reversing
moments in the structure. hand, work on fixed-surface types has also resulted in units suitable for boats or driving auxiliary unit&, such as gears haye been commonly applied to diesel-propelled
The calculation of the bearing housings and supports reduced weight and space, so that both types arc generators in larger vessels, frequently have a reduction ships up $0 several thousand horsepower and have also
cannot be based upon the weights of the rotors alone. competitive. gear built integral with the unit. Larger units n~rmally been used in some gas turbine applications [I, 16, 17, 181.
To insure the integrity of the unit in the event of a blade Rotary regenerators have been built with the heat- t require a separate reduction gear, usually of the double- CRP propellers likewise are quite common in smaller
or bucket failure, they should be able to carry the exchange element (or matrix) either in the form of a or triple-reduction type.
flat disk or as a hollow cylinder. The choice of one or sizes, and are finding increasing applications in higher-
centrifugal loads imposed by the loss of some credible The gearing itself can be of any arrangement. S q l l e r horsepower qliesel and gas turbbe ships [19, 20, 211.
combination of bucket or blades within the tensile the other is determined primarily by the geometry of tho units with built-in gears frequently use a
installation as related to the gas turbine components, or One important consideration in choosing a reversing
strength of the members. The loss of two adjacent star gear arrangement. Larger units use double-helical means for a gas turbine is whether it is a aingleshaft or
vane sections or one complete bucket and dovetail is although considerations of the seal design between the I gears. Any of the gear types and arrangements d e
considered a reasonable assumption. cold high-pressure chamber and the hot low-pressure
chamber can affect the choice.
SS scribed in Chapter 9 can be used with a gas turbine to two-shaft machine. The singleshaft gas turbine has a
very limited speed range, in some cases only from 75 to
Supports for gas turbines can take many forms. They suit the rating, speed ratio required, and arrangement of
Seal leakage and the "letdown" which occurs when a 100 percent speed, while the load turbine of a two-shaft
must support the unit and maintain it in line with the the machinery in the vessel.
section of the rotary matrix passes from the high-pressuru machine can be stopped by the application of sufficient
driven equipment, while allowing for the axial and radial A gas turbine, in common with all turbine machinery,
thermal growth of the unit from cold to normal operating region to the exhaust or low-pressure region offset tho is not inherently reversible. Steam turbines can provide torque while the gas generator continues to run. This
means that a direct-geared, single-shaft gas turbine can
temperatures. Several methods of support are shown in high effectiveness that can be realized in the matrix, a, separate reversing elements built into the LP casing, but
that the overall cycle efficiency is comparable to fixed- only be applied in conjunction with a CRP propeller, in
the various illustrations, and it will be seen that small this is not practical in a gas turbine as the rotation loss
surface types. The matrix itself can be metal or ceramic, order to be able to properly maneuver the ship, unless it is
units frequently use three points of support with one of the astern elements rotating in the ahead direction a t
in the form of wire, strip, plates, pebbles, etc. The applied only as a boost engine where its limited speed
centering key or gib, while larger units usually use a t i atmospheric pressure would be very high. The resulting range matches the requirements. A two-shaft -chinc
least four supports; more are used if the whole unit is influence of seal leakage, let down, and pressure drop* temperatures and losses would be unacceptable.
and their relations to the geometry of the regenerator arc! can be applied equally well with a reversing gear or a
divided into several casings, as in compound cycle units. Design studies have been made of a unique arrange-
2.5 Mounting in the Hull. In marine applications, given in references [13] and [12]. 8 ment in which the astern bucket's vane section takes the CRP propeller. A reversing gear also provides a means
the gas turbine usually cannot be mounted rigidly to the Fixed-surface recuperators were originally of convon- f place of the shank of a long-shank bucket and which of disconnecting the shafting from the turbine. Such a
tional shell and tube construction, in some cases wit11 means should be provided if a single-shaft machine is
ship's structure. Normal movement and distortions of & has its own variable-angle nozzle that can be closed
used so that it can be started and checked out without
the hull when underway would cause distortions and tubes as small as in. dia when used for mobilo off when going ahead [15]. This arrangement shields rotating the propeller and shafting.
misalignment in the turbine. This could cause internal applications where weight and space were important.
. rubs or even bearing or structural failure. The turbine More common constructions with tubes M to 1 in. diu
components can be mounted on a subbase, as shown in were large and bulky, and considerable trouble wan
Fig. 9, which is built up of structural sections of sufficient experienced in some cases with cracking of the tubn
rigidity to maintain the gas turbine alignment when sheets due to thermal stresses set up between the cold
properly supported by the ship's hull. I n cases where shell and the hot tubes across the outer periphery of thla
aircraft gas turbines have been adapted to marine use, tube sheet.
some form of tubular structure may be used, but the Present designs are usually of the "plate-fin" can-
I
GAS TURBINES
21 8 MARINE ENGINEERING
Of dirt, which reduces its capacity and efficiency and sound power level of a given design of gas turbine is a
Sectiun 3 results in a degadation of the entire engine or may even function of its size or power and is approximately
b u s a ComPressor blade failure due to stall. TO insure proportional to its rating. ~~~tof the noise is generated
Accessories air, most, n ~ n m r i n egas turbine installations are aerodynamicallyand is related to blade passing frequency
Since the starting device is normally required Only equipped with an air filter or clmer. In marine and, therefore, is in the high-frequency range (221.
~ ~ ~ i andl Drbes,
pumps i ~ The~gas ~
turbine, a~~limtionsi however, the nI0st important requirement
,kle bsially a complete, self-contained power plant, to about 50 percent speed, it is usually connected to the The m&jor sources of the noise radiated to the sur-
turbine through some form of special clutch which is to keep particles and water, n'hether in drops or as roundings are the inlet openings, exhaust openings, and
requires cerbin for its operation. Fuel wsterl from entering the compre%~Or. For this gears. However, the entire machine radiates noise; the
pumps (on liquid-fueled units) and lube-oil pumps are it be disconnected during normal Operation. The
reanon air should be placed as high above the water sound intensity is related to the easing thickness or, more
always needed. A positive fuel pressure must be simplest, and probably most satisfactory, form Of as possible and must be equipped with effectivebaffles or exactly, to the casing mss. Noise radiated from the
supplied to the engine during all operating conditions, is a Simple jaw clutch, magnetically Or ~~~~~~~~~~~~y eliminators to Prevent the entry of solid water. Behind casings is usually confined to the engine room, and its
engaged and Spring disengaged. Provisions be
including sta+up, These pumps can be independently made for rotating the starter slowly during engagement the eliminators a demister should be installed to intercept effect h n be reduced and controlled by appropriate
driven by electric motorsl but are ususlly driven through water droplets. The demister can consist of an inertial sound treatment.
a reduction gar from the m i n turbine shaft. The to make sure the jaws are fully engaged before
is applied; otherwise, severe damage ~ p a * ~or,r alternatively, of pads (similar to filter The airborne noise, in both the inlet and exhaust, can
a,essorr takes many forms; spur, bevel, worm, pads) of metal or synthetic fibers of controlled size and be attenuated to almost any required level by the use
or spiral gearing has been depending upon the Alternatively, Some form of overrunning can be
'pacing to the size of droplets passed. of suitable silencers. I n general, the greater the decibel
configuration of the turbine and, in some cases, instal- used, but Unless the clutch is of some slf-s~nchmnizing If the demister pads are lvet, even with Sea~~ater,reduction in noise level required, the more expensive the
lation requirements in the form of length or space limita- form such as illustrated in Chapter 91 it is susceptible to are also effective in stopping the ingestion of salt silencer and the greater its pressure drop, so a noise
The Bimplest gearing amrngement that will drive damage or failure if the starting device is energized
tions. load and. other foreign particles and thereby serve as a filter reduction greater than n e c e w v should notbe used.
the required (these include governors, the gas turbine is still decelerating. The medium' A typieal
tachometer generators, speed switches, etc., as well as under such conditions can be very severe, and few Over- arrangement having an Specifying silencer performance, it is important that the
to inertial-t~~e separator is shown in Fig. 12. The type of sound-pressurelevel a t the turbine be given in each of the
the fuel and lube oil pumps) is usually best. In any case, running Clutch de&ns have the torque under consideration and its above-water profile and octave bands and that the reduction to give the required
the garing must be designed for the duty and l i e stand such Shock. The clutch should disengage
Operating height above the waterline will dictate in large part the decibels at a predetermined radius be also specified for
,quired of the min unit. They are usually provided completely a t Some speed below the tYpe of mist eliminator to be used.
by the gas turbine manufacturer as standard engine speed of the turbine shaft to avoid excessive wear On the same octave bands.
If the engine room is used as a plenum, oil Vapors from Since the sound attenuation in the surroundings
mechanism. Other can also adversely affect engine per- be ,yomewhat directional, the configuration of the inlet
3.2 Statiing ~ ~ , ,A igas ~ turbine,
~ ~ . like other 3.3 Inlet Air Filters. Additional items formance.
considered as accessories are inlet air filters and and and exhaust openings and their orientation should be
inter,l com~ustionengines, is not self-starting, and 3A Inletand Exhaust The gas turbine, carefully chosen. Of course the sound levels required
external means mustbe utilized to bring it up to the self- exhaust SilenCerS. Pressure drops are Of -jar impor- being a
tance in gas turbine operation; therefore1 and exhaust -chine, generates a relatively large also depend upon the service (e.g., eargo,
sustainingspeed. ~ h i ais the speed from which the amount of noise of a w*de frequency spectrum. The passenger, or naval).
rotors can be accelerated by the ad&tion of fuel alone, equipment mist be designed with
asdstance, and it is usually about 30 to for the economic balance of size and Pressure
lvithout Gas turbines require clean air, as
50 percentof the gas-producer's full speed. On units
sbftaonly one starting compressor will eventually become coated with a layer
aith two or more
device can be used, although in certain industrial-type
gas turbines each shaft utilizes its own s*ting device. Section 4
Starting devices in common US include electric
motors, stearn turbines, air motors operating on stored C0ntr0ls
comprewd air, and small diesel engines, which must, in The control system of a gas such as shown in l?k. 13, will meet all
turn, have their own starting systems. Other starting turbine perform several functions that are vital to The governor characteristics may be of the isochronous
systems include hydraulic motors fed from x%h-pressure its It must control the speed of the shafts or droop type as required.
pumps or accumulator systems, and special r 0 t a r y - t ~ ~ ~ that make up the *m~lete unit, schedule the fuel flow For machines nith two or more shafts, additional
starting motors fed from high-pressure air supplies, sorne EXHAUST
during starting and qther transient mnditions, prevent control usually must be provided with a twolhaft
of which include the combustion of fuel to furnish Overtemperatures in the combustion and turbine system, turbine having fixed nozzle areas, the speed of the gas
energy. For large units a ~lnallindependent and prevent a dsngerous overspeed under any conditions. producer section is normally controlled by one speed
gas turbine m y be used to furnish the starting power. The system to perform these functions is governor and the output is a function primarily of that
In any case, it is important that the starting device made up Of a number separate devices corn- speed. The power turbine speed, however, is indepen-
have adequate power to bring the Unit to the self- 'bed into various Systems; but the trend is for all the dent and is a function of the power turbine and its
sustaining speed without requiring the addition of energy to be inteerated into a single system, usually loading characteristics (i,e,, horsepower or torque vs.
from the main fuel supply sufficient to cause excessive Of the type, that controls all the rpm relationship of the propeller). T~ prevent over-
temperatures at the turbine inlet. That is, the fuel/air operations of the unit. speeding on loss of load, a supplemental speed governor,
ratio during the shrting cycle should be held close to 4*2 'peed Measunhent and Control. A non- wmetimes called a "topping governor,?, mustbe driven
normal limits. This requires a relatively large energy integrated system will mnsid of a speed governor, by the power turbine which will override the min
input from the starting device. Since the operating Usuall~ the or flyweight type, which governor and reduce the fuel supply should the power
time is of relatively short duration, the starting device through a relay system 6-e., a pilot valve and turbine speed exceed the topping governor ~ ~ ~ t n- ~ ~ i ~
a n be highly overloaded or peak-load rated, particularly piston) Operates the main fuel valve to regulate the fuel When a t ~ o - ~ h gas~ f t turbine is equipped wit.
if it is an electric motor. Starting times range from flow to the Power output and the variable-area power turbine nozzles, an additional
seconds on a very small gas turbine to 1 to 2 minutes On speed Of the unit- For a single-shaft control element is introduced which gives additional
large aircraft-type engines and 15 to 20 minutes on the ~ i12~ Gas . turbine installation on P G boats showing air inlet and exhaul) mchkre, this is that is neces~rY1and a governor unit,
arrangements flexibility in the control and charactefistics of the unit.
largest industrial-type units.
MARINE ENGINEERING GAS TURBINES
Not Only is the poser turbine speed independent of the arranged to vary the air flow with load by varying the
gas producer speed, but the speed can be contfolled over gas producer speed. This makes it possible to maintail'
A the maximum turbine inlet temperature Over a wid'
a wide range of load and load range of load within limits set by the exhaust tempera-
hydraulic relay system is normally used to the
load turbine nozzle and thus setthe energy distribution - ~ ~the
ture control. liar m u l t i ~ l ~ units a ~same
~ princi-
ples apply, but the problem is by the need
betNreenthe power turbine and the gas producer turbine.
The control function an be set up in several ways; to control more shafts and1in some a s e s l more than On'
normally however, the gas producer speed, through its combustion system (each having independent tempera-
the nozzle position to maintain the set tures). A description of such 'ystems 's given '''
speed and corresponding air flow. The power turbine references [231 241. the
speed, through a separate governing system, sets the Instead of a governor Nith
Or
fuel ,flow and adjusts the outputto match the speed signal can be taken from a tachometer
magnetic speed Pickup, and the converted to a
This, provides the maximum laad response, and
the ah flow constant, the load can be changed modulated Signal which an
since
,pidly by merely varying the .fuel flow without risk of corresponding speed and output. Such systems an'
overtemperature or compressor instability. Alterna- particularly advantageous for generating sets where
load signal can be fed into the electronic 'ystem to givs
'
is desired and
tively,if maximum parbload
slower load pickupan be accepted, the controls a n be load anticipation and thereby
regu1ation as '*
MARINE ENGINEERING
GAS TURBINES ---
373
difficult to meet, particularly when pumping low convenient measure of air flow, to set the fuel schedule
lubricity fuels such as JP-4 and especially JP-5. Only during acceleration, and in some applications a tempera- imparts kinetic energy to the fluid, the diffuser and scroll,
pumps specially designed for the service will satisfactorily ture override from the temperature control system. The which are the major stationary parts, must convert the
and reliably meet the requirements. latter, if the system has adequate response times, kinetic energy into potential energy in the form of a
One additional requirement of a fuel control system is approaches an ideal way to set the fuel flow, since it static pressure rise. Therefore, the higher the pressure
to divide the fuel evenly when there is more than one responds to the most important condition-temperature. ratio required, the more important is the design and
fuel nozzle or combustion chamber. This is particularly Maximum fuel flow and minimum fuel flow stops are corresponding performance of the diffuser.
important with multiple combustion chambers, since also normally incorporated in the control to prevent The forward section of the impeller, usually called the
even individual nozzle arcs can only reliably meter the overloading the unit under low ambient conditions and inducer, may be separate from or integral with the rest
air flow to within 3 to 4-percent accuracy, so that a flameout due to cutback of the fuel flow on sudden of the impeller. I n any case, however, the aerodynamic
5-percent difference in the fuel nozzle flow can result in reductions in load. shape of the inducer is very ifiportant insofar as the
an 8 to 9-percent variation in temperature rise. On a 4.6 Overspeed Protection. The governor and speed overall efficiency, capacity, pressure rise, and surge
1000 deg F rise this variation is 80 to 90 deg P, an control normally control the shaft speeds within pre- performance of the machine are concerned.
amount large enough to affect the life of the hot-gas-path scribed limits. However, as with most turbine ma- 5.2 Centrifugal Impeller Design. To achieve good
chinery, a backup to prevent dangerous overspeeding performance and high efficiency, the detailed aero-
One way of assuring essentially equal flows is to use a must be ~rovidedin the form of an overspeed shutdown. dynamic design of the imfieller (rotor) and diiuser is
piston-type pump with one cylinder delivering flow to Such a device should be applied to every shaft. Upon necessarily based on experience and usually a long
each fuel nozzle. This gives a pulsating flow to each reaching a speed of about 110 percent of rated rpm, the development period. Many approaches have been
nozzle, but provides an equal distribution between them. overspeed trip mechanism shuts off all fuel to the unit. taken in designing centrifugal compressor impellers.
An alternative method is to meter the flow to each nozzle In the case of two-shaft units, this is in addition to a The usual method employs a combination of velocity
through a small gear pump element with all elements pre-emergency or topping governor driven from the load
being moupted on a common shaft and thus running a t turbine, \vhich acts to limit fuel flow to that correspond-
the same speed. The speed-control governor then varies ing to about 10a-percent speed.
the fuel flow from the shaft-driven fuel Pump- The ~ h overspeed
, trip can be mechanical in the form of a
speed of the gear elements is pmportional to the fuel flow1 centrifugal mechanism which, upon reaching the trip
and each element passes the same fuel flow regardless of speed, dumps oil from the fuel control valves or opens a
pressure variations due to differences in the individual set of electrical contacts that similarly shuts off all fuel
The control of the fuel flow during the startiIrg cycle flow. Alter~lativelya tachometer geneator or magnetic Various detail factors are of importance in the final
is an important function of the fuel control system to speed pi~liupscan be used to generate an electrical signal design. Shrouded impellers are sometimes used where
temperatures at which interrupts the control circuits and shuts off the Fig. 14 Centrifugal compreswr and radial-flow turbine, simple-cycle, maximum efficiency is important, and stress conditions
prevent the development of I
single-shaft unit with single combustor and gearbox
low speeds. ~~~~l~~ controls with means of metering fuel as the shaft reaches the set overspeed. Electrical will allow them, although quoted gains of 3 to 5 points in
the fuel during the lighboff and starting cycle are devices must be arranged to "fail safe" so that Once efficiencyare debatable.
started, a Zero speed signal or lack of signal Opens the Axial thrust generated by the rotor can be minimized
usually required. These controls can incorporate a
bias from the compressor discharge pressure, which is a control circuits and shuts off abscissa may be expressed as by balance holes to the back face of the impeller or
radial vanes or blades on the back face to create an
opposing pressure gradient. The thrust of double flow,
i.e., double entry, impellers is inherently balanced.
The use of pre-whirl, with rotation, will reduce the *
--
Ua
P,
-
* ROTOR TIP
0
SPEED, FPS
ROTOR INLET AREA,
INLET PRESSURE. PSIA
IN.^
I
Pa DISCHARGE PRESSURE. P I
RADIUS, IN.
fig. IS Perfonnonce mop f a centrifugal canprerur
Fig. 16 Turbine wheel rtresaes
The oentrifugal force of the Vanes is introduced a t Shrouded impellers a n also be oalcuhted by an exten-
'pecific of the disk, which is divided into sion of the method. In this case the shroud is cctlcula&d
ringa and strips. Thermal stresses due to a radial as an unsupported ring and then influencecoefficienbare
tem~erat&e gradient are computed by assigning a calculated for the interaction between the blades and
each ring, based on tests or calculations. the shroud and disk to arrive at the final stress distribu-
A typiml plot of wheel stresses is shown in Fig. 16. tion.
Section 6
MARINE ENGINEERING GAS TUR'BINES
A-
\ P'
VANE VANE
WHEEL
panying leaving loss. Com~ressor~ are also designed The stresses in the dovetail are shearing stresses
with a constant root diameter and varying tip dlmeter, (across section A-A in li'ig. 18) and crushing or compres-
and in other cases both diameters are varied. sive stresses (on surf ces B and B). The total load on
The thiclcness of the airfoil sections is chosen to meet the dovetail is determined by adding the centrifugal
vibration criteria while maintaining good aerodynamic force due to the vane and that of the dovetail itself. The
performance. he blade chord must then be sufficient shear and crushing stresses are then calculated from this
to maintain the blade bending stresses at an acceptable total load and the geometrimlly determined areas.
level to insure freedom from fatigue failures. Sample Wheel dovetail neck shear stresses a t maximum speed
are commonly made up and their natural fre- should be less than 30 percent of the minimum yield
quencies checked for all the lower modes and, if necessary, stress and the tensile stresses less than 20 percent of the
t ~ ~ n ebyd changing the thickness to avoid resonances a t minimum ultimate tensile strength.
running speeds as shown by a Campbell diagram (see In the layout of the vane sections, the sections a t each
Fig. 30 of Chapter 5 for a typical Campbell dimgram). radius are usually stacked so that the line through the
Even this cannot give positive assurance that all centroids of the sections is a straight line, either radial or
resonances are avoided, particularly in variable speed with a slight inclination to compensate for the aero-
units. Even constant-speed units must pass through dynamic bending moments.
resonant speeds when starting up and shutting down. 6.4 Rotor Design. Most axial compressors have the
he allowable bending stress chosen depends upon the rotor made up of a series of individual disks, each usually
Inaterial and the designer's experience; but a good rule carrying one row of rotor blades. The individual disks
for deel is 10,000 psi in the outermost fiber based on the are held together by a central bolt as in Fig. 10 or a row
root section modulus, or 25 Percent of the fatigue limit of bolts a t an intermediate radius as in li'ig. g. In either
at lo8 cycles- The first- and last-shge design stresses case, the Golts are prestressed a t assembly so that the
cascade performance of the individual blade rows. That 6.3 Blading Design. The both and
stator, are always of a common are frequently reduced to a b u t one half of these values total bolt load is sufficient to keep the disks from
is, the dkgramfor a specific blade row (rotor or C-4 Or C-7' Thu to allow for the increased loading that occurs a t off-design
stator) gives the entrancecondition to the row; and the being NACA-65 section or the separating under the highest bending moment that is
length is set to give the deskn at that conditions. Much higher stresses are used in aircraft- likely to be imposed on the rotor.
data give the leaving velocities and type units. Titanium blades are frequently used in gas
lof3ltion. For manufacturing reasons The individual disks are usually to give an
,gles, which combined with the e& velocity diagram turbines of the aircraft type.
blades (rotor) a e often of constant tip diameter, which approximately constant radial stress in the wheel.
give the absolute leaving conditions for the row. The blade must be attached to the rotor by some
An important consideation in the design of axial permits a simple casing design and 'lso maintains a high Various methods may be used for the calculation of the
means; this is accomplished by an enlarged wheel stresses, including the centrifugal loading of the
blading is that of blade loading. %rly data tip speed and minimum number of stages' The 'Oat
a minimum at section, or root, in the form of a dovetail, as in liig. 18(a) blades, but the one most commonly used is the "Manson
on low-speed caaades [291were extended by later NACA diameter comes~ondinglyvaries with cylindrical roots as in Fig. 18(b)*and bolted
inlet to a xim mum at the disehargel method" [27, 281. The average tangential stress is of
progams, including information on blade with seveml attachments have been used. The dovetail section must
at higher ~~~h numbers and higher blade- constant taper, as in Fig- lo,and particular significance, since, for the ductile materials
be made and is usually a good fit in the slot usually chosen, it is generally considered that the *heel
,tting angles [3*34. From the early data, Lieblein of the high-pressure stages having a constant rOO''
and others developed a digusion parameter that is diameter, as in Fig. 9. The latter tends to reduce the in the rotor; axial slots are commonly broached but bursting speed is reached wrhen this stress exceeds a
leaving velocity a t the discharge, and the accom- circumferential grooves are machined in a lathe. value in the range of 85 to 100 percent of the ultimate
frequently as a blade loading limit [331.
MARINE ENGINEERING GAS TURBINES 229
of freedom from distortion of the casing, due to its being carefully finished to avoid leakage. The best
symmetry,'so that closer tip clearances over the blading proportions for the flange and bolting are usually based
can be maintained in operation. I t is also somewhat on experiment as well as a stress analysis [34].
lighter. 6.6 Other Compressor Types and Combinations.
Larger units commonly have the compressor casing Other types of compressors have, from time to time,
split on the horizontal centerline, each half containing been proposed for application to a gas turbine cycle. Of
half the stator blades. The two halves are bolted the several possible types, only a variation of the
together with a horizontal flange as shown in Fig. 9. centrifugal type (the so-called "mixed-flow" compressor)
The horizontal flanges must be designed to transmit the and a combination of one or more axial stages followed
circumferential hoop stress, due to the internal pressure, by a single centrifugal stage (for small volume flow,
across the joint without leaking. The joint itself is high pressure ratio machines) have had practical appli-
always made with a metal-to-metal contact, the joint cation.
Section 7
Turbine Design and Construction
of the msterbl. Typiml stress distribution separate blade rings by T-slot attachments, Or brazed
curves for compressor wheel are given in Fig. 19. into the rings. The rings are made in two Or more
segments which are then slid into paves machined
hi^ is a wheel ,with a central hole, and the tangential
stress a t the bore is quite high, approaching twice the the casings-
center stress in a solid disk. The inner ends of the stator blades can be either
lo, Or un-
c~~~~~~~~ have been built with drum rotors, similar shrouded, as in the forward stages of
If shmuded, they are riveted into qs = n -fl
to some steam turbine rotors, and solid rotors have been shrouded. Or
H5/4 (2)
designed, although applications are rare. S t r e r ~ s the shroud .ring, which carries a labyrinth packing to
in drum rotors are usually based on unsupported ring minimize the blade theendsL are
e a hfinished
3 along totheanrotor. If unsh*udedl
accurate diameter to
theory, and are appreciably higher than for individual at
disks for the same peripheral speeds. Consequently they give the minimum allowable running
are used only in compressors with low blade speeds and a blade tips-
large number of stages for a given overall pressure ratio. Some compreaior designs U S variableangle
Such designs can be classed as very conservative. blades in one or more rows so that the blade angles call
6.5 ibtor ~ ~Statori blades~ are not~ subject
. be adjusted to match the operating conditions, partic-
to the centrifu&al that rotor blades experience; ularly during starting. In such eases, the blades havn
thrOug"
therefore, theb mechanical design and aerodynamic cylindrical shanks that extend radially outward to the
design are not as limited. Nevertheless, bending holes in the casing. Levers are attached in On''
stressesdue to loadings must be calculated ends, which are linked together, so that
or more rows can be adjusted simultaneously by a"
and kept, to consenrative values to allow for unknown
stresses. Blade vibration modes and fre- external control mechanism. tho
quencies must, be for a preliminary design, and The compressor easing must be designed to
stator blades or stator blade rings and contain tho
checked for sample blades, so as to avoid lower-order various stages. Small0r
rewasnoes within the running speed range. pressures developed in the a casil'g,
~h~~~is, of course, no due to centrifugal machines are frequently made
forces as there is for rotor blades. the rotor and stator blade rings being assembled externs1
~h~ method of attachment is usually similar to that to the easing and then assembled endwise into the casil*
for mbrblades, although a simple T-slot mot attach- as a unit, as in Fig. 10. The casing is then
merit is frequently used. Blades may be mounted an air inlet easing and a discharge diffuserthat locate a'"1
This has the advantag('
d.,.tlY b -hined in the fasing, mounted in restrain the blade rings endwise.
!
1
* I
MARINE ENGINEERING
I GAS TURBINES 23 1
U = WHEEL SPEED
C I = NOZZLE EXIT V E LOCITY
D l = BUCKET RELATIVE
ENTRANCE VELOCITY
D~ = BUCKET RELATIVE
E X l T VELOCITY
Ce = BUCKET ABSOLUTE I
EXlT VELOCITY C2
I
(A) IMPULSE DIAGRAM
I
(
V E L O C I T Y RATIO. U/C,
pressure ratio as shown by the typical curves of Fig. 22. The following possible 'sources of loss probably cannot
Impact efficiency as used in Fig. 22 is defined as be evaluated directly.
specific speed, although the exact level of efficiency for
each type is dependent upon the detail designs and the ratio of the work developed by the turbine to the 1. N o n s b d y state effects which may produce a
thearetical work available when expanding from the nozzle bucket "interferencen loss.
geometry as well. initial impact pressure to the final impact pressure.
7.2 Aerodynamic Design. Since radial-outflow tur- 2. Nonuniformity of nozzle exit stream within the
The impact pressure equals the static pressure plus noz&lepit,&.
bines are rarely used, discussion will be limited to radial- c2
the impact head corresponding to the absolute gas 3. &nificant flow separation from nozzle or bucket
inflow designs. While the radial-flow turbine is basically
similar to a centrifugal compressor operating in reverse, profiles due to either a poor profile design or an exces-
there are differences, as can be seen from Fig. 14.
Principally, a simple scroll inlet is usually used, and the ( B ) 'OX REACT'0N 'IAGRAM
1 s u c ~ ~ w fwithin
ul its temperature limitations.
It should also be pointed out that most gas turbine
past experience so that meaningful values of actual
running critical speeds can be determined. Critical
of the turbine first-stage nozzle. This design can also be
adapted to a regenerative cycle by arranging the indi-
D- LINER SUPPORT POINTS
E-FUEL NOZZLE
-
F COMBUSTION AIR REGISTER
buckets are unshrouded; i.e., they have no shrouds or speeds calculated on the assumption of rigid bearings are vidual chambers to be fed with air returning from the G-IGNITOR
covers as are frequently used in steam turbine practice. of little value. regenerator by one or more headers as in Fig. 9. Fig. 25 Large single canbultor f a mounting separate from gas turbk.
- .
236 MARINE ENGINEERING GAS TURBINES 237
Smokefree combustion is generally in conflict with lean-
limit stability. Similarly, low pressure loss and short
flame length are difficult to attain simultaneously.
The aerodynamic processes in a combustion system
design present a most difficult set of problems. The
provisions for the interaction of fuel and air by
culation in the primary zone to provide the correct
spatial arrangement of the reactants, the necessary
flame stability, the necessary mixing and dilution
downstream to give the required temperature distri-
bution a t the combustor exit, the maintenance of metal
parts at Proper operating temperatures, and the low
Pressure drop requirements combine to present a complex
design challenge.
8-4 Mechanical Details and Construction. Struc-
turally, the gas turbine combustion system is rather
~imple,but the design is complicated by the varied and
rather severe conditions it must meet. The design must
liquefied petroleum gas carriers as they can readily the air flow pattern. Combustion is characterized by a given design will only operate sstisfactorily with varies from 0.2 to 4.0 joules per spark and up to 12 joules
burn the gas boil-off [38]; however, aside from this blue flame of low luminosity, cool walls, and minimum minimal variation in fuel properties. can be released in about 100 microseconds, i.e., 100 kw
application, gakous fuels are not available for most smoke. I t has, however, poor "lean blowout" and poor 5. Centrifugal Atomiaers. These employ the centrif- at peak spark discharge in a high-energy system.
marine applications. Liquid fuels commonly used in atomization at starting. ugal force of a rotating cup to atomize the fuel. This However, only about 7 percent of the total heat energy
marine installations are JP-4, JP-5, distillate fuels, and 3. Air Assist (Air Atomizing) Nozzles. These are arrangement gives very uniform temperature distribution appears at the plug face.
residual fuels. The problems with each one vary, and single-orifice nozeles, with small quantities of air (f25 deg F in a radial direction and f 7 5 deg F circum- The energy can be furnished by a high-voltage trans
few noz~l&or fuel, systems will provide satisfactory introduced internally via separate passages from a ferentially). I t is adaptable to a wide range of fuels, former, sdmetimes with a capacitor to store the energy, or
operation over the whole range of fuels. separate external compressor. At low fuel flows and from liquid propane to SAE 30 oil, with no apparent in some cases a magneto driven by the engine or starting
The nozzle must atomize the liquid fuel into droplets pressures, the air atomizes the fuel, while at high flows trouble from combustion chamber deposits. It is, device is used. The electrical circuit for a high-energy
sinall enough to insure completk combustion of the fuel the air can be cut off and fuel pressure relied upon for however, only suitable for annular combustors with a system is shown in Fig. 27.
ih the residence time avawble, and provide a spray atomization. For h a v y residual fuels, air assist rather restricted configuration. The spark plug can be of several types. A plug with a
pattern that will insure intimate mixing of the fuel with nozzles can be designed with a separate air compressor All of these systemshave been used in gm turbines, and central electrode in an insulator, discharging to another
the available oxygen under the full- and part-load taking air from the main compressor discharge, and pro- the choice depends upon the fuel to be used, the arrange- electrode on the body (similar to an automobile spark-
aerodynamic conditions existing in the primary zone. viding a pressure ratio of about 2: 1 over the entire ment of the combustion system chosen, the range df fuel plug), can be used. Far large chambers, where it is
The spray must not strike the walls of the chamber, and operating range; this gives efficient atomization (a flows over which satisfactory operation must be obtained, difficult to insure the presence of a combustible mixture
must not cause excessive temperature variations. Sauter Mean Diameter of the fuel droplets of 60-80 and the ambient conditions (particularly the temperature a t the gap of a plug mounted in the combustor case, a
Five types of liquid-fuel nozzles have been applied in microns) over the whole firing range. The complication at which reliable light-off must be obtained). retractable plug is used. The plug can be spring-injected
gas turbine combustors. Each has advantages and and weight of the extra atomizing air compressor 8.6 Ignition System. Normally the combustion in and retracted by compressor discharge pressure acting
disadvantages as follows: penalize this arrangement, but it is the only one suitable the system is self-sustaining and continuous, but it must on the piston, or it can be pressure-injected and spring-
1. Pmaure-Atomiaing Nozzles for burning Bunker C in high-intensity combustion be initiated by an external means. This is the function returned. In either case, the electro&s can be inserted
systems. They may also be used in distillate burning performed by the ignition system. far enough into the chamber to insure ignition without
(a) Simplex (or single orifice) Nozzles. The machines to assure smokeless combustion throughout the Electric ignition is almost universally used, the danger of burning them during operation.
simplest type but not suitable for the wide load range. system consisting of a spark plug or plugs in the corn- For high-energy systems a aurface-discharge plug can
flow fange usually required. 4. Vaporizing Fuel Nozzles. In vaporizing nozzles bustion chamber and a source of high voltage to create be used. This type is less susceptible to fouling or
(b) Duplex (or dual orifice) Noszles. With the fuel is introduced in a tube or passage and vaporized the spark a t the plug electrodes. The voltage used burning. I t furnishes a high-energy murce to ignite the
either intern1 or external flow dividers, these by heat from the combustion chamber. The advantages ranges from 3500 volts for a low-voltage system to 18,000 fuel but can be used only with a high-energy, capacitor-
give a much wider operating range and are are: (a) the vaporizing tubes contain both fuel and air volts in a high-voltage system. The energy required discharge electrical system.
usually satisfactory for the lower viscosity and very rich mixtures are avoided, (b) a blue flame is
fuels. produced and problems of smoke and radiation are
2. Ai Blast (Air Atomizing) Nozzles. These nozzles diminished, and (c) dispersal of the fuel is dictated by the
u t h e the combustion-chamber pressure drop to create airflow pattern and is sensibly independent of fuel flow.
an air s t r a m that is used to assist in ato&lng the fuel. The outlet temperature traverse is, therefore, not Section 9
The air flow around the nozzle body breaks up the fuel sensitive to fuel flow. The system has the dissdvantages
spray, so the fuel distribution is determined mainly by that it will not operate at weak mixture ratios and a Bearings, Seals, and lubrication
9.1 Bearing Types. Gas turbine bearings fall into by Fig. 10, the third bearing, which supports the turbine,
two classes, (i) antifriction or rolling-contact bearings is also a cylindrical roller bearing that permits axial
and (ii) sleeve or journal bearings and the corresponding expansion between the compressor and turbine. Roller
oil-film thrust bearings. Gas turbines adapted from bearings are frequently used adjacent to the turbine
aircraft designs generally use antifriction bearings wheels, since they are usually considered better able to
because of their high capacity, low space requirement, withstand high operating temperatures and higher soak-
and lighter overall engine weight, although in small back temperatures after shutting down. In addition,
ongines this difference is negligible. Gas turbines they have somewhat greater overload capacity, which
adapted from industrial practice or designed specifically may prevent complete bearing failure in the event of
for marine service generally use sleeve or oil-film bearings, damage and loss of balance in the rotor.
particularly in the larger sizes. While antifriction bearings require only small amounts
9.2 Antifriction Bearings. Antifriction bearings, of oil for lubrication, means must be provided to keep
whether ball or roller, can and do provide bng, reliable them cool, particularly in locations where heat from the
~ r v i c ebut
; by their very nature they have a definitely turbine can flow into them through the shaft or housing.
SPARK RATE
MONITOR OUTPUT limited life. For a given load and speed the bearing A carefully controlled amount of cooling oil is required
INPUT VOLTAGE: 110-120 VOLTS-50-60 CYCLES
manufacturers specify a B-TO life, which 90 percent of to maintain their internal clearances and, at the same
bearings operating with proper lubrication and tempera- time, avoid an excess that can be trapped between the
INPUT CURRENT: 7 AMPS, MAX.
tures will meet or exceed. rolling elements (particularly rollers) and the raceways
STORED ENERGY RANGE: 1-20 JOULES, lNCREMENTS OF I JOULE
For antifriction baring applications, each rotor is with resulting hydrauiic lock and noise. The oil jets
SPARK RATE RAmE: 0-100 SPARKSISEC AT I JOULE
0 - 3 SPARKSISEC AT 20 JOULES
trupported by two or more bearings. One bearing is should be directed a t the shaft adjacent to the inner race
frequently a cylindrical roller bearing to provide for and around the housing, to keep the bearing cool without
GAP VOLTAGE: 3000-3100 VOLTS axial movement of the rotor, and the other bearing, excess oil being forced into the bearing.
SPARK RATE MONITOR OUTPUT 30 VOLTS PEAK which locates the rotor and takes the axial thrust, is 9.3 Sleeve Bearings. Properly designed oil-film
Fig. 27 "Higlen& ignition s y s h l circuit
nome form of ball bearing. I n the arrangement shown bearings, appropriately applied and supplied with an
240 MARINE ENGINEERING GAS TURBINES 24 1
held by a spring in contact with a face or sealing ring on compact seal and is sometimes used in smaller machines
the shaft, which has been lapped almost absolutely flat. where length is important. This type of seal has also
Contact is maintained between the two faces to prevent frequently been used in steam turbine practice.
leakage; hence the name. The metal face is hardened, 9.6 Lubrication Systems. Proper lubrication is vital
and the carbon ring material selected to give minimum to the operation of gas turbines, whether equipped with
friction and wear. These seals, which are used in a rolling-contact or fluid-film bearings. The continuous
variety of other applications besides gas turbines, will supply of the proper grade of lubricant a t the proper
operate with essentially no lubrication, although they are pressure and temperature is so important that most gas
most frequently applied where a liquid is present on a t turbines are equipped with their own integral lubrication
least one aide of the seal. They are usually proprietary system. Where aircraft jet engines have been adapted
items. to industrial or marine use, the jet engine used as a gas
A labyrinth seal works on the principle of a series of generator frequently has different lubrication require-
throttlings, produced by a series of teeth on the stationary ments from the power turbine and power transmission
member, the shaft, or sometimes both. The teeth break system and, therefore, usually retains its own indepen-
down the total pressure difference between the fluid on dent lubrication system.
the two sides of the seal into a series of steps to control the Engines equipped with rolling-contact bearings require
Bow through the clearance space between the tip of the less oil, and usually a different grade, than those with
tooth and the mating member. The velocity created fluid-film bearings. Many antifriction-bearing engines
- in the clearance by the pressure drop is a t least partially are designed to operate with synthetic lubricants. It is
*' dissipated in turbulence in the volume between adjacent important that synthetic lubricants be used only in
teeth, thereby minimizing the flow. See Chapter 2 for a engines equipped with suitable gaskets, O-rings, seals,
Fig. 28 Labyrinth bearing sealing arrangment
discussion regarding labyrinth seals. etc., as synthetic lubricants will attack and cause rapid
The clearance that can be maintained between the deterioration and failure of many common gasket and
shaft and the stationary member depends upon the ape- O-ring materirtls.
adequate quantity of clean oil of suitable viscosity, will high loadings (above 750 psi), they are not inherently cific machine configurationused, particularly the location Basically, the lubrication system consists of an oil
run almost forever. Gas turbine sleeve bearings usually self-aligning and require careful manufacture as the of the seal with respect to the bearings and the clear- reservoir, a pump or pumps (for pumping oil from the
follow normal bearing practice. I n large machines, the taper required is very slight. Consequently, for highly ance in the bearings. For small machines with small reservoirs to the bearings, gears, and control systems),
journal bearings consist of babbitted shells (frequently loaded thrust bearings, a multiple, pivoted-shoe thrust shafts and the seals located immediately adjacent to the pressure regulators (to control the supply pressure to the
with spherical, self-aligning seats) held in bearing bearing is often adopted. Since the thrust is usually bearings, a total clearance of 1.3 to 1.5 mils per inch of various components), an oil cooler or coolers (to control
housings of cast or fabricated construction. Bearing greater in one direction than the other, the more lightly shaft diameter is usually eatisfactory. For large the oil temperature), and a filter or filters (to assure clean
loadings are usually below 200 psi of projected bearing loaded side is sometimes made with fewer pads or shoes machines with a considerable distance between a bearing oil).
area. The bearing bore is frequently elliptical, and where than the loaded side. and the seal, a radial clearance of 2 mils per foot of shaft A typical lube oil system suitable for large units is
very lightly loaded it may incorporate special pressure Sleeve bearings and thrust bearings require an ample span may be necessary. shown in Fig. 31. The lube oil flow is determined by the
pockets or other means to ensure stability. Since the supply of clean cool oil for both lubrication and cooling. A variety of materials can be used for labyrinth seals. quantity required to absorb the losses of the bearings,
rotor weight goes down as the cube of the scale while These bearings operate with a hydrodynamic film; and Simple bearing housing seals, as shown in Fig. 28, that plus heat pickup from the surroundings, within the
bearing area reduces only as the square, bearing loadings various factors, such as an interruption in the oil supply, are intended primarily to prevent leakage of oil out of allowable temperature rises in the bearings. The oil
are very low in small units even though L/d ratios less high oil temperatures or low oil viscosity, can result in the bearing housing, can have the stationary member required by all control devices such as governors,
than 0.4 are frequently adopted. Lightly loaded bear- bearing wear and damage or even failure (by unduly solid and be made of brass or aluminum. For seals hydraulic actuating cylinders, etc., must also be provided.
ings are subject to oil whip and other instabilities, so reducing the oil film thickness). located remote from bearings, such as in turbine dia- With large units, the pump size may be determined by the
special measures must sometimes be taken to provide Small gas turbines frequently run with light oils (SAE phragms, the stationary member is frequently segmented oil flow requirements of hydraulic cylinders used to
10 or even lighter) and rather high temperatures. The and spring-supported so as to limit the contact pressure actuate variable-angle nozzles and similar devices. The
stable, satisfactory operation. Three-lobed bearings,
floating bushes, and even pivoted-shoe journal bearings aircraftcderivative gas turbine is designed to operate in the event of contact with the shaft. At low tempera- oil pump is always sized to deliver more than the cal-
have been employed in various units. with a synthetic oil, while the heavy industrial type of tures, these can also be made of brass, leaded bronze, or culated requirements, the excess being returned to the oil
9.4 Thrust Bearings. With antifriction bearings, turbine is usually designed for heavier oils (at least even plastic. At high temperatures, however, ferritic or tank (reservoir) by a pressure-regulating valve.
one of the ball-bearing assemblies is generally arranged turbine oil, medium). The oil temperature to the even austenitic materials with a chrome-moly steel shaft The main lube oil pumps are generally of the gear type
to take the net thrust. The net thrust is the difference bearings of industrial-derivative turbines is about 130 F are used; such a seal construction is shown in Fig. 29. and a t lejtst one is almost always driven directly by the
between
--. the com~ressorthrust and the 'turbine thrust with a 30 to 40 deg F rise through the journal and thrust It is also common practice to put the teeth on the shaft, main gas turbine shaft to ensure that the pump is driven
in the case of &s producers, or the turbine thrust bearings. as shown in Fig. 30, to minimize the heating and resulting as long as the turbine shaft rotates. Shaft-driven centrif-
plus or minus any gear or coupling thrust in the case of 9.5 Shaft Seals. Shaft seals serve the purpose of bowing of the shaft in the event of contact. ugal pumps have also been used for the main lube oil
power turbines. With oil-film bearings, a separate preventing or controlling fluid leakage along a shaft A third type, which involves a combination of the two pump, and,,centrifugal pumps, usually driven by electric
thrust e i n g is usually provided for each rotor. where it passes through a wall or diaphragm that principles, is the carbon ring seal. In this case a carbon motors, are frequently used for auxiliary pumps where
This bearing normally comprises a thrust collar firmly separates regions a t two different pressure levels or or graphite ring, which can be either solid or segmented the capacity required warrants it. I n the smaller sizes,
attached to the shaft with thrust washers or thrust contains two different fluids. Shaft seals are used whero and held together by a garter spring, is bored to have a motor-driven gear or vane-type pumps are used for the
plates on either side. For lightly loaded thrust bearings, shafts enter a bearing housing, where they enter e close clearance to the shaft, so as to control the leakage auxiliary or emergency supply.
these can be simple babbitted flat plates with radial compressor or turbine casing, and between individual by laminar flow through the clearance space. The ring Sleeve bearing units should always have a supply of
grooves for oil distribution and flow. However, it is stages of a compressor or turbine. h a t s on the shaft and is free to turn in a groove in the oil to the bearings before the unit is started, and some
preferred practice to use tapered-land thrust shoes in Shaft seals can be divided into two general classss: housing, but the pressure difference holds it against one designs also require control oil pressure before starting.
which each land has a slight circumferential taper. contact seals and labyrinth seals. Contact seals usually aide of the groove and seals off leakage by that path. This is the purpose of the auxiliary pump, which is
While tapered-land thrust bearings can carry very consist of a carbon or graphite ring with a flat face that L This type of seal is shown in Fig. 10. It is quite a usually under control of a pressure switch so that it runs
11 111 242
MARINE ENGlNEERING
is owrated for a period of time to circulate oil to the TO HYDRAULIC
GAS TURBINES
/ Y CONTROL
bearings in order 6 remove the heat that flows into them
STATOR PART from the This
turbine. hot keeps
parts, the
particularly
babbitt in the wheels ofbelow
the bearings the
250 F and prevents the damage that would otherwise
OPTIONAL RECYCUNQ
result from -exposure
- to higher temperatures while the OF LUBE OIL
machine cools down. r - - - - - - -)------ 3
Antifriction bearing machines generally .do not require
pre- or post-lubrication for the protection of the bearings,
since rolling-contact bearings adjacent to hot parts of
the machine are usually stabilized a t temperatures of
350 F to 450 F. However, lube oil deteriorates at the
temperatures which are frequently reached after shut-
down. Therefore, in some cases, posblubrication after
shutdown is used to remove the heat and keep the bear-
Fig. 29 Typical high-IW labyrinlh seal with atathary to& ing area cool to prevent varnishing and carbonizing of
the oil.
The heat generated in the bearings and gear meshes,
PC
plus the heat flowing in from the hot parts of the machine
MAIN L.O. PUMPS
whenever the control system is energized and no main and absorbed by the oil, must be removed by the oil TO USED
pump pressure is available. The auxiliary pump will cooler. The latter source can amount to f i of the total L.O. TANK
also start on loss of oil pressure while the unit is operating heat absorption. For certain installations oil coolers are
and thereby furnish lubrication until the unit can be shut direct oil-to-air radiators, but for marine installations
LEGEND
down. Large units are also usually equipped with an water-cooled heat exchangers are the logical choice. NOTES:
I. OIL FLOWS AND TANK CAPACITY TO BE SPECIFIED. PC -PURCHASER'S CONNECTION
additional emergency pump that is supplied from a The heat exchanger must be capable of rejecting all the
heat absorbed by the oil and provide a proper oil-cooler
SCAYENGlNQ 2.01L FLOW TO THRUST BEARING AND MAIN REDUCTION ---
- -SUPPLLED BT PURCHASER
reliable, separate power source. This will supply PUMP GEAR SHALL BE SPECIFIED FOR EACH APPLICATION. -SUPPUED WITH GAS TURBINE
sufficientlubrication for the bearings to bring the unit to discharge temperature (usually 130 F). These heat 00 -MOTOR DRIVEN PUMP
rest in the event of failure of the main and auxiliary lube exchangers are generally of the shell-and-tube type with @ -ACCESSORY @EAR DRIVEN PUMP
oil supply. The unit is shut down on loss of bearing the tubes readily accessible for cleaning. Frequently,
header pressure, and the emergency pump is started to the oil coolers are in duplicate, with quick change-over fig. 31 Typical lube-oil system for gas turbine propulsion unit
protect the unit from damage. Sometimes the auxiliary valves, so that the machine can operate with either
oil pump, or a supplementary small "cool down" pump, cooler whiie the other is being cleaned.
Oil filters are almost always installed, since it is pressure for lubrication. The control circuit is usually
generally considered good practice to do so. The filter arranged to have top priority on the oil supply, since
must have adequate capacity for the full oil flow within operation of the controls is vital to the operation of the
the manufacturer's pressure drop limitations. Fre- unit, and the lubrication supply can be reduced or even
quently dual filters are installed with quick transfer cut off for the fraction of a second it takes the controls
(four-way) valves so that one filter can be cleaned while to operate.
the other is in service. The filtration system should be The oil reservoir, or lube oil tank, is usually located
chosen with consideration for the minimum clearances below the unit although with positively scavenged
in the machine. On large machines which may not (drained) systems it can be located anywhere. With
require very fine (below 10 micron) filtration for the jet engines it is frequently fastened to the side of the
bearing oil, an additional finer filter (down to 2 microns) compressor casing. With gravity drain systems, it
may be added in the circuit to the governor and other must be located a sufficient distance below the bearings
hydraulic devices to protect their very close clearances to allow apsitive slope of a t least in. per foot to the
and fine finishes. drain lines under all conditions of pitch and roll. On
Filter by-passes, particularly internal by-passes, are small, compact units this is not difficult to achieve; but
not recommended even on full-flow filters. When the on large multishaft, multicasing units more than one tank
filter is plugged with dirt and the by-pass opens, large may be required to provide adequate drainage without
quantities of contaminants may go through the by-pass exceeding a reasonable suction lift on the shaft-driven
and into the bearing system. I t is preferable to monitor oil pumps, which are generally mounted on or close to the
the pressure drop across the filter and provide dual unit.
filters if it is necessary to assure continuous operation The capacity of the tank is usually basedon the main
under all conditions. lube oil pump flow. Where possible, a capacity of four
Pressure regulators are usually simple spring-loaded times the oil pump capacity in gpm should be used. Thii
relief valves as close regulation of the pressure level is gives what is known as a four-minute supply; i.e., in the
not important. Some systems use two pressure levels, event of failure of the drain system, the tank will
one for the control functions and the other a t a lower provide a four-minute supply of lubricant. Smaller
244 MARINE EN GAS TURBINES 245
units, particularly those mounted in a package, such as Power Plants, " SNAME Philadelphia Section, March 23 B. Wichstrom and H. Ohauist, "Startine and 31 J. C. Dunavant, J. C. Emery, H. C. Walch,
shipboard generating sets, may have smaller tanks. 1964. Control of a Large Gas ~urbihe,"'ASME Paper and W. R. Westphal, "High Speed Cascade Tests of the
Due to space limitations, these may be as small as a 5 R. G. Mills, "The Combined Steam Turbine-Gas 64-GTP-7. NACA 65-(12Alo) 10 and NACA 65-(12AsIs) 10
two-minute supply or less. Adequate deaeration of the Turbine Plant for Marine Use," ASME Paper 55-A-154. 24 A. I?. McLean, "Control Design and Develop- Compressor Blade Sections," NACA RM L55108, 1955.
oil is diacult in tanks this small, although the carry-over 6 G. C. Swensson and E. P. Winert, "Laboratory ment for the Ford 704-705 Series Gas Turbine Engines," 32 J. C. Emery and J. C. Dunavant, "Two Dimen-
of mist out the vent can be minimized by properly locatr Test Experience with a Combined Steam Turbine and ASME Paper 64 WA/GTP-5. sional Cascade Tests of NACA ~ ~ : ( C I O A ~10O Blade
)
ing baffling, by locating the oil drains and the tank vent Gas Turbine Unit," SNAME New England Section, 25 D. A. O'Neil, "Governing Gas Turbine Engines Sections a t Typical Compressor Hub Conditions for
connection as far apart as possible, and by providing a March 1963. for Marine Propulsion-Power vs Speed Governing," Speeds up to Choking," NACA RM L57H05, 1957.
deaeration tray. Pressurized outer shaft seals, in which 7 J. L. Mangan and R. C. Petitt, "A Highly Efficient ASME Paper No. 69-GT-54. 33 S. Lieblein, F. C. Schwenk, and R. L. Broderick,
compressor bleed air is introduced between two seal Steam Turbine-Gas Turbine Cycle," Presented a t the 26 W. B. Brown and G. R. Bradshaw, "Design and "Diffusion Factor for Estimating Losses and Limiting
sections and flows through one side into the bearing ASME Aviation and Space, Hydraulic and Gas Turbine Performance of a Family of Diffusing Scrolls with Mixed Blade Loadings in Axial-Flow Compressor Blade
housing (to prevent oil leakage along the shaft), introduce Conference and Products Show, March 1963. Flow Impeller and Vaneless Diffuser," NACA Report Elements," NACA RM E53D01, June 1953.
Ann .,,.I\
extra air into the oil and make satisfactory deaeration 8 A. 0. White, "The Combined Gas Turbine-Steam YJO-lY4Y.
34 P. N. Bright, "Structml Design Problems in Gas
more difficult. Turbine Cycle with Supercharged Boiler and Its Fuels," 27 S. 5. Manson, "The Determination of Elastic Turbine Engines, " ASME Paper 54-A-152.
The tank should be provided with a bottom that ASME Paper 57-A-264. Stresses in Gas Turbine Disks," NACA TN 1279, 1947.
28 M. B. Millenson and S. S. Manson, "Determina- 35 R. W. Nolan, 'Tibration of Marine Turbine
slopes both ways to a drain connection. The tank 9 W. P. Gorzegns and R. J. Zoschak, "The Super- Blading," Trans. SNAME, vol. 57, 1949.
should have a removable cover or access door of sufficient charged Steam Generator. Some Aspects of Design and tion of Stresses in Gas Turbine Disks Subject to Plastic
size to enable every part of the tank to be reached for Pressure Level Selection,"ASME Paper 66-GT/CMC-68. Flow and Creep, " NACA TN 1636, 1948. 36 F. Kreith and J. H. Taylor, Jr., "Heat Transfer
cleaning. An oil level gage and/or sight glass should 10 "Installation Design Criteria for Gas Turbine 29 L. J. Herric, J. C. Emery, and J. R. Erwin, from a Rotating Disk in Turbulent Flow," ASME Paper
also be provided aloqg with a low-level and sometimes a Applications in Naval Vessels," Navships Technical "Systematic Two-Dimensional Cascade Test of NACA 65-A-146.
high-level alarm. Manual 0941-038-7010. &Series Compressor Blades a t Lol!~ Speeds," NACA 37 A. M. Wahl, "Stress Distributions in Rotating
Supply and drain piping is preferably made of seamless 11 D. B. Harper and W. H. Rohsenow, "Effect of TN 3916, 1957. Disks Subjected to Creep Including Effects of Variable
tubing. Stainless steel tubing is frequently used in the Rotary Regenerator Performance on Gas Turbine Plant 30 J. C. Emery, "Low Cascade Investigation of Thin Thickness and Temperature," ASME Paper 56-A-162.
smaller sizes. AN-type flexible hose connections are also Performance," ASME Paper 62-A-149. Low Camber NACA 65-Series Blade Sections At High 38 H. F. Smith, "Gas Turbine Propulsion of LNG
suitable in the smaller sizes (below about 1.5 in.). In 12 A. T. Bowden and H. Hryniszak, "The Rotary Inlet Angles," NACA RM L57E03, 1957. Tankers,'' ASME Paper No. 69-GT-47.
large units, it is good practice to run the pressure feed Regenerative Air Preheater for Gas Turbines," ASME
lines inside the drain lines as far as possible. The drain Paper 52-A-74.
line then acts as a guard line in the event of a leak or 13 I. Howitt and R. P. Thurner, "Gas Turbine,
failure of the feed line, which otherwise could spray oil Extended Surface, Heat Exchanger; Modern Design and f
onto hot parts of the machine and cause a fire. Performance," ASME Paper 64-GTP-18.
In order to avoid fire hazards, the number of pipe 14 R. F. Caughill, "Design Considerations and
Operating Experience of Regenerators for Industrial Gas
f
joints should also be minimized. Where joints are
necessary, welded fianged connections are preferred, Turbines, ASME Paper 61-GTP-12.
with an SAE four-bolt split fiange connection being the 15 R. P. Allen and E. A. Butler, "An Axial Flow
second choice. Compression-type fittings are satis- Reversing Gas Turbine for Marine Propulsion," ASME
factory with the smaller stainless steel lines. Flexible Paper 66 GT/M-21.
lines usually are provided with standard AN-type fittings. 16 D. L. Caldera, C. E. Hoch, and G. C. Swensson,
Threaded pipe joints, and particularly pipe nipples, "Gas Turbine Propulsion Machinery for the MSTS
should be used only where unavoidable; and then extra- Roll-On/Roll-Off Ship," SNAME New York Metro-
heavy or double extraheavy-schedule pipe should be politan Section, April 1967.
used to ensure adequate wall thickness under the threads 17 C. Zeien, H. F. Smith, and F. W. Hirst, "The Gas
to avoid fatigue failures from originating in the threads. Turbine Ship Callaghan's First Two Years of Operation, "
Pipe sizes, both feed and drain, should be sized for low Trans. SNAME, V O ~ .77, 1969.
velocities a t full flow. A velocity of not more than 6 fps 18 W. S. Richardson, "The Friction Clutch Reverse-
in feed lines and 2 fps in drain lines will keep system Reduction Gears In the GTS," ASME Paper No.
pressure drops to reasonable values and provide free and 69-GT-5.
complete drainage from bearings and gear housings. 19 P. K. Wennburg, "The Design of the Main
Poor drainage can give trouble with oil leakage along Propulsion Machinery Plant Installed in the USCGC
shafts and extra losses and heating in gear systems. Hamilton (WPG-715)," Trans. SNAME, vol. 74, 1966.
20 K. H. Kurzak and H. Reuhr, "Propulsion
References Machinery of the Koeln Class Escort Frigates with
1 W. A. Brockett, G. L. Graves, Jr., M. R. Haus- Special Consideration of Gas Turbine Propulsion,"
childt, and J. W. Sawyer, "U. S. Navy's Marine Gas ASME Paper 65-GTP-11.
Turbines, " ASME Paper 66-GT/M-28. 21 L. A. Gunsteren, "Hydrodynamics of Controllable
2 R. C. Case, "Marine Gas Turbine Growth in the Pitch Propellers," SNAME New York Metropolitan
U. S. Coast Guard, * ASME Paper 66GT/M-36. Section, March 1970.
3 E. B. Good, "Gas Turbine Installation Design for 22 M. J. T. Smith and M. E. House, "Internally
Naval Ships," ASME Paper 66-GT/M-34. Generated Noise from Gas Turbine Engines," ASME
I 4 G. M. Boatwright and E. P. Winert, "Combined Paper 66 GT/N43.
MEDIUM AND HIGH-SPEED DIESEL ENGINES 247
I
The "torque" of the output shaft in units of lb-ft can
Laskar Wechsler
Medium and .High-Speed Diesel be computed from the expression
It can be seen that four strokes of the piston were
required for the cycle. The two-stroke cycle is dominant
bhp for large bore engines; in fact, there are no four-stroke
Enkines T = 5252 -
N
-.
(3) engines on the market with a bore exceeding 21 inches.
elo ow this bore size, each cycle has its advocates. The
For a given engine, torque and BMEP are directly two-stroke engine, by virtue of the greater number of
proportional; i.e., power strokes per revolution, can develop equal output
- -
FUEL
EXHAUST
VALVES VE
CONNECTING
of engine forms may be found in the literature [2, 3, 41. common to use a single-stage supercharger with an air the air dirytly into some or all of the engine cylinders
equilateral triangle.
Another feature of diesel engine design which serves to cooler (called an aftercooler) between the compressor through a specially provided air starting valve. These
It should be recognized that the diesel engine need not discharge and the engine intake manifold. The two- valves are controlled by a distributing valve which times
be of the reciprocating type. Various attempts have differentiate between engines is the means of supplying
combustion air to the cylinders. The alternatives are stroke-cycle engine has a lower exhaust gas temperature their opening to occur just after top dead center on the
been made, and are continuing, to develop a rotary type and less energy in the exhaust gas entering the super- power stroke, and they are designed to close automati-
of diesel engine; however, none have reached the stage naturally aspirated, scavenged,and supercharged engines.
With naturally aspirated engines, air is drawn into the charger turbine. At part load, there may not be cally when the engine fires. Direct cylinder starting is
of commercial production. I n these machines, a rotor
cylinder as the piston moves from top to bottom dead enough energy in the gases to drive the supercharger at rarely applied to engines with a bore less than six inches,
is substituted for the piston, and the cylinder becomes a the speed required to furnish the engine with sufficient and many engines up to nine-inch bore are started by the
chamber of other than cylindrical shape. One such center. The pressure in the cylinder at the start of the
type of engine is described in reference [I.].' The de- compression stroke is below atmospheric, due to the air for proper combustion of the fuel. In such a case, it use of starting motors. Hydraulically started engines
scription and definitions given in the foregoing must of pressure drop through the intake passages and valves. is necessary to either provide a first-stage blower all use starting motors. Electrically started engines use
A scavenged engine is the two-stroke counterpart of geared to the engine [5] or to gear-drive the turbo- starting motors, although starting windings may be
necessity be modified to make them applicable to engines
the naturally aspirated four-stroke-cycle engine although charger from the engine crankshaft through an over- incorporated in the directly driven power generators
the cylinder pressure at the start of compression may be running clutch [6]. These arrangements are also for this purpose.
somewhat greater in this type of two-stroke engine. beneficial in that rapid acceleration under smokeless Engines may be either unidirectional in rotation or
Numbers in brackets deaignste Referehces at end of chapter.
MEDIUM AND HIGH-SPEED DIESEL ENGINES 25 1
250 MARINE EN(
applications such as municipal power plants, mobile system. Details of lubricating oil systems are covered The ciose confines of many marine engine rooms gake
direct reversing. A unidirectional engine, as its title in a later section.
implies, can turn in only one direction; and if it drives an emergency power sources, gas line compressor stations, it especially important to protect personnel from
and pumping units. The truck and bus field contributes While it might seem that the air intake to a marine injury due to contact with hot or moving parts. Partic.
output shaft which must be capable of rotation in either engine would be dustfree and dirtfree, this may not be
direction, the engine must be connected to the shaft the high-speed engines in the range of 300-400 hp. For ular attenti~nshould be paid to adequate shielding for
intermittent use, maximum speed of these engines will the case when operating in harbors, inland waters, or these hazards. It is also extremely important to prevent
through a reversing device. Direct reversing engines close offshore. In these cases, it can be just as important
can rui in either direction and most of them can deliver approximate 3000 rpm; for continuous service, speeds of fires in machinery spaces; to that end, care must be taken
1800' rprn are common. The off-highway equipment to provide a good air cleaner as in any automotive or to insure that fuel and lubricating oil cannot be sprayed
full power in either diction. If it is necessary that full stationary installation.
power be available in either direction of rotation, engines are in the power range from 500 to upwards of against hot engine surfaces.
pro&uement specifications must so state to insure that 1200 hp.and speeds in the 1200-1800 rprn range. Diesel
the engine selected does have this capability. To change locomotive engines are available in units from 6 to 20
the direction of rotation, it is necessary to bring the engine cylinders and ratings up to 4000 hp at speeds from 850
to a complete stop and then &art it in the opposite to 1100 rpm. Another group of engines coming from the
direction. The details of the reversing process will vary stationary field includes units in the speed range from Section 2
from one engine to another; however, the process is 300 to 514 rprn and powers up to 7500 hp. A compre- tharacteris?ics of Diesel ~ n ~ i n e s
automatic and basically consists of cutting off the fuel to hensive description of a 400-rpm engine rated at 1000 hp
per cylinder with a range of cylinders from 6 to 18 is 2.1 Performance Characteristics. The engine per- specid torque characteristics. However, when a diesel
the cylinders by moving the throttle lever to the stop formance characteristics which are of interest when se-
position, changing the timing of the fuel injection pumps given in reference [7]. is used to drive $winch or a positive-displacement pump,
Some of the engines just mentioned were designed with lecting an engine for a particular application are torque, there may be an advantage in having an engine which is
if necessary, changing the timing of the exhaust and
horsepower, fuel consumption, and q eed. The torque designed to develop high torques at low speeds. Such
intake valves if used, repositioning the blower reversing
- valve on two-stroke-cycle engines having geared,
marine applications in mind, others require some degree
of modification for installation aboard ship. These P
output of a particular engine is control ed by the quantity
of fuel injected into the cylinder each cycle; in fact, the
an engine is referred to as one with "lugging capacity."
At a constant throttle (or fuel rack) setting, the
' positive-displacement, rotary-type scavenging blowers, rnodications are usually in the external hardware of the
and reversing the rotation of the starting device. When engine and do not involve changes to the internal torque varies almost directly with the quantity of fuel engine power is, for all practical purposes, a linear
the starter is energized, the engine should then start and working parts, which have undergone extensive develop- injected per cycle. The maximum torque that an function of engine spqed. As indicated previously, the
run in the opposite direction. ment. The changes, where necessary, are those needed engine can develop at any speed is usually limited by the power at any speed is usually limited by factors other
Engines are referred to as being high, medium, or low to suit the engine to the marine environment, meaning exhaust smoke condition comidered acceptable, high than the amount of fuel which can be injected or burned
apeed. There is no clear line of demarkation between salt-laden air, high humidity, use of corrosive seawater stress, or high temperature rather than by the engine's in the cylinder. The manner in which the engine power
s
the classifications, but in general, "theycan be categorized for cooling, and operating from a nonhorizontal platform ability to pull more load. The maximum power that is limited by the variods parameters is shown in Fig. 4.
aa shown in Table 1. There is no unanimity among which is in constant motion (i.e., pitching or rolling at all the engine can develop a t any speed is simply the
times). I n many cases, it also means an installation product of the maximum torque, the speed, and a
constant. It is important to know the engine's
t
Table 1 Engine Speed Classifications
Piston apeed, fpm Shaft speed, rprn
made in confined spaces. I n order to adapt to this
environment, the prime requisite of the marine diesel
engine is the ability to resist corrosion. Nonferrous
i characteristics and how they are related to the conditions
under which the engine is to be used in order to insure a
NORMAL ENGINE 100%FULL THROTTLE
NORMAL ENGINE 80%FULL THROTTLE
-
---
.
Low apeed.. ....... . 1000-1M)O 100414 alloys are used in many places in a marine engine for successful application. HIGH TORQUE ENGINE IOOXFULL THROTTLE -- -
Medium speed. . . . .. . 1200-1800 700-1200 corrosion protection where ferrous metals are used in The diegel is generally referred to as a constant-torque
High speed.. . . ..... . 18003000 1800-4000 nonmarine installations. To this end, aluminum parts machine, ltnd it certainly is when compared to steam
which are exposed to the atmosphere and are not or gas turbines which have stall torque ratios in the order
engine people as to the significance of engine speed. A normally coated with lubricating oil should be given an of 3: 1. The stall torque ratio is the ratio of the torque
welldesigned high-speed engine which is not overloaded anodic treatment and then painted. All exposed ferrous at stall speed (i.k., zero for steam turbines) to that a t
can give equally good service as a slow-speed engine. metal parts should be painted. Care must be taken to rated speed. The torque of a diesel running a t a con-
Slow-speed engines are of larger size than high-speed insure that only compatible metals are used in the water stant throttle setting will normally rise to about 110
engines, but wear rates are comparable; hence it takes system. If two metals which are far apart in the percent of full-load torque in the range of 55 to 70 percent
longer for a slow-speed engine to wear parts to the same electromotive series, such as aluminum and steel, must * of full-speed rprn and then drop aa the speed is further
percentage of their original dimension. A balance must be used contiguously, they must be insulated from each I
reduced, as shown by Fig. 3. If the throttle setting is
be struck between the use of a smaller, lighter, and other. The velocity of seawater through the piping i reduced such that the'quantity of fuel injected per cycle
generally leas expensive high-speed engine and a larger,
heavier, slow-speed engine which usually costs more
system must be lower than that used in freshwater
systems to prevent excessive erosion.
j is reduced, the engine torque is correspondingly reduced.
Typical curves illustrating this trend are also shown on
initially but has lower fuel, operating, and maintenance Marine engines may be installed with their crank- Fig. 3.
costs. shafts at an angle to the horizontal. For this reason, It is possible to modify the torque characteristics of a
1.4 Special Requirements of Marine Diesel Engines. and because they are subjected to more motion than in diesel by changitlg the fuel injection versus speed
The number of medium and high-speed diesel engines many other applications, changes are necessary in the chaxactei.istics so as to increase the quantity of fuel
used in marine applications is relatively small compared lubricating oil system. Where there is room under the injected per cycle as the speed is reduced, whiie at the
to the total number of such engines produced, and for engine, the simplest solution is to use a deep oil pan. same time using a turbochaxger which has been matched
this reason it is economically unattractive to produce This has two beneficial effects: first the oil sump capacity to the engine for optimum efficiency at the speed for
these engines for the marine industry alone. The can be increased, permitting longer oil change periods; which the high torque is desired [8,9]. I n this manner,
medium and high-speed marine engine of today is, and secondly, the oil level can be maintained low enough a peak torque as high as 140 percent of full-load torque
therefore, almost universally an adaptation of engines such that the connecting rods will not dip into the oil, of the normal engine can be obtained at speeds as low as
60 percent of full speed as indicated by Fig. 3. For 0 20 40 60 80 100
which are built in quantities for service in automotive thus preventing oil from leaking past the crankshaft end
normal marine drives such as propulsion, generator sets, RPM, % RATED'
applications such as trucks, buses, off-highway earth- seals. Where there is insufficient space for a deep oil
moving equipment and locomotives, and stationary pan, it is necessary to use a shallow pan and a dry sump or centrifugaJ pumps, there is no need for an engine with Flg. 3 bigin. twque ckarackrMio
252 MARINE ENGINEERING MEDIUM AND HIGH.-SPEED DIESEL ENGINES '" 253
,
TURBOCHARGER I
SURGE OR SMOKE
LIMITED f Lli"ED~
map to look as different as Fig. 8 when variable fuel
and valve timing features are incorporated in the engine
design [14]. Engine manufacturers will generally pub-
lish some of these curves in their sales literature. Specific
information must be obtained for each specific applic*
tion; however, Fig. 9 may be used for estimating the
part-load specific fuel consumption corresponding to a
propeller load curve if specific engine data are lacking.
The specific fuel consumption a t full power will vary
from 0.34 lb/hp-hr for we/l-designed medium-speed
engines to 0.42 lb/hp-hr for high-speed engines operated
near their maximum ratings. Knowing the intended BRAKE HORSEPOWER. % RATED
application and the type of engine to be used, an
Fig. 5 Fuel consumption versus horsepower
approximate full-power fuel consumption can be selected
from this range.
Fig. 4 Engine power limitations
A diesel engine has a definite limitation regarding the
lowest speed at which it can be operated. This limit*
tion can be influenced to some degree by an appropriate
design of the engine or its installation. In general, the
idling speed of a diesel engine is about 30 percent of rated
speed. High-speed, low-horsepower engines may idle
a t speeds up to 50 percent, while larger, heavier engines
may idle below 25 percent of rated speed. Limitations
on the idling speed are associated with the fuel injection
equipment, combustion, and the inertia characteristics
of the engine and driven machinery. Low-power, high-
speed engines require small quantities of fuel to be
injected each cycle a t full load; therefore, a t part load
it becomes extremely difficult to accurately meter the
smaller quantities of fuel required. I n addition, the
temperature of the compressed air in the cylinder is less BRAKE HORSEPQWER. % RATED
at low speed than it is a t high speed; consequently,
0 1 II I I I combustion can become erratic. I n larger engines, the
Fig. 6 "Fishhook" curves, specific fuel consumption versus broke horsepower
20 40 60 80 100 120 problem of injecting small quantities of fuel is not as
ENGINE RPM,% RATED
severe, and it can be further reducd by the use of multi-
ple pumps or multiple injection nozzles for each cylinder,
or fuel pumps incorporating two plungers of different
varies almost linearlv with e h ~ h load.
e but this relation- sizes. Excessively large variations in idling speed may
The curves in each case are drawn against a background be eliminated by increasing the she of the flywheel.
of constant torque (or BMEP) lines. Data for each ship becomes nonlinear a t hig%er lo&' as shown by Fig.
5. The variation of specific fuel consumption with Most medium and high-speed diesels are provided
curve are developed by regulating the amount of fuel with attached lubricating oil and cooling water pumps
injected per cycle to maintain the parameter constant. speed and load is more commonljr presented in the forms
of Figs. 6 cr 7. The curves shown in Fig. 6 are commonly driven from the engine crankshaft by gears or belts.
Not all engines are designed to withstand the same These pumps are normally sized to provide the quantities
cylinder pressures, exhaust temperatures, or maximum called fishhook curves and show the variation of specific
fuel consumption with horsepower for various constant and pressures of the work* fluid to meet full-speed and
speeds, and not a11 are smokefree to the same degree.
engine speeds. This type of ,curve is of interest for load requirements as well' as those a t low speed. If
The maximum horsepower is shown by the solid line, and unusually low operating speeds are necessary for a given
each curve segment is labelled to show the factor which constant-speed applications, such as driving ships
service generator sets. The presentation in Fig. 5 is application, the normal pumps may not provide adequate
limits the power. The shape of the maximum horse- lubrication or cooling. In these cases, the engine
power curve is generally applicable to all engines; how- of value in estimating fuel consumption of an engine
over a range of conditions when actual data are available manufacturer must be alerted so that either larger
ever, the limiting factor in each portion of the speed pumps, special gear ratios in the pump drive, booster
range may vary from one engine to another [lo-131. for a few points. Figure 5 is also useful during trials
for estimating engine horsepower from measured values pumps, or separately driven pumps can be provided.
Additional factors which could limit the power output I n addition to the problem of idling speed, some
over parts of the speed range include the temperature of of fuel consumption and engine rpm. The method of
consideration must be given to the question of prolonged
parts (i.e., pistons, cylinders, heads, or valves), bearing
loads, deterioration of lubricating oil, or turbocharger
rpm.
presentation shown in Fig. 7 is particularly useful in the
analysis of engines for propulsioh use, as it is possible
to superimpose the required power versus speed curves
operation a t light load. As shown in Fig. 4, there is a
minimum load below which combustion becomes un- e
I PROPELLER LOADCURVE I
on these fuel consumption curves to determine if the satisfactory. I n this region, unburned or partially 0
20 40 60 80
I I
The fuel consumption of a diesel engine may be burned fuel will remain in the cylinder and wash lubri- 100 120
illustrated in several ways; the most useful depends engine size and characteristics are properly matched to ENGINE RPM. % RATED
the load. The curves of Fig. 7 are typical of normal crating oil from the cylinder wall and find its way into the
upon the intended application and the preference of the crankcw, diluting the lubricating oil. Both of these
user. At a constant speed, the total fuel consumption engine design; however, it is possible for the performanae 60.7 'Typlcol apeciflc fuel conrumption mop "
254 MARINE ENGINEERING MEDIUM AND HIGH-SPEED DIESEL ENGINES
0 110
I
E
2 I00 I
1.
I
I
MAXIMUM I
sion ratios than other engines and, in spite of the greater operating conditions; namely, maximum, intermittent,
actions tend to increase the wear of engine parts. The and continuous [15]. The limiting horsepower lines
partially burned fuel results in increased quantities of loss of heat during the compression stroke, they will
start, at lower temperatures than their larger slower- from Fig. 4 are included in Fig. 10 for comparative
carbon and lubricating oil in the engine exhaust passages, purposes. The maximum horsepower is useable only
particularly so in two-stroke-cycle engines. Operation speed counterparts, without the use of starting aids. rating the engine. The continuous-duty rating curve is
The ability of engines to start when cold varies widely; for special applications where high power is required far usually 70 to 75 percent of the maximum horsepower,
at elevated loads e l l remove the exhaust system deposits short durations. This maximum horsepower serves as a
by burning and cause visible smoke in the exhaust for a some are able to start a t temperatures as low as zero F, and the rated speed is limited to approximately 90 percent
short period of time after the load is increased. Here while otbers may have difficulty at 50 P. If cold starting baseline for selecting a rating suitable for a particular of the maximum. The precise reduction from the maxi-
may be required in service, procurement specifications application and is determined by tests on a dynamometer mum rating varies from one application and manufac-
again, the engine 'manufacturer is in a position to mini- in the manufacturer's plant under rather ideal conditions.
mize the adverse effects of light-load operation if he is should make this fact known to the manufacturer. turer to another; however, the figures stated are
The acceleration characteristics of a diesel are deter- I n actual service, less ideal conditions prevail; operators representative.
forewarned that the condition may exist. may be unskilled, loads may be unexpectedly high or
A diesel engine is normally extremely easy to start. mined by the difference between the torque available The manufacturer's rating curves present the engine
and the torque load on the engine at any speed. If the suddenly applied, or extreme operating temperatures performance at standard conditions of atmospheric
Engine controls are arranged to properly sequence all may be encountered, any of which can shorten engine
operations so that starting is simple, reliable, rapid, and engine is operating near its maximum torque at a given presaure and temperature, with a simple exhaust system,
speed, it will accelerate very slowly should an increase in overhaul periods, increase wear and cause unexpected and with a minimum of accessories. Manufacturers of
automatic. Full load can be accepted immediately; failures. To insure satisfactory service performance,
however, if there is no urgency, it is preferable to allow speed be demanded. Or, in the case of a generator set, medium and slow-speed engines generally do not furnish
if the operating load is n e p the maximum, an increase the engine is usually rated a t a performance level less than three curves as in Fig. 10,and it is necessary to determine
the engine to reach operating temperatures before
in load may cause a drop in speed and a sluggish return the maximum. For intermittent duty, such as may be the operating conditions applicable to the quoted rating
subjecting it to full load. At ambient temperatures expected in a pleasure boat gr for stand-by service, the
normally encountered in enclosed engine rooms, engines to the desired speed notwithstanding attempts of the or rating curve. I n applying these curves or ratinge in
governor to effect an early correction. Turbocharged engine is usually rated at approximately 85 to 90 percent the process of selection of an engine, it is necessary to
can usually be started without startiqg aids. However,
engines may be sluggish in response to load changes if of the maximum horsepower with the speed rated at the make corrections for atmospheric conditions if the in-
if it is necessary to start the engine in an unheated engine
room in the winter, provision should be made for the the turbocharger rotor inertia is excessive. If fast maximum value. For continuous duty where the engine tended installation will impose conditions on the engine
acceleration is a requirement of the application, again the will operate for long periods with little downtime or where which differ from the manufacturer's standard. It is
installation of a starting aid such as the injection of ether the load on the engine is a high percentage of the rated
into the intake air. Small high-speed engines of the engine manufacturer should be so advised. He may be also necessary to reduce the rating by the power required
able to supply engines with multiple low-inertia-turbo- load at all times (such as for ships' service generators or to drive contemplated accessories which were not
automotive type are usually built with higher compres- workboat propulsion), more conservatism is exercised in included during the standard dynamometer tests. These
MARINE ENGINEERING MEDIUM AND HIGH-SPEED DIESEL ENGINES
misunderstandings, it is necessary that ship specifications maintenance usually coincides with the envelope of the example, Fig. 11 illustrates the flexibility of the diesel normal power supply, and after a builtrin time delay,
and engine procurement documents specify both the engine. Parts of high-speed engines are relatively small
standard conditions under which the engine is to be and light in weight; this facilitates handling and mini-
power plant in adapting to specific space requirements. assume the electrical load on the emergency bus. For I
I n this figure, an engine with a rating of 5000 bhp irs used many years, Navy specifications have required that
rated and the method by which test data are to be mizes the need for extensive rigging for art removal.
\
MARINE ENGINEERING MEDIUM AND HIGH-SPEED DIESEL ENGINES
I
I V-16 ENGINE
( 5 0 0 0 BHP AT 514 RPM)
HEIGHT 10'
REFERRED CURVE
2 V - 8 ENGINES
(EACH 2 5 0 0 BHP AT 514 RPM)
HEIGHT 9.5'
IT (0)
.2V-16 ENGINES 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
(EACH 2500,BHP ENGINE OR PROPELLER RPM.% RATED
HEIGHT 7.7
Fig. 12 Matching engine to l i p characteristicswing power cunes
tained regarding the time duration of operations a t each the performance of one of two installed engines operating
condition. An assessment should also be made of alone is to be evaluated, it is necessary to redraw either
2 V-16 ENGINES I anticipated special operating requirements. For ex-
ample: W ill it be necessary to spend long periods of time
the engine performance curves or the speed-power curve.
Either the engine performance curves would have to be
38.5'
I UI (EACH 2 5 0 0 B H P AT 7 3 0 RPM)
H E I G H T 7.7'
with engines idling? Will long periods of slow-speed
maneuvering be required? Will the operation be pri-
drawn with ordinates one half their original magnitude
or the speed-power curve would have to be drawn with
marily point to point with the engines a t full load and ordinates twice its original magnitude. It is simpler to
speed most of the time? Each of these questions and redraw the speed-power curve, and this is shown as
m many more can influence the design of the diesel power curve B. Now it can be seen t h ~ one t engine can be
4 V-16 ENGINES plant.
(EACH 1250 BHPAT 1 0 3 0 RPM)
declutched from the propeller shaft whenever the ship
HEIGHT 5' When the speed-power curve has been established, an speed is reduced to 62 percent of full speed (the inter-
engine can be selected which will develop the required section of curve B and the continuous-duty line). Under
horsepower a t its appropriate rating. Assuming that these conditions, the single engine would operate in the
-1 2564
.-' the ship under considerati~nis one which is expected to recommended zone, whereas two-engine operation would
operate the majority of its time a t less than full load, the be in the acceptable zone. At speeds down to about
Fig. 1 1 Compar'wn of various engine arrangements for 5000-bhp plant intermittent duty rating would be the appropriate one. 38 percent, the single engine would be acceptable,
A particular engine, or engines, is then selected whose whereas two engines would be too lightly loaded below
intermittent rating is consistent with the full-power 55Ifpercent
low-speed
speed.operation is required for substantial
requirements for the ship. The intermittent horse
emergency generator sets be capable of starting and There are many possible engine deaigns which are capable power curve for the engine, similar to Fig. 10, and the periods of time, consideration should be given to a larger
assuming full load in no more than ten seconds, and it of meeting most performance requirements, and numer- light-load lines from Fig. 4 are then superimposed on the number of engines. Using the same procedure as
has been demonstrated that this is a reasonable require ous factors must be considered such as weight, fuel speed-power curve. Preferred, acceptable, and light- previously, curve C has been drawn to represent the
ment. It is possible to parallel a diesel generator set consumption, cost, availability of competitive engines, load operating regions are then added and the resultant speed-power curve when operating on one fourth of the
electrically with generators driven by other diesels or manning requirements in terms of skill level and number, plot is illustrated by Fig. 12. Operation in the light-load installed engines. I n this case, one engine could be
other prime movers such as steam or gas turbines; and maintenance considerations such as availability of region should be avoided. The propeller load, curve A used for operations up to about 40 percent speed, two
however, the equipment supplier should be made aware repair parts, necessity for special tools, and the number, in Fig. 12, has been drawn with the power varying as the engines from about 40 to 62 percent speed, three engines
of this requirement if it is needed. type, and frequency of the maintenance required. cube of the s p e d . It can b e seen that operation down from 62 to 75 percent speed and all four engines above
Diesels are used as prime movers to power many References [17-221 discuss this subject in detail. to about 70 percent speed is within the preferred zone, that. I n addition to the improved loading condition of
different types of auxiliaries such as fire pumps, de- The first and possibly the most important considera- and from 70 to 55 percent speed is in the acceptable zone. the engines during part-load operations, benefits are
watering pumps, cargo oil pumps, compressors, and tion leading to the selection of a diesel engine is the If ap appreciable amount of time is to be spent in opera- derived from the fact that only some of the engines
winches. For engines installed high in the ship, con- definition of what it must do. I n the case of a pro- tion below 55 percent speed, where the engine load as accumulate operating hours, and the total fuel consump
ideration should be given to the use of radiator-cooled pulsion engine, this entails obtaining the speed-power dictated by the speed-power curve faIls into the undesired tion is less.
or air-cooled engines to avoid cooling water pumps which curves for d l important modes of operation such as rarige, consideration should be given to the use of two or I n c w s where the speed-power curve can vary with
would be subjected to high suction l i t requirements. fully and lightly loaded, clean and fouled bottom, more engines instead of one. Curve A represents the conditions of operation (e.g., different displacements,
3.3 Selection of Engines. The selection of engines towing and running free, and with and without power power to drive the ship with a clean bottom whether that water depth, hu\l fouling, towing), the extremes of
for shipboard use cannot be b-d on any single factor. takeoff loads. Additional information should be aster- power is produced by one engine or multiple engines. If loading should be considered when selecting the engine-
260 MARINE-ENGINEERING MEDIUM AND HIGH-SPEED DIESEL ENGINES 26 1
have a power rating less than 10 percent of that of the governing their proper selection and application have
main engine and be disengaged when the main engine is deliberately been expressed in general terms. By
used. The quick starting capability of the diesel following the methods described, unusual applications
obviates the necessity of keeping engines running at idle such as the engine requirements of planing hull boats or
just so that they will be ready when needed. hydrofoils can be handled as well as the more conven-
The characteristics of diesel engines and the principles tional ships and boats.
Section 4
Design Considmtions
4.1 Types of Fuel Used. One of the prime objectives reguirements, and they are not relevant for marine
in the development of the diesel engine has been to ap$ications. JP-5 fuel must be provided for turbine-
provide a prime mover which would be capable of burn- powered aircraft o'perated from ships at sea; therefore,
ing a wide variety of fuels. It has, however, been neces- this fuel is used by the Navy in all diesels which are .
sary to compromise on this goal in order to achieve others refueled at sea in order to simplify logistics problems.
such as reduced weight and space, increased reliability, JP-5 can be used successfully in diesels while MIL-F-
lower wear of parts, good cold starting ability, and 16884 fuel cannot be used in turbines for aircraft use.
increased safety in fuel handling and storage. Over the The increased cost of the JP-5 fuel is offset by the
years, a number of specifications for fuel oil have been advantage of having to carry only one grade of distillate
developed to insure that the customer would be able to fuel in tankers.
buy fuels meeting the requirements of various engine The relationship between engine performance and some
designs and t o give new engine designers a range of of the fuel characteristics specified in Table 3 is as follows:
standard fuels from which to select. Operators who Cetane Number. Cetane number is a measure of the
maintain a fleet of ships are particularly desirous of ignition quality of the fuel. Engine performance factors
supplying one grade of fuel for all of their engines. The influenced in part by ignition quality are: (a) cold
most significant characteristics of diesel engine fuels are starting, (b) warmup, (c) combustion roughness, (d)
listed in Table 3. The generally accepted uses for these deposits under idle and light-load operation, and (e)
0 20 40 60 80 100
fuels are: exhaust smoke density. Each of these performance
ASTM ID. A volatile distillate fuel oil for engines in factors is also affected by other fuel characteristics and
ENGINE RPM.% RATED service requiring frequent speed and load changes. The engine design parameters. The cetane number require-
Fig. 13 Matching engine to ship characterlrtiu uaing torque CUNW
flash point of this fuel should be specified as a minimum ments of an engine depend on design, size, mechanical
of 140 F for marine applications. condition, operating conditions, atmospheric tempera-
ASTM 2D. A distillate fuel oil of lower volatility for ture, and altitude. An increase in cetane number o?er
engines in industrial and heavy mobile service. Again a values actually required does not materially improve
propeller-reduction gear combination. Curves A' and shown-in Fig. 13 are not consistent with the horsepower minimum flash point of 140 F is recommended for engine performance.
A" which represent these extremes have been added to curves in Fig. 12, which were drawn as straight lines for marine service. Heating Value. This important property of a diesel
Fig. 12 to show the effect on performance. If the ship simplicity. In addition, specific fuel consumption curves ASTM 4D. A fuel oil for low and medium-speed fuel is a measure of the energy available from it. The
were designed to absorb full power under the conditions have been added. The reduction in fuel consumption at engines; however, it should not be assumed that all low heating value of fuels may be expressed in either of two
of curve A and then were required to tow a load such that low speeds which is obtained by operation with reduced and medium-speed engines will run successfully on this ways: high or gross heating value and low or net heating
the total resistance corresponded to curve A', the maxi- grade of fuel. The advice of the engine manufacturer value, the difference being the latent heat of the water in
numbers of engines may be verified from this plot. ,should be solicited before using grade ASTM 4D fuel to
mum speed permissible would be 85 percent of rated (the the exhaust gas. Heating values may be expressed in
Figure 13 can also be used to verify that the minimum insure that the particular engine model can tolerate the terms of Btu/lb or Btu/gal. Since diesel engine fuel
intersection of curve A' and the intermittent rating specific fuel consumption of the selected engine occurs at
curve); the limiting factor would be engine torque. If, wider range of fuel properties permitted by this speci- consumption is normally quoted in terms of lb/hp-hr
the ship speed and load most frequently expected. fication. and fuel is purchased on the basis of cost per gallon, Btu
on the other hand, the resistance were reduced to that It is not necessary that all engines in a multi-engine
shown by curve A", no speed increase would be possible MIL-F-16884, Marine Diesel Fuel. This Navy values on both a weight and volume basis are of interest.
without overspeeding the engine, and full engine power drive be identical, although logistics problems are specification fuel is generally similar to ASTM 2D fuel It is now customary to use the lower heating value for
could not be utilized. Under these conditions, the simplified if they are. There are cases where a con- except that a higher cetane number and flash point are calculating thermal efficiency of diesels, although in the
choice is dictated by the condition under which it is siderable amount of low-speed maneuvering is required, specified and particular attention is paid to insure that past the higher heating value was used. In either case,
most important that full power be developed. If full and, if the required speed is below that corresponding to fuels from different sources and lots will be miscible and thermal efficiency is of academic interest only. For a
power is required under both conditions, a controllable- engine idling speed, the low speed can be obtained by the that good st0rake stability is provided. comparison of the performance of different engines on
pitch propeller or a two-speed reduction gear must be use of CRP propellers, two-speed transmissions, slipping MIL-T-5624, Turbine Fuel, Aviation Grade JP-5. different fuels, fuel consumption in terms of Btu/hp-hr
used. Figure 13 shows the same conditions plotted with clutches, or the use of a small engine which is geared to This fuel is similar to ASTM 1D fuel except for its lower is most useful, although care must be taken to insure that
torque and rpm as coordinates to illustrate an alternative the propeller shaft such that it develops full power at a end point and high flash point. It has many require the heating values of the fuels are reported on the same
method which could be advantageous when most data ship speed slightly above that corresponding to the ments which are not tabulated in Table 3 inasmuch as basis. The heating value is specified in only one of the
are available in that form. The engine torque curves idling speed of the main engine. The small engine may they are needed primarily to meet aviation engine specifications listed in Table 3; this is because distillate
MEDIUM AND HIGH-SPEED DIESEL ENGINES
262 MARINE ENGINEERING
Table 3 Diesel Fuels .. .
1D
--
ASTMD 976-64T
2D 4D
Marine
Diesel
MIGF
16884
JP 5
MILT
56246:
TRANSFER
. WATER
I OIL
1 1 1
DIESEL
SERVICE
TANK IF VALVE IS USED
PUMP SEPARATOR A
Ignition quality-*tam no.. ............... 40(d 40(a) 30'" 45 I $DRAIN ALSO INSTALL
Appearance. ............................. clear and L. VLV.
PRESSURE REL.VLV.
brinht
Diatiition, 10% point F .................. STRAINER
Distillation, 90% p o w (mu). ............ 550 FILTER FINAL
W i t i p n ; end point F (max) .............
r -
P
b S ecify at B below the minimum expected ambient.
R r comparison not a apeyification d u e .
d) For test methods, see specification referenced.
spray pattern, and a t a specified time stop delivery
abruptly and completely. The instantaneous pressure
in the fuel nozzles can be as high as 40,000 psi a t full load
in unit injectors (the fuel pump and nozzle are combined
by the engine. The excess fuel flows through the
injection pump housing, cooling the plunger and barrel
and insuring that the pump cylinder is completely filled
at each stroke. The high-pressure fuel is discharged
into one unit with no lengthy fuel line between). In the from the injection pump to the fuel nozzles in each
diesel fuel properties such as volatility, viscosity, Flash Point. The flash point as specified is not conventional system, the fuel pressure at full load may cylinder of the engine through high-pressure tubing.
gravity, ignition quality, and heating value exhibit directly related to engine performance. It is, however, be as high as 15,000 psi for some engines. The duration Excess fuel flows through leak-off lines from the injection
interrelationships. It has been established that certain of importance in connection with legal requirements and of injection in a high-speed engine can be as short as pump and from each fuel nozzle. The leak-off lines are
characteristics of fuel can be estimated with reasonable safety precautions involved in fuel handling and storage 0.001 sec. With the high pressures involved and the manifolded to return excess fuel to the service tank, d i e
accuracy from two or more measured characteristics and is normally specified to meet insurance and fire precise timing requirements, it is necessary to build the charging above the fuel level and preferably against a
such as volatility and API gravity. Charts ahowing regulations. For marine use, a minimum flash point of injection equipment with close clearances and small horizontal b d e . If unit injectors are used, the pump
these relationships may be found in the SAE Handbook 140 F is recommended. tolerances. Nozzle hole sises vary upward from 0.005 and nodsle are combined in one assembly and there is
[16] in the section on diesel fuels. For estimation Pour Point. Pour point is important in connection in. dia, while the plunger-to-barrel diametral clearances, only one leak-off point from each unit.
purposes in ship design, a fuel with a representative higher with the lowest temperature which the fuel may reach may be as small as 1.5 microns (0.00006 in.). It is preferable to have a separate return line from each
heating value of 19,350 Btu/lb can be used. The and still be sufficiently fluid to be pumped or transferred. I n view of these small clearances and high pressures, engine to the service tank or tanks, with no valves in the
corresponding lower heating value is 18,190 Btu/lb. The pour point is generally interrelated with cetane the most important consideration in the design and lay- lines. If it is necessary to install shutoff valves in the
Engine performance on the test stand is corrected to number and volatility. Frequently, low pour pointa out of the fuel oil handling and supply system for a diesel return line, a pressure relief valve should be installed to
reflect the diierence in the heating value of the actual may be obtained only at the expense of lowering the engine is to insure that clean, waterfree fuel is delivered by-pass the valve and discharge to one of the service
fuel and the standard value used in design. cetane rating or increasing volatility. The pour point to the engine. It is particularly important in 11mrine tanks in case the valve is inadvertently closed while the
Viscosity. For some engines, it is advantageous to should not be specifled lower than required. For a more installations to insure that there is no salt water in the engine is running. If cocks can be installed to divert
specify a minimum fuel viscosity because of the power comprehensive dkussion of petroleum fuels, see Chapter fuel at the time it gets to the injection pumps and the flow to the proper tank with no chance of a line ever
loss due to injection pump and injector leakage. Maxi- 23. nozzles. Saltwater-contaminated fuel has been known being completely blocked, the relief valve can be omitted.
mum viscosity, on the other hand, is limited by considera- I n the design of a new ship, the selection of the fuel ts to erode the small holes in the fuel nozzles and cause It is possible for the pressure to build up in a closed
tions involving the engine design and size and the be used has an important bearing on the selection of pintle corrosion and sticking in a relatively short time, return line to the point of rupturing the pipe, spraying
characteristics of the injection system. engines and the detail design of the fuel handling and resulting in loss of power, burned pistons, high fuel fuel into the engine room, and possibly starting a fire.
Sulphur. The effect of sulphur content on engine storage system. The fuel selection may be specified by consumption, and a smoky exhaust. Care should be taken to insure that leak-off lines have a
wear and deposits appears to vary considerably in the owner or left to the ship designer to provide greater In the typical fuel system illustrated in Fig. 14, minimum number of joints and that these joints are
importance and depends largely on operating conditions. flexibility in optimizing the total design. The selection diesel oil is transferred to a diesel oil service tank, some- located so that leakage will not contaminate the engine
It is important to maintain an engine jacket water of fuel for a given engine requires consideration of the times called a day tank, after passing it through a water lubricating oil.
temperature of at least 140 F to minimize the effects of following factors: (a) fuel price and availability, (b) separating device which may be either a centrifugal The choice between a centrifugal purifier and a c o s
sulphur in the fuel. maintenance considerations, (c) engine sire and design, purifier or a coalescing-type filter. Fuel flows from the lescer-type water separator must be made for each
MARINE ENGINEERING MEDIUM AND HIGH-SPEED DIESEL ENGINES 265
installation. The purifier can be of the self-cleaning phragms. These pumps \\-ill have a discharge pressure not possible to shut down the engine to change filters. the temperature, whereas in lower VI oils the viscosity
type where the dirt and water removed from the fuel of 6 to 20 psi for small engines and 25 to 40 psi for large Again, it must be emphasized that the major objectives variation with temperature is greater. For engines
is discharged to a separate collecting tank, which requires engines. A pressure relief valve should be provided on of the fuel system are to deliver clean fuel, free of air and operating in heated engine rooms, the VI is of lesser
infrequent cleaning. Purifiers are available in a variety the discharge side of the pump, either built illto the water, to the injection pumps. To this end, filter cases importance than in the case of exposed engines which
of sizes, and one unit may be able to serve the needs of all pump housing or installed separately in the discharge should be installed in locations where they can be easily must operate in winter a t low temperatures and, in
the installed engines. The initial cost of a purifier is pipe. The fuel from the relief valve should return to serviced and the elements can be replaced without addition, are subjected to varying loads and infrequent
higher than that of a coalescer type; however, mainte- the pump suction or to the service tank. introducing dirt and with a minimum of maintenance starts.
nance costs are lower and logistic problems are simplified. The diesel oil service tank is normally located a t a level effort. Jobs that are difficult to accomplish tend to The lubricant in an engine serves to cool rubbing
Care must be taken to follow instructions carefully and above that of the supply pump so that fuel can be supplied be accomplished less frequently. Steps should be taken surfaces and provides a hydrodynamic film to prevent
select the proper ring dams or discharge rings to suit to the pump by gravity. In some engines, the fuel to ensure that there is a minimum possibility of air metallic contacts. In addition, it carries away products
the specific gravity of each fuel being centrifuged. The system is so designed that the fuel service tank must be entering the system through joints in the piping on the of combustion from combustion chambers and removes
centrifuge can be equipped with its own heater and located below the supply pump to prevent the flow of suction side of pumps. Adequate and easily accessible metallic and abrasive products. In order to insure
transfer pump to make it capable of handling heavier fuel by gravity into the cylinders of a shutdown engine. drain connections should be provided a t the lowest part satisfactory performance in a variety of engine designs
fuels. Air leakage into the fuel inlet lines can be very trouble- of the fuel service tanks for stripping water or foreign under widely diierent operating conditions, natural
A coalescer has the advantage of being a static device some; therefore a minimum number of fittings should be matter which may accumulate. petroleum products are specially compounded with
with no moving parts to wear out, but it does have used and all joints must be completely airtight. This is Systems suitable for handling heavy distillate or oxidation and corrosion inhibitors, antifoaming agents,
cartridges which require replacement. It cannot be particularly important when the fuel tank is lower than residual fuels are described in Chapter VIII. detergents, dispersants and other additives to produce
used, however, with residual fuels or distillates con- the supply pump. Diesel oil tanks should not be made 4.3 Types of Lubricating Oils Used. The engine the desired lubricating oil properties.
taminated with residuals. I n a coalescer, a combination of galvanized steel because of the danger of forming manufacturer furnishes information regarding the design Oils are qualified by running laboratory tests, both in
filter and water separator unit is used. The oil with corrosive zinc compounds in the fuel. Copper or silicon as well as installation of the lubricating oil system. The and out of operating engines. A good brief discussion of
entrained water first passes through a phenol-impreg- bronze should not be used for fuel tanks either, as their manufacturer will furnish all necessary accessories and these tests can be found in SAE Information Report
nated paper filter element where solid contaminants are reaction with the mercaptan sulphur compounds in the components and recommend the kind of lubricating oil J304a [16]. Based on tests such as these, oils have been
rempved, and the finely dispersed water droplets are fuel can result in the formation of damaging copper to be used. Nevertheless, marine engineers should be classified by the American Petroleum Institute as to their
induced to conglomerate a t an accelerated rate by inti- deposits in the engine combustion chambers. Aluminum knowledgeable of lubricating oil systems so that pre- suitability for use in engines under operating conditions
mate contact through the capillary openings in the filter bronze and manganese bronze are satisfactory for fuel liminary designs can be prepared prior to the selection of of differing severity.
paper. Some of these larger water droplets fall by tanks, as their use does not lead to these problems. a particular engine, and to alert the engine manufacturer For gasoline engine use, oils are classified in order of
gravity into the water collection sump along with dirt Filtration is accomplished upon discharge from the to unusual conditions in specific applications to insure their ability to cope with increasingly severe operations
particles. The filtered and coalesced fluid then passes supply pump in filters containing one or more elements that optimum solutions are obtained when compromises as ML, MM, and MS and for diesels as DG, DM, and
on to the separator unit. Its vertically pleated element made of either treated paper, felt, or woven yarn. The are necessary. DS. I n addition, there are numerous military specifica-
of controlled porosity is impregnated with a hydrophobic paper elements can be expected to filter particles in the Lubricating oils are classified into two broad categories; tions and commonly used descriptors which cover the
material, such as molybdenum sulphide or paraffin for range of 3 to 5 microns, with an initial pressure drop of first by viscosity and second by the severity of the same basic oil properties [23]. In general, the severity
preferential wetting by the oily fluid, so that the oil and from 0.5 to 2.0 psi and a pressure drop of between 15 and operating conditions which they can tolerate. The most of engine operating conditions and the design of the
not the water globules passes through the capillaries. 30 psi a t the time of replacement. Woven yarn filter common viscosity designation is by SAE numbers as particular engine will determine the proper lubricating
Water is collected in the sump of the separator unit and elements have a greater capacity to handle dirt, higher shown in Table 4. oil to be used. Sustained operation a t high load is not
clean, waterfree fuel is taken off from a connection &,the flow capacity, and somewhat coarser particle removal the only condition which may be called "severe." In
top of the unit. If care is not taken to change elements capacity. It should be noted that the characteristics of Table 4 Viscosity Values of Crankcase Oils , fact, other conditions such as high sulphur or carbon
when the pressure drop across them exceeds the recom- filter elements of any type can vary considerably depend- content of the fuel, widely fluctuating loads or ambient
mended limit, there is the danger of rupturing the ele- ing on the filter design. Considerations with paper filters SAE Viscosity Range Saybolt Seconds Universal conditions, frequent starts and stops, or atmospheric
Viscosity no. at 0 F at 210 F
ments and contaminating the fuel in the service tank. are the porosity of the paper and the material with contamination may impose more severe oil requirements
min max min max
The strainer has a metallic element of woven wire, which it is impregnated, and in the case of woven yarn 5W 6,000 than high loads alone. Approximate military specifica-
stacked metallic disks, or sintered metal. Woven wire filters, the tightness of the weave and the depth of the 1OW 6,000a less than tion equivalents to commercial lubricating oils DG,
elements can remove particles down to about 40 microns, flow path. The particle removal characteristics of a 12,000 DM, and DS oils are MILL-21044, MIL-G2104B, and
filter should be expressed in terms of particle size and the 20W 12,000b 48,000
and if the joints in the wire are welded they can remove 20 45 less than MIL-L-45199 respectively. MIL-L-9000 is a Navy
particles 2 microns in size. Stacked disks are capable of probability that that size particle will be removed; for 58 specification oil with increased resistance to the dete-
removing 40-micron particles and have the advantage example, 2 microns 92 percent, 5 microns 95 percent, 30 58 70
40 70 85 riorating effects of water contamination. It is below
that they may be made self-cleaning by rotating alternate greater than 5 microns 99.5 percent. 60 85 110 MIL-L-45199 in detergency level.
disks. Sintered metal elements can remove particles in For most diesel engines, a progressive filtering system The best judge of the proper oil to be used in an engine
is used consisting of filters of increasingly fine filtering a Minimum viscosity at 0 F may be waived provided the viscosity
the range of 3 to 25 microns, depending on their density. at 210 F is not below
... 40 - - -.
- - STTS.
is the engine itself. Where past experience with a
Sintered metal elements &re difficult to clean and may ability. First there is a strainer to take out large Minim& &scosity at 0 F may be waived provided the viscosity particular engine or with special operating conditions is
disintegrate if subjected to'large pressure surges. particles, then a yarn type filter to take out particles in at 210 F is not below 45 SUS. unavailable, the judgment of the engine manufacturer
The fuel supply pump draws fuel from the diesel oil the 25-micron range, and lastly, a final-stage filter of the and oil supplier must be relied upon.
service tank through the filter, and for that reason it must impregnated paper type to remove the finest particles. Medium and high-speed diesel engines normally use 4.4 Lubricating Oil System Design. The com-
have the capability of operating with a suction lift of The yarn-type filter is sometimes eliminated where a SAE 30 or 40 lubricating oils. For small boat applica- ponents of the lubricating oil system are usually furnished
from 4 to 6 ft. If the suction lift is too great due to the clean fuel supply can be assured. In engines with unit tions where engines are stored outdoors in cold weather, by the engine manufacturer and, in many cases, are
elevation of the pump or the length of the supply line injectors, the first-stage filters are of the paper type, and it will be necessary to use winter grades such as 5W or completely assembled to the engine for installation in the
or the pressure drop in the filter, a separate motor-driven final-stage filters of a metallic type are installed in the 10W,oils. I n addition to the viscosity, oils are classified ship as a unit. An oil sump is usually located under the
fuel booster pump may be required. The fuel supply body of each injector, one a t the inlet and one a t the by'the viscosity index (VI), which is representative of the engine and a positive-displacement pump takes suction
pump is of the positive displacement type with pumping outlet connections. Filters may be of simplex or slope of the viscosity-temperature curve for each oil. A from the sump and &scharges t h e oil to the engine
elements using either gears, vanes, plungers, or dia- duplex construction, with the latter being used when it is high VI oil is one in which its viscosity varies little with through a flter, cooler, and strainer, in that order. The
MARINE ENGINEERING I MEDIUM AND HIGH-SPEED DIESEL ENGINES 267
I 1 Dlesel engine lubricating oil consumption will vary that foreign matter cannot get into the system n-hen it is
EXTERNPLL DUPLEX depending on engine speed, size, and design details. being filled. Provision must be made to prevent dead
METAL EDGE RELIEF PRESSURE
STRAINER Typical values of oil consumption are: pockets where deposits can accumulate and subsequelltly
break loose in large quantities and cause damaging wear.
COOLER BY-PASS
II Medium-speed engines. . .3000-6000 bhp-hr/gal
High-speed engines. . . . . .2000-3000 bhp-hr/gal
Oil change periods will vary with the severity of engine
Clean-out openings must be provided a t all locations
where sludge is likely to accumulate.
The diesel engine lubricating oil must be kept free of
operation, quality of the lubricating oil, and size of the abrasive and corrosive q-mterials if it is to function
I sump tank.
With a dry sump, it is necessary to provide an addi-
properly. Additives are used to control corrosion, and
filters are used to control abrasives. There are three
\PRESSURE
- - - - - LUBE OIL tional pump to move the oil from the oil pan to the sump commonly used filtering arrangements: (a) full flow, (b)
PUMP - - - - - --,COOLER tank. This scavenging pump should have a capacity a t by-pass, and (c) shunt. Full-flow filtration has become
, least 25 percent greater than the pressure pump to insure predominant in recent years, and, as its name implies, all
ENGINE
JACKET that the dry sump will, in fact, be dry. of the oil supplied to the engine goes through the filter.
WATER The oil flow requirements of engines will vary con- This arrangement is shown in Fig. 15(a). Inasmuch as
siderably, depending on such things as the use of oil- all of the oil going to the engine passes through the filter,
(A) LUBRICATING OIL SYSTEM W I T H A FULL-FLOW F I L T E R cooling for pistons, whether the engine is naturally it is necessary to prevent oil starvation of the engine in
AND WET SUMP aspirated, supercharged, or after-cooled, and whether it cases of filter plugging. An external by-pass line around
SCAVENOING PRESSURE
I is a two- or four-stroke cycle. The oil pressure pump
capacity can be estimated a t about 0.2 gpm per horse-
the filter, together with a pressure relief valve, provides
this protection. The duplex pressure gage shows the
PUMP power for preliminary sizing of the system, though it inlet and outlet pressures and gives advance warning of
TO FILTER, ETC. might be half as much for some engines. Pump dis- impending filter clogging. Normally, this takes place
charge pressures up to 100 psi can be expected in some slowly so as to enable filter element changes to be sched-
engines. uled during nonoperating periods. With the arrange-
( 0 ) LUBRICATING OIL SYSTEM WlTH A DRY SUMP Since marine engines may run a t low speed for pr+ ment shown, the pressure relief valve setting can also be
longed periods, engive-driven lubricating oil pumps checked by means of the duplex gage.
should have adequate capacity to provide pressure under The lubricating oil cooler is installed after the filter
I
M
FINE
FULL
FLOW
STRAINER
- these conditions. Normal practice is to provide full-
speed pressure a t one-third speed. Many engines
designed for constant-speed generator drive are found to
be inadequate in this regard.
ABS rules [24] require that the lubricating oil piping
because it is more effectiveto filter hot oil, as the pressure
drop through the filter is less and filteeng is more com-
plete. The simplex metal edge strainer is installed as
close to the engine oil manifold inlet as possible to prevent
the entrance of foreign matter into the engine.
LUBE OIL
------,
L--- ---J
COOLER be entirely separate from other piping systems. For A by-pass filtering system is arranged as shown in Fig.
other than automotive-type engines, it is good practice to 15(c). In this case, the oil discharged from the pressure
JACKET
WATER
-- include a motor-driven lubricating oil pump in the system pump is divided into two streams; one goes to the oil
to be used to prime the engine before starting. The cooler and thence to the engine, and the other goes
(C) LUBRICATING OIL SYSTEM WlTH A BY-PASS FILTER motor-driven pump is sometimes installed so that it can through a flow controlling orifice to the filter and thence
circulate oil from the sump tank through a heater and to the sump. The quantity of oil by-passed through the
filter and then back to the sump in order to purify the oil filter to the sump must be in excess of engine lubricating
while the engine is not runtiing. If this is done, care requirements. The full pump discharge pressure is
must be taken to insure that the normal oil supply to the available for the pressure drop across the filter and orifice.
engine can never be blocked off by negligence in realign- By-pass filtration flow is approximately 5 percent of the
-- TO COOLER
AS IN(A) OR(C)
ing the valvivg prior to an engine start. It is possible to pump
A shunt
capacity.
filtering system is shown in Fig. 15(d). In it,
overprime opposed-piston engines, and the manufac-
turer's recommendations regarding means to prevent the full flow to the engine is made up of oil which flows
(D) ALTERNATIVE SYSTEM WlTH A SHUNT FILTER damage from this cause should be followed. Normally, through the shunt filter and oil which flows in a by-pass
the ABS rules require that an independently driven lubri- around the filter, the quantity of by-passed oil being
Fig. 15 Diagram of various lubricating oil systems cating oil pump be furnished. However, for vessels in controlled by an ~rifice.
river or harbor service or vessels below 300 tons, this re- There are three types of filter elements: those made of
quirement is waived. I n those applications where the size fine-mesh wire screen or metal edge (such as stacked
and design of the engine is such that lubrication before disks); absorption types which are made of wool or cotton
starting is not necessary and an attached pump is nor- yarn, cellulose, or impregnated paper; and adsorbent
pump is equipped with a pressure relief, or in some to about twice the rated capacity of the presswe oil
mally used, an independently driven spare pump is not types which, by adhesion, hold molecular layers of the
instances, a pressure regulating valve. This system is pump in gallons per minute. If space is not available,
shown diagrarnaticdly in Fig. 15(a). the sump capacity may be less but not below a one-half required if a complete duplicate of the attached pump is contaminants to the filter element. The adsorbent
The sump tank should be sdiiciently large so that the minute pump supply. However, under these circum- carried as a spare. elements contain fullers or diatomaceous earth, chemi-
oil does not splash up to the level of the crankshaft stances, oil change periods will be shortened appreciably. Lubricating oil must be kept clean and free of abrasives. cally treated papers, charcoal, or active clay. These
seals and so that the connecting rods will not dip into the A much preferred solution to the problem of lack of The best way to control abrasives is to prevent their filters are capable of removing additives from oil and
oil under pitching an4 rolling conditions. I n addition, space under the engine is to use a dry sump installation entrance into the lubricating oil system. The designer should not be used with detergent lubricating oils except
the sump should contain a quantity of oil in gallons equal as shown in Fig. 15(b). should insure that filler caps are provided and located so as part of an oil reclaiming system which is run separately
268 MARINE ENGINEERING
from the engine oil system. Additives should be restored percent is rejected to the cooling water and lubricating TO WASTE HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEM
oil.
to the oil after reclaiming and prior to reuse.'
To provide an indication of the size of full-flow oil
filters, the dimensions and flow rates of elements covered
While these percentage figures are of historical and
general interest, figures in terms of Btu per horsepower
CI G L t N G cow.
by specification MILF-20707 are given in Table 5. per minute gre more useful in design work for estimating 1. D
. OF RETURN TO BE APPROX.
THERMOSTATIC TEMPERATURE 3 x I.D. O f VENT LINE
sizes of coolers, ventilation heat loads, and piping sizes. REGULATING VALVE WlTH
Table 5 Characteristicsof Full-flow Oil Filters Average values for these heat losses are: BUILD-IN MANUAL CONTROL PILLARY TUBE
V A L-V ..
--
E ~ ~ ~
deg F. This is done to minimize thermal stress and ............
the diesel engine must reject heat to the environment. TO TANK AND OPEN VALVES ' C m 8 ' D ' T 0 DRAIN TANK. CLOSEm~..FlLL TANK WlTH COR-
Quantitatively, this heat is equal to the difference distortion in the engine. The capacity of freshwater RECTAMOUNT OF SOLUTION. CLOSE -C:OPEN~A:CIRCULATION OF JACKET WATER WILL
FEED SOLUTION INTO SYSTEM. TEST SAMPLE FOR CORRECT CONCENTRATION.
between the heat released by the injected fuel and the pumps is usually in the range of 0.3 to 0.5 gpm/hp. The
work output. The rejected heat is in the form of heat capacity of seawater pumps should be the same in order kg.16 Diagram of typical cooling water system
in the exhaust gas, heat transferred to the cooling to simplify manufacturing and repair parts stocking,
system and lubricating oil, and the loss to the atmosphere provide a margin to accommodate additional equipment
due to radiation and convection from the engine exterior such as aftercoolers on turbocharged engines, and pro-
surface. long seawater cooler cleaning intervals by minimizing the to provide smooth transitions if the piping must be necessary, surface temperatures are not uncomfortable
It was previously stated that diesel engine efficiency is seawater discharge temperature. smallei-. to the touch, and machinery spaces are cooler. It is
now being calculated and reported on the basis of the A typical cooling water system for a medium-speed It may be possible or desirable to replace the seawater- important, therefore, that the system be designed in -
lower heating value (LHV) of the fuel in order to be marine diesel is shown in Fig. 16. Automotive-type to-freshwater heat exchanger with a hull cooler in cases such a t a y that the desired operating temperatures
consistent with presentations for other heat engines. marine diesels usually are supplied with all piping, where the seawater is contaminated or weed-infested. cannot be altered easily by the operating crew. Thermo-
However, much of the heat balance data in the literature, coolers, thermostatic valves, and expansion tanks assem-' The hull cooler may consist of pipes with gxtended heat- static controls should be such that adjustment out bf the
when reported on a percentage basis, will be found to be bled to the engine. In this case, the only water con- transfer surfaces 'hlounted outside'the hull, or simply proper range is impossible and orifice plates should be
based on the higher heating value (HHV) of the fuel. nection the shipbuilder is required to make is from the tanka inside the hull wherein the heat is transferred installed in piping systems once the proper balance is
For many years, the standard rule of thumb for estimat- sea to the seawater pump suction. The seawater pumps directly to the sea through the hull plating. Kort nozzle established.
ing diesel heat losses has been, "One third of the heat in are likely to be subjected to reduced pressure a t the shells have been used in the same manner. The jacket water of diesel engines must be treated to
the fuel is converted to work, one third is lost in the inlet, so to prevent loss of suction it is recommended that Thermostatic valves should be used to automatically prevent corrosion and to minimize the effectsof cavitation
exhaust gases and radiation, and one third to the cooling pump seals be of a type which will prevent air leaking regulate the outlet temperature of the jacket water. The on cylinder liners and jackets. A number of cooling
system. " The modern medium and high-speed, high- into the pump under a suction head of 15 f t of water. outlet temperature should be kept in the range of 160 water treatments, including alkaline chromates, soluble
output engines are more efficient than older engines and The expansion tank should be located a t the highest to '185 F to minimize the size of coolers and to prevent oil, sodium boron nitrate, and sodium nitrate-nitrite, are
rather than one third of the input heat being converted point in the system and all pockets should be vented to corrosive cylinder wear [25,26,27]. It is recognized that used. The engine manufacturer should recommend the
to work, it can be expected to range'between 35 and 38 the expansion tank. Water piping should be shed to operating personnel prefer to operate cooler engines, as coolant best suited for his engine. It may be desirable,
match the pump suction and discharge flanges, or at least less time is required for cooling down if repairs are however, for large fleet operators to standardize the
percent HHV (38 to 41 percent LHV), while about 28
MEDIUM AND HIGH-!SPEED DIESEL ENGINES 271
steam and power from the steam. The two most com- exhaust gaa heat recovery unit, if used, is installed in the to provide a water level control in the flash boiler and to
coolant treatment used in their fleets, in which case the
engine manufacturer should be informed of the preferred mon uses for waste heat are: (a) heating water which can secondary circuit. supply make-up from the condensate return system.
treatment. No water treatmeht will last indefinitely; be used to heat spaces, heat fuel, cargo, or to distill fresh (c) High-temperature; hot-water systems. This system Boiler pressure control must be provided to prevent the
the water must be tested regularly and chemicals occa- water; and (b) generating steam for use in absorption uses jacket water engine outlet temperatures in the range pressure falling to the point where boiling will occur in
sionaily added. To insure that this is done, provision refrigerntion plants, space heaters, distillers, heat from 220 to 250 P and functions essentially the same as the engine jackets. All piping from the engine to the
should be made for drawing of samples from convenient exchangers and low-pressure steam turbines. the normal-temperature, hot-water system except that a boiler must pitch upward.
locations and to provide easy access to chemical addition Almost 100 percent of the heat rejected to the jacket higher pressure is required in the circulating systems, (e) Ebullient system. An ebullient system may
points. A filling funnel located against the overhead in water and lubricating oil and about 60 percent of the especially in the engine coolant circuit. I n this system, a appear attractive where steam is required a t pressures of
a hot engine room is almost certain to result in neglect of exhaust heat are economically recoverable 1281. The pressure control must be provided in the engine coolant 12 to 15 psig for use in absorption refrigeration or air-
water treatment. amount of heat recoverable depends on the system used circuit which will assure a pressure a t all points in the conditioning systems or other applications [30, 311. I n
For boat engines or other engines which may be exposed and the extent of the recovery equipment employed. system sufficiently high to prevent the formation of the ebullient system, boiling occurs in the engine water
to freezingtemperatures, conventional inhibited ethylene The quantity of heat available depends on the design of steam. The source of this pressure may be a static head jackets. The engine circulating water pump is removed
glycol antifreeze solutions should be used. the particular engine and operating conditions. Average imposed by an elevated expansion tank or controlled air and the flow is maintained due to the diqerence in density
Where engines are installed high above the waterline, values for heat losses were previously listed; these values pressure in the expansion tank. For 250 F water, a of the steam-water mixture a t the outlet and the solid
or where a source of raw water is either not available or can vary considerably, even for the same engine design. pressure of about 20 psig is required a t the engine. In water at the inlet to the engine. System performance is
unsuitable, air-cooled engines should be considered. It For example, in the case of a Fairbanks Morse 38D 8 this system, all circulating pumps must be suitable for sensitive to restrictions in the cooling water system and
is important to insure that the cooling air is a t a suffi- diesel [29], the heat rejection rate to oil and water has the higher pressures and temperatures. Engine and to the slope of the cooling water line. Pitch and roll can
ciently low temperature and that the air supply is not been found to vary: piping system gaskets and seals must also be suitable disturb the flow of cooling water t o the engine. A
restricted by inadequate grill or duct openings to the for the imposed conditions. With this high-temperature temperature difference across the engine of about 2 to
(a) From a minimum of 35 Btu/hp-min a t 720 rpm to cooling system, it will not be possible to cool the lubri-
*weather. The wind direction and velocity should be 41 Btu/hp-min at 900 rpm. 3 deg F will be maintained. The steam-water mixture
investigated to ensure that they will not oppose the cool- cating oil with jacket water. The heat from the oil from the engine flows to a steam separator above the
(b) From 36 Btu/hp-min with an oil outlet temperature cooler must be disposed of in a separate system if it is
ing fan and impede airflow. Direct air-cooled engines of 170 and water outlet temperature of 165 to engines. The steam pressure must be regulated a t the
are somewhat noisier than the liquid-cooled engines not possible to use it for preheat in some part of the waste- separator to insure that the pressure does not become too
32 Btu/hpmin with the oil at 185 and water at 230
heat utilization circuit. It may mean that more heat
itlasmuch as they have no water jackets around the low, causing excessive boiling in the engine jackets, or
(c) From 36 Btu/hp-min a t full load to 159 Btu/hp-min can be abstracted from a normal-temperature system
cylinders to attenuate vibration and noise. This fact at 25 percent load. too high, resulting in an excessive outlet temperature
should be considered when locating the engine in the ship. using the heat from the oil rather than from a high- from the engine water jackets. Exhaust gas boilers can
(d) From 36 Btu/hp;min a t full load without turbo- temperature system which does not use this heat.
Direct air-cooled engines are delivered complete with charging to 22 Btu/hp-min with turbocharging. be provided with the ebullient system either built into
cooling fan and the necessary cowling. The ship designer Thermostatic controls must be provided to prevent the steam separator or operating in parallel with it. With
must insure that the air gets to the cooling fan and that The question of whether to use waste heat and how exceeding the maximum permissible temperature and an engine outlet temperature of 250 F, steam is generated
the hot air from the engine is discharged from the extensive a waste-heat recovery system to design is 1 pressure controls to prevent boiling. Exhaust gas heat at the saturation pressure of about 15 psig rather than a t
compartment and is not allowed to recirculate back to largely one of economics. A detailed study must be may- be recovered in the high-temperature system as 8 psig as in the previous example using a flash boiler. An
the fan suction. About 50 cfm/hp of free air is required made to develop load-time cycle data so as to determine well as in the normal-temperature system. estimate of the steam production capability of the
for air cooling. how much heat is available. At the same time, the (d) Hot-water and steam sgstem with a $ash boiler. ebullient system is given in Table 6 €301.
Air cooling can also be applied to liquid-cooled engines demand for waste heat must be analyzed as well, to make This system is quite similar to the high-temperature, Based on the data given in reference [4], the steam
by the use of radiators to transfer the heat from the sure that there is sufficient heat available to meet the hot-water system with the expansion tank replaced by a production capability of exhaust gas boilers is approxi-
jacket water to the air. There is somewhat greater demand a t the time it is needed and that the heat flash boiler. The pressure in the boiler is lower than that mately as given in Table 7.
flexibility in installing an indirectly air-cooled engine generated can be used. This section briefly covers the in the hot-water system expansion tank so that the hot
than there is with one cooled directly with air. It is basic systems used to recover waste heat, giving the basic f water can flash into steam. This type of system is
usually designed to operate with a steam pressure of
possible to place the radiator remotely from the engine to engine input data required by the designer to size the Table 6 Steam Production Capability of an Ebullient System
optimize installation arrangements. The radiators may equipment to utilize the heat and to devise special from 2 to 8 psig. The operating pressure is dependent
be installed horizontally or vertically. Care must be arrangements to suit each ship design. 1 upon the maximum design engine coolant temperature
Type of Fuel Heat
Lb Steam/bhp-hr at
Water Jackets with RBted Load
taken to insurge that the engine-attached water pump The major heat recovery systems are: and is set so that the total pressure a t the engine outlet Diesel ~ ~ ~
Exhaust
~ Manifolds
t , ~ ~ h
characteristics match the cooling system requirements (a) Engine radiator to air. The air temperature leav- due to the steam pressure and the static head will prevent Engine Btu/hphr Air-cooled Waterc Recovery
ing the radiator is between 100 and 150 P and can be used boiling in the engine jackets. As in the high-tempera- cooled Unit
and provide an adequate flow of water. As with the %cycle
turbocharged
non- 8200
directly cooled engine, particular attention must be paid for preheating boiler combustion air or space heating. ture, hot-water system operating a t 250 F outlet 1.65 1.95 1.10
to avoiding restrictions in the airflow path and to prevent (b) Normal-temperature, hot-water systems. These use temperature, a pressure of 20 psig a t the engine is 4gde I
recirculation of the cooling air. Thermostatic control a normally closed system with a thermostat to control required. If the jacket water leaves the engine a t 250 F naturally
1 and 24 psig and the static head is reduced to 8 psig, an aspirated 8500 1.90 2.35 1.25
can be applied either to the waterside, in which case the the water outlet temperature and a heat exchanger to &cycle
thermostatic valve directs the water flow through or transfer unused heat to the seawater coolant loop. Hot 1
equilibrium condition will be established in the flash turbocharged 7300 1.10 1.35 1.20
around the radiator core, or to the air side, in which case water to the waste-heat utilization loads would be taken boiler with about 0.985 lb of water a t about 235 F being
the thermostat may operate a valve to divert air around from the system at point F in Fig. 16 and returned a t I returned.to the engine and about 0.015 lb of saturated : above data are based on 0-psig steam and 100 F
N ~ EThe
steam going to the waste-heat utilization system for ambient.
85y0 magnesia
System
or equal.
piping is considered to be insulated with 1 in.-
the core, vary the speed of the fan drive, or change the point E. Additional heat can be added to the water by
pitch of the fan blades. The last two are more efficient an exhaust gas exchanger. I n this system, the maximum each pound of water entering the flash boiler. The
as fan power is minimized at light load or when the air is jacket water temperature is that which can be obtained 0.015 lb of condensate returned from the waste-heat
cold. without pressurizing the expansion tank and will range system is mixed with the water in the flash boiler prior
Table 7 Steam Production Capability of Exhaust Gas Boilers
4.6 Waste-Heat Utilization System. It is possible to from 180 to 220 F. A variation of this system is to use a to recirculating through the engine. Using a water pump
utilize the waste heat from an engine by schemes which
range from the simplest of using radiated heat to keep the
secondary circuit to transfer the waste heat to the utilir-
ing equipment. A heat exchanger is used to transfer
capacity of 0.3 gpm/hp, the 0.015 lb of steam per pound
of circulating water equates to about 2.25 lb of steam nT" "'
Diese Engine
Steam Production Caqabilities, Ib/hg-hr
5 P@ 10 pslg 15 ps~g
%cycleengine 0.75 0.70 0.68
engine room warm to complex schemes for generating the jacket water heat to the secondary circuit, and the per hour per horsepower. I n this system, it is necessary 4cycle engine 0.78 0.75 0.74
MARINE ENGINEERING MEDIUM AND HIGH-SPEED DIESEL ENGINES 273
In all waste heat utilization schemes, provisions must to duct the engine air from the outside directly to each silencer for use when the engine draws air directly from
be made to cool the engine when the waste heat cannot be engine and provide a three-way valve to permit the the machinery space. If the air is to be supplied to the
utilized. Where steam is generated, it is necessary to engine to take air from the engine room or the weather. engine via a duct, this should be so specified in order to
provide condensers and feed pumps and to insure proper Each engine should be provided with its own exhaust insure that the intake silencer will be suitable.
----
L
treatment of the make-up water. Fortunately, the water system. If space does not permit such an arrangement
treatments required for boilers and engine water jackets and it is necessary to combine the exhaust ducts from
Exhaust mufaers are provided to reduce the pulsations
in exhaust line pressure due to the cyclic release of slugs
of exhaust gas into the engine manifold as the exhaust
<*
3
0
are compatible [4]. This treatment would include a several engines, it is necessary that valves be provided
water softener to give zero hardness and a pH value in the branch from each engine to prevent backflow into valves in each cylinder open in turn. The m d e r also
between 9 and 11. Exhaust gas boilers may be combined an idle engine. serves to reduce atmospheric noise a t the outlet of the
with mufaers and may also be provided with supple- The size of intake and exhaust ducts may be estimated exhaust system. M d e r s may be of the wet or drv
mentary oil firing to insure a steam supply under all using a figure-d 3.5 cfm/hp for'the intake air and 8.5 type. wet mufflers are infrequently used except & T Y P E A - DRY W I T H SPARK ARRESTOR
engine load conditions. The engine exhaust tempera- cfrn/hp for exhaust gas. $hese values may be high for small boats, as they are limited to horizontal installations
ture conditions must be acceptable to the boiler supplier. most naturally aspirated engines and some turbocharged where the exhaust is through the hull of the ship above
4.7 Intake and Exhaust Systems. The intake and engines; however, it is desirable to provide some margin. the waterline. Seawater is injected into the m d e r and
exhaust system consists of the piping, filters, and silencers Duct velocities of 100 fps for the inlet and 150 fps for the cools the exhaust gas as the water is vaporized. The
necessary to conduct the outside air to the engine and to exhaust are suggested for preliminary design purposes. steam exhaust gas mixture is discharged overboard.
lead the exhaust gas from the engine to the atmosphere. When a particular engine has been selected and its With a wet m d e r , care must be taken to insure that the
exhaust does not blow across the deck or against the side
To perform effectively, the depression in inlet air actual air and exhaust requirements are known, duct
pressure and the elevation of the pressure a t the exhaust sizes can be calculated to meet the allowable pressure of adjacent ships. They should be fabricated of AISI
outlet must be minimized. The correction factors of drops. If it is necessary to reduce the duct sizes, higher
I 316L stainless steel for a reasonable life expectancy.
Dry-type mufflers may be installed horizontally or
Table 1 indicate the effect on engine power output as the gas velocities may be used [32].
Contrary to what may be believed, a marine engine is vertically in the engine room or in the exhaust stack.
pressure st the engine inlet is reduced and as the tem- I
These mufflers should be provided with spark-arresting
perature a t the inlet is raised. Turbocharged engines not always 'provided with clean air, particularly in river
features to prevent hot carbon particles from impinging NOTE: MUFFLERS TO COMMERCIAL DESIGN MAY BE
are particularly sensitive to intake air pressure and and harbor operations and sometimes in offshore
exhaust back pressure. It is recommended that the operations in the vicinity of a desert. In these cases, it
$1 on topside surfaces. I n general, mufflers should be SOMEWHAT SMALLER AND LIGHTER
rates of change of pressure differences and the same for of various parameters versus time. Logging may be and engine each has its own thrust bearing. down is the general practice. The items which trigger
temperatures. The extent to which this advanced required for all data or only for readings which are Medium and high-speed engines have relatively small alarms or shutdowns usually are: (a) low lubricating oil
instrumentation of an engine installation is considered is approaching preset limits. An alarm usually sounds parts which are easily handled, provided they are acces- pressure with the sensor installed a t the end of the oil
related to the degree to which the plant is automated, the when these type of data are recorded. Graphical sible to the mechanic while he keeps both feet on the deck. manifold remote from the oil pump; (b) high jacket
skill of the operators, and the nature of operations, as well presentations are very useful as scales can be compressed Ctire should be taken to insure that ducts and wireways water temperature; and (c) high rpm, i.e., an rpm
as the desired initial cash outlay. to require less paper and clearly show trends. For do not interfere with access to regular maintenance for exceeding 115 percent of rated rpm for ABS vessels.
4.1 1 Automalion. There are two justifiable reasons example, a curve of differential pressure across a filter filters, cylinder-head covers, air cleaners and so forth. Crankcase explosions are not common in diesels, but
for automating a diesel plant, and both are related t o element versus time can be extrapolated to show when Gages and sight glasses should be placed such that the when they occur they can be dangerous. An explosion
278 MARIhE ENGINEERING MEDIUM AND HIGH-SPEED DIESEL ENGINES . 279
can occur when the mixture of air and oil vapor in the 4 K. W. Stinson, Diesel Engineering Handbook, 25 C. C. Moore and W. L. Kent, "Effect of Nitrogen Governing of Electric Generating Sets," MIL-STD-178,
crankcase is ignited by a spark or hot spot resulting from Diesel Publications, Inc., Stamford, Connecticut, 1963. and Sulphur Content of Fuels on Diesel Wear," Trans. Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Print-
a part failure. The first explosion is generally weak, due 5 A. K. Antonsen, "The Development of a Super- SAE, 1947. ing Office.
to the rich fuel-air mixture in the crankcase, and the charged Medium Speed Two-Cycle Opposed Piston 26 H. V. Nutt, E. W. Landen, and J. A. Edgar, 38 W. H. Krogstad, "Control System Programs
peak pressure does not exceed 25 psig. Should the Engine, " Proceedings, ASME, OGP, 1956. "Effect of Surface Temperature on Wear of Diesel Power for Ships with Controllable Pitch Propellers,"
explosion blow off a cover or should someone open a 6 James R. Ware, "Development of a Turbocharged Engine, Cylinder and Piston Rings," Trans. SAE, 1955. SAE Journal, December 1962.
cover imrriediately after the first explosion, fresh air will Two Stroke Twenty Cylinder Diesel Engine for Marine 27 B. A. Robbins, P. L. Pinotti, and D. R. Jones, 39 F. Schanz, "The Controllable Pitch Propeller as
rush in and a second, much more violent explosion will Application, " SAE paper 670949, 1967. "The Use of Radioactive Tracer Techniques to Deter- an Integral Part of the Ship's Propulsion System, " Trans.
occur. There are two ways to pi-event explosive 7 J. M. .Moriarty and C. H. Schowalter, "Applica- mine Effect of Operatirig Variables on Wear," Trans. SNAME, vol. 75, 1967.
d a m a-e : tion of MediumS~eedDiesels to Marine Pro~ulsion." SAE, 1960. 40 P. K. Wennberg, "The Design of the Main
1 Design the crankcase strong enough so that the
SNAME Spring Mketing, May 1966. 28 Total Energy Handbook, Caterpillar Tractor Co., Propulsion Machinery Plant in the USCGC Hamilton
8 Bob Schulz, ,,Mack,s New Maxidyne Constant Peoria, Ill:, Form M E 0 26690.01, 1967. (WPG-715)," Trans. SNAICIE, vol. 74, 1966.
first explosion cannot lift a cover or otherwise let air in. Power Vehicle Package, " Diesel and Gas Turbine Progress,
2 Provide spring-loaded covers to permit the first 29 Manual of Heat Recovery, Fairbanks Morse and 41 R- lihuschildt and C- Miller, "U- S- Navy
December 1966. . Co., Beloit, Wis., Form P 295, 1960. PG 84 Class CODOG Propulsion Plant," SAE Paper no.
explosion to relieve and have the cover close rapidly, Bruce W. wadman, ,,Trends in Tailored Truck,
air out and preventing a 30 Vapor P b e Engineering Manual, Engineering 670952, 1967-
ex~losion. Diesel Torque and Homepower Characteristics, Diesel 42 W. I<er Wilson, Practical Solution of Torsiml
JJ
Controls Inc., St. Louis, Mo.
Navy specifications and ABS rules require relief and Gas Turbine Progress, May 1967. 31 J. C. ~ ~ ~"Engine g iwmte ~ H~~~ ~ utilhation
, Vibration Problems, vols. 1 and 2, John Wiley and Sons,
valves; the Navy requires them on engines over 6-in. 10 H. L. Wittek, "Development of Two New Allis in a High Speed, Geared Steam Turbine," ASME, Paper New York, 1956.
bore and ABS requires them over 8-in. bore. Navy Chalmers Diesel Engines, " Trans. SAE, 1960. no. 59-OGP-7, February 1959. 43 J. P. DenHartog, Mechanical Vibrations, McGraw-
specifications require 1.5 sq in. of relief valve area per 11 W. J. McCulla, "How a Diesel Engine Rates 32 W' T. W' J. Kelnhofer, and R' A' Imith, Book Company, Inc., New York, 1956.
Hill
cubic foot of crankcase volume, the ABS requires 0.5 Itself," Tram. SAE, 1959. "Design Considerations for Marine Gas Turbine Ducb 4 E v a h of the of Tor&onal Vibration,
sq in. per cubic foot of crankcase volume. Both require 12 P. H. Schweitzer and C. G. A. Rosen, "Whither ing, " ASME, Paper no. 66-GT/M-27, March 1966. SAE, 1945.
warning notices to be posted on the engine cautioning the European Automotive Diesel?" Trans. SAE, 1964. 33 Gas Twbine
45 A Handbook on Torsional Vz%ration, British
against opening a hot crankcase after an explosion. 13 M. V. Kienlen and G. W. Maybach, "High Speed Handbook,J. W. Internal Combustion Engine Research Assn., Cambridge
ed., Gas Turbine Publications, Inc., New York, 1966,
Engines burn fuel oil which is volatile and com- High Output Diesel Engines-35 Years of Development University Press, 1958.
chapter 13.
bustible and must be contained a t all times. High- of Railroad and Marine Applications, " Trans. SAE, 1962. 46 P. J. Louzecky, "Vibration in River Towboats,"
34 T. Hagar, "Selecting the Correct Air Cleaner," SAE paperno. 699 A, M~~ 1963.
pressure fuel lines should be shielded from hot engine 14 L. Wechsler and H. Holler, "Development of a Diesel Equipment Superintendent, July 1967.
parts by the use of a flexible tube around each pipe or a Lightweight High Output Diesel Engine for Naval 47 W. W. Hamilton, Jr., "A Shipbuilder's Views on
Service," ASME, Paper no. 58-OGP-2, May 1958. 35 Military S ~ e c z c a t i o 3" M d e r s , Exhaust, Inter- River Towboat Vibration," SAE Paper no. 699 B, May
shield over the manifold or the use of water-cooled mani- nal Combustion Engine," MILM-15337 (SHIPS).
folds. . Fires have occurred when a high-pressure fuel 15 "Engine Rating/Why and How," Diesel Equip- -..--.
1962
line cracked and sprayed fuel over a hot exhaust elbow. ment Superintendent, April 1964. 36 B. A. Boggs, "Choosing a Speed Governor, " 48 E. F. Noonan and A. Zaloumis, "Shipboard Vibra-
Crankcase vents should be directed to the engine air 16 SAE Handbook, published by Society of Auto- Product Engineering, March 18, 1963. tion and Noise Considerations in the Design of River
inlet or overboard. Fumes should not be ducted to the motive Engineers, (New issue each year). 37 Military Standard DefinitionsApplicable t o Speed Towboats," Trans. SAE, 1964.
ventilation system where oil will condense and present 17 W. A. Kilchenmann, "Slow Speed Versus High
a major hazard in case of a fire. Engines should be Speed Diesel Engines for Ship Propulsions," Naval
equipped with an emergency shutdown device operated Engineers Journal, June 1964.
by a pull cable which will trip the fuel racks or shut 08 18 K. Zinner, "A Comparison of High Powered
the air and stop the engine within 60 sec. The pull cable Single Engine and Multi-Engine Plants for the Propul-
should be installed so as to be operable from a location sion of Merchant Ships," ASME, Paper no. 67-DGP-2, I
adjacent to the engine room access so that in case a fire April 1967.
forces abandonment of the engine room, the engine can be 19 J. Neumann and J. Carr, he Use of Medium #
stopped. Speed Geared Diesel Engines For Ocean-Going Merchant
Shields should be provided to protect personnel from Ship Propulsion, " Journal, Institub of Marine Engineers,
hot parts and moving parts in case they are accidently 1966.
thrown against the engine. 20 R. Fredrikson, "The Medium Speed Diesel-An
Direct-reversing engines should be provided with an Engine of Increasing Interest to the Shipowner and Ship-
interlock to prevent injection of fuel during a reversal builder, " SNAME, 1968 Diamond Jubilee International
until the engine comes to a complete stop. Meeting.
21 W. Hempel, "Why has the Medium Speed Diesel 8
Become Competitive in Marine Propulsion," SAE, Paper
References no. 670950, November 1967. i?
Kuri Illies
Low-Speed Direct-Coupled
Diesel Engines
Section 1
Survey of Principal Characteristics
1.1 Scope. The possible alternatives when selecting KP/PS LB/BHP
EXHAUST
the type of propulsion plant were briefly discussed in 50, 110 BEFORE TUF
r
Chapter 1. It was noted that of the more usual prime 40
Q
w 88
mover selections, only low-speed diesel engines are s AFTER CYL.
directly coupled to the propeller shaft. This is due to the
low rpm required for efficient propeller operation and the
30;
6
66 C A Y .
PRESSURE
I PRESS.
t 1150
high rpm inherent with other types of prime movers. 20 ; 44
Overall technical considerations with regard to diesel V)
-
applications; therefore, the design details of these
engines were not emphasized in Chapter 7. The situa-
tion is different with low-speed engines, which are de- (a) loop ravenging Ov3'
0 FUEL 3CONSUMPTION -
signed and manufactured specifically for marine applica- representative of those manufactured, are shown in (b) cross scavenging
(c) uniflow ravenging with exhaust valves
tione. For this reason, more emphasis is placed on the Table 1 ; the weights shown in Table 1 are without water (dl uniflow ravenging opposed pistam 0.31 4
design details of low-speed engines. Additional discus- and oil. Low-speed diesel en&es are two-stroke, Fig. 2 Scavenging methods of low-sped engines
sion regarding low-speed diesels may be found in works single-acting, and designed with ~rossheads. Due to ENGINE RPM
such as references [I] through [7].' weight and dimension considerations, they are used only
Fig. 3 Characteristic data for a low-speed engine [a]
1.2 Engine Data, The continuous rpm in merchant ships and not in naval vessels. cific engine design are shown in Fig. 3. The fuel consump-
&ing of direct-coupled diesel engines is generally in The ratio of stroke to bore also must be considered tions indicated in Table 2 and Fig. 3 do not include
the range of 100 to 225 rpm. Lower speeds are seldom
selected due to the strong sensitivity of engine weight to r
it has an impact on s venging efficiency- To a great
extent, the method 0 scavenging employed determines
the stroke/bore ratio permitted. The various methods
lubrication and cooling pumps; additionally, they are
based on a fuel lower heating value of 18,000 Btu/lb.
CYLINDER
Table 2 Typical Cylinder Design Data
DESIGN B
speed as indicated by Fig. 1. Disregarding electrically driven auxiliaries, a heat Output/cylinder, bhp. ............ 610 A
The low engine q m in conjunction with piston speed of scavenging are illustrated by Fig. 2. With the loop balance for low-speed engines is approximately as follows Engine speed, rpm.. .............. 225 4000
and cross-scavenging methods, the strokebore ratio 103
limitations (about 1300 fpm) -require long piston strokes. (based on the lower heating value of the fuel) : Piston diameter, in. (mm). ........ 20.5 (520) 41.7 (1060)
This means that the engine must be high, wide, and usually falls in the range of 1.8 to 2; higher values of 2 Piston stroke, in. (mm). ........... 31.5 (800) 78.7 (2000)
consequently heavy. Higherpiston speeds impose higher to 2.1 are used with single pistons employing the uniflow Heat to power. .................... - 3 9 4 2 % Piston speed fpm (m/s). .......... 1024 (5) 1360 (7)
method; and in opposed-piston engines, the combined Heat to exhaust gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25-35% BMEP, psi (kp/cma).............. 103 (7.3) 143 (10.1)
inertia loads, bearing reactions, and the l i e , which can Compression pressure, psi (k /cma). 498 (35) 996 (70)
have an overriding impact on the design of an engine. stroke is about 2.9 times the bore. Heat to cooling water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20-30% Max. ~ l i n d e r ressure, psi (ep/cml) 711 (50) 1280 (90)
Large cylinder dimensions and supercharging permit Remainder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4 % ~ i ratio-com~ustion..
r ........... 1.6 2.2
As an indication of the effect of piston speed limitations, Air ratio-total. ................. 2.5 5.0
high cylinder horsepower ratings. Engines with a rating
for two-stroke crosshead engines the piston speed has
of 3700 bhp/cylinder have been installed aboard ship, It is common practice to reduce the heat losses by Exhaust temperature after cyl.
Loo and cross-scavenging, deg F
increased only 20 percent during the past 20 years.
Further increases in piston speeds are expected to be and the tendency is for this value to increase. Outputs
employing heat recovery schemes. For example, an (8).
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625 (330) 700 (370)
Uniflow scavenging, deg F (C). . . 635 (335)
exhaust gas auxiliary boiler may be used to produce 800 (425)
minor because they must be made at the expense of of 5200 bhp/cylinder have been obtained on the teat steam or hot water for preheating heavy fuel, and the Exhaust temperature before turbine
stand. It should be noted that under normal operating Loo and crossscavenging, deg F
either higher engine speeds or larger engine dimensions,
both of which are undesired. conditions a t sea, the engine is loaded to only about 90-
engine cooling water may be used to produce fresh water (8).
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665 (350) 755 (400)
Uniflow scavenging, deg F (C). . . 665 (350)
in a seawater evaporator. 860 (460)
Nominal design data for an array of low-speed engines, 95 percent of the maximum continuous rating. Mechanical efficiency, percent.. .... 85 93
1.3 Principal Structure. Sections through a typical Cylinder oil consumption, lb/bhp-hr
Typical design data for cylinders of two different ( /PSh). ...................... 0.0015 (0.7) 0.0007 (0.3)
cross-scavenging engine are shown in Pig. 4, and Fig. 5 is
Numbers in brackets designate Referencesat end of chapter. ratings are shown in Table 2. Operational data for a spe- rt section through a typical loop-scavenging engine. ~ u 3
consumption, ib/bhp-hr
(g/PSh)....................... 0.32 (146) 0.34 (155)
7 - - w
ENTABLATURE
CROSSHEAD
BORES FOR
TELESCOPIC
PIPES
MAIN BEARING
OIL SUMP
The engine frame basically consists of the bedplate, general, describes some of the characteristics of opposed- and 9 illustrate techniques which have been used with
HEAD
columns, and cylinder block; but in some cases a top piston engines. engines employing the loop-scavenging method. In each
CYLINDER HEAD deck is provided between the columns and cylinder In cases where the engine is not equipped with tie case, the lower sides of the pistons as well as the turbo-
block. rods, the columns and cylinder blocks are welded to- charger act as scavenge air pumps.
The frame of an engine is shown more clearly by Fig. 6, gether and the columns are bolted to the bedplate by With the schemes shown in Fig. 8 when operating in
which is a detailed view of the engine shown in Fig. 5. means of heavy bolts. The firing forces are then trans- the higher load ranges, the lower sides of selected pistons
The bedplate consists of longitudinal'girders of high struc- mitted from the oylinder head through the columns to deliver scavenge air through the cooler directly irito the
CYLINDER BLOCK
tural rigidity which provide substantial support for the the bedplate. charge air line in parallel with the turbocharger. Dur-
ENTABLATURE main bearings. It may be seen that the basic engine Formerly, extensive use was made of cast iron in ing part-load operation, the air supply provided by the
frame is held together by prestressed tie rods which ex- engineTrames, but more recently the bedplate, columns, turbocharger operating in parallel with the lower side
STUFFING BOX
and top deck have been made of welded steel fabrications of the pistons is not sufficient. In this case, an injector
tend from the top of the cylinder block to the lower part as a means of reducing weight. For rigidity purposes, system [as shown by Fig. 8(a).] or a compressor-drive
of the bedplate. The firing forces are taken by these however, the main bearing supports are usually heavy system [as shown by Fig. 8(b)] may be used to increase
tie rods, and the other structural components are sub- steel castings. the air qhantity delivered by the turbocharger a t low
jected to compreseive loads only. Crankcase doors fitted Engine cylinders are always arranged in line. I n order speeds. With the injector system, in the lower load
with explosion plates (see Fig. 5) are arranged between to obtain a uniform torque output, the minimum number range the air supplied by the lower sides of the pistons
the columns. of cylinders is limited to four. Additionally, design com- flows a t a high velocity through injector nozzles, which
The opposed-piston engine shown in Fig. 7 has some plications with regard to the crankshaft and engine bed- are arranged immediately following the turbocharger,
interesting characteristics. The stroke of the upper piston plate and engine length considerations limit the maxi- and then into the air receiver. This action induces air to
is shortened so as to equalize the inertia of the mass mum number of cylinders to about twelve. Within these flow through the turbocharger and stabilizes its operating
associated with the side and center cranks. The forces limits, there is considerable freedom in selecting the condition. With the compressor-drive system, in the
cylinder desim and number of cylinders to produce the lower load range the air supplied by the lower sides of the
from the combustion loads on the upper and lower pistons desired output. pistons is admitted to the compressor wheel of the turbo-
are carried entirely by the running gear connected to 1'.4 Scavenging Systems. As discussed previously charger so as to produce additional torque to drive the
the crankshaft; thus, there are no combustion loads on and illustrated in Fig. 2, engines may employ either the turbocharger when relatively little exhaust energy is
the main bearings or the engine structure. Reference [13], loop, cross, or uniflow method of scavenging. Figures8 available.
Fig. 5 Typical loop-scavenging engine [El which discusses the design of low-speed diesels in
MARINE ENGINEERING LOW1-SPEED DIRECT-COUPLED DlESEt ENGINES
r?Tl EXHAUST
TURBOCHARGER
AIR COOLER
SCAVENGE AIR
RECEIVER
COOLING OIL.
INLET
Fig. 12 Uniflow-scavenging air supply system with exhaust valve [I21 1 lower cylinder liner 7 upper cylinder head
side of the walls with a reinforcing structure. A cooling 2 inspection port 8 inleetion valve
medium is circulated through the reinforcing structure; 3 upper cylinder liner 9 cooling water
therefore, satisfactory solutions are obtained to both the 4 cylinder lacket 10 exhaust porn
5 steel backing ring 1 1 air inlet porn
1 air compressor 5 scavenge air receiver mechanical and thermal stress problems. 6 lower 14 Cylinder
Fig. cylinder head of a loop-scavenging engine [8]
2 air cooler 6 combustion space A typical cylinder "backing system" is illustrated by
3 ravenqe pump 7 exhaust receiver
4 air cooler 8 exhaust turbine Fig. 14 for a loop-scavengingengine. The cylinder jacket
11
Fig. 10 Cms-scavenging air supply system [I is made of cast iron, and passages for scavenging air, ex-
haust gases, and cooling water are cast in place. An
opening opposite the ports a t their level permits an in-
The scavenge ports a t the bottom of the cylinder are spection of the ports in the liner and a region of the piston
controlled by the lower piston, and the exhaust ports a t without disassembly. The cylinder liner shown con-
the top of the cylinder are controlled by the upper piston. sists of two parts; the upper liner, which is made of r FUEL INJECTION VALVE
Both scavenge and exhaust ports extend completely wear-resistant cast iron, contains the scavenge and ex-
around the cylinder periphery. For additional discus- haust ports, which extend for a large arc of the liner
sion regarding the scavenging of slow-speed diesels, see circumference. The lower liner serves the primary func-
references [14-161. tion of guiding the piston while in the vicinity of the
1.5 Cylinder Design, The cylinder head, cylinder lower dead-center position. The top of the liner is sup- CYLINDER JACKET
liner, and piston form the combustjon chamber. These ported by a steel backing ring which is part of the back-
parts are bighly stressed from both a mechanical and ing system. The liner and port lands are water cooled.
thermal point of view. Higher su~erchargingand larger The cylinder design of various engines differs in detail,
cylinder dimensions incur correspondingly higher stress a major distinction being the method of scavenging em-
levels. Simply increasing the thickness of the parts ployed. For example, engines which operate with a
forming the combustion chamber as a means of reducing uniflow scavenging system do not require water-cooled
mechanical stresses is not a satisfactory ~olutionbecause air ports, as cooling by air is sufficient. Figure 15 shows
an increased wall thickness would cause increased the combustion chamber of a uniflow-scavenging engine
temperature gradients and higher thermal stresses. As a (the figure is a magnification of the combustion chamber CYLINDER LINER
result many engines employ a "backing system." That shown in Fig. 12). The liner flange is reinforced by a
is, the wall thickness of the components forming the steel band that is shrunk on; holes are drilled into the
combustion chamber is minimized by supporting the back liner to facilitate cooling with water.
Fig. 13 Uniflow ;cavenging for an opposed-piston design [I01 Fig. 15 Combustion chamber of a uniflow-scavenging engine [12]
288 MARINE ENGINEERING LOW-SPEED DIRECT-COUPLED DIESEL ENGINES 289
PISTON CROWN
MAIN
PISTON ROD
SCUFFING B A N D S
CROSSHEAD-
G A S K E T RING
a
CROSSHEAD N G l N G PIPES
OIL DISCHARGE
Fig. 17 Piston and piston md of a loop-scavenging engine [a]
Fig. 19 Oil-cooled piston with swinging pipes [I 1]
housing 11 securing ring
steel seat 12 guide rod
valve spindle 13 guide bracket water and also guards against fouling of the cooling water
Aame guard 14 guard by splash oil.
spindle lower guide 15 lower outer spring
spindle upper guide 16 lower inner spring Oil is used to cool the pistons of some engines. A
bottom guide bushing 17 intermediate spring plate major distinction between the water-cooled and oil-
top guide bushing 18 bottom spring plate
spring keeper 19 lower guide bushing cooled pistons is that minor leakage of the cooling me-
split collar 20 sealing ring dium is not of consequence with the latter. This addi-
Fig. 16 Exhaust valve for a uniflow-scavenging engine [I 21 tion91 degree of freedom permits an arrangement such
as indicated by Fig. 19. As with the water-cooled piston,
the coolant is introduced at the crosshead; but in this
Cylinder heads (or covers) are reinforced thin-walled (see Fig. 12) and are closed by two sets of concentric case a swing-pipe scheme, which is characterized by minor
castings that are water cooled. With many engine de- helical springs. . leakage at the connecting joints, can be used since
signs, the cylinder heads are carried rather far down such Some uniflow exhaust valve arrangements employ a absolute containment of the coolant is not essential.
that they enclose the pistons when the pistons are in the number of exhaust valves, as opposed to the single valve For additional discussion regarding piston cooling and
top dead-center position. This confines the region sub- shown in Fig. 16, but their principle of operation is the lubrication se3 Sections 2.2 and 2.3.
jected to the very hot gases to the cylinder head and pro- same. The pistons in engines with a uniflow-scavenging
tects the cylinder liner. The firing pressure is t r a m 1.6 Piston and Piston Rod. The pistons of a loop- or system ar? short. Figure 20 (see also Fig. 12) is a sec-
mitted from the cylinder head to the cylinder jacket by cross-scavenging engine must be long because the lower tion through an oil-cooled piston for a uniflow-scavenging
the cylinder head studs. part has to cover the scavenge ports when the piston is engine. The molybdenum steel piston head is clamped
The exhaust valves in uniflow-scavenging engines are in the top dead-center position. The piston is constructed to the piston rod by a cast iron guide skirt and an annular
highly stressed thermally; therefore, heat-resistant steels in three parts; see Fig. 17. The top part, the crown, is spring of the Belleville type. Piston cooling oil enters
must be used in their construction. The cylinder head a steel casting in which the piston ring grooves are ma- the outer annular cooling space with a high tangential I
shown in Fig. 15 is provided with a central large orifice chined. The casting is flame hardened in way of the Fig. 18 Teleuopic pipes for piston cooling [8] velocity and from there enters the central cooling space
for the exhaust valve, and bores are provided at the piston ring grooves to minimize wear in service. The with a high swirling velocity.
sides for the fuel valves, starting valves, safety valves, lower part is a grey casting which is grooved to accom- 1.7 Diaphragm and Stuffing Box. The diaphragm
indicator cock, and the cooling water connection to the modate a scuffing band made of leaded bronze. The from Fig. 17. The means provided to deliver the cooling and stuffing box for the piston rod form a barrier between
exhaust valve. A detailed illustration of the exhaust center part is a cast iron guide band which also contains water to and from the piston rod are illustrated by Fig. the combustion chamber and the crankcase. The pur-
valve which fits into the cylinder head in Fig. 15 is leaded bronze scuffing rings. The piston shown in Fig. 18. Telescopic pipes, with their stuffing boxes, are pose of the barrier is to prevent harmful combustion
shown by Fig. 16. The lower part of the spindle guide 17 is water cooled. Cooling water admission and dis- located outside the crankcase; this arrangement ensures residues from entering the running gear and thus con-
is water cooled. The valves are opened by cam action charge passages are within the piston rqd, as can be seen that there will be no contamination of the lube oil by taminating the lube oil and creating a corrosion hazard.
290 MARINE ENGINEERING LOW-SPEED DIRECT-COUPLED DIESEL ENGINES 29 1
CYLINDER LINER PISTON ROD I Additionally, the stuffing box w i ~ e soff oil that adheres
\ \ to the rod and thereby controls the leakage of oil
from the crankcase.
A stuffing box that has been designed for an engine
with the space beneath the piston open to the engine
room is shown in Fig. 21. There is one upper sealing
ring and two lower rings. Each ring is in three pieces
held together by garter springs.
For designs in which the lower sides of the pistons are
used to pump scavenging air, the sealing arrangement
shown by Fig. 21 is not suitable as an additional sealed
SKllON A-A c
LOOKING AFT
CYL.1
T
Fig. 23 Crouhead and connecting rod with guider on two sides [9] Fig. 25 Built-up cranluhoft [I 21
MARINE ENGINEERING LOW-SPEED DIRECT-COUPLED DIESEL ENGINES 293
MAIN BEARING
UPPER SHELL
MAIN BEARING
LOWER S H E L L
OIL SUMP
Fig. 26 Crankshaft bearing [8] 1 air silencer 4 bearing 7 guide blade
2 blower casing 5 shaft 8 turbine wheel
3 blower wheel 6 turbine casing 9 insulation
' Fig. 27 Turbocharger assembly [8]
nearly uniform. This can be accomplished, as shown in 1.9 Crankshaft and Crankshaft Bearings. Crank-
Fig. 22(b), by supporting the crosshead pin with a shafts are usually of the built-up type, with the cranks
flanged element which is flexible near the piston rod, made of steel castings and the shaft elements made of
which would otherwise be the region of hardest contact. forged steel. The cranks are shrunk onto the shaft ele- CONSTANT PRESSURE TURBINE BLOWER sions, high cylinder outputs were obtained also with
The crosshead in Fig. 23 is symrnetrical with four ments as illustrated by Fig. 25. Engines which have a single-acting engines. Compared with two-stroke diesel
EXHAUS
guides. The four crosshead guides are anchored to the high number of cylinders frequently have their crank- engines equipped with scavenging pumps, supercharging
columns on opposite sides. The lower end of the piston shafts made in two sections, as shown in Fig. 25. To has permitted the mean effective pressure of low-speed
rod penetrates and is secured to the cylindrical crosshead reduce the unbalanced centrifugal forces, metal is re- diesels to be almost doubled. Supercharging also en-
pin. Each end of the crosshead pin has a babbitt-lined moved from the crank webs where possible and added ables the specific fuel consumption and specific weight
slipper in way of the bearing area. Because of the danger to the opposite side so as to produce a counterweight to be reduced. A single-acting design means a simple .
of a crankcase explosion, sparks in the crankcase must effect. engine, good reliability, a long service life, minimum
be avoided. For this reason, all crosshead bearings, The crankshaft bearings are cast steel shells lined with supervision and maintenance, and simplified operation.
crosshead slides, crankpin bearings, and crankshaft bear- babbitt. Oil is admitted at the top of the bearing and CRANK A N G L E - Besides this, a single-acting engine is capable of burning
ings are always of the babbitt-lined type. An oil passage runs through oil grooves in the top half of the bearing heavy fuel oils. All of these points contribute to econ-
a
is drilled into the connecting rod to lubricate the crank- shell to the horizontal split. Figure 26 shows the oil ( A ) CONSTANT PRESSURE TURBOCHARGING omy; therefore, low-speed diesel engines are usually two-
pin bearing (see Fig. 23). supply passage to the crankshaft bearings. The manner W stroke, single-acting, and supercharged. Figure 27 is a
Provisions are made for inserting shims between the in which the bearing ~ h e l hare secured to the bedplate is PULSE TURBINE BL,OWER zm turbocharger assembly that is typical of those employed
connecting rod and the bottom-end bearing attachment. Z
with low-speed diesels.
also clearly shown in the figure, as are the tie bolts which
This permits adjustments to be made to the compression In addition to the scavenging air which is compressed
ratio. hold the engine together and resist the firing forces. In
some engine designs lubricating oil is supplied through in the turbocharger, other sources of scavenging air are
An alternative crosshead design, in which cross- often provided. Examples are piston scavenging pumps
head guides are on only one side of the crosshead, is the crankshaft; however, the bearing lubrication arrange-
which are mechanically driven by the engine itself, the
shown in Fig. 24. 'A bracket carrying the telescopic tubes ment in Fig. 26 is the one employed with most engines lower sides of the main pistons (which may be designed
of the piston cooling system is attached to the crosshead because it does not require oil passages to be bored in the as scavenging pumps), and small electric blowers (see
(see also Fig. 18). crankshaft. Section 1.3). These additional sources of scavenging
a air ensure that the engine will be operable even in the
(6) PULSE TURBOCHARGING event of a turbocharger casualty, and during starting,
Fig. 28 Constant-prarsure and puke turbodarging [9] maneuvering, and low outputs.
Section 2 The exhaust gas turbine can be applied to operate on
either the constant-pressure principle or the pulse prin-
Engine Subsystems tive pressure is directly related to the quantity of fuel ciple. As can be seen from Fig. 28, in a constant-pressure
bulped which, in turn, is related to the quantity of com- arrangement the exhaust gases from all cylinders are con-
2.1 Supercharging. Until about 1940 high cylinder were too complicated and were not suitable for opera- bustion air (oxygen) in the combustion chamber. With ducted to a receiver and from there to the gas turbine.
outputs were obtained with double-acting engine de- tion with heavy fuels. the development of gas-turbine-driven air compressors Since the pressure in the receiver tends to be the average
signs. This type of cycle permitted short engine lengths The cylinder output of a diesel engine can be increased (turbochargers) which operate with the diesel engine of the cylinder outputs, the gas turbine is provided with a
and low weights. However, the double-acting engines effectively by supercharging. The cylinder mean effec- exhaust gases, in conjunction with large cylinder dimen- gas supply of nearly constant pressure. With this ar-
MARINE ENGINEERING LOW-SPEED DIRECT-COUPLED DIESEL ENGINES
quently, it is only usable at the lower temperature levels the crankcase mechanisms than are used for lubricating 8000 -
I
I (e.g., lube oil coolers, air coolers). Fresh water, with a the cylinder linen. Since a barrier is provided which
i t low hardness and with a corrosion-preventive additive, isolates the cylinder from the crankcase (see Section 1.7)
I is used at the higher temperature levels. Cylinder liners, the use of two different lubricating oils is feasible.
11 cylinder heads, and exhaust valves are always cooled with Lubrication of the crankcase mechanisms is relatively
fresh water. The fresh-water coolant is cooled by means simple. Conventional lubricating oils of SAE-30 vis- VALVE OPEN
of a seawater-freshwater heat exchanger as illustrated by cosity are normally employed.
Fig. 32. The figure shows that the scavenging air and An engine lubricating oil diagram is shown in Fig. 33.
1 lubrication oil are cooled directly by seawater (as a re- Electrically driven pumps circulate the oil from the
sult of their low temperature levels). crankcase oil sump (Fig. 26) to the separator, where
Typically, fresh water enters the engine at 120-130 F; foreign particles, water, and water-soluble acids are -10. TDC io 20 30 ,
lower temperatures are not used due to the increased oil removed. It is then filtered and cooled, as indicated CRANK A N G L E . DEGREES
viscosity at lower temperatures and the hazard of reach- in Fig. 32, and from there goes to the bearings. Ad-
ing the combustion gas dew point with a consequent mission to the bearings is through the bearing shell (Fig. Fig. 3 5 Fuel inlection diagram
MARINE ENGINEERING
/ LOW-SPEED DIRECT-COUPLED DIESEL ENGINES
CONTROL RACK
TDC
-k - TDC
CRANK ANGLE
SHIFT FOR
REVERSING
ASTERN
1 cam 4 vent Fig. 43 Admission of starting air
2 reno pbton 5 starting air
3 starting air valve
Fig. 4 0 Stating air mechanism Fig. 41 Several distributing valves actuated by one cam
the piston is on the proper side of the top dead-center (2) The starting air system must be interlocked to
PISTON POSITION^ position to give the desired direction of shaft rotation. preclude manipulation of the starting mechanism
1 starting air only, first revolution Figure 43 illustrates the air adplission position for ahead when the engine is in the normal operating mode.
2 starting air only, s m d revolution and astern operation. Likewise, all cams which control (3) The quantity of fuel injected into the combus-
3 ignition of fuel and starting air processes in the cylinder that have unsymmetrical angles
4 normal wmbulon without stating air tion chamber during the starting period must be
5 opening of the start1n.g air valve of opening and closing with respect to the dead-center limited to prevent excessively high combustion
Fig. 42 Cylinder pressure when starting positions are turned throukh a aimilar angle. The shift pressures (see Fig. 42); the fuel-regulating mecha-
required of the fuel injection valve cam is illustrated by nism should have an override which permits the
Fig. 44. quantity of injected fuel to be increased to facili-
trated in Fig. 40. When the engine piston is just beyond of the various cylinders are actuated by means of a com- For two-stroke engines in which the pistons control the tate starting under unfavorable conditions.
the top dead-center position, the distributor valve cam, mon cam as shown in Fig. 41. scavenging and exhaust air ports (loop and cross Faveng- (4) The starting mechanism and turning gear must
driven by the engine itself, opens the distributing valve, The pressure in the cylinder when starting the engine ing) only the cams of the starting air and fuel pumps be interlocked to preclude starting the engine
thus opening the starting air valve pneumatically by is shown in Fig. 42. During the first two revolutions must be turned. In the case of uniflow two-stroke when the turning gear is engaged.
means of a servo piston. The starting air valve can be shown, the engine rotates by means of compressed air engines, the cams actuating the exhaust valves must
also be turned. There are several practical manners in which the cams
opened only when the starting air pressure is higher than only to the required starting speed. During the third can be shifted from the ahead to the astern positions.
the pressure in the combustion chamber, otherwise there revolution a limited quantity of fuel is injected into the To avoid errors during starting and reversing that
m y result in engine damage, the following requirements One possibility is an arrangement with a two-position
would be a backflow from the combustion chamber into combustion chamber and burned; the fuel quantity
the starting air pipe. In such an event fuel or lubricating limitation is necessary to avoid excessively high pres- are imposed upon the starting and reversing mechanism: coupling between the driving gear of the engine and the
camshaft; the coupling would have end positions in the
oil residues could result in an explosion. sures in the combustion chamber. During the fourth (1) The starting air system must be interlocked such ahead and astern directions. Another possibility is to pro-
It is not necessary that each cylinder have a starting cycle shown, the starting air is switched off and the that starting air can be admitted only when all vide two cams on the camshaft, one for ahead operation
air valve, but it is necessary that the engine be able to quantity of fuel injected is aa required for the running cams are in their end positions for ahead or astern and the other for astern operation; by moving the cam-
start from any crank angle. In the case of two-stroke condition desired, and the starting process is completed. operation; admission of starting air must be pre- shaft axially, either the ahead or astern cams can be
engines, this means that at least three cylinders must be To reverse an engine, the distributor cam is turned cluded when cams are in intermediate positions. placed in contact with the cam followers.
equipped with starting air valves. The distributing valves through such an angle that starting air is admitted when
111 302 MARINE ENGINEERING LOW-SPEED DIRECT-COUPLED DIESEL ENGINES
Section 3
Overall Considerations
3.1 Heavy Fuel Operation. Low-speed marine diesel considerably different with heavy fuels as compared with
engines, in general, burn heavy petroleum fuels that are standard diesel fuels. As a result, when heavy fuel is
not only extremely viscous but also contain large quanti- used, special arrangements for re paring the fuel before
ties of impurities. The constituents, properties at in- injection as well as special design features of the engine
Fig. 47 Camshaft drive gear [8] jection, combustion, and combustion residues formed are itself are required. In addition, special lubricating oils
304 MARINE ENGINEERING
FILTER
m GAS
are as follows: materials which are contiguous with the combustion gases
are maintained above the dewpoint of the combustion FEED PUMP
(1) The specsc gravity of heavy fuels is higher, in gases so that sulfuric acid will not form.
the range of 0.9404.995 as compared with diesel fuels
(9) Heavy fuels contain a number of impurities
at 0.824.86. Due to the higher specific gravity, the which can have a vitiating effect on the life of operating
separation of water from heavy fuels is considerably more parts. Oxides and sulfates of vanadium, sodium,
difficult. For this reason the filling of fuel tanks with potassium, and zinc are among the most harmful in this
ballast water is often discouraged because upon refilling respect, and all have melting points (slagging tempera- PREHEATER
with fuel, the residual water mixes with the fuel. tures) in the range of 1100 F to 1600 F. Unfortunately,
(2) Due to their higher viscosity (200-4000 Redw. several of these combine with each other and with the SEPARATORS
sec at 100 F), heavy fuels must be heated to 210-250 F to ingredients of the structural metals to form eutectic mix-
reach the low viscosity (35-125. Redw. sec) required at tures with lower melting points, generally in the range
the injection valve. of 1050 F, but in several cases, as low as 930 F. The latter HEAVY FUEL TANK
(3) Heating of heavy fuels is also necessary to main- temperature is associated with eutectic mixtures of DIESEL FUEL TANK -
tain the fuel at the proper viscosity at the injector. sodium sulfate and vanadium pentoxide which are par- (FOR MANEUVERING)
Heavy fuels can be used when maneuvering, but the fuel ticularly to be avoided.
lines to the injection valve also must be heated. For this Contamination (slagging) and corrosion often accom-
FEED PUMP
0
reason, and also in recognition of the desirability of bav-
ing diesel fuel in the lines upon shutdown, sometimes
diesel fuels are used when maneuvering and the use of
pany each other but are not necessarily present at the
same time. Generally, the two mechanisms are inter-
PREHEATER'
@= Fig. 52 Gas Inleetion for a dual-fuel engine 191
related in that accelerated corrosion results from the FUEL DOUBLE- FILTER
heavy fuels is confined to continuous operation at sea. contaminant combining with and removing the film of
(4) Due to the longer time required for the combus-
w
oxidation which normally protects the metal. There- VlSCOSlMETER 3.2 Gaseous Fuel Operation. In the case of liquefied
tion of heavy fuels, the injection times for heavy fuel and fore, in the high-temperature region (piston crown, FUEL INJECTION PUMP petroleum gas tankers that are driven by diesels, the
diesel fuel are different. Heavy fuels must be injected upper part of the liner, and cylinder head) an effective cargo boil-off can be burned in the diesel engines in con-
earlier than diesel fuels. cooling system is especially important with heavy fuels. cert with fuel oil. Since the gaseous boil-off would be
(5) Heavy fuels contain large quantities of tarry sub- (10) Due to the combustion residues formed when lost to the atmosphere if not reliquefied or burned, the
stances which must be separated and removed from the using a heavy fuel, special abrasion-resistant materials gaseous fuel burned represents a direct savings. There-
fuel because the tarry substances together with the must be selected for the cylinder liner, piston rings, and
Fig. 51 Heavy fuel oil treatment schematic
fore, low-speed diesel engines in liquefied petroleum gas
lubricating oil residues form gummy deposits which have other moving parts. tankers are sometimes adapted for "dual-fuel" operation,
a deleterious effect on piston rings, inlet and exhaust that is, the combustion of both liquid and gaseous fuels.
ports, and other parts. These materials can be separated (11) The specific fuel consumption when burning a
heavy fuel is somewhat greater than when a diesel fuel sufficiently to enable it to be pumped, it is pumped Slow-speed diesels can be adapted to burn gaseous
from the fuel by centrifuging, but it must be done when is used for the following reasons: through filters to two settling tanks, connected in fuels by mounting a gas injection valve in the cylinder
the fuel is at a moderate temperature. When the fuel is parallel, each having a capacity for 24-hr operation. In head as illustrated by Fig. 52. The gaseous fuel is under
heated above approximately~210F, the tarry materials (a), The lower heating value of heavy fuels is in the these tanks the fuel is heated again to precipitate some a pressure of approximately 55 psi and is admitted by a
dissolve and cannot be separated. Therefore, the heavy range of 17,100-17,500 Btu/lb, while that for residues. After being allowed to settle, the fuel is re- hydraulically actuated gas valve during the later phase
fuel is heated to a maximum of 185-210 F before centri- diesel fuel is 18,100-18,400 Btu/lb. For this heated and pumped to the separators. The reheat tem- of the scavenging process. The gas is directed towards
fuging. As an example, during a 24-hr period up to 880 reason, the specific fuel consumption with heavy perature must be maintained sufficiently low so that the the rising flow of scavenging air, thus ensbring a good
lb of tarry materials and matter insoluble in normal fuels is increased 2-5 percent. tarry constituents will remain in solid form and be re- mixture between the gas and air.
pentane, 615 lb of sulfur, and 13 lb of incombustible (b) The weight of fuel lost during the separation pro- moved from the fuel by the separator. In the first The major difficulty involved in the combustion of
matter may be removed from the fuel to a cylinder de- cess depends, of course, on the quality of the fuel. separator stage (purifier) a small quantity of fresh water gaseous fuels is the problem of knocking. A mean effec-
veloping 2100 hp [19]. In the extreme case cited previously, by weight is added to remove the ash content and water-soluble tive pressure of about 115 psi can be developed with a
(6) Heavy fuels have an ash content (0.03-0.5 per- about 7 percent of the fuel would be lost during acids. No water is introduced in the second stage gaseous fuel containing not more than 10 percent methane
cent mineral ashes) which must be removed insofar as separation. However, a nominal value of 1 per- (clarifier). The fuel is often reheated between the two or 5 pwcent propane. A higher concentration of
practicable due to its erosive effect in the cylinder. The cent is considered more representative of the separator stages. methane or propane requires a derating of the engine.
fuel ash content is removed during the centrifuging heavy fuels normally burned in slow-speed diesels. Two separators are sometimes installed; this provides If, however, more than 10-percent carbon dioxide or
process. for continuous availability of a clean separator, as one nitrogen is mixed with the fuel, uprating is possible.
(7) Heavy fuels may contain up to 5 percent sulfur. (12) Most heavy fuels contain highly volatile com-
ponents and tend to form gases when heated; therefore, can be operated while the other is cleaned. Additionally, Cooling of the gaseous fuel charge also can be accom-
Due to the high sulfur content, a significant quantity of two separators are advantageous in that both may be plished to advantage.
acid combustion residues passes down between the piston heaters must be placed on the upstream pressure side of
used simultaneously when one is heavily loaded and not Ignition of the gaseous fuel is accomplished by a spray
and liner. These acid residues must be prevented from the fuel line to prevent the formation of gas in the fuel performing to the desired standard. of pilot fuel which accounts for about 5 percent of the
entering the crankcase, otherwise the lubricating oil pump suction and heaters. Additionally, electric heaters After leaving the separator, the fuel is put in either of total heat input. If larger quantities of pilot fuel are
would be contaminated and consequently there would should not be used since cracking invariably takes place two day tanks that are connected in parallel. The fuel used, higher mean effective pressures are attainable.
be a corrosion hazard. Therefore a diaphragm, with a due to the high localized temperatures which form gas oil ,service pump delivers the oil from the day tanks An automatic switch-over gear is usually provided
stuffingbox for the piston rod (see Section 1.6), is required and coke in the heaters. through a preheater, filter, and viscosimeter to the fuel which enables the engine to be changed from a gaseous
between the combustion chamber and crankcase. A process for heavy-fuel preparation is shown in Fig. injection pump. The line from the last heater to the to a liquid fuel without interrupting the operation of the
(8) Due to the higher sulfur content in the fuel, there 51. After the heavy fuel is heated in the main fuel tank injection valve is heated by steam. engine. Any proportion of gaseous to liquid fuels can
306 MARINE ENGINEERING LOW-SPEED DIRECT-COUPLED DlFSEL ENGINES
I Reduction Gears
materials with the attendant higher gear *toothloadings. reduction gear, which has also been used with cross-
The reliability, high efficiency, and long life of the modern compound turbines. The configuration shown has the
reduction gear is well known and its low noise level makes second reduction helices divided to provide space for the
semar it completely acceptable in the engine room. These first reduction and is additionally referred to as a "split
factors have been in large part responsible for the secondary." The nested type may also be arranged as a
continuing popularity of the geared-turbine drive for "split primary. "
ships. Figure 10 illustrates the type of gear referred to as a
1.2 Articulation and Gear Arrangement. The early locked-train double-reduction gear. In it the power
Section 1 reduction gear designs incorporated many devices to of the single input pinion is equally divided between the
two intermediate-speed elements. Its advantage is that
minimize the effects of bending and torsion of the pinion
I Introduction and of inaccuracies in machining and alignment. How- the gear elements are proportioned for one half of the
input horsepower and are therefore smaller than would
1.1 Early History. It is generally acknowledged IZede-France had a propulsion plant of 52,000 shp ever, experience has demonstrated that such devices are
that Dr. DeLaval was the first to apply a reduction gear divided arriong four screws. The turbines were designed unnecessary, and gear elements are so proportioned and be the case with a single intermediate element. The
for ship propulsion with a 15-hp experimental unit in by Parsons and were of the reaction type. The main machined that uniform tooth pressures are obtained overall size and weight are reduced, but offsetting this
1892. This was followed by Sir Charles Parsons with turbines contained a total of more than 800,000 blades without the use of mechanical devices to compensate for advantage is the added number of parts, the need to
.his 10-hp experimental geared-turbine unit in 1897. and weighed 1065 tons. pinion deflections. provide torsionally flexible shafts between the first and
However, these were experimental units and functional With the further development of the steam turbine, Figure l(a) represents the simplest arrangement of a second reductions, and the need to "time" the assembly
marine reduction gears did not make their debut until still higher turbine speeds could be used to advantage marine reduction gear, i.e., one pinion meshing with a to equaliie the power split between the two trains. The
some years later. and the single-reduction gear no longer met the need. gear as used, for instance, for connecting a propeller to a term "dual tandem" is also applied to this type of gear.
Just after the turn of the century, the steam turbine Engineers began development of the double-reduction diesel engine or to an electric motor. It is not used for Figure l(g) is a locked-train type of double-reduction
was being championed for ship propulsion by Sir Charles gear, where practically no limits were imposed on the propelling equipment with a turbine drive but, on the gear for a cross-compound turbine. This arrangement
Parsons and others. I n a study in 1904 of the prob* speed ratio that could be obtained. This permitted both other hand, it has found a wide application for turbine has become standard for high-powered naval ships and is
bility of the steam turbine becoming a successor to the the turbines and propellers to be operated a t speeds driven auxiliary equipment on board ship such as coming into use for higher-powered merchant ships
reciprocating engine, Admiral George W. Melville and suitable for their individual maximum efficiencies. generators
- and circulating pumps. because it minimiaes the total weight and the size of the
Mr. John H. MacAlpine, consulting engineers, reported: Double-reduction gearing was first used about 1917. Figure l(b) is a drive with two pinions as used fre- assembly.
"If one could devise a means of reconciling, in a practical For a few years during and after the first world war, quently with diesel engines of comparatively large power. Figure l(h) is a planetary gear. It has a single input
manner, the necessary high speed of revolution of the many ships were equipped with this type of gearing. I
It is not used for direct connection to high-speed turbines, "sun pinion" which drives three or more "planet gears."
turbine with the comparatively low rate of revolution Due to many unknown factors entering into the design but is often used in the second reduction gear unit of a These planet gears are mounted on a planet carrier
required by an efficient propeller, the problem would be and use of this new type of reduction gear and also due turbine drive using doublereduction gears. which is solidly connected to the output coupling. The
solved, and the turbine would practically wipe out the to the unusual operating conditions during the first years outer "ring gear" is held stationary in the gear housing.
Figure l(c) represents the early type of single-reduc-
reciprocating engine for the propulsion of ships. The of use, considerable difficulties were experienced and This type of gear has been applied to turbine-generator
solution of this problem would be a stroke of great tion gear for a turbine drive, the principal difference
many casualties of reduction gears occurred, which drive gears and to main turbine drive first reductions.
genius." Parsons in 1909 said, "The solution may be between this reduction gear and the one shown in Fig.
more or less slowed the general adoption of double- l(b) being in the number of pinion bearings. The third It has also been considered for the second reduction of
found in reverting to some description of gearing. . . and reduction gearing. However, by adhering to sound main reduction gears.
bearing located between the two helices is necessary
if a satisfactory solution can be found, then the field of design principles, it was possible to eliminate early Many other reduction gear arrangements are possible
the turbine at sea will be further extended." mistakes and develop satisfactory double-reduction because of the wide tooth face in relation to the diameter
of the pinion. While many ships with reduction gears and have been used. These can be very special as in
Parsons carried on further research and experimental
work in applying the helical gear to large-scale marine
gears and to greatly increase the application of this type
of power transmission. This is not to suggest that the
built according to Fig. l(c) are still in successful oper* cases where more than one type ef prime mover is
tion, this design must a t the present time be considered coupled to the propeller.
installations, and in 190!9-1910 he equipped the Vespaaian development of double-reduction gears immediately
with a geared-turbine plant. The gear was rated a t obsolete. It was used for speed ratios up to or slightly 1.3 Methods of Manufacture. Nearly all gears
made single-reduction gears obsolete. For higher- t
above 20 to 1. produced in the U. S. have their teeth cut by the hobbing
1095 hp and reduced the turbine speed of 1450 rpm to a powered naval ships with propeller speeds above about
Figure l(d) is the usual arrangement of a double process. In this process the cutting tool is a hob, a
propeller speed of 73 rpm. 200 rpm, single-reduction gears remained in general use
reduction gear for turbinedriven ships. The two input rotary cutter having one or more leads, whose teeth are
George Westinghouse, in 1909, demonstrated in a shop until the early 1930's. Then, the higher rotational
pinions are driven by the two elements (high-pressure accurately formed to the "basic rack" tooth form selected.
test a 6000-hp gear which reduced the speed from a speeds of the more modern steam turbines brought about
1500-rpm turbine to a 300-rpm hydraulic dynamometer. the demise of single-reduction gearing for turbine drives and low-pressure turbines) of a cross-compound turbine. I n the hobbing process the teeth are cut and the true
This gear was the forerunner of the 6500-hp gears Power is divided between the two input pinions by the involute form of the tooth flanh is generated by the
in all categories. Single-reduction drives still remain the
installed in the collier Neptune a short time later. turbine characteristics and is normally split approxi- continuous rotation of the hob and the gear blank.
standard, however, , for high- and intermediate-speed
The adoption of high-speed helical reduction gears in diesel engine service. mately equally between the two turbines. Note that The hob determines the dimensions of the teeth in the
connection with marine propulsion was rapidly accepted The development of propulsion gearing has been one of the second reduction gear is common to both high- plane normal to the teeth. The other factors determin-
by engineers all over the world, and this type of equip- a continuous improvement and refinement in materials pressure! and low-pressure trains but that, although it ing the tooth geometry, number of teeth, and helix angle
ment had a very rapid development. At the end of 1910 and in manufacturing techniques and equipment to transmits the power from both turbines to the gear shaft, are obtained by selecting change gear ratios for the
the total power of geared marine turbines was about provide greater reliability and longer life. The horse- the tooth portion is designed to transmit the power from hobbing machine; the selection of the change gear
15,000 shp, whereas 30 years later marine propulsion of power ratings of gears have increased to keep pace with one turbine. The terms "tandem" and "articulated" are ratio provides a choice of these variables without a
this type in service totaled over 100,000,000 shp. It is the requirements for larger and faster ships. There are also applied to this arrangement; tandem because of the change of tooling. By adjusting the helix angle (which
interesting to note that the last large ship built with only a few step-advances that can be identified, the step disposition of the first and second reductions, and affects the tooth profile in the plane of rotation), it is
direct-connected turbines was the passenger liner from single to double reduction, the introduction of articulated because a flexible coupling is generally possible to use a given hob (which dictates the tooth
Ile-&-France, which went into service in 1927. The welding to the construction of gear wheels and casings, provided between the first reduction or primary gear profile in the plane normal to the teeth) and produce a
wheel and the second reduction or secondary pinion. favorable number of teeth within rather broad limits.
KEDUCTION GEARS
MARINE ENGINEERING
For this reason, manufacturers standardize with a small of the face width which indicates the heaviest tooth
number of hobs. contact.
The other cutting process which has been used in the In the lapping process, the gear is rotated in mesh with
U. 5.. and is still used abroad for large gears is shaping. its own pinion or pinions, or with a cast iron lap having
I n this process the shaping cutter is either in the form of the same face width. An abrasive is placed between the
a basic rack section or a small gear, stroking in timed mating teeth and lapping is continued until proper
relation to the rotation of the blank to generate the tooth surface h i s h , involute, and face contact are obtained.
form. In the grinding process, as applied to gears of large
Post-cutting processes are generally applied to further diameter, the flanks of the gear teeth are formed by the
refine the accuracy and surface finish of the gear teeth. tip of a grinding wheel (which passes over the flanks to
I n the shaving process, which is the most popular in the generate an involute form) and by the action of the
U. S., a multitooth cutter in the form of a small gear is @;rindkgmachine to generate the correct tooth form and
pressed tight in mesh with the gear being shaved. As helix angle.
(a) Single reduction, single input the gear is rotated rapidly and the shaving cutter fed Although not within the scope of this chapter, the
(f) Double reduction, single input, locked train
slowly across the gear face, a very light cut is taken from inspection, installation, and alignment procedures used
the tooth flanks. This results in a finer tooth surface in connection with reduction gears can have a major
and a more precise involute form than can be produced impact on their successful operation. These subjects
by hobbing. The shaving process also makes possible are comprehensively covered by reference [I],' which was
the correction of slight mismatch in the helix angle of prepared by the Society's Panel M-12, and reference 121,
the gear and pinion by selectively shaving that portion which describes methods used with naval ships.
Section 2
Tooth Design hctors
2.1 Tooth Contact Pressure. The most important neither of these expressions was an accurate measure
factor in the design of a reduction gear is the tooth of the actual load-carrying capacity of a reduction gear
contact pressure; that is, the pressure which exists because they did not take into account the contact
between the mating tooth surfaces when force is trans- pressure between mating teeth. The contact pressure
mitted from one to the other. This factor determines is the proper design criterion because it is the factor that
(b) Single reduction, double input the durability of the working surfaces of the teeth. determines the satisfactory operation and durability of
The tangential force transmitted per unit of gear face gears.
width is determined from the expression: For many years, in the U. S., the allowable gear tooth
(9) Double reduction, double input, locked train pressure for turbine drives was related directly to the
pinion diameter so that the loading was specified as
"pounds per inch of face per inch of pitch diameter."
where This was logical since the curvature of the pinion tooth
W t = total tangential tooth load, lb as it affects contact pressure, or more precisely the
F , = effective face width (at pitch diameter), in. compressive stress a t the contact surface, is directly
R P M , = pinion revolutions per minute proportional to the pinion diameter. Then,
H P = horsepower transmitted (per mesh) .
(allowable) = J . d
I
where dx)
& = (4580 Z sin 2$ d~
The first term includes the modulus of elmticiti and
(11) .
Lam = average length of contact lines^ geometric factors which are chosen by the gear designer.
Z = length of line of action, in. However, within practical limits, for steel gears with well-
P, = normal base pitch, in. proportioned tooth geometry, this term cannot be varied
Dividing equation (6) by equation (7) the loading per significantly.
The second term is the square root of the K-factor and
unit of contact line length is equal to
shows that gears of equal K-factor will have nearly equd
compressive stress. With the compressive stresspropor
tional to the square root of the K-factor, it would follow
where that if the allowable stress is considered to be directly
proportional to the material hardness, then the allowable
Wnl = tooth load per inch of contact line, lb/in. K-factor should be proportional to the square of the
The radius of curvature bf the pinion tooth at the pitch material hardness.
diameter is Despite the apparent mathematical exactness of these
formulas, many effects on tooth durability are not
d sin 4 evaluated by them. Some of these effects, such aa the
PP = 5-&G& bending and torsion of the pinion, can be analyzed; but
where others can be evaluated only by service experience.
Among the, latter are the prec&ion-with which the tooth
p, = radius of curvature, in. surfaces are formed and the tolerance to small misalign-
4 = pressure angle in plane of rotation = ments, vibratory forces, and the inevitable foreign
tan-' -tan 4, particles which find their way into the teeth mesh.
cos # Satisfactory values for the K-factor have been estab-
#* = base helix angle (helix angle at base circle lished by experience for the materials in common use,
diameter) = sin-' sin # cos 4, and the commonly specified values are discussed in
and of the gear tooth is Section 3.8. I t may be noted that the K-factor controls
the size of the reduction gear unit. For a given set of
D sin 4 horsepower and rpm conditions, the volume and weight
= GG& = RP, of the gear will vary in nearly inverse proportion to the
Fig. 2 Imoluh geometry K-factor. I t is alm significant that the K-factor and
where the pitch, or coarseness, of the teeth are independent.
D = pitch diameter of gear, in. Under the as~umptionthat the tooth pressure is uniformly
R = gear ratio distributed over the contact lines, that is, uniformly
(allowable) = K d (4) K---= Wt R + l JR+l - 126,050-HP ( R + l ) distributed from the tip to the root of each contacting
F. F..d R R RPM, .dp.F. R The relationships of helical involute geometry involv- tooth, the contact compressive stress is affected to only a
ing pressure angles, lineg of contact, lines of action, etc. slight degree by a change in pitch. However, the
where are described in numerous places in the gear literature, practical requirements for greater tip relief with coaxser
R = gear ratio It can be shown that the K-factor is a good measure of e.g., reference [3]. teeth make the tooth extremities of coarser teeth less
K = experimentally determined constant tooth surface stress, i.e., the maximum compressive The tooth elements in contact may be considered to be effective in carrying their share of the load. In other
stress to which the tooth materials in contact are elements of two tangent cylinders in contact under an words, the assumption of uniformity of tooth pressure
This factor K representing the allowable tooth surface applied force. The compressive stress between two
stress is the familiar "K-factor" by which gear loadings subjected. from tip to root, which leads to a minimal calculated
Referring to Fig. 2 it can be seen that the total tooth cylinders is given by the Hertz equation: value of surface stress, is less valid for coarser teeth.
are now generally specified. Note that the K-factor is
simply the loading per inch face per inch diameter, J in loading in a helical involute gear is carried by a series of Unfortunately, there is no precise procedure for evaluat-
equation (3), multiplied by (R + l)/R. Where gear straight contact lines extending diagonally from the tip
to the root of each meshing pair of teeth. The total
ing this effect.
2.2 Tooth Bending Strength. I n addition to provid-
design detsils are known the K-factor oan be determined where
by the failowing relationahips: force normal to the surfaces in contact is ing the surface necessary to sustain the contact loading
31 6 MARINE ENGINEERING REDUCTION GEARS 3 17
imposed upon gear teeth, the teeth must also withstand By substituting equations (6), (7), and (8) into contact. But the sliding component increases with the required to seleat the tooth form, niaterials, surface
the bending moments tending to bend or break the teeth equation (14), the bending stress in the root of the helical distance from the pitch line and is a maximum at the finish, and lubricant to avoid scoring difficulties.
at their roots. Since the teeth are cyclicly loaded at a gear teeth becomes tooth extremities, tip and root. This sliding action, if Coarser teeth are more prone to score than finer teeth
high rate, the bending stresses in the root portion of the sufFiciently severe, can cause scoring of the tooth so that with coarser teeth it may be necessary to modify
tooth must be kept well within the fatigue or endurance surfaces. This scoring or galling is an actual fusing or the involute form to relieve the contact pressure at the
limit of the material. welding together of particles of the contacting surfaces. tooth tips to avoid scoring. Lubricating oils vary in
To arrive at a formula for bending stress, it is necessary Equation (15) contains the important variables Under the continued motion, particles are torn from one their ability to prevent scoring, and it may be necessary
to make the same assumptions of uniform disthbution of affecting bending stress. Further refinement, or a more surface and either deposited on the other surface or in some gear designs to use oil having a higher E P or
tooth pressure over all limes of contact. The loading per precise assessment of the stress as it determines the released. "extreme pressure" quality.
inch of contact line developed earlier is bending fatigue strength of the teeth, can be made by Scoring results from tooth pressure in conjunction Scoring, which results in a serious deterioration of the
including two additional factors. One is the compressive with a sliding velocity. The tendency to score is usually tooth surfaces, is not to be confused with the minor
stress across the tooth root cross section due to the rfdial assessed by means of a scoring or PVT factor which scratching of the tooth surfaces that results from the
component of the tooth load which acts to reduce the places a numerical value on a combination of the contact passage of minute particles between the teeth. Scratch-
For a spur gear tooth the highest bending stress occurs bending stress on the tension side; the other is the stress pressure and sliding velocity. A definition of the terms ing under certain light reflection can appear to be scoring.
when the load is acting a t the extreme tip of the tooth. concentration created by the root radius adjacent to the and formulas for calculating P,VT can be found in [6]. Scoring, however, will be rough to the touch. For a
The tooth form factor Y which relates the tooth loading critical bending cross section. Both of these additional A number of additional factors. such as lubricant and comprehensive discussion of the various modes of gear
to bending stress a t the root is factors are included in the bending strength derivation tip relief, influence the tendency of gears to score such tooth failure and some practical experiences in thi$ regard,
.e in the military specification for reduction gears [4]. that considerable expertise and practical experience are see reference 151.
Referring to equation (15) it can be seen that the bend-
ing stress Sa is directly proportional to the tangential
where tooth load per inch of face and inversely proportional to
the first power of the tooth dimensions. Other variables
t = tooth thickness at root, in. are of secondary importance and change very little with
h = tooth height dimension, in. well-proportioned teeth in the usual range of helm angle
These tooth dimensions are shown in Fig. 2. For a spur and pressure angle. As a good approximation, the tear Design
gear, the bending stress at the root is computed as bending stress formula can thus be simplified to
3.1 Determination of Approximate Size of Gears. The loading per inch of face per inch of pitch diameter
While the detail design of a reduction gear requires a for the first reduction can now be computed.
(I3) where high degree of skill, it is fairly easy to establish approxi-
mate dimensions of a reduction gear. As an example,
This s8me relationship also holds for helical gears but, C = a constant depending on the tooth propor- consider a doublereduction gear which is to be designed
although the assumption that the loading is tip-applied tions, helix angle, pressure angle, etc. to meet the following requirements : 125.5 lb/in-in.
is good for spur or low helix angle gears, it is invalid for Wt The next step is to equate two expressions for the
steeper helii angles where the loading extends diagonally U = unit loading = - NDP Shaft horsepower. . . . . . . . . . .25,000 hp at 108rpm
Fa tangential tooth load as follows,
over a portion of the tooth. Therefore, a diagonal NDP = normal diametral pitch of teeth H P turbine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12,500 hp at 6100 rpm
loading factor should be applied. This is particularly LP turbine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12,500 hp at 4100 rpm wt = 126,050 . HP = Jl . Fa.d
true when comparing designs with different helix angles. The normal diametral pitch is in inverse proportion to First reduction K-factor . . . . .K1 = 140 d . RPM
The stress, as given in the foregoing, should be reduced the linear dimensions of the tooth cross sections and is Second reduction K-factor. . . .Ke = 110 solving for dsF,
by a factor, k, which is a function of the helix angle. therefore an accurate reference for tooth size. As a 126,050 HP -
Equation (13) then becomes result, the unit loading, which is simply the tooth loading
A conventional arrangement, as illustrated by Fig. l(d), d ' ~ ,= - (126,050)(12,500) = 2058
haa been selected and suitable dimensions for the pitch J . RPM (125.5) (6100)
per inch of face multiplied by the normal diametral diameters and face widths are to be computed.
pitch, is a convenient measure of bending stress, just as Generally, the most economical reduction gear is one
The H P and LP turbines develop equal horsepower; where the pinion diameter is as small as possible with
the K-factor is a measure of surface stress. The allow- however, the H P turbine turns faster than the LP
where able unit loadings are generally in the range of 6000 to relation to its working face. However as will be seen
turbine. As a result, the H P side will require a larger later, the face width-to-diameter ratio cannot be too high
8000. However, this range may be safely exceeded with gear reduction and will control the size of the second
k = diagonal loading factbr DroDer standards of alignment accuracy, metallurgy, etc. if excessive deflections are to be avoided. Ratios of 2.0
reduction elements; therefore, it will be computed first. to 2.25 represent good practice and 2.25 is selected. With
High-powered naval vessels employ unit loads well The overall reduction ratio of the H P side is 6100 to 108.
Values for the diagonal loading factor are given in Table above 10,000. this stipulatipn, the computations may proceed:
1. Factors for interinediate values of the helix angle As a first approximation, the ratio of the second reduction
From the considerations of bending stress alone, it can be taken as the square root of the overall ratio F, = 2.25 d
may be determined by interpolation. would appear quite easy to lower the bending stress minus 1.0. (For a locked-train gear, 3.0 would be added
simply by increasing the size of the teeth. However, to the square root of the overall ratio.) The second
this entails compromises with surface stress, scoring, and reduction ratio then becomes
Table 1 Diagonal Loading Factors noise considerations; consequently the tooth pitch must and the first reduction pinion diameter is
be selected to provide the best balance of all factors. dl = @E= 9.71 in.
HXLIXANGLE k
2.3 Tooth Scoring Factor. The action of two involute
tooth surfaces when rotating in unison is such that the with an effective face width of
contacting surfaces both roll and slide over each other. afid the first reduction ratio is
At the pitch line point of contact, the sliding component
Fe1= (2.25)(9.71) = 21.8 in.
is zero and the contacting surfaces are in pure rolling The first reduction gear is next computed aa
MARINE ENGINEERING REDUCTION GEARS
D l = Rid1 = (8.66)(9.71) = 84.1 in. between the two helices, the separation after this axial r . F1
Similar cdculations can now be made for the second shift will be yl on the helix ne& to the coupling m d yz
reduction : on the helix away from the coupling. The torsional
deflection in the space between the helices has no effect
J z = Kz- Rz = 'lo 6'52 = 95.4 lb/in-in. on the separation. The separations will then be
Rz 1 + 6.52 1 + This LP first reduction is larger than it would be if it
were designed to the maximum permissible K-factor, but
this may be offset by the economy of using the same part
for both first reduction gears.
The pitch diameters as determined in the foregoing
must now be laid out to determine if centerline positions
23,460 in. and other arrangement considerations are acceptable. where
The optimum gear arrangement may require adjusting yl = tooth separation at driving end, in.
Again selecting F , = 2.25 d, the second reduction pinion the choice of ratios between first and second reduction0
diameter becomes y~ = tooth separation opposite from drioing end, in.
and the choice of face width-to-diameter ratim.
With the approximate diimeters and face widths as c = -where 4 = diameter of pinion bore;
d za = A
23 460 = 10,430 in.'
determined in the foregoing, the designer will next check d4-d,d
2.25 c = 1.0 for a solid pinion
to determine that bending and torsional deflections are
acceptable. Formulas for these deflectionsare developed J = tooth loading, lb/in-in.
in the following section. He may select a lower L I D F , = effective face Foidth of pinion, in.
with an effective face width of d = pitch diameter of pinion, in.
ratio if these deflections are too high and then adjust
Fez = (2.25)(21.8) = 49.0 in. diameters and face widths accordingly. These equations are based on a uniform distribution
Tooth pitch is then selected to provide the best of tooth pressure, endwise freedom to equalize load
and a second reduction gear diameter of balance between bending stress, scoring factor, and noise. between both helices, an effective diameter for torsion
Dz = (21.8)(6.53) = 142.1 in. The best compromise in this regard is generally the finest equal to the pitch diameter, and a s h a modulus for
pitch permitted by the bending stress or unit loading steel equal to 12.0 X lo6psi.
The LP first reduction can be proportioned in the limits. This will result in an acceptable bending stress, 3.3 Bending Pinion Deflection. In addition to tor-
same manner, but it is desirable to design the arrange minimum scoring factor, and minimum noise level. sional pinion deflections, the tooth loading will cause the
ment such that the second reduction pinions on both the Tooth pitch, addendum, dedendum, pressure angle, pinion to deflect due to bending stress as shown in rig. 3. Fi. 3 PMonddecHon
HP and LP sides are identical. Since the first reduction etc., and tooth proportions, are made to suit the stan- The pinion can be assumed to be uniformly loaded, m d
gear speed on the LP side must be the same as that on dards for which the manufacturer has tooling. These by using the deflection equation for a simply suppotbed,
the HP side (704 rpm), the first LP reduction ratio will be: standards are in small enough increments that no uniformly loaded beam, the tooth mparation due to
significant compromise is involved. Numbers of teeth bending is found to be d i i t i o n and amount of the helix angle corrections are
are chosen to provide "hunting tooth" combinations known, the light-torque contact pattern will be a good
between mating pinions and gears, and diameters or indication of the eontact pattern under operating
Proceeding as before helix angles are adjusted to the precise values determined conditions.
by the numbers of teeth. A hunting tooth combination where Such a light-torque contact check will be made a t the
is one in which the numbers of pinion and gear teeth have factory to confirm the correct machining and assembly
no common prime factor. This means that each tooth f = tooth separation due to deflection, in.
F = distance between ends of bertrings, in. of the unit, and the check will be repeated in the ship
126,050 - H P -- (119.5)(4100) = 3216 in. 8 thus mesh
(126,050)(12,500) will with every tooth of the mating element and installation to confirm that the factory alignment has
d l Z ~=,
J1 . R P M avoid any wear or tooth spacing pattern that can The remaining terms are as defined previously. been duplicated. These contact chmks can be made by
give rise to asub-harmonicof the tooth meshing frequency. This expression is based on a uniform distribution of observing the transfer of a marking compound such as
Selecting F , = 2.25 d As noted previously, the design of gears is based on the tooth pressure, the tooth pressure acting over the red lead, Prussim Blue, or light layout lacquer, from one
Fi:.
dl a = - - - 1429 in.'
tooth pressure being uniformly distributed across the
entire face width. Many factors adversely aiTect this
distance between the ends of the bearings, the effective dement to the other. Uniform transfer of compound
diameter for bending equal to the pinion pitch diameter over the fuli face width will indicate uniform face contact
tqoth pressure distribution and must be taken into including the space between helices, the pinion simply under light loads. While satisfactory contact checks
dl =9- = 11.26in.
account. Among these factors are torsional and bending supported at the inner ends of the besrings, and the c m be made with v q light torques, they can be made
Fd = (2.25)(11.26) = 25.3 in. deflections of the pinion, accuracy of manufacture, modulus of elasticity for steel equal to 30.0 X lo6psi. with greater reliability with higher torquea. When
Dl = (11.26)(5.82) = 65.5 in. deflections due to centrifugal force, strains due to A generally accepted value for the allowable deflection light-loads are not sufficient to bring about uniform
temperature variations, and casing distortions due to due to torsion and bending is 0.001 in. However, other contact, a quantitative measure of face contact can be
It may be desirable to use the same first reduction temperature differences and hull deflections. Two of d e d s can add to these calculated values. The totd made by gaging the opening between meshing teeth with
gear on the LP side asused on the HP side. In this case, these factors, torsional and bending deflections of the d e c t can be observed by tooth contact patterns under feeler gages graduated in 0.0001-in. steps.
D
dl='-"- pinion, are important in proportioning gear elements and, full-load operation,or by estimating from experience on Despite the care which m y be taken in factory and
- 14.45 in. fortunately, are readily evaluated. similar gears, or by analysis. This sum may exceed installation tests, the find quality of tooth contact must
Ri 5.82
3.2 Torsional Pinion Deflection. When' subjected 0.001, but the gearing can be made perfectly satisfactory be judged after full-power operation in the ship. For
Fel = 21.8 in.
to a uniform tooth pressure, a pinion will deflect torsion- by machining corrections into the h d i angles so that this observation, the teeth of each pinion or gear may be
D l = 84.1 in. ally as shown in Fig. 3. The teeth will separate from the the tooth contact will be uniform under f d - l d operat- coated in a band extending across each face with copper
126,050 H P - (126,0a)(12,500) mating gear teeth by the distance y. However, since the
W t= d l . R P M - (14.45) (4100) = 26,600 lb pinion is always free to shift endwise to balance the load ing conditions. When this is done, the cold light-torque by the application of a weak acid copper d p h a t e
contact pattern will not be uniform. But since the solution, or with a thin mat of layout lacquer.
3N GEARS 32 1
MARINE ENGINEERING
ck difFiculties of this type. When investigating potential source of torsional vibration. As discussed in Chapter
problems of this type, the first step is for the gear 11, the first three modes of torsional vibration warrant
manufacturer to state the allowable difference between careful analysis. I n the first mode of torsional vibration
the static reactions of the forward and after slow-speed with a geared-turbine drive, the angular vibratory
gear bearings. The allowable differences usually fall motion is greatest a t the propeller, but the vibratory
'
in the range of 20 to 30 percent of the static reactions, torque is a maximum at the reduction gear. This mode
and must often be assumed for preliminary studies. generally occurs within the operating range, being well
Beyond this point a technique, similar to that described down in the operating range with arrangements having
in Chapter 11, is employed to ensure that there is long shafts but relatively high in the operating range
adequate flexibility in the shafting system to avoid an and potentially dangerous with very short shafting
excessive variation in the slow-speed gear bearing arrangements.
reactions and to allow reasonable alignment tolerances The first mode of torsional vibration must be evaluated
to be specified. to ensure that the vibratory torque in the gear train,
3.5 Other Deflections. There are other deflections when added to the torque transmitted under steady
that can act to affect the uniformity of tooth contact power conditions, will not be deleterious to the reduction
acrbss the tooth faces. The gear housing structure will gearing.
S i w = WEIGHT
GEAR PER PINION OR
OFWINO deflect under the forces applied to the bearings and may The inertia and elastic factors of the turbines and gears
E R . TOTAL REACTION PER BEIRlNO deflect to misalign the teeth; an example would be the
case in which the support of one pinion bearing is more
have no significant effect on the first critical speed; it is
controlled by the inertia of the propeller and entrained
m bD REMION
---ASTERN REACTION flexible than the support of the bearing at the opposite water, the stiffness of the shafting, and the number of
end of the pinion. propeller blades.
Gear casings are also subject to thermal strains and The second mode of torsional vibration is one in which
these can affect tooth alignment. For instance, the the two turbine branches vibrate in opposition and it
casing support structure for the bearings in the middle may occur in the operating range. When this is the
of a double-reduction gear housing may be at a higher case, vibratory torques must be evaluated as for the first
temperature than structure which supports the end critical. However, by employing a so-called "nodal
bearings. driveJJarrangement, it is possible to render the second
The rotating elements are also subject to elastic and mode incapable of excitation. In a nodal drive arrange-
thermal strains. Gear rims that are attached to their ment, the two turbine branches are tuned by adjusting
hubs by a series of thin plates or cone members are the dimensions of the quill shafts, such that they have
deformed by the action of centrifugal forces. The design identical frequencies with the slow-speed gear, shafting,
must be such that these deflections do not have a signifi- and propeller considered nodal points. As a result, all
Fig. 4 Typical reduction gear bearing reaction diagram
cant effect on the tooth portion. motion in the second mode is in the turbine branches and
Thermal strains can also be important, particularly propeller excitation cannot excite this mode since the
with wide face widths. If the pinion whose teeth mesh propeller is on a node.
a t a higher rate is allowed to reach a temperature The third mode of torsional vibration, in which the
3.4 Slow-Speed Gear Misalignment. An important tank provided beneath the slow-speed gear (see Fig. 6 of higher than its mating gear wheel, the uniformity slow-speed gear is an antinode, may be of concern. It is
source of misalignment in the second reduction mesh can Chapter 1) and, therefore, their foundations become very of tooth contact across the faces of both helices will usually well above the operating range, but the trend
be due to the differencein the magnitude of the forward warm when at operating temperature, causing an atten- be affected. toward larger numbers of propeller blades may cause it
and after slow-speed gear bearing reactions [7]. Figure dant thermal rise in the position of the slow-speed 3.6 Critical Speeds. Pinion and gears, designed as to be of importance in the future.
4 is a typical bearing reaction diagram for a double- bearings. On the other hand, little heat is generated in they are for stiffness to resist tooth forces, have lateral It is not possible to avoid tooth separation and the
reduction gear. It may be seen that the gear bearing line shaft bearings, and they operate at a temperature critical speeds that are well above any operating speed. attendant banging sound from the gearing during
reactions consist of one or more components due to the little above the ambient. This being the case, it is They will run free of vibration with normal procedures deceleration through a critical speed with little or no
torque loadings and a component due to the static unavoidable that the l i e shafting have an influence on for balancing. Balance is a particularly important power being transmitted by the gearing, or when a critical
weight of the pinion or gear supported. With the excep- the slow-speed gear bearing reactions when the plant consideration with the first reduction pinion since it occurs at very low power. However, this is a transient
tion of the slow-speed gear bearing reactions, none are goes from a cold to the operating condition. When rotates at turbine speed, and it must be given the same condition at low torque levels and is not damaging to
affected by external influences. However, such is far going from a cold to the operating condition, the slow- high degree of dynamic balance as the turbine. the gears.'
from the case with the slow-speed gear bearings. When speed gear bearings will rise about 15 to 30 mils higher Coupling shafts connecting the turbine to the pinion 3.7 Gear Case. The function of the gear case is to
the static loads imposed on the forward and after slow- than the line shaft bearings. are an important element in determining the lateral furnish adequate support for the bearings as well as to
speed gear bearings are different in magnitude, as Prior to the late 1950Js, misalignments due to this critical speeds of the turbine rotor-coupling-pinion provide an oil-tight enclosure for the reduction gear.
opposed to being equal as shown in Fig. 4, the resultant source were generally disregarded and the slow-speed assembly and must be considered in evaluating turbine Typical gear cases may be seen in Figs. 5 and 6. All
reactions will not be in the same direction. This will gear shaft was aligned concentric to the line shafting. critical speeds. ' journal bearing load reactions are in planes perpendicular
cause the forward and after gear bearing journals to It is easily shown that*the forward slow-speed gear The combination of the propeller, shafting, gears, and to the axis of the revolving shafts. In many instances,
ride in different positions within their bearing clearances. bearing on many of the older ships carried no static load turbines forms a system which can vibrate torsionally in and particularly in connection with double-reduction
The slow-speed pinions are not subjected to a similar when in the operating condition. It is speculated that response to the impulses from the propeller blades. With gears, the bearing supports will have to support bearings
influence; therefore, there results a crossed-axis condition the disregard of this factor led to a number of their the very early gear designs, manufacturing irregularities at different elevations. It is of the utmost importance
between the slow-speed pinions and gear. problems. in the gear teeth occasionally were a source of serious that these bearing supports including the cap have
The foundations of slow-speed gear bearings and line Although many obstacles are often encountered, if torsional vibration; however, the precision with which sufficient structural stiffness to prevent any measurable
shaft bearings are completely dissimilar. Slow-speed pursued sufficiently early in the design stage it is usually modern gears are manufactured has eliminated this as a deflection under varying load conditions. Due to the
I gear bearings are located very close to the lube oil sump possible to design a system that will not experience
MARINE ENGINEERING REDUCtiON GEARS
-
AFT
AFT END F L E W T l q
main gear casing. Two, three, or four points of support with which the teeth are machined, the gear case offers
direction of rotation of the different shafts and the loca- studied and compared with the structure and rigidity of between the gear case and its foundation can effectively
the foundation below the gear case whereby the gear cape a means of further quieting by designing t o minimine the
tion of pinions in reference to gear bearing loadings, Fig. accomplish this isolation. transmission of sound.
4, reactions may occur a t any angle to the axis and it is is secured by bolting to the ship structure. The gear Except for small auxiliary gears, the casing has separate
casing generally is rigidly bolted to the foundation to Some of the smaller gear cases are made of steel cast-
important that the bearing cap construction takes this inspection covers for convenience in inspecting the con- ings. However, in-the propulsion gear siaes, the casings
into account. It must be borne in mind that for satis- form ti combined structure to prevent deflections between dition of the gear teeth, and is arranged so that bearings,
the gear and pinion axes which may be caused by deflec- are of fabricated steel construction. Some castings may
factory operatian of the gears and to minimiae wear the flexible coupliiga, and oil sprays may be inspected and be employed in the fabrication for the heavier sections,
revolving shafts must operate continuously parallel to tion in the ship structure when operating in a heavy sea. replaced without having to dismantle large sections of the
Since the strains in the hull due to the loading of the but the trend is sway from castings in favor of sections
each other. The gear c w construction is the only means casing. burned out of heavy plate or formed from plate material.
provided to maintain the diierent shafts in their correct ship and to the forces imposed by the seaway are The casing enclosure acts to attenuate the noise that is
imposed on the gear casing, designers are attracted to 3.8 Pinions and Gear Wheels. Pinions am made of
relation to each other. generated by the meshing teeth. Even thaugh the most a one-piece forging and may be hollow-bored to accom-
The construction and stBneaa of the gear case must be means for isolating strains in the ship's hull from the
effective means of reducing gear noise is the precision modate a quill shaft. The requirement for strength and
MARINE ENGINEERING
REDUCTION GEARS 325
/ TURBINE ROTOR
1
bearing is generally provided with a sight-flow and ther-
mometer fitting in a visible location so as to provide an I
preferable to use a "single-ended" flexible coupling with
a tooth-element coupling at one end and a solid coupling
of oil between two halves of a torus. -The torque tram-
mitted can be controlled, therefore, by controlling the
indication of performance. As a sample of oil leaving at the other end. In t h i case the long shaft can deflect volume of oil in the coupling. It can be arranged to
the bearing passes through the sight flow (or bubbler) it elastically as a cantilever beam to accommodate the quickly diseharge the oil in the coupling to disconnect
provides a visible jet of oil that can be seen at some lateral offset. the load, and to reconnect the load by readmitting oil.
distance, giving assurance that the bearing is being Couplings between the h t reduction gears and second A hydraulic coupling will absorb energy to bring the
properly lubricated. This oil also passes over a ther- reduction pinions have smaller misalignments to accom- shafts into near synchronization; however, there are
mometer well installed integral with the sight-flow fitting modate, but otherwise resemble the turbine-to-pinion h i t s to the hydraulic torque available for synchroniza-
for sensing and indicating either locally or remotely the
temperature of the oil leaving the bearing.
I ooupling. In the single-case gears, Figs. 5 and 6, the
misalignment is limited to the clearance in the journal
tion, and limits on the amount of energy that can be
absorbed during the period of high slip.
3.10 Couplings. The coupling of each gear and bearings since the bearings themselves are held rigidly An electric coupling has characteristics very similar
pinion to its connecting shaft can be of a number of types in line. Like the turbine to pinion coupling, they can to a hydraulic coupling. It too can act as a disconnect
depending upon the degrees of freedom of movement be "single-endedn [as shown in Fig. 6(b)] or double- and as a synchronizing clutch, by controlling the current
that the service requires. The second reduction gear to ended [as shown in Fig. 5(b)]. When the first redudion to the rotating field. Like the hydraulic coupling, there
line shaft coupling is usually a "soli&couplingnwith the elements have their own thrust bearing, at least one are limitations on the synchronizing torque, and the
flanges integral with the shaft sections. This coupling flexible element is needed for endwise freedom. When energy absorption during synchronizing. Chapter 10
provides no freedom of movement within itself either the first reduction elements are positioned by the second contains a description of electric couplings.
axially, angularly, or torsionany. As discussed pre- reduction and the main propeller thrust bewing, the Friction clutches use friction elements which slide
viously, the line shaft bearings and the second reduction
gear bearings cannot be held in absolute alignment due
to thermal and other distortions in the hull and founda-
I flexible coupling elements are made with a olose end
alearance.
Lubrication of the coupling teeth is important even
under eontrolled pressure to bring the shafts into syn-
chronization and then, once synchronized, transmit
torque without slip by the same friction surfaces. Fig-
either a pivoted shoe or plain collar thrust bearing tions; however these movements are predictable and the though the reciprocating sliding velocity is entirely too ure 8 shows the application of clutches of this type in a
applied to either the first reduction pinion or its gear bearing arrangement can be designed such that, when low to support an oil fdm between the surface in contact. reversing gear train. In this case the friction material
wheel. This bearing must have sufficient capacity to properly aligned, the shafting can bend elastically with- Oil is held in the tooth portion by centrifugal force and is attached to the inside of an inflatable tube and is made
overcome the frictional forces in the couplings which act out imposing objectionable stresses in the shaft or alter- an oil retaining ring keeps the sliding surfaces submerged to bear on the cylindrical drum which it surrounds by
on the first reduction elements. ing the bearing reactions in an unacceptable manner. 1
in oil. Oil is fed to the annulus at one end of the teeth admitting fluid, usually air, under p m u r e to the tube.
Where adequate foundation structure can be provided, Thermal distortions in the gear and turbine casings and leaves from the other end, forcing a flow endwise The inflatable tube, called the clutch gland, is made of
it is convenient to locate the main thrust bearing forward and their supporting structure create a relative move- through the teeth for lubrication, cooling, and purging fabric and rubber similar to an automobile tire and is
of the second reduction gear, with the thrust housing an ment of the turbine rotor and high-speed pinion axes that of the sludge which tends to centrifuge and collect. bonded to a steel outer ring. Both ahead and astern
integral part'of the gear casing. This location has two introduces an angular offset at one or both coupling ele- For diesel engine drives it is usually necessary to have clutch glands are driven by the engine. One engages
advantages; (a) the diameter of the thrust bearing can be ments. In addition, the turbine rotor is positioned a coupling with torsional flexibility to minimize the trans- with the drum driving the ahead gear train or the other
smaller because the shaft portion does not have to axially by its thrust bearing; consequently, the thermal mission of torque variations to the gearing. Several engages with the drum driving the astern gear train.
transmit torque, and (b) the thrust collar can be a growth of the turbine rotor due to the high-temperature types of these, using rubber or other elastometem in Reversing j~ accomplished by alternately admitting fluid
separate piece that can be readily removed over the end steam creates a considerable end motion which must be compression or shear, are effective in adding both tor- and inflating the a h a d and astern clutches. When the
of the gear shaft in the event that it ' is necessary to accommodated by endwise sliding and clearances in sional resilience and damping to attenuate the torsional idle clutch is deflated, the friction surfaces are removed
replace or refinish the collar surface. the coupling. oscillations which are inherent in the reciprocating from contact. The operating air is admitted to the
For higher powers, and where greater stiffness is For steam turbine-driven gears the coupling to the engine. rotating shaft through a shaft seal. This is conveniently
required for the thrust bearing foundation, the thrust first reduction pinion is usually a gear tooth (dental) Hydraulic couplings, now familiarin automotive trans- done at a shaft end as illustrated but can also be done on
bearing is located aft of the second reduction gear. An type flexible coupling, with two gear tooth elements missions, had one of their earliest applications in marine any available shaft portion.
installation in which the main thrust bearing is located
immediately aft of the slow-speed gear is shown in Fig. 5.
separated by a length of shafting or a sleeve. Figure 7
is a typical coupling of this type. The engaging tooth ( drives. They are effectivein smoothing the torque input
to the gear. However, their slip repreaents a direct
With synchromesh couplings the normal torque trans-
mission is through sets of engaging internal and external
The thrust housing structure is independent of the gear elements at each end use internal and external spur gears power loss. Electric couplings have characteristics simi- tooth elements similar to those of a "dental" flexible
case and joins it by a flexible oil-tight connection. The of involute form, for convenience of manufacture, which lar to the hydraulic coupling but are dependent on a coupling. In addition, the coupling includes a mecha-
bolted attachment to the foundation which transmits the mesh with backlash in the circumferential direction, but source of electric power for their operation. Both hy- nism for shifting the tooth elements d y to engage
propeller thrust to the hull is independent of the bolting with closely controlled radial clearance between the tips draulic and electric couplings have the capability of and disengage the teeth, a friction element to brieg the
attachment of the gear base to its foundation, so that of the external teeth and the roots of the internal teeth. providing a convenient means of disconnecting, synchro- shafts intQ synchronism prior to engagement,. a balking
the thrust bearihg and its foundation can deflect as a Under torque the axes of the two elements are held in nizing, and reconnecting engines in a multi-engine mechanism to prevent tooth contact while a Merentid
result of the propeller thrust with no distorting effect on line by the contact on the involute tooth faces. With arrangement. speed exists and, in the case of high-speed applications, a
the gear casing. no torque transmitted, the axes are held in line within 9.1 1 Clutches. Propeller drives that use either "transition torque control" to maintain shaft synchro-
In either location; the thrust bearing shares the lubri-
cating system with the gear, and its oil drain discharges
into the gear base. Only a single shaft oil seal is required
the limit of the radial clearance.
When running under angular misalignment, each mesh-
ing pair of teeth will slide back and forth a small amount.
I prime movers in combination or a prime mover which
is uni.iotational may require a clutch to disconnect and
reconnect or synchronize and reconnect the main
nism during the shift from friction t o gear tooth drive.
Referring to Fig. 9, the clutch is engaged by admitting
air or oil to the operating cylinder. This applies pressure
on the output shaft. The angular misalignment which this type of coupling engines from the propeller. An assortment of devices to the friction disks, and the torque so developed acts to
The thrust bearing is of the pivoted-shoe type, with can accept without significant wear is limited and is de- using mechanical, frictional, bydraulic, or electrical synchronize shaft speeds. When synchronism is reached
two sets of shoes acting on opposite sides of a thrust pendent upon the coupling size, speed of rotation, torque, schemes is available for these purposes. Each device the accelerating torque is reduced to zero. The balking
collar to accept thrust in either direction with pressures and hardness and finish of the tooth surfaces. It is has,its peculiar characteristics, so that the selection of mechaniwn then automatically releases the coupling
of about 375 psi. obviously desirable to avoid excessively short coupling the best coupling arrangement depends on the require- sleeve, and as it approaches engagement with its mating
All journal and thrust bearings are force-fed from a lengths which impose high angular movements on the ments in a specific case. hub the spring-loaded pins act as lowe keys to maintain
central lubricating oi1 system. Each journal and thrust tooth elements. For longer coupfing lengths it may be The hydraulic coupling transfem torque by the passage synchronous speed and align the hub and sleeve teeth
b
i
MARINE ENGINEERING
r( GEARS 329
o lntrbduction hybrid system in which the generators are of the a-c type
and the drive motors are of the d-c type. Bridging the
1.1 Signiflcant Features. Electric propulsion drives between the prime mover and the propeller without the gap between these two types of machines are banks of
offer a number of important advantages which, in certain use of mechanical speed-reducing means. silicon rectifiers which convert the a-c power to d-c. arbitrary upper limit of 1000 volts. This limit is
applications, more than overcome the inherently higher Electric drives have been built in a wide range of This is a highly significant, development because it considered prudent for d-c machines that are to operate
first cost, increased weight and space, and the higher sizes (up to 45,000 shp pet shaft). However, such permits the use of a-c generators which are compatible under shipboard conditions of vibration, high humidity,
transmission losses of such systems. The ease and high power applications are exceptional, and most in size and speed with high-speed prime movers, and and frequent maneuvering, and has been established by
convenience by which propeller speed and direction are electric drives are of more modest ratings. retains the favorable speed control characteristics of the the IEEE Committee on Marine Transportation [I].'
controllable in an electric drive are among its foremost 1.2 UtilizatKon. Electric drive propulsion systems d-c drive system. The steadily increasing speeds and Higher-powered systems benefit from the use of higher
features. This control can be effected from a number of are applied when their ease of control, flexibility of powers of diesel engines have outstripped the corre- voltages and in the case of the very high-powered ice-
remote locations, and thus put directly in the hands of arrangement, and adaptability to multiple use of the sponding capacity of conventional d-c generators, but breaker Lettin, 1200volts was selected. More commonly,
the vessel navigator or operator. The electric control prime mover generator sets can be utilized to advantage. the availability of practical rectification devices now however, medium voltages in the range of 500 to 800 are
system lends itself to any desired speed of response and In general, propulsion electric drives are employed on permits the generation of src power in machines capable appropriate. For any given power, a lowering of the
to the incorporation of time constants or limits, so that vessels falling in the following broad categories: of matching any foreseeable engine speed and power voltage level requires a proportionate increase of the
the machinery is not subjected to abusive or dangerous rating. current, and higher currents require larger commutators,
operation. (a) Vessels requiring a high degree of maneuverability. Turbines, either steam or gas, are incompatible with
Vessels such as ferries, icebreakers, tugs, oceanographic more brushes, larger cables, and higher-capacity con-
The electrical connection between the generator and vessels and cable-layers are typical of this group. Here conventional d-c generators as to speed and powers. tactors or swikhes. Where possible, therefore, voltages
the propulsion motor provides a freedom of installation changes in speed and in direction of propeller rotation Invariably, reduction gears must be employed to adapt are selected so that required currents do not exoeed
arrangement not offered in a mechanical drive system. are frequent and of vital importance to the successful turbine speeds to d-c generator speeds, and such systems available handling devices, and 3000 amperes is a
The prime mover and its generator can be located operation of the vessel. Often these electric drives will are rarely employed. Hybrid systems are expected to commonly observed maximum on all but very large
wherever desired and constitute a mechanically indepen- utilize d-c machinery because of the superior speed find increasing use where turbineelectric drive systems systems.
dent enginbgenerator set. control inherent with such machines. are advantageous. It is common practice in multiple-engine, d-c propul-
The propulsion generator sets are usable as a source of 1.4 Description of Direct-Current Drives. Direct- sion systems to employ a series loop system and to
power for other functions when not being used for (b) Vessels requiring large amounls of speciaLpurpose current systems have been used on by far the greatest intersperse the motor armatures between the generator
propulsion. Cargo pumping, fire-fighting, cargo-refrig- power. Vessels such as self-unloaders, fireboats, self-
number and variety of installations. The most common armatures so as to reduce the maximum voltage existing
erating, and dredge-pump driving are illustrative of such propelled dredges, large tankers, and tenders represent d-c system consists of a multiple number of high-speed between parts of the system and to ground in the event
supplemental service. applications where effective use can be made of the diesels driving direct-coupled generators, which in turn
propulsion generating sets for other special purposes. that some point is a t ground potential. A two-engine
In cases where the development of the desired pro- feed power to one or more motors connected directly to system of this type is illustrated in Fig. 1. The impor-
peller power requires the use of multiple prime movers (a The nnturc of the service encountered by such vessels
the propeller shaft or through a speed-reducing gear. tant features of this electrical arrangement are: one, it
typical situation in high-speed diesel drives), the electric permits the generating sets to be applied to supply large
The usual system involves one, two, or four engine- utilizes full engine torque and power capability without
drive provides a convenient means of coupling the several amounts of power for pumping or cargo handling when
propulsioll power demands are low or nonexistent. Thus generator sets arranged to drive one propeller. Twin- subjecting the machines to overloads of any type, even
units to the propeller without the use of mechanical screw vessels usually consist of duplicate systems with when only one engine is in service; and two, it avoids
clutches or couplings. An electric drive system will a saving is made in the amount of power-producing
equipment that must otherwise be installed for these various degrees of ability to transfer power from one problems as to governing, load divi$on, and short-
normallv be arranged so that vessel operation at less than side to the other, or to drive both screws at reduced circuit protection which are inherent in systems that
a
full p w e r will be &complished with minimum number purposes.
(c) Vessels utilizing nonreversing, high-speed, and
power from the diesel-generator sets of one side. Direct- require parallel operation of independently driven d-c
of prime movers in service. This contributes to more current propulsion systems find application primarily in generators.
efficient operation and affords downtime for routine multiple prime movers. High-speed diesel engines and the-low and moderate power ranges, and where flexibility If the generators were operated in parallel, the utiliza-
maintenance on units not then required for pro- gas turbines are generally of the unidirectional type of setup and ease of control are of high value. tion of one engine a t full power would require over-
pulsion. and frequently are employed in multiple to produce The usual power size of a d-c drive system is from 1000 capacity in the generator or the motor. This is because
Some prime movers, gas turbines, and high-speed the required prime mover power. Here electric drive to 6000 hp per shaft. Exceptions can be cited on both the power of a fixed-pitch propeller varies approximately
diesels, for instance, are unidirectional machines. An provides the means for reversing the propeller, convert- sides of this range down to about 400 hp and up to the as the cube of the rpm. Thus, a t 50-percent power, the
electric drive can provide the required reverse rotation ing the high speed of the prime movers to suitable 10,500 hp per shaft of the icebreaker Glacier and the rpm will be 79 percent, and at that rpm the motor will
of the propeller by relatively simple control means. propeller speeds, and electrically coupling the multiple 19,600 hp of the center shaft of the nuclear-powered be able to absorb 79-percent volts. If the generator is
It is possible and oftentimes convenient to select a units to a single drive. icebreaker Lenin. It should be noted that this latter to develop full power a t this lower voltage, overcurrent
low-speed motor that matches the desired propeller (d) Deep submergence vehicles. Such vehicles usually power is developed by a double-armature motor, and must be drawn so that the product of volta and current
speed directly without the use of reduction gearing. This employ relatively small amounts of propulsion power and thus each unit develops 9800 hp.
motor can be supplied with power from high-speed
generators, thus providing the necessary speed reduction
move at low speeds. The energy is obtained from
batteries and is applied directly to multiple motors or
The voltage selected for d-c systems is mainly a motor
snd generator design consideration with a somewhat
-
1 Numbem in brackets -te References at end of chapter.
336 MARINE ENGINEERING ELECTRIC PROPIULSlON DRIVES 337
istics. A unique feature of the d-c electric drive is its these advantages are often outweighed by the control (4) larger air gap-this is conducive to more satisfactory
ability to adapt to a range of propeller power-versus-rpm flexibility and superior torque performance of direct installation and maintenance.
characteristics. The propeller power-rpm character- current for vessels of moderate power and special The following features are associated with the alter-
istic changes somewhat with hull condition and vessel service. Alternating-current propulsion is particularly nating-current form of electric drive:
loading, but these changes are not very large and can be adaptable to ships requiring high power since both a-c (a) High eficiency. A reasonable average figure for
accepted without major effects on the propelling ma- generators and a-c motors can be readily built for powers the loss in the synchronous a-c electrical transmission
chinery. However, vessels subject to the restraining of 50,000 hp or more if required. Alternating-current between the prime mover and the propeller shaft is 6
effects of heavy tows or passage through ice cause their drive systems are most suitable for ships that spend a percent. The overall transmission system efficiency
propellers to exhibit wide variations in power-rpm high proportion of their operating time a t or near full must also reflect the excitation losses.
characteristics. A propeller on a stalled vessel (bollard power rather than at severely reduced power or in (b) Flexibility of installation. The direct-drive motor
condition) will develop full-power torque at approxi- service requiring frequent maneuvers. can be located aft in the vessel to reduce t4e shaft length,
mately 70 percent of the free-route propeller rpm. Electric drives of the a-c type tend to fall into the and the generator sets can be installed at any location
Diesel engines, which are basically constant-torque moderate and high-powered range. Thus, 10,000 hp desired.
(c) Use of unidirectional prime movers. Since revere-
- machines, must run a t full speed to develop full power, per shaft might be considered as a reasonable lower limit
PROPELLER RPM, % RATED
and thus cannot by themselves be fully utilized over a and 60,000 hp per shaft as a likely upper range value. A ing of the propeller is accomplished by electrical means,
Fig. 2 Propeller torque-rpm characteristics variety of propeller power-speed characteristics. notable exception is the very popular T2-SE-A1 tankers the prime movers can be unidirectional units. Thus if
By proper selection of the d-c propelling motor and of World War 11, which were 6000 hp; it is doubtful, steam turbines are applied, no reversing stages are
by utilizing field control, the constant-torque character- however, that such a low rating would again be applied required and the valving is simplified. Gas turbines are
istic of a diesel engine can be adapted to a range of in this form to oceangoing ships. At the high end of the inherently unidirectional machines, and some externd
propeller characteristics. This is illustrated in Fig. 2' scale, there is no practical limitation on rating for a-c means must be provided for obtaining reversed propeller
is 100 percent. Alternatively, the motor could be based on a two-engine installation as in Fig. 1. The propulsion. thrust.
provided with extra flux capacity so that it could accept adaptability here illustrated is obtained by selecting The voltage levels used on a-c propulsion systems (d) Multiple prime movers. Any number of prime
the full voltage at the lower speed. In either case, the propelling motor so that it can develop full power in range from about 2300 to 7500 volts, with the larger movers can be combined (paralleled) electkally to
overcapacity must be provided in order to permit full the bollard condition and then weakening its field strength power units being associated with th'e higher voltages. provide power to the propulsion motor.
utilization of the one engine mode. to match any other full-power propeller. speed up to that The voltage is selected on the basis of motor and (e) Dual use of propulsion power. The propulsion
It is not always possible or desirable to employ an of the free-route condition. This permits the utilization generator design considerations and on the basis of generator set(s) is available for other functions when not
equal number of generator and motor armatures. This of full rated engine capacity through a varying propeller available switching devices. being used for propulion.
brings with it some further complications which, in the characteristic speed range without installing excess It was natural that the induction motor should be used (f) Speed reduction--prime mover to propeller shaft.
extreme cases encountered on some high-powered engine or electrical capacity. In effect, the system on early installations because its torque performance By choosing a motor with a large number of poles as
systems, forces the use of parallel operating generators. provides a variable speed ratio between the prime movers afforded the censer-vatism necessary on an application compared to the generator, a speed reduction is effected
If in the case just considered there were only one motor and the propeller to suit a variety of operating conditions. where little was known about the actual torque require- electrically without the use of mechanical meaiw.
armature in the propulsion motor, the voltage of each 1.S Description of Alternating-Current Drives. The ments of a propeller under maneuvering conditions. Almost all turbine a-c electric drives use generators
generator could be only half that of the motor. This is use of a-c electric drives is generally associated with the Furthermore, the induction motor made practical the directly coupled to the prime mover and motors driving
not objectionable if the motor is not over about 4000 hp use of turbine prime movers. The usual system consists arrangement of pole-changing windings to obtain two directly to the propeller. The ratio of poles on the motor
and of the direct-drive type, because 1000 volts could of a single turbine driving a direct-connected, high-speed different speed ratios between the prime mover and the to poles on the generator will usually be in the range of
be used on the motor and each generator then rated at generator which furnishes power to a single, low-speed, propeller. This was important on warships where the 30 or 35 to 1, producing a speed ratio that is the inverse
500 volts. If, however, the ratio of generators to motors direct-drive motor of the synchronous type. A multiple cruising power requirements were low and where an ratio of the number of poles.
exceeds 2: 1 and becomes 3: 1 or 4: 1, a parallel system number of turbine-generator sets can be used in this alternate speed ratio contributed to better economy of (g) Available in large power ratings. Alternating-
may become the better choice when consideration is type of system if required by the power requirements prime mover operation. After experience was gained current machines can be built in very large ratings.
and available turbine ratings. When high-speed diesels with the induction motor drives, the more desirable From a practical standpoint, they can be built with any
given to the high ratio of voltage between the motor and
are used as prime movers in an a-c electric drive, multiple synchronous motor was applied with complete success. rating required for ship propulsion applications.
its supplying generators [2].
units will normally be required to develop the desired By providing the synchronous motor field with a pole 1.6 The Alternating-Current Direct-Current System.
The d-c electric drive system, in addition to providing
the usual electric drive features, offers several important propulsion power. face winding, so that it may be operated as a squirrel- An a-c rectified d-c drive, by utilizing a high-capacity
With the use of synchronous machines, there is a fixed cage induction motor during maneuvering, it has been silicon rectifier, makes possible the use of high-speed a-c
additional control and operating advantages which make
it the preferred system for many applications. These ratio of speed between the turbine-generator and the possible to provide characteristics which enable it to generator sets to provide power to d-c propulsion motors.
propeller motor. This ratio is governed by the ratio of satisfactorily handle the maneuvering requirements of The power size of this hybrid system is now limited by
advantages are as follows: the magimum d-c motor size or to about 15,000 hp per
(a) Erne of control. Basic control of a d-c propulsion the number of poles on the motor to the number of poles the propeller.' Therefore this type of motor is applied
on the generator. Thus a two-pole generator operating motor armature, although a higher propulsion shaft
drive is accomplished by varying the generator voltage on practically all a-c propulsion systems. The advan-
at 3600 rpm supplying power to a 60-pole synchronous horsepower can be obtained by the use of multiple-
through field control. This process is smooth, simple, tages which make the use of the synchronous motor armature d-c motors as illustrated in Fig. 3. This
efficient, and lends itself readily to remote control. motor would cause the motor to operate at SOof its desirable as compared with the induction motor are: system retains the favorable speed-torque and control
(b) Multiple control stations. The simplicity of the own speed or 120 rpm. In effect, the a-c drive accom- (1) better efficiency-a typical slow-speed synchronous characteristics of the variable voltage or conventional
process by which propeller speed and direction of rotation plishes the same result as the use of reduction gears, and propulsion motor has a full-load efficiency of 98 percent d-c system and permits the use of large high-speed
are controlled facilitates the use of multiple control it is useful to think of such generators and motors as as compared to the 94 percent of a correspondinginduction prime movers with direct-connected generators.
stations when these are desirable from a ship-operating being electrically "geared" together. I n addition, the motor; (2) higher power factor-the synchronous motor This system has been applied to many industrial
standpoint. Control can be delegated to any desired electric drive provides the ability to reverse the propeller can be operated at 100 percent power factor as compared applications with good success and it is considered a
remote location by selector switches located at the by electrical means rather than mechanical. with the 70-75 percent of the slow-speed induction suitable and reliable transmission system for marine
engine room control station. The engine room station Alternating-current drives are advantageous relative motor, resulting in a lower weight and cost of the propulsion. High-speed locomotive-type diesel engines
can retain or regain control at any time. to direct-current drives from the standpoint of size, generator; (3) lower weight and cost of the motor; in the 4000-hp range commonly employ direct-connected
(c) Adaptability to varying propeller-hull charaeter- weight, cost, maintenance, and simplicity. However,
338 MARINE EN ELECTRIC PROPULSION DRIVES 339
the kva taken from the generator, and the actual kva
rating of the a-c propulsion generator should be some- Section 2
what higher to compensate for a-c voltage distortion
(harmonics). For a 6-phase rectifier, the displacement The Diesel Direct-Current Drive System
power factor should be multiplied by approximately 0.96 2.1 System Composition. A diesel d-c type of controllable amounts of excitation power for the sepa-
to obtain the required generator volt ampere rating. electric drive permits the use of several small, high-speed; rately excited main motors and generators so that changes
For a 12-phase rectifier, the displacement power factor lightweight, nonreversible engines to drive a single in propeller speed and direction of rotation can be
should be multiplied by approximately 0.99 to obtain propeller. The system frequently consists of a pair of accomplished through variable voltage and polarity
the generator volt-ampere rating. engine-driven generators and a single propulsion motor control of the generators. The amount of excitation
The switching action of the'rectifiers in commutating but in some cases, double-armature motors, or two power is small, being of the order of 1.5 to 2 percent of
the d-c load causes some distortion in the a-c wave shape, motors driving through reduction gears, are used. the machine rating, but its continuity and ease of control
and the d-c voltage wave contains a ripple component The use of high-speed engines results in a considerable are vital to the system.
superimposed on the average d-c voltage. Excessive reduction in size and weight of machinery, and it is In many installations, particularly those of small and
ripple voltage can result in significant extra motor desirable in every case to use engines with rotative speeds moderate-size plants, the power for excitation is supplied
heating and to deterioration of commutation perform- as high as is consistent with reasonable maintenance and by exciters driven by the main engines so that the
ance. However, the total rms d-c voltage ripple life. To reduce wear on the engines, it is usual practice propulsion plant is self-contained and independent of
produced in a 6-phase rectifier is about 8 percent, and to operate at reduced engine speeds when less than full any auxiliary engines. A further extension of this
in a 12-phase unit about 5 percent. The extra hating power is required. Thus an engine having a full speed concept of self-sufficiency that has been used in many
produced by such ripple voltages is negligible and no of 900 rpm will commonly have a babe speed of about small installations involves the use of main engine-driven
Fig. 3 Two-generator, single-shaft, a-c reZtiRd d-c system special motor design is necessary from this standpoint. 450 rpm and be operated at that speed until torque and generator exciters and a small auxiliary generator that
For good d-c motor commutation, the current ripple power demands require raising its speed. Naturally operates at constant potential and is capable of supplying
should be limited to a maximum of 2 percent and, in aspirated diesel engines are basically constant-torque underway auxiliary power as well as motor excitation.
most cases, normal d-c motor inductance is sufficient to machines and are therefore capable of developing power The full range of main generator voltage and polarity
give satisfactory commutation with 6-phase and 12- proportional to speed over their operating range. control is achieved by varying the very low power of
a-c generators and rectify this power to d-c for use in the phase rectifiers. In special cases, or when less than However, prudent operation dictates some reduction in the field of the generator exciter. This use of double
driving motors. Much larger units are employed as 6-phase units are used, some de-rating, atering, or other torque at reduced speeds and, therefore, system operation amplification permits the use of small rheostats and
sources of excitation for very large electric utility compensations may be necessary. is arranged for reductions in both torque and speed switches in the control stations and small control cables.
generators. The speed of the d-c propulsion motor is controlled whenever less than full power is required. Supercharged Main engine-driven exciters or auxiliary generators must
The system voltage is selected with the same criteria in the same manner as the variable-voltage d-c system; engines are more restricted at reduced speed, but this be capable of developing the required power over the
as the conventional d-c system. Some additional that is, by varying the magnitude of the voltage supplied characteristic is in no practical way detrimental to their semice speed range,of the main engines.. If an auxiliary
flexibility is possible in the selection of the a-c generator to the propulsion motor armature. This is accomplished marine application in a d-c system where the engine speed generator is so driven, it must be controlled by a voltage
voltage by using a transformer between the a-c generator by varying the a-c generator excitation or by a combina- is independent of the propeller speed. regulator to hold constant voltage.
and rectifier. This arrangement may be necessary in tion of a-c generator excitation and generator set speed Generators are normally of the shunt-wound type, With larger plants, excitation power is derived from
very large ratings where a single turbine-generator control. The direction of motor-propeller rotation is separately excited and arranged for direct connection to the vital bus of the ship's semice power system. The
supplies power to a double or triple-armature d-c motor; changed by reversing the polarity of the propulsion the engine. In small plants the generators are usually dependence placed upon the ship's service power system
however, for most applications the a-c generator voltage motor field. arranged for self-ventilation with a fan attached to the for a variety of vital services has brought about the
can be selected so that power can be supplied directly Unlike the conventional d-c system, the rectifier blocks armature, the ventilating air being taken from the 'inclusion of features and redundancies which assure
from the a-c generator to the rectifier to the d-c motor. the transfer of power from the propulsion motor to the engine room and exhausted back to the engine room or continuity of auxiliary power under virtually all circum-
The rated voltages of the a-c and d-c units, when using a-c generator set. Each drive system must, therefore, through a duct to the outside. In large installations, stances. Its use, therefore, as the basic source of
6-phase and 12-phase systems, will be in the ratio of 1.0 be checked to assure that the pump-back energy during where the heat loss is considerable, generators are usually excitation power is not inconsistent with the importance
to 1.3, and if the d-c motor is limited to 1000 volts, the a propeller reversal can be absorbed in the motor fitted with a closed ventilating system, with the shaft- of maintaining propulsion power control [3].
maximum a-c voltage is approximately 775 volts, armature-rectifier circuit. If necessary, a resistor can mounted fan forcing the air through a water-cooled air Since most vessels, except the very smallest, use a-c
line-to-line. be switched into the motor armature circuit to absorb cooler. In this case the machine is totally enclosed and ship's service systems, conversion to d-c and preferably
The power factor of the rectifier will be less than unity this pump-back energy and limit excessive d-c armature is independent of the environmental conditions of the controllable-voltage d-c is necessary. This is often
because of the harmonic components (distortion factor) current. engine room. done with motor-generator sets but, in recent years,
and because of the generator reactance, transformer The losses in the a-c rectified d-c electric transmission Propulsion motors are usually of the same type and increasinp; use is being made of static conversion devices.
reactance, if used, and the d-c circuit inductance (dis- between the prime mover and the propeller are less than general construction as the main generatora. For some The development of silicon-controlled rectifiers in larger
placement power factor). The displacement power in the d-c system because of the higher efficiency of the installations, where the diameter of the motor is re- sizes permits the supply of easily controlled excitation
factor for 6 or 12-phase rectifiers connected directly to high-speed a-c generator. A reasonable figure for the stricted, double-armature motors may be used. Such a power to generator and motor fields. These excitation
the a-c generator will be between 0.91 and 0.96, depend- loss in transmission systems where transformers are not motor consists of two duplicate units usually mounted systems lend themselves readily to the addition of cur-
ing upon the generator reactance. The displacement required is 12 percent, and with systems requiring on a common shaft with two supporting bearings and rent regulating, limiting, and other protective features.
power factor gives only the fundamental component of rectifier transformers a reasonable figure is 14 percent. two separate field frames. Single-armature motors are A spare excitation conversion unit is normally installed
lower in volume, weight, and cost than double-armature to safeguard this vital service. On twin-screw vessels,
units and should be used whenever conditions permit. a single spare is considered adequate for the two pro-
For applications involving very low propeller speeds and pulsion systems.
rather small plants, it is sometimes desirable to use one The control of a diesel d-c electric system is accom-
or two high-speed motors connected to the propeller plished basically by varying the voltage and polarity of
shaft through a reduction gear. the main generators. This voltage variation is effected
The excitation subsystem must be capable of providing by a combination of generator speed and excitation
MARINE ENGINEERING ELECTRIC PROPULSION DRIVES 34 1
SPWJAL
SERVICES and is purposely set above any normal operating peak supplied by four 1175-hp engines, but a more likely
DC BUS condition. choice would be two 2350-hp units. If the engines are
"i
i MTR FLD When operating with. one generator and two motor
armatures in the system, the motor field must be
to drive exciters or auxiliary generators, the engine brake
horsepower should be increased accordingly.
reduced to 63 percent of normal in order for the propeller I n order to minimize the size and cost of the current-
to absorb all the available power. Field current is carrying elements of the main system, it is desirable to
reduced by manual operation of the motor field rheostats. use moderately high voltages on the generators and
The special services bus shown in Fig. 4 can be a load motors. The desirable voltage will be influenced by the
bus, such as is often found on drilling rigs or dredges, or ratings of the machines and the ratio of the number of
it can be a separate source for d-c propulsion power. generators to the number of motors when the usual
When propulsion power is not required, switch 1T or 2T series loop connection is used. IEEE marine rules
is closed and the generators are then used to supply d-c establish 1000 volts as a maximum for a single armature,
power to other equipment. Additional circuitry and and if this voltage is used on a single-armature motor,
instrumentation will be required for such service, and it the permissible generator voltage will be 500 if two
is possible to operate in this mode a t voltage lower than generators are employed and 250 if four units are used.
in the propulsion mode if desired. I n systems that employ an equal number of motor and
Cables for inteiconnection of the main generators, 'generator armatures, there is considerable freedom of
motors and setup switches are usually varnished cloth or choice since, by electrically interspersing generators and
asbestos-varnished-cloth insulated, and of the leaded motors, the maximum system voltage is no higher than
and armored type or the impervious sheathed and the voltage of a single unit. Although from a system
CENTRAL
OPERATINO qATION armored type. Because of limited space usually avail- standpoint 1000 volts per unit could be used, practical
able for making bends, the individual single-conductor machine design and operating conditions will tend to
Fig. 4 Schemalc diagram, two-engine d-c electric ryrtem
cables should not be larger than 1,000,000 circular mils, reduce this voltage to the 500-750 volt range on all but
and a suflicient number of such cables or smaller cables the very largest installations. If the installation is such
should be connected in parallel for each lead. It is that the main generator sets are to be used in port to
desirable to run cables as directly as possible between supply power for special auxiliaries, their voltage
changes so as to produce a full range of motor speed STOP, one of the generator field contactors, AH (ahead) units and in well-ventilated and accessible locations. demands may influence the system voltage choice. This
control in either direction of rotation. Motor excitation or AS (astern), will close to supply d-c power through Cables should be continuous betweeh terminations with influence would be toward a lower voltage but the
is normally held at a constant value for each operating the silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCR's) to the generator , no splices, and be well supported in metal racks. separately excited main generators can be operated a t
mode, and changes are necessary only when the number fields and full field current would be provided to the Where propulsion motors or generators require forced reduced voltage, rkduced speed, or both, and still supply
of generators in service is changed or when the propeller motor field by the closing of contactor FW. Generator ventilation by separate blowers, these are generally special auxiliary power, provided its current rating is not
speed-rpm characteristics are changed (e.g., when field voltage is increased with throttle movement off supplied and mounted on the main units. When such exceeded and provided the engine is not overloaded a t
towing). STOP by gradually gating the SCR's fully on to provide blowers are separately mounted, they are connected to the chosen operating speed.
A basic schematic diagram for a two-engine generator, full field at about half throttle while the engine speed the machines by ducts supplied by the shipbuilder. Generators and motors of the shunt-wound type
two-motor system is shown in Fig. 4. This schematic remains near idle. During the remainder of throttle Circulating water for machines fitted with air coolers is arranged for separate excitation are the general standard.
shows the d-c loop with power switches 1s and 2s in the travel, engine speed is increased by controlling the fuel normally supplied by motor-driven pumps. A series loop system of such machines is inherently stable,
normal operating position. These "setup" switches can rack through a current&-air-pressure transducer located Propulsion motor bearings on small, low-speed units even under the weak-field motor conditions encountered
be either manually or electrically operated, and no on the engine. Thus, over the latter part of throttle may be the self-contained disk lubricated type and require when the number of in-service engine-generator sets is
"load-break" capability is required since protective movement, armature voltage varies directly with engine no external cooling. Larger motors, however, will use reduced to a minimum.
devices operate to cause the loop current to go to zero, or speed. Tracking of the generator excitation and engine force-lubricated bearings supplied by a lubricating oil Good load-sharing between paralleled d-c generators
very nearly zero, before the main contacts of the setup speed control is assured by having the controlling system consisting of a sump tank, motor-driven oil requires that their terminal voltage decrease with
switch can be opened. On switches 1s and 2S, all three rheostats for both engine-generator sets on the same pumps, and oil cooler. The propeller thrust bearing is increasing load. A drooping voltage regulation charac-
sets of contacts are mechanicallv interlocked. If it is oh.-.$+
0ua1U. usually supplied from the same system. teristic of at least 5 percent (and preferably more) should
necessary for maintenance or operating economy to ~h~ loop ammeters on the pilothouse (PH) console Propulsion generator bearings are normally force- be provided to insure good parallel operation.
remove generator GI, for example, switch and on the C0S control panel provide a continuoue lubricated from the diesel engine system, the bearings Two or more motors operating in mechanical parallel
18 is operated so that contacts 3-4 close when 1-2 and display of the operating condition of the propuls~on being provided with necessary inlet orifices to limit the and supplied in parallel from a common power bus must
~ ~ n ~ ~ e ~ r o $ ~ ~ ~ e ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ system ~ ~ for~ ~bothc the
~ ~helmsman
a l & and . ~the~COS e fpersonnel.
, " c ' ~ ~ ~ flow of oil to proper values. have drodping speed versus load characteristics to share
Loop current and propeller speed are indicators of load- 2.2 System Design Features. I n laying out a load without depending on an excitation-regulating
arrangement whenever switch 1s is positioned to bypass suitable diesel-electric d-c propulsion system, careful control system. Inherent load division between motors
this generator. ing of the electrical system and of the power being
-. . - . consideration must be given to a number of items. The is entirely dependent on their load-speed characteristics;
D h n g a s t a h u p of the system, the throttle would be to the propeller. The loop protected from
first step is to select a suitable type and size of engine. these must droop for stable operation and they must be
in the STOP position and the switches excessive current by two devices. The first of these is the This will, of course, depend on the type and service of identical throughout the range of operating conditions
Control would be in the central operating station (COS), thermal overload alarm, set at 110-115 percent of normal the vessel involved and the power requirement. I n for equal load sharing.
the diesels would run at idle meed. and the -.motor
. field current as a warning to the operator of an abnormal
- estimating the total engine brake horsepower required, The availabilitv of materials such as silicones and
weakening contactor FW wo;ld be open to prevent operating condition requiring his corrective action. The it is satisfactory to use a value of 85 percent for the epoxy resins has resulted in the appearance of classes of
overheating of the motor field. After starting the diesels, second is the magnetic overload trip, which is set for transmission efficiency. This allows for the losses of insulation that permit high safe temperature rises.
control could be transferred by the selector switch in the 200-300 percent of rated loop current and removes the generators, motors, and cabling. Thus for a system Class A insulation is seldom used on propulsion machines
COS to the pilothouse, if desired, and the system brought motor and generator excitation. This trip is fund* requiring 4000 propeller shaft horsepower, the engine and virtually all units use Class B or Class F insulation
up to a higher speed. As soon as the throttle is moved off mentally a short-circuit and back-up protective device brake horsepower should total 4700. This could be systems. Class H insulation is occasionally employed,
ELECTRIC PROPULSION DRIVES 343
MARINE ENGINEERING
140
but care must be taken to avoid adverse brush-wear From the standpoint of minimum cost and weight, a 0
t
BASED ON 900 RPM DIESEL ENGINES.700
cn VOLT GENERATORS SINGLE-.ARMATURE MOTOR
problems if silicones are used. With a 50 C ambient single-armature motor should be used where space
temperature, the allowable temperature rises for Class B, permits. A double-armature motor can be built in a 2120 ', FOR DIRECT DRI& AND TWO MOTORS FOR
GEARED DRIVE
F, and H insulation are 60, 80, and 100 deg C, respec- smaller diameter and may be used where the diameter is
tively. More complete tabulations will be found in limiting or where the added reliability of two separate
reference [I]. The use of the higher temperature electrical units is considered desirable. Another arrange-
insulations results in smaller and lighter weight machines ment, which may be used where space and weight
for a given power. They are also better &ted to the limitations are severe, consists of one or more high-speed
marine environment since they utilize practically no motors connected to the propeller shaft through reduc-
cellulose materials. tion gears. While this system saves weight and space
Totally enclosed machines equipped with surface air for propeller speeds below approximately 150 rpm, it
coolers create their own ambient conditions and are increases the complications of the installation and
affected only to a very minor degree by the ambient air involves additional high-speed, precision equipment.
temperature of the room in which they are located. I n When direct-connected propulsion motors are used, it
some cases it may be desirable to provide coolers that is common practice to include the main thrust bearing
will deliver air to the machines a t 40 C rather than 50 C as a part of one of the motor's main bearings. This can
and allow a corkesponding increase in the allowable
temperature rise. The maximum seawater temperature
be done a t either end of the motor, but the use of a thrust
bearing at the forward or free end of the motor contrib- 40
/ SHAFT HORSEPWER-THOUSANDS
is considered to be 85 F. utes to a smaller size thrust collar and one which can be Fig. 6 Weight of diesel d-c electric drive equipment at various power ratings
Propulsion generators and motors are normally rated removed readily from the end of the motor shaft. When
for the full-power continuous shaft horsepower require- geared motors are used, the thrust bearing will ordinarily
ment of the vessel, and no overload ratings are provided.
This practice is consistent with the fact that the diesel
engine usually has a maximum rating with no overload
be located in the reduction gear.
The propulsion control normally should be mounted
on a platform in the upper part of the engine room,
O
: lob0 ~~ do0 A00 .dm sd00
SHAFT HORSEPOWER
dm dm The curves in Fig. 6 show, for several propeller speeds,
the approximate weight in pounds per shp of a single-
capacity. However, in designing the electrical equip- preferably so that the operator has a view of the engine screw propulsion plant for ratings up to 10,000 shp.
Flg. 5 Diameter of d-c propulsion koton for varlous ratingr and speeds
ment, it is necessary to take into account the fact that room space. This arrangement makes a simple cable These weights include engines, generators, motor, and
current ' peaks are encountered during maneuvering. layout with the cables coming out of the top of the control. They do not include cable or auxiliaries.
These peaks are of short duration and their magnitudes, various machines and into the bottom of the control These latter items vary considerably with different
with well-designed excitation and control systems, can board. It also avoids dangers associated with cables layouts but represent a very small percentage of the
be kept to values within the inherent commutating entering the machines from below in close proximity to Width weight of the main machinery, and therefore are of minor
ability of the main units. Their effect on heating is not the bilges. For pilothouse control, a simple desk Rating Length Height (generator) importance. For a propeller speed of 100 rpm, curves
appreciable. incorporating the necessary master controller instruments are given for both direct-connected and geared motors.
For small and medium-sized propulsion plants, it is and indicators is sufficient for propulsion purposes. 2000 kw, 900 rpm 29 f t 12 f t 7.5 ft
1000 kw, 900 rpm 20 ft 12 ft 6 ft A comparison of these curves shows the saving in weight
generally satisfactory to use motors and generators of the On every installation, it is necessary to check the with the geared drive for low propeller speeds.
protected, self-ventilated type and provide adequate engine-generator combination to make certain that there 2.4 Applications
room ventilation. For large installations, where heat will be no serious torsional vibration within the operating These dimensions will, of course, vary somewhat with (a) Oceanographic Survey Ships. The oceanographic
loss from the electrical machines is considerable, or speed range of the unit. This is a responsibility of the different makes of engines. survey ship Wilkes (AGS-33) is one of a group of special-
where engine room or motor room space is limited, the engine builder and requires a careful calculation of the Either single-armature or double-armature propulsion service vessels using diesel d-c electric propulsion. This
units should be ~rovided with a forced-ventilation mass-elastic system and its response to engine excitation motors can be used as dictated by the machinery rating ship has been designed to be highly maneuverable in
system or with air coolers and closed systems. While the frequencies. and space. The motor diameter is usually the limiting order to fulfill the wide variety of oceanographic,
totally enclosed machines with individual coolers are I t is also desirable to make a careful calculation of the dimension; Fig. 5 shows, for several propeller speeds, the hydrographic, and other research tasks for which it is
somewhat less accessible and somewhat more costly, they mass-elastic system comprising the propulsion motor, approximate diameters of single-armature motors of intended. The ship has a single screw rated a t 3000 shp
the lime shaft, and the propeller to make certain that there various powers. Multiple armatures can be used to and 200 rpm. The propulsion plant consists of the fol-
lend themselves to a simpler ship installation layout and obtain higher power. These curves are for Class F lowing major components:
eliminate the need for large ducts, outside ventilators, will be no critical speeds induced by the propeller in the insulated machines.
and motor-driven blowers, at least for the high-speed operating range. This is normally a responsibility of Propulsion control cubicles require relatively little Main Propulsion Engines:
generators. Low-speed, direct-connected motors will the shipbuilder. The d-c electric system does not space and usually can be easily located on a flat above the Tu$o, 1800-bhp, 1000-rpm units
still require motor-driven blowers, but no ducts to the contribute to any vibratory excitation since the d-c main generators or at one end of the engine room. On
outside are necessary. power flow is smooth and continuous, and the torque single generator plants, a desk-type control station can Main Propulsion Generators:
Ventilating systems should be laid out on the basis of produced is virtually without variation. be used since power leads are not brought to the control Two 1260-kw, 1000-rpm, 700-V units.
circulating 70 to 100 cfm of air per kw of loss in the 2.3 Physical Characteristics. With the high-speed cubicle. As examples of the size of control boards, the Variable voltage field excitation (7.2 kw, 0 to
machine. Pressure drops in machines of this type diesel engine, the generating set can be fitted readily into following approximate dimensions are given for single- 180 V) from silicon-controlled rectifier
are of the order of 1.5 in. of water. any reasonable engine room layout. Parts are relatively screw drives: (SCR) in main propulsion control cubicles.
Main propulsion motors and generators should be small and easy to handle, and spaces necessary for Main Propulsion Motor:
-- -
fitted with 0; arranged for connection to fire extinguish- disassembly and maintenance are considerably less than No. of
for large, direct-connected engines. Foundations are One double-armature, 3000-hp (1500 hp per
ing systems of t h e COz type. On other than closed Sbp Engines Width Depth Height armature). 200-r~m.700-V unit. Constant-
recirculating air systems, means should be provided to small and simple. As examples of the size of sets, 5000 2 8ft 5 ft 8ft voltage fihd kxLit*tioi (2.5 kw, 250 V)
shut off the-circulation of air when the fire extinguishing typical engine-generator units would have approximate 1000 1 5 ft 3 ft 3 'ft (desk) from SCR in propulsion control cubicles.
system is used. overall dimensions as follows :
MARINE i ENGINEERING
( ELECTRIC PROPULSION DRIVES
A.
C
GI = G2 = 1 2 6 0 KW
IM)OAMPS. 7OOVOLTS ,$,. ;rl PHASE
4 6 0 V. I PH. 6OCPS
ROOM THROTTLE
DRIVEN
300 K W
1 0-60CPS DC GEN
TRANSF FIELD
I'
460
VOLTS (PERMISSIVE)
I PH
6OCPS
activated interlocks is utilized.' The field circuit of each torque transmitted to the diesels due to the waterwheel
generator can be energized only when two sets of speed- action of the propeller, and serves to limit the loop
sensing contacts are closed. One set operates off a current to less than the instantaneous magnetic trip
Cl C2 - LOOP CONTACT0 voltage-sensitive relay operated by a tachometer setting of 200 percent of normal. This magnetic
- - - - - INDICATES
SI 8 S 2 MANUAL SETUP SWITCHES
MECHANICAL CONNECTION 4 6 0 V 3PH 6OCPS
C
generator, and the other operates from a mechanical protective device, which performs strictly a backup
input. Two separate takeoff points on each engine function, has an automatic reset feature to permit
assure independent operation. Both sets of contacts are resumption of normal operation as soon as the throttle is
Fig. 7 Elechical schematic for d-c propulsion loop and bow thruster
in series, and close at about 300 rpm on increasing speed returned to the STOP position.
and open at about 200 rpm on decreasing speed. If Silicon-controlled rectifiers are used for the variable
both sets do not close on the way up, no field excitation voltage power supplies to the generator fields. The
can be applied. Upon loss of power, as long as either set reference signal to the rectifiers is varied from 0 to 15
The auxiliary propulsion and navigation equipment A common throttle handle is used for engine speed and of contacts opens, the field circuit will be opened, thus volts DC by the throttle movement over the first quarter
consists of a bow thruster driven by a 350-hp d-c motor generator field excitation. Duplicate rheostats are preventing the generator from motoring and driving the of travel. Reversing is accomplished by contactors
and a propulsive rudder driven by a 250-hp a-c motor. located at the pilothouse and at the engine room consoles. engine backwards. The probability of loss of the prime which change the polarity applied to the field connectors.
Either of two 300-kw d-c generators, one diesel-driven Engine speed is kept at approximately 400 rpm through mover and failure of both sets of contacts to open is Fixed output-voltage silicon rectifiers are supplied for
and one gas-turbine-driven, can supply power to the bow one quarter of the throttle travel while generator extremely remote. Should one set fail, the second will the main motor field excitation, and automatic field
thruster. Figure 7 is the basic schematic arrangement excitation is gradually increased to 100 percent. Beyond protect the unit and still not interfere with normal weakening of the main motor is provided in the STOP
of the electrical circuits. one-quarter throttle, the engine speed is increased linearly operation. If one engine loses power, the second unit position of the throttle. Each solid-state rectifier is
As will be noted from a study of Fig. 7, considerable to full throttle. The generator fields are controlled by will be able to carry the load since the motor voltage fed from the 440-V a-c ship's service system by circuits
redundancy is built into the d-c loop circuit. With two varying the firing time of the silicon-controlled rectifiers, will be reduced by 50 percent and the speed will drop as shown in Figs. 7 and 8. Duplicate breakers, trans-
generators and two motors operating, full power at 200 and the engine speed is controlled by varying the current proportionally. Thus the operator will be able to formers, and silicon rectifiers are supplied for the main
rprn will be realized. Switching to operate with only into an electric-pneumatic transducer which controls the continue operation at half-speed until convenient to propulsion circuits.
one generator and the two motor armatures is easily done fuel rack position. change the setup contactors. The field circuits of the generators are arranged for
by operation of the contactor-type setup switches. If The throttle control includes a one-way tracking d-c I n addition to the normal indicators on the PH suiciding (residual armature voltage applied in reverse
it is desired to remove either of the main propulsion servo system whereby the engine room throttle follows console, a loop ammeter is included. This is a direct across the field in the STOP position). Once again care
motor armatures from service, it is necessary to transfer the pilothouse (PH) throttle. The one-way tracking indication of power into the propeller, and enables the has been taken to avoid feedback between the armature
the links to the bypass position. This is intended only feature permits central operating station (COS) take- helmsman to operate at full load on the propulsion plant and field excitation circuits by using NO and NC
1 as an emergency measure in case of damage to a unit,
and all normal operations are performed with both
over without consultation with the PH. Transfer from
the COS, however, can be accomplished only upon
without constant PH-to-COS communication. The
system is protected from overspeed trip-out and from
contacts on the same contactor for the two functions, as
shown ifi Fig. 8.
motor units in service. Also the gas-turbine-driven, operation of a permissive circuit and matching of the two excessive loop current during a quick reversal operation The 350-hp d-c bow thruster operates over a wide
d-c generator can be switched into the loop in the event controllers. Voice communication and observation of (defined as immediate FULL AHEAD to FULL speed range by varying the excitation to the SCR from 0
that it is desirable to have the diesels shut down. the COS throttle remote position indicator on the PH ASTERN or conversely, although the latter tends to be to 15 volts from the pilothouse throttle rheostat, thus
The primary propulsion control equipment is located console are necessary to effect transfer to the PH. less severe due to the relatively low astern ship speeds) varying the generator field voltage from 0 to 180 volts.
in the central operating station (COS) and it can override Local control of engine speed is also available, with two by a time-delay relay activated as the throttle goes The bow thruster motor field is supplied with 250 V d-c
either of the two above-deck stations; i.e., the pilothouse air pressure gages on the engine panel to allow "bump- through the STOP position. This reduces engine speed from a silicon rectifier. The reversal of thrust from port
or the aft control station. This vessel includes a ma- free" transfer from the COS control panel. for a few seconds, removes the generator field excitation, to starboard is accomplished by reversing the voltage
chinery control console which performs display, alarm, In the operation of a d-c loop with two independent and inserts a field-weakening resistor into the motor field. applied to the generator field, after a short time delay
and data logging functions for most of the machinery on prime movers, loss of power from one prime mover, This time delay, plus the inherent machine time con- to avoid excessive plugging.
the ship. Starting and stopping of the main propulsion when both are in service, can result in reversing the prime stants, allows the ship to slow down to approximately 70 The a-c propulsive rudder circuit is designed to start
diesels are the only actual propulsion control functions mover which has lost power and may cause severe percent speed before applying full generator field in the the motor at % voltage and % frequency. The unit
/ on this console. engine damage. To avoid this, a system of speed- reverse direction, neutralizes the effect of the acceleration system approach-one 300-kw generator and one 250-hp
346 MARINE ENGINEERING
ELECTRIC PROPULSION DRIVES
4-hour maximum power a t 810 rpm. The main motor is
capable of developing its power over a speed range, and
a t its maximum 4hour rating this range is from 120 to
175 rpm. These propeller speeds correspond to the
bollard and free-route conditions of the vessel.
The main propulsion control station for each of the
two propulsion system is located in the corresponding
motor room. This station is designed to
K
(1) Select any combination of one to five diesel- W
3
generator sets with which to supply power to. the B
associated main motor. W
ln
K
(2) Supply excitation power to the motor and the 0
I
generators from the assigned motor-generator set or from
C
the standby unit, if necessary. u
a
(3) Start, stop, and regulate the speed of the pro- I
ln
pulsion motor from zero speed to maximum speed in
either direction of rotation.
(4) Provide means for dividing the load equally
between generators.
I
(5) Provide visual indications of machinery perform-
ance and alarms for dangerous operating conditions. 0 40 64 80 100 I20 140 160 180
PROPELLER RPM
(6) Provide for transfer of main motor speed and 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
direction control to the pilothouse. 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
C
Figure 15 shows a schematic wiring diagram for a
REMOVE COOLERS typical single-screw turbine-electric a-c propulsion
I system. The direction of rotation of the propulsion
motor is controlled by reversing contactors (S1 to 85).
This reversing switch group can be remotely controlled
switches, contactors, or breakers, depending upon the
control arrangement and system size. Excitation power
is supplied by a main or standby excitation motor-
generator set driven from the auxiliary (ship's service)
power system. Other excitation systems can be used,
such as auxiliary turbine or diesel-driven exciter or
static exciters supplied from the ship's service power
system. The propulsion motor field is controlled by an
excitation contactor with contacts E l , E2, and E3. The
field of the propulsion exciter is automatically controlled
by a propulsion regulator. This regulator automatically
adjusts the excitation power level in response to the
direction control lever and throttle control lever move-
ment. The control station, depending upon the control
arrangement, will have either one or two control levers.
With a two-lever station, one lever controls the direction
switch (S1 to 85) and supplies the logic signals for
automatic starting and synchronizing of the propulsion
motor. The other lever provides speed control logic to
+ =PLAN
A the prime mover governor. Interlocking between the
VIEW two levers is provided to (1) allow moving the reverser
R O ~ RR&OVAL
lever only when the throttle lever is in the maneuvering
Fig. 12 A-c proplion generatorsdimemions and weights speed position, and (2) to allow movement of the throttle Fig. 14 Typical propeller rpm-torque curves for various h i p speeds
Air coolers are supplied with the propulsion motors and induction winding which must be carefully designed so
generators and are normally built in as a part of the that it will not detract appreciably from the purely
EXCITATION BUS enclosed ventilating air system. The necessary motor- synchronous motor characteristics for steady running,
driven vent fans for the main motor are also considered a and so that it will be able to develo~sufficient induction
part of the motor and are normally mounted as a part of motor torque for stopping the propeller and bringing it
the main motor. up to speed in theastern direction while the motion of
Lubrication of the generator bearings is provided from the ship through the water is still attempting to drive the
the turbine system. Propulsion motor ,bearings are ~ r o ~ e l l eand
r the motor in the ahead direction. The
normally force-lubricated from a separate system con- ind;ction winding must be carefully proportioned so as
sisting of a motor-driven pump, oil coolers and strainers, to have sufficient thermal capacity to handle the heavy
and a sump tank. currents induced during the maneuvering cycle.
4.2 System Design Features. For electrical losses In order to studv further the characteristics necessarv
SHIP SERVICE POWER in the transmission between the turbine and the pro- to accomplish a Ifull-power, full-speed reversal, it is
peller, an average figure of 6 percent can be taken. desirable to review briefly the sequence of operations
This figure does not include the excitation power of the during the maneuver. On signal for full-speed astern,
generator and motor fields. This loss will amount to the operator first moves the turbine speed control lever
about 1 percent of the kilowatt rating of the generator and to the IDLING position, which sets the governor for
about 1.5 percent of the kilowatt rating of the motor. about 20 percent speed. He then moves the field lever
Fig. IS Typical schematic circuit diagram-turbine electric a-c drive This loss is included separately since it is supplied from to the OFF position, removing excitation from both the
a source separate from the main turbine. generator and motor. He next moves the direction lever
The propulsion system, being an independent system, from the FULL AHEAD position to the START
enjoys considerable freedom of choice as to voltage and position astern. While these operations have been
frequency. As noted previously, the choice of voltage going on, the ship has been slowing down because power
1. The turbine speed governor resets to call for to provide for operation on less than the full number of level is based on motor and generator machine design was removed from the propeller. However, it is still
the speed indicated by the throttle lever position signal. propulsion sets. For instance, if three turbine-generators considerations, and on the availability of needed switch- moving ahead through the water at a considerable speed
2. Fuel-power increases until the system speed are used to provide power to one propulsion motor, it is gear or control apparatus. As a guide, a 10,000-hp and thus driving the propeller and motor in the ahead
reaches the turbine governor set point. desirable to incorporate coritrol features that enable .system might well use about 2400 volts and a 50,000-hp direction. In the last o~erationjust mentioned. two of
Control systems with higher degrees of automation, operation on 1, 2, or 3 generator sets. Operation on a system would find 6600 to 7500 volts advantageous. the three-phase connections between the generator and
programmed sequencing, and remote actuation can be reduced number of generators (reduced power capa- The minimum frequency of a turbine-electric, a-c the motor are reversed; and approximately double
employed, and the trend is to move in this direction. bility) increases the propeller reversal time and electrical system is largely determined by the speed of the turbine- excitation is applied to the generator field. Power
Protection against faults or short circuits in the main machine load because the propeller torque during a generator unit and the use of a two-pole generator design. therefore is applied immediately to the stator of the
circuit is provided by phase balance relays or a differen- reversal from high ahead ship speeds exceeds the plugging Since the turbine will invariably have a rotation speed of motor in the reverse direction, causing large currents to
tial relay, or both. The functioning of these relays motor torque available with reduced power input. The 3000 rpm or more, this results in a minimum frequency circulate in the damper winding of the motor and there-
causes excitation to be removed from the propulsion maneuvering (reversal time) performance is improved of 50 cps. The corresponding motor, if its desired fore developing a heavy torque which acts to stop the
motor and generator. Ground protection is provided and overloading required of the generators and motor is operating speed is 100 rpm, would have 60 poles. propeller and then to reverse it and bring it up astern,
by a ground current relay circuit in the propulsion motor reduced by the addition of a dynamic braking resistor. Higher frequencies would require more poles on the close to synchronism with the main generator. The
neutral. Functioning of this relay also removes excita- This resistor is connected to absorb the propulsion p u m p motor and tend toward a less satisfactory and less operator then moves the control lever to the RUN
tion from the propulsion motor and generator. back power due to the forward motion of the ship and economical design. Frequencies, then, tend to be in the position, which applies field to the motor, pulling it into
Systems which utilize multiple prime movers must the resultant water action on the propeller. When the 50-90 cps range, with the lower frequencies favoring the synchronism with the generator as a synchronous motor
incorporate means to obtain proper kw load-sharing ship has lost sufficient headway, the dynamic brake is slow-speed motor and the higher frequencies being and a t the same time reducing the generator excitation to
between prime movers, kvar sharing between generators, disconnected and the propulsion generators in use are accepted only as necessary from the turbine standpoint. normal. While the motor is operating as an induction
and provisions for adding or removing a generator set connected in reverse phase rotation to the propulsion The inherent torque characteristics of an a-c ship machine, it has a rather low power factor and places a
from propulsion duty. Real load-sharing between pro- motor. The power from the reduced number of pro- propulsion motor require coordination of the system current demand on the generator of from three to five
pulsion engines is usually accomplished by speed droop. pulsion generators should now be sufficient to accelerate design. The a-c motor and generator combination will times normal. If no provision were made for over-
Since good speed regulation (low droop with load) is not the propulsion motor to near synchronous speed in the not carry overload torques under steady running con- exciting the generator field, its terminal voltage would
required or even desirable, this droop can be set much astern direction. ditions a t full power unless the machines are designed collapse, and the motor would fail to deliver the necessary
higher than normally considered for ship's service The general requirements for connecting cables as with considerable torque margin or unless provision is torque. This is the reason that the excitation system
generator sets. A speed droop setting of 10 percent given in Section 2 for d-c propulsion apply. Cables made in the control and excitation system to automatic- must be closely coordinated with the machine design.
should provide good load-sharing and stable operation. should preferably be of the single-conductor type and ally increase the excitation of the machines when the The motor design must be carefully proportioned so that
Reactive load-sharing between generators can be ac- should have nonmagnetic armor. The armor should be overload torque is imposed. Unless these provisions are it will develop sufficient synchronizing torque to pull
complished by connecting the generator fields in parallel grounded at approximately the mid-point of the cable made, the machines will pull out of step and require into step with the generator although the ship still is
from a single exciter, or by reactive droop if individual run. Single-conductor, a-c cables should not be located resynchronizing. going ahead and causing ahead torque to be developed
exciters are used. Various methods can be used for closer than 3 in. from parallel magnetic material and, The torque requirements on the motor during a full- by the propeller.
adding or removing generator sets, depending upon the where cables pierce a bulkhead, all conductors of the power, full-speed reversal are the most exacting and As each type of ship and propeller will have different
type of prime mover and generator. The most straight- same set should pass through a common nonferrous usually largely fix the design of both the motor and maneuvering characteristics, the first step in determining
forward method is to provide adequate switchgear and plate to prevent heating of the magnetic bulkhead. generator. Since synchronous motors are almost uni- the proper design of the propulsion motor and generator
automatic paralleling between propulsion generator Single conductor cables should be supported on insulators, versally used in a-c propulsion plants, only this type of is to calculate the expected maneuvering chmacteristics.
sets. and where cables are arranged in groups they should be motor will be considered in the discussion of this Figure 16 shows the full-power reversal speed-torque
Where multiple prime movers are used, it is desirable transposed when lengths exceed about 100 ft. problem. The rotor is provided with a substantial curves for a typical single-screw, turbine-electric-pro-
354 MARINE ENGINEERING ELECTRIC PROPULSION DRIVES 355
Table 1 Allowable Temperature Rises for A-C Machines, virtually all cases the main motor will be located as far TZSE-A1 Tankers
Deg C aft as possible. This results in important reductions in Turbine Generator. . . . . . . . . . . .5400 kw, 3715 rpm
INSULATION
Class B Class F
-
Class H
length of line shaft, shaft alley, and number of bearings.
Motor foundations should provide for axial space in which
2370 volts, 3 phase
62 cycles, 1.0 pf
Ambient .................... 50 50 50 to shift the motor stator to uncover the windings of Main M ~. . . . ~
. . . . .~. . . . ~. . .6600
, . hp, 93 rpm
Armature windings by stator and rotor without disturbing the motor rotor and 2370 volts. 3 ~ h a s e
imbedded detectors.. . . . . . . . 70 90 110 its bearings.
Salient pole fields b resistance. 70 90 110 62 cycles, l.oSpf
~urbine-typefieldsty resistance 80 100 120 As in the case of any propulsion plant, a careful T2-SE-A2 Tankers
analysis of the complete plant must be made to ensure Turbine Generator. . . . . . . . . . . ,7650 kw, 3715 rpm
that there will be no dangerous critical speeds within the 3610 volts, 3 phase
operating range. Although the electrical machines 62 cycles, 1.0 pf
provide damping action, it is possible to obtain vibration
produced when maneuvering. I n the case of twin-screw frequencies due to a combination of the propeller and the Main Motor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10,000 hp, 106 rpm
synchronous motor which will resonate with the natural 3610 volts, 3 phase
vessels, a sudden hard-over rudder movement can 62 cycles,. 1.0 pf
appreciably increase the loading of the inboard propeller frequency of the system. It is also possible to reflect
and, in such in~tallations,load limit as well as excitation such pulsations back into the turbine-generator set. It This type of drive is discussed further in [8].
increase may be desirable. is therefore necessary that a careful analysis of the entire b. Passenger Vessel :Canberra
The comments made in Section 2.2 regarding the system be made. The Canberra is a large passenger vessel built for
availability of improved insulations and the demise of 4.3 Physical Characteristics. Because of the great service between England, Australia, and the West Coast
Class A insulation apply to a-c machines as well. Class variation in requirements and arrangements, precise data of North America [9]. The choice of steam-turbine,
B insulation systems are the usual standard but the use on equipment weight and size cannot be presented; a-c electric drive was based on a number of factors, and
of Class F is increasing. however, general outline dimensions are given in Fig. 12 was no doubt influenced by very favorable operating
PROPELLER SPEED, O/o RATED Allowable temperature rises are given in Table 1 and for a-c propulsion generators of the turbine type, and passenger
experiencevessels.
of its owners with three other turboelectric
more complete details will be found in reference [I]. Fig. 13 gives similar data for a-c propulsion motors of the
Fig. 16 Typical propeller and motor torque characbrirtiu Again it should be noted that the ambient of totally direct-drive type. These figures also give overall weights The Canberra has a twin-screw propulsion plant with a
enclosed machines fitted with air coolers is that of the air for these machines. The speed chosen for these machines combined rated shaft horsepower of 85,000. Each screw
delivered by the coolers and, if designed for less than is arbitrary but nevertheless typical and illustrative of is driven by a 42,500-hp double-unit motor at 147 rpm
I
50 C air delivery, corresponding extra temperature-rise units that would be used. full speed. The motors are of the synchronous type and
allowances can be made. Control or excitation equipments are small and light operate at unity power factor and a maximum voltage of
Propulsion motors and generators are rated for the in weight when compared to the main motor and 6000 volts. Each of the double-unit motors is supplied
pelled oceangoing vessel. Curve A shows the calculated maximum full-power, continuous shaft horsepower generators and lend themselves to mechanical packaging with power by a single generator directly coupled to a
maneuvering torque capacity of the propulsion plant. requirements of the vessel. Electrical equipment so that facilitates convenient installation. high-performance steam turbine. The generators are
Curve B shows the propeller torque requirements during designed, with temperature ratings as indicated in the somewhat oversized in order to permit a single unit to
maneuvering, starting with the ship going ahead at full preceding paragraph, obviously can carry some overload 4.4 Applications supply the desired amount of power to both propulsion
speed. As the ship slows down, the propeller torque is without distress. Such overload will result in higher a. T2 Tankers. Over 500 turbine a-c electric drive motors for certain legs of the vessel's itinerary. It is
reduced so that there is a family of curves similar to operating temperatures and some reduction in overall tankers were built during the 19401s,mainly in response interesting to note that the tested efficiency of the main
curve B to cover various ship speeds (see Fig. 14). insulation life of the machine. The amount of such to World War I1 needs. Many were converted to other motors is over 98 percent throughout the power range
Curve C is a portion of one of these curves and represents life reduction depends on the severity and frequency of service such as ore-carriers and self-unloading colliers [7]. of 50 to 100 percent and is 98.4 percent at full power.
the propeller torque-speed conditions existing when the the overloads and on the length of time of such service. Many of these vessels were "jumboized" by adding An unusual aspect of this application is the emphasis
motor speed has come within the range from which, at Experience indicates that it is advisable to provide longer midbodies and in some cases only the stern placed upon quietness of operation. The Canberra is
point Dl it can be synchronized with the generator. both the generator and motor with closed ventilating sections were retained. Invariably the propulsion plant probably the quietest and smoothest-running ship of its
The motor can be synchronized with its generator when systems and water-cooled air coolers. The preserving of was retained and, in many cases, overhauled and type in service and her electric drive, while contributing
the slip has been reduced to about 2 percent or less, and clean windings in such systems, and the elimination of uprated. There were numerous instances' when the to her quietness directly, also enables the two propellers
this ability is enhanced by timing the application of extensive air duct systems, makes the overall cost of the propulsion turbine-generator sets were used to feed to be run in synchronism and in the phase position that
I motor field so that the phase of its angular slip position closed system favorable. I n cases where added safe- power ashore in times of disaster or other critical need. produces the greatest neutralization of vibratory forces;
is most favorable for synchronization. guards against air-cooler water leakage seem prudent, Popularity and longevity are not the main reasons for the 42-pole motors permit 21 different synchronized
During induction motor operation, the motor field will double-tube type air coolers are used. citing this application but rather the fact that the basic operation relationships shaft-to-shaft. I n addition to
.be short-circuited on itself or through a resistor chosen For installations where the propulsion motor is located plant is typical of a steam-turbine, a-c electric drive for a the actual vibration reduction, the elimination of the
to aid the synchronizing process and to keep induced in a room by itself, it is not necessary to provide a single-screw ship. The plant consists of two boilers usual "twin-screw beat" is a particularly important
voltages.within acceptable values. completely closed ventilating system on the motor itself. which supply steam to a single propulsion steam turbine psychological improvement on a passenger vessel. The
The size, weight, and cost of a-c electric propulsion In this case it may be advantageous to provide for the ' direct-connected to a two-pole generator, one 80-pole twin screws of the Canberra are normally run in synchro- .
equipment are increased if inherent torque margins are ventilating fans to exhaust the warm air from the motor synchronous motor direct-connected to the propeller nism with each other except when in confined waters
increased. The torque margin of a propulsion system is through the air coolers into the motor room. The cool shaft, and an excitation and control subsystem. The where maneuvering is expected and independent pro-
defined as the increase in torque, above rated torque, to air is then drawn back into the motor through openings at rating of the main units is as follows: peller control is important to the handling of the vessel.
which the system may be subjected without having the both ends of the motor.
motor pull out-of-step with the generator. A torque The machinery layout selected will give consideration
margin of 10 percent is sufficient when combined with an to many factors and these will vary for different types of
automatic control means for raising excitation momen- ships. The mechanical independence of the main motor
tarily whenever torque increases occur, such ss can be and the turbine-generator set, however, is useful and in
MARINE ENGINEERING ELECTRIC PROPULSION DRIVES 357
I/ 1
Section 5
120
I I I I 1
The Diesel Alternating-C~rrrentDrive System
5.1 Differences from Turbine a-c Electric Drive. service when they are not required for primary propul-
Few diesel a-c electric drives have been built but sion. The propulsion plant consists of six 850-rpm
they are of particular interest from an electric-drive diesel-generator sets rated a t 2655 bhp each with a
standpoint. . 2000-kw generator output a t 3300 volts and 70.8 cycles.
The diesel a-c electric-drive system consists of a These six generators operate in parallel to supply power
multiple number of diesel engines, each driving a direct- to the 15,000-hp direct-drive propulsion motor. The
connected, salient pole, a-c generator, a single slow- ship may be propelled by any combination of 3, 4, 5, or 6
speed, direct-drive propulsion motor, an excitation sub- generators, and up to 3 generator sets can be used to
system, and a control system. The main motor will augment the ship's service power supply when tending
most likely be of the synchronous type, and subsequent power demands are heavy.
AHEAD ASTERN
portions of this section will be based on that type of The basic propulsion system is shown in Fig. 17. A PROPELLER RPM,XRATED
motor. single exciter is arranged to supply field power to all of
The fundamental principles of speed control and the propulsion generators and the propulsion motor.
Fig. 18 Propulsion motor torque characteristics with power supply set for
reversal of the propulsion motor are the same as for a The main exciter is under the control of a pilot exciter of 40-percent astern rpm
0
turbine-electric drive. However, the torque character- the amplidyne type, and it in turn is controlled by the 0 20 40 60 80 100 I
istics of the diesel engine a t reduced speed are less propulsion regulator. This regulator automatically SHIP SPEED, % RATED
favorable than those of a turbine ank there is risk of maintains proper excitation for all operating modes. I
stalling the engines during critical maneuvering if proper Any of the generators can be connected to augment vering operations are carried out a t higher engine speeds, Fig. 19 Maximum operating speeds
control safeguards are not provided. I n addition, a the ship's service system for special duty such as cargo i.e., 4 0 4 5 percent, so as to have increased torque
number of generating units must be operated in parallel handling, pumping, or overside power supply. As shown, capability and assurance of nonstalling performance.
over a range of from 30 to 100-percent speed. These excitation for this mode of operation is from static The propulsion motor is directly connected to the generators in response to a speed signal from the engine-
factors combine to require a carefully designed control exciters. propeller shaft and is rated a t 15,000shp and unitypower generator set. Curves D and E are similar motor
system to ensure that the operating conditions can be Typically, each of the gix diesel-generator sets consists factor. A voltage of from 3000 to 4000 volts is indicated torque curves but with only half of the six diesel-
met within the capabilities of the equipment. of a high-speed engine direcbconnected to a salient pole for this machine. The motor is equipped with as heavy generator sets supplying power to the motor.
5.2 Description of a Typical System. As a means of generator. The diesel-generator sets must be varied in an amortisseur winding as is practical for a machine of The free-route propeller power-speed curves are shown
illustrating a diesel a-c electric drive, consider the Navy speed in order to obtain propeller speed control. This this type without requiring an unbalanced design or in Fig. 19 as the usual cubic curve. To this has been
Submarine Tender Hunley. The Hunley is a diesel a-c can be done from 100-percent speed down to about 30- reflecting adversely on normal synchronous motor added the power capabilities represented by 3, 4, 5, and
electric drive of 15,000 shp [lo, 111. This application is percent speed under steady-state operating conditions. operation. The motor is totally enclosed with surface 6 diesel-generator sets. The intersections of these
typical of those special-service vessels in which use can be At this low speed, load transients must be avoided to air coolers and motor-driven blowers. A motor of this curves represent maximum operating speeds for the
made of the prime mover generating sets for auxiliary prevent danger of engine stalling, and as a result maneu- type is shown in Fig. 13. various combinations.
The motor torque characteristics under maneuvering The propeller characteristics of importance during
conditions are of paramount importance. Figure 18 maneuvering operations are the dynamic relationships of
shows typical motor speed-torque characteristics at 40- propeller torque and speed for a series of vessel speeds.
-
PROPULSION. GENERATOR EXCITATION BUS 440 VA? POWER
percent rated frequency (the assumed maneuvering Such characteristics are shown in Fig. 14. The power
speed selected for the diesel-generator sets). Curve A is requirements shown by Fig. 19 represent the steady-
the motor performance under full rated volts-per-cycle state duty as seen by the motor, and the curves of Fig.
supply conditions, as would be expected on most indus- 14, when augmented by an appropriate acceleration com-
trial applications operating from an unwavering power ponent, represent the transient duty as seen by the motor.
supply. On a ship application, the motor must be These then are the output requirements of the system,
started from a generator of equal capacity and the motor and all control and system designs are directed to meet
torque must be determined on this basis. The generator these needs while staying within the basic capabilities of
characteristics, motor characteristics, and excitation the primemovers, thegenerators, and the propulsion motor.
system must be selected so that optimum system The propulsion control is divided into three sections.
performance is obtained. Curve B is the system motor One controls the two excitation motor-generator sets and
torque exclusive of any prime mover limitation. This provides for selection of the in-service set. Another
curve is based on the volt-ampere output from the section provides for generator control and connection to
generators with their field forced to about 2.5 times either the propulsion bus or to the special ship's service
normal excitation. Producing this motor torque, how- duty bus; and a third section provides for control of
ever, requires the generator to demand more torque from motor speed and direction of rotation.
the engine than is available over a part of the speed The propulsion motor speed and direction of rotation
range. Curve C, a modification of curve B, shows the are controlled by three levers: REVERSING, FIELD,
motor torque available within the limits of engine and SPEED. These, together with the major inter-
capacity. The torque demand of the engine has been locking, are shown in the functional diagram of Fig. 20.
reduced so as to just equal, but not exceed, the available The arrangement of mechanical interlocks will prevent
Fig. 17 Schematic diagrum-dienl a-c electric drive torque. This is done by regulating the excitation on the damaging operation. I n general, the REVERSING
0
358 MARINE ENGINEERING
ELECTRIC PROPULSION DRIVES
ENGINE SPEED mitter, and all engines being readied for propulsion service
will run a t approximately the same speed. torques are encountered in reversing the propeller and
TRANSMIlTER
The generators are connected to the propulsion bus by stopping the ship. A reversal from high ahead speeds
moving their individual POWER SELECTOR levers to requires that special steps be taken to slow the vessel
MECHANICAL
INTERLOCKING the PROP 1position. When the first POWER SELEC- down part way before the engines can assume the
burden within their capabilities. The situation can be
TOR lever is moved to the PROP 2 position, sufficient
seen from an examination of Fig. 22. The motor torque
I I excitation is applied to energize the bus and synchronize
AHEAD
RUN FULL
all of the connected generators. Each will in turn then developed under the system constraints is unable to
OFF NO. 2 reverse the propeller until the ship headway has been
be moved to the PROP 2 ~ositionand excited a like
It
I I
DYNAMIC
BRAKE
ASTERN
I I I I
amount. The propulsion b;s is now energized by all of
the in-service generators but at a reduced frequency
reduced to about 65 percent. If the motor were
unwisely put into such a process, it would be subjected
to a long period of heavy plugging action and excessive
( R VERSING
'LEVER
FIELD
LEVER (
CEE~ and very low voltage. heating of its amortisseur winding would result. A
Moving the motor REVERSER lever to the AHEAD much more satisfactory situation results from the use of
Fig. 20 Motor control leven position connects the motor to the propulsion bus in the a dynamic braking process during the necessary ship
ahead phase rotation ready for induction motor operation
deceleration period and the subsequent use of the motor
with its field shorted through a discharge resistor. The in its induction motor mode.
motor may not start in this position because of the low A dynamic brake is a resistor which can be connected
% OF RATED TORQUE
generator excitation but when the FIELD lever is moved to the motor terminals to absorb power generated in the
to position No. 1, approximately 250-percent generator motor by the action of the water passing through the
excitation is applied and the motor starts. The heavy propeller due to the ship's headway. This action does
overexcitationof the generators, subject to relief by any not produce heat in the amortisseur winding, and it is a
necessary engine torque-limiting action, assures the highly effective method for developing astern thrust,
production of maximum system torque and the motor particularly in the upper and more critical high-speed
accelerates to near-synchronous speed as an induction range.
motor. When the ship's velocity has been reduced to the
The FIELD lever is now moved to position No. 2 and necessary 65 percent, the dynamic brake can be dis-
the motor synchronizes with the generators when its connected and the propulsion motor connected to the
field is energized. This motor synchronization can propulsion bus in the reverse phase rotation. The Fig. 22 Revenal characbristics
readily be made automatic under the action of a slip motor can now be plugged and accelerated in the reverse
sensing relay, which not only makes certain that the rotation within the capabilities of the engines and
motor speed is sufficiently close to assure successful synchronized when it gets close to the 40-percent speed
synchronization, but signals the application of its field of the generator sets. After synchronization, the motor 70RPM
a t the most favorable instant of its slip cycle. The speed can be increased quite rapidly and the vessel OR
final movement of the FIELD lever to the RUN position % SPEED
stopping procedure completed. This process is illus-
latches the motor field contactor in the closed position. trated by Fig. 23.
The propulsion regulator now will maintain the bus From a control sequence standpoint, the foregoing
voltage a t a constant volts-per-cycle and the machines reversing actions are carried out from a full AHEAD
Fig. 21 Propulsion system characbristict-rtarting and mnning
will operate close to unity power factor. The SPEED condition in the following manner:
lever can now be moved to any speed in the SLOW to (1) Return the SPEED lever to the MANEUVER-
FULL range with the entire system (engine generators ING position. This positions the engine governors
and main motor) moving together in synchronism. The at 45-percent no-load speed. However, the complete
lever cannot be moved unless the FIELD lever is in the starting and running characteristics of the system are system continues to run at 65-percent speed, due to the
OFF position and the SPEED lever is in the MANEU- shown in Fig. 21 for six engine-generator sets in service forward movement of the ship and resulting water action
VERING position. The FIELD lever cannot be moved and for three sets in service. on the propeller.
unless the REVERSING lever is in the AHEAD or Since typical diesels cannot be depended upon for (2) Return the FIELD lever to the OFF position. MOTDR-PROPELLER AND
ASTERN and the SPEED lever is in the MANEU- reliable operation a t less than about 30-percent speed, GENERATOR RPM
This disconnects the propulsion motor field and reduces
VERING position. The SPEED lever cannot be moved the minimum propeller speed is also 30 percent under the field supplied to the generators.
unless the FIELD lever is in the RUN position. normal synchronous generator-motor operations. From (3) Move the REVERSING lever to the DYNAMIC
Each generator is controlled by a POWER SELEC- a practical standpoint this is a satisfactory condition in BRAKE position. This connects the propulsion motor fig. 23 High-speed rwcmal performance
TOR lever having four positions: SPECIAL SERVICE, almost every application, but if some lower speed must to the brake and applies the correct motor field. The
OFF, PROP 1, and PROP 2. This lever permits any be provided, a subsynchronous mode can be utilized. control lever is left in this position until the ship's
generator to be added or removed from propulsion duty The main motor, operating as an induction motor, is run headway has decreased sufficiently to permit the motor
a t any time, and to be used for special service power a t high percentage slip by controlling the generator to be pulled into synchronism astern. astern, and the SPEED lever is moved to the desired
supply when not used for propulsion. excitation to permit such action. Operation in this (4) After the REVERSING lever is moved to the astern propeller speed. The propeller is accelerated to
In order to start the plant, the generators which are to mode is within the capabilities of the electrical equip- ASTERN position, the FIELD lever and SPEED lever the desired astern speed at a rate determined by the
be used for propulsion (at least 50 percent of full capacity) ment because the propeller power demands below 30- are moved in the same fashion as described for starting. number of engines in service. The automatic load
are first switched from local control in the engine room percent speed are very low. The generator field is forced to the maximum permitted limit feature of the engine governors limits the fuel, and
to remote control a t the main propulsion control board. Once the ship is moving at relatively high speed by the propulsion regulator, the motor is automatically consequently the torque, to the maximum capacity of
This connects the engine governors to a master trans- (above 60-percent speed or so) considerably higher synchronized as it accelerates to near-synchronous speed the system.
ELECTRIC PROPULSION DRIVES
360 MARINE ENGINEERING
Section 6
resulting in high efficiency. Efficiency is usually above on Shipboard," IEEE Publication No. 45, February
97 percent, including excitation loss of about 1 percent, 1967.
1
slip of 1% percent, and some windage loss. 2 J. A. Wasmund, "Series- Versus Parallel-Con-
Electric Couplings 6.2 Applications. A number of installations of nected Generators for Multiple-Engine D-C Diesel-
electric couplings have been made on cargo vessels and Electric Ship-Propulsion Systems," Trans. AIEE, 1954.
a 6.1 -General Description. The electric coupling is a the driving element but a t a slightly slower speed, and on large tugboats. The typical arrangement utilizes 3 W. E. Jacobsen, "Marine Power Applications," I
device for transmitting torque by means of electro- the amount of this "slip" is just that required for the a pair of moderate-speed reversible engines to drive a Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers, 10th edition,
magnetic forces without having any mechanical contact development of the necessary driving torque. single propeller via electric couplings and a combining McGraw-Hill, New York.
between the driving and driven members [12, 131. The I n order for electric couplings to be suitable for reduction gear. Here the couplings provide for the 4 J. A. Wasmund, "How Trials Prove Design
electric coupling consists of two steel spiders with rims maneuvering a ship, they must be capable of producing engagement or disengagement of the engines simply by Theories," Marine Engineering/Log, August 1956.
and flanges. The inside of the outer rim carries a number large amounts of torque a t high slip. Thus they are energizing or deenergizing the field winding. 5 "CS Long Lines," Marine EngineeTinglLog, July
of poles which can be excited from an outside source normally equipped with double-layer, bar-type, squirrel- I n the case of a twin-engined ship, the usual procedure 1IYVV.
OR9
through collector rings. The inner element, a laminated cage windings and are designed to produce 150-percent when maneuvering in very close quarters is to run one
6 D. W. Drews, "Turbine-Electric Propulsion for
core, surrounds the rim and carries a squirrel-cage pull-out torque, as well as a minimum of 75-percent engine ahead and the other engine astern. The ship may
Ships," ASNE Journal, August 1963.
winding similar to that of the usual squirrel-cage normal torque up to 140-percent slip. Such high values then be maneuvered readily in either direction by
induction motor. Both the inner and the outer elements of slip will be encountered during reversal duty when the operating a lever which applies field to the proper 7 M. Mack Earle, "The Conversion of T2 Tankers
are supported for rotation and separated radially by an prime mover is operating in the reverse rotation and the coupling, and thus connects the propeller to either the for Great Lakes and Seaway Service," Trans. SNAME,
air gap of about % in. One element, usually the inner propeller is yet operating in the ahead rotation. ahead-running or astern-running engine. All ahead and vol. 68, 1960.
one, will be connected to the prime mover, and the other The double-layer, squirrel-cage winding enables the astern thrusts, within the capability of one engine, are 8 "Sun-Built T2-SE-A1 Tankers, " Marine Engineer-
to the driven device. Coupling ratings are usually in coupling to produce high torque a t high slip conditions then attainable without further reversing of the engines. ing and Shipping Review, July 1947.
the 1000 to 4000-hp range. A typical coupling is such as occur during maneuvering operations. When Electric couplings act as torsionally flexible members 9 T. W.Bunyan,P.D.Morris,andD.D.Stephen,
illustrated in Fig. 24. the slip is high, the induced voltage is of high frequency, and torsional dampers. The pulsations in torque from "Canberra," Trans. IME, October 1962.
The fundamental principle of the electric coupling is causing the higher reactance deep bars to force the the engines are smoothed out, reducing gear wear and 10 W. E. Jacobsen and R. L. Koch, "Diesel-Electric
that of developing torque by inducing current in a current into the outer high-resistance bars. This noise and minimizing v torsional vibrations in the drive
Propulsion for Polaris Submarine Tender," ASNE
squirrel-cage induction-motor-type winding by rotating a results in maximum torque. When operating at normal system. ~ou~rnal, August 1962.
magnetic field around the squirrel-cage winding. The slip the frequency is low, and a major portion of the The propulsion control system, in addition to the usual 11 H. M. Burford, R. L. Koch, and J. D. Westbrook,
coupling-driven element rotates in the same direction as current flows in the .deeper, low-resistance winding, engine starting, stopping, and reversing features, requires "Performance of a Diesel Electric A.C. Propulsion Plant
only the integrated arrangement of engine-speed govern- (Based on the Design and Sea Trials of USS Hunley
ing and coupling excitation control. It can be arranged (AS-31))," SNAME Hampton Roads Section, October
to suit virtually any particular requirements and is well 1962.
suited to remote or pilothouse control. 12 M. R. Lory, L. A. Kilgore, and R. A. Baudry,
"Electric Couplings," Trans. AIEE, August 1940.
References 13 M. R. Lory, "Electric Couplings for Great Lakes
1 "Recommended Practice for Electric Installations Ships," SNAME Great Lakes Section, September 1950.
I*
CHAPTER XI
I
f
C. L. Long
- II System
Propellers, Shafting, and Shafting
Vibration Analysis
Section 1
Introduction I
1.1 General. A main propulsion shafting system transom sterns. The distinguishing characteristic of
(including the propeller) consists of the equipment neces- this arrangement is that the shafting must be extended
sary to convert the rotative power output of the main outboard for a considerable distance in order to provide
propulsion engines into thrust horsepower, suitable for adequate clearance between the propeller and the hull.
propelling the ship, and the means to impart this thrust One or more strut bearings are required to support the
to the ship's hull. In the following pages, the design of outboard shafting.
a main propulsion shafting system will be discussed from A shafting arrangement typical of single-screw mer-
the viewpoint of a shipbuilder undertaking the task of chant ships is shown in Fig. 2. The arrangement illus-
preparing a detailed design. I t will, however, be as- trated corresponds to the so-called Mariner or clear-water
sumed that the propeller hydrodynamic design has been stern design (there being no lower rudder support);
developed; the hydrodynamic design of propellers and Powever, the shafting arrangements of most merchant
other propulsion devices is thoroughly covered in Prin- ships are very similar. The major difference between the
ciples of Naval Architecture [I]' and therefore will not be shafting arrangements of various merchant ships is the
pursued here. Although the fundamentals outlined in location of the main engines. When the main engines
the following sections apply to all types of propulsors are located well aft, such as on tankers, there may be as
andc prime movers,. the discussion has been primarily few as one or even no inboard bearings at all. When the
directed towards a conventional arrangement with a main engines are located approximately amidships, as
fixedLpitch propeller and a geared steam turbine main on dry cargo ships, a considerable length of inboard
engine. This was necessaw in order to reduce the range shafting is required.
of variations which had to be considered. The shafting located inside the ship is termed line
Due to the nonuniform wake field in which a ship's shafting. The outboard sections of shafting (wet shaft-
propeller operates, the propeller is a source of potentially ing) are designated differently depending upon their
dangerous vibratory excitations. The shafting system location. The section to which the propeller is secured
itself, which is inherently flexible, is extremely vulnerable is the"propel1er shaft or tail shaft. The section passing
to these vibratory excitations; consequently, an analysis through the stern tube is the stern tube shaft unless the
of the dynamic characteristics of a shafting system is an propeller is supported by it (as is the case with most
integral aspect of the design process and is discussed in merchant ships) in which case it is designated as the
this chapter. propeller shaft or tail shaft. If there is a section of
1.2 Description of Shaftfng System. The main pro- shafting between the propeller and stern tube shafts, it
wpulsion shafting system must accomplidh' a number would be referred to as an intermediate shaft.
of objectives which are vital to the ship's operation. Shafting sections are connected by means of bolted
These objectives are: (a) transmit the power output from flange couplings. The coupling flanges are normally
iI
the main engines to the propulsor; (b) support the pro- forged integrally with the shafting section; however,
pulsor; (c) transmit the thrust developed by the propulsor when required by the arrangement (e.g., stern tube
to the ship's hull; (d) safely withstand transient operating shafts which require flanges on both ends and also require
loads (e.g., high-speed maneuvers, quick reversals); (e) corrosion-resistant sleeves to be fitted to the shaft in way
be free of deleterious modes of vibration; and df) provide of bearings), a removable coupling, sometimes referred to
reliable operation throughout the operating range. as a muff coupling, is used.
Figure 1 is a shafting arrangement typical of those Bearings are used to support the shafting in essentially
found on multishaft ships and single-shaft ships having a straight line between the main propulsion engine and
the desired location of the propeller. Bearings inside the
ship are known by several names with line shaft bearings,
Numbers in brackets designate Reference8 at end of chapter. steady bearings, and spring bearings being the most
t
MARINE ENGINEERING PROPELLERS,SHAFTING, AND SHAFTING SYSTEM VIBRATION ANALYSIS
3.1 Dwkn Coaaidemt?ons. In general, the di- Propulsion shafting is subjected to a variety of steady
mensions ~f s h d t b g are predic@ed on the basis of and alternating Ioads which induce torsional shear, axial
strength requirements; however, it is ocxasionally nebee+ thrust, and bending stressesin the shafting. In addition,
eary to modify an otherwise sstipfactory shafting system there are radial compressive stressesbetween the shafting
design due to vibration considerations. Shafting &ram- and mating elements (such as the propeller and sleeves)
etemurnally have only a minor impact on the longitudind which, when coupled with axid strains from bending
vibration chmcteri~tim~ but the wh&:ling and torsional stress, tape v q important from a fatigue standpoint.
modes rtre sensitive t o &a& diameters. Shafting vibra- The steady loads represent average conditions ~nnd
tion, m mch, is d k u d in Sections 7-9. ean be &mated w i a~degree of certainty as they are
I( 368 MARINE ENGINEERING PROPELLERS, SHAFTING, AND SHAFTING SYSTEM VIBRA'I'ION ANALYSIS
much greater for the five-bladed propeller than for the Table 1 Ratio of Shaft Torque Measured During High-Speed
369
Table S Propdler Variable Ruwst Exc8atiorr F a c m sional the imps-ce of the k t st- is Table 4 Ships Instrumented to Determine Tailshaft Bending Stresses
That reduced even furthepep
No: Bk&s EHcitation 3.5 B e d - L d s . Lmds which cause bending Thrust
~EEEW~-&~W k B h
Behind struta
Frotar, J
O.W.85
&mes to omur in the shaP%iqm e the d t of gravity, Ship
Name Type Ship A
Lyl 2 cn shp rpm
Design
Thrust,
ib
Prop.
Dia.
D, ft
Thrust
Eccent.
C, it
Eccent.
Factor
C / D Reference
%%or& shmk, off-center t M loarfsBand whirling shaft vibm-
3 Behind ekege 0 . ~ 4I%. OWsp TZSE-A2 20,300 503 68 0.74 10,000 95 184,000 19.5 0.91 0.047 [11]
4ar5 w i d akee 0.05-0.W tion. With the exceptionof once-per-revolution whirling Tanker
- -.
.--.
R Behind hossinea O.WU.12 vibration. d are &ernratinn hack relative to a point on Chrysai Tanker 38,100 615 84 0.77 15,000 112 246,000 22 1.31 0.060 B2]
Behind b & i 0.w.10 occur at e&h& shaft rotative fre&eney or
t i e shaft'a~~cl Robimon Victory 15,200 436.5 62 0.69 8,500 85 156,000 20.5 1.67 0.082 [13]
Behind bmaing~t Q.W.08 ."---=
Rhin
Qnce or twim propeller blade frequency. Jamestwn Tanker 50,200 685 93 0.75 26,500 108.5 385,000 23 1.26 0.055 1141
Q.OEHl.12 The weight of the shafting iW (a gravity l o d ) * k Observaiion Mariner 16,400 528 76 0.60 22,000 110 271,000 22 1.M 0.076 [16]
zslund
II
V = ship s p d at maximurn power, knots L, = distance from CG of propeller assembly to Heavy Stormy Ahead Deep 9%
W = ship's resistance at Tr, Ib M = bending moment at bearing*in.-lb aftermost bearing reaction, in. Light Stormy Ahead Deep 2%
ehp = ship's bull &wGm horsepowe~a t TP, hp L = span between in. Heavy Calm Ahead Shoal 1%
w = weight per unit length ef shaft& Ib/h. Equation (5) is the moment at the bearing reaction Light Calm Ahead Shoal 1%
s h= ~ maximum &aft horsemwer, h~
*t =. thnrst cE&uction fraction point assuming that the reaction is a point support
If the spans bekeen @ are mt approxirnateIy rather than a distributed reaction over a region of the
PC = propulsive coefficient
equal, such a simple appmmh cannot be used; instead, shaft. The point support assumption is justified in that
heh hue of f mnges from about 0.16 to 0.23 for singIe- continuously supported beam analytieal techniques, such the exact load distribution on the bearing is unknown lhll-scale tests on the Esso Jarnestown I141 permit an
screw &hipsv e n g frarn fine to full lines, respectively. a5 the three-moment equation or Hardy C m methad, and the moment calculated in this manner is somewhat evaluation of the influence of ship loading, sea conditions,
Twin-screw ships have t values ran& from about 0.1 t o must be used. During recent y e w , the practice has in excess of the actual value when the position of the and maneuvers. These factors are summarized in
0.2,2,& larger value applying t o &ips with bossings and been to use the digital mmput;er to mIculate the bending resultant reaction is estimated reasonably well. Table 5. The factors presented in Table 5 are the ratios
tihe sm&w value mmspon&ng to &ips with struts. moments a t all efiticaI &a& sections, utilizing mntinuous There are a number of influences in addition to the of the bending stresses for the various conditions de-
PC values of 0.73 for Singlewrew ships and 0.68 for b a r n forrnuIa%ians. gravity moment of the propeller which can have a sig- scribed to the bending stresses under full-load, deep-
mdtiscrew ships sre average v a b and normally found Weight 1 4 s on the outboard shafting tend to be of nificant impact on the propeller shaft bending stress. water, calm-seas, and straight-ahead operations. The
to be suitable for preliminary estimates. Reference tII more imporbnee due to the large mncentraW weight These are the eccentricity of thrust, water depth, sea extrapolated results from the Observation I s l a d tests [15]
contains methods of estimating t and PC and should be of the propeller. Standard eonfirnous beam equations conditions, and ship maneuvers. Under the general generally support the factors in Table 5. It should be
consulted €0 obtain a more a m r a t e &mate of the ean be used ha determine the magdude of the bending guidance of SNAME Panel M-8, the propeller shafts of a noted that maneuvers such as era&-backs rarely occur,
thrust I d if m d d test results a~ ship's performance moments. Howeuw, because of the long bearings used total of five ships have been instrumented to measure the and that the shaft need not be designed to withstand
etiYenleiti0~~are n ~ avaihble.
t o u t b d , the lacakians of fhe bearing peaetions we not bending stresses under actual operating conditions. stresses three times the normal value on a continuing
Alternating thrust h a & ltre generated by the pro- cleady defined. The pactice is ta assume the reaetion Data obtained from these tests are reported in references basis.
peller. The p d o m i n m t dtemating t h r a 1-d o m m a t the e n t e r of d1 bearings except the bearing just [ll-151. Table 4 summarizes the characteristics of the Shock loadings, considered in designing naval shafting
at pmpdler bMe frequency abi a consequence of the fopward of the propder. Because af the ham weight of ships tested. The tests were conducted to show the sig- for combatant ships, are akin to the gravity loading and
nonunifwm inflow water velacity 1;6 the propeller as the propelIer, the pmpeller shaft has a s i ~ i 6 c a n slope
t nificance of the ship loading, sea conditions, ship maneu- are frequently determined by multiplying the gravity
discussed in Election 3.2, The magnitude af the variable a t this bearing; therefore, the rwltanh W i n g reaction vers, and thrust eccentricity. force loads by a "shock" factor; however, more sophisti-
thrusC M a is dependent an the ntmbes of prnpeller tends to be in the after region af the Wing. Water- Eccentricity of the propeller thrust produces a sig- cated methods are available for determining the shock
blade& For single-mrew ships, an even number d bJr8des Iubricated bearings of Emurn vitae, micarby or rubber nificant propeller shaft bending moment. The propeller loads through the application of dynamic analysis tech-
will m l t in greater d t e m t i q thrust lmds than am have L / D ratios of about 4 f o r this bearing and the resultant thrust is eccentric from the propeller shaft niques. References [16,17] treat the procedure for con-
odd n u m k as dimussed in 3.2. For preEminmy e&i- resultant reaction is usually assumed to be one shdk centerline under almost all operating conditions and is ducting dynamic shock analyses of shafting systems.
mates, fhe magnitude of the alternating thrust as a per- diameter forward of the aft bearing face. Od-Eubrieated usually in the upper starboard quadrant when looking Misalignment in shafting systems can produce very
centage of steady thrust can be taken from Table 3. bearings h&veLID ratios of about I to 2, and a review of forward. Therefore, it does not combine directly with significant bending loads and this factor is probably
Insofar tm the strength of the shafting is concernedr the shaft contact in these bearings indicates that hard the propeller gravity moment. Light draft operating responsible for the majority of inboard shafting failures.
neither the steady nor J k m a t i n g thrust lmds are major contact is confined to the after region of the bearing for conditions and "U" shaped stern sections tend to bring The sensitivity of the shafting to misalignment should be
design consi~ations. With merchant ships, the steady a length appmximateIy eq;uaI to the diameter of the shaft. the thrust and gravity moments closer together and reviewed particularly as regards water-lubricated stern
camp&ve stress is 1008 to I500 @; even In highly Current practice is t o assume that the resultant bearing make them more additive. Table 4 shows the thrust tube and strut bearings which are subject to wear in
stressed shafts in navd skips the steady e o m p d v e reaction in oil-lubricated b e d g a Is one-half shaft diam- eccentricity factor, C / D , determined from full-scale test service.
stress d d o m reshes 2500 psi, Torsional shear stresses eter from the after bearing face. data for heavy-displacement, calm-sea conditions. The The sensitivity of the shafting to misalignment can be
me of predominant importance; and since the s t m s Generafly the most signifimnt weight moment ia due thrust eccentricity, C, shown in Table 4 is the resultant assessed by calculating the shafting bearing reactions and
due to thrust EEO nut combine additively with the tar- to the overhtmg moment of the propeller. The maxi- of the eccentric thrust and the gravity components. moments with the shafting in various misaligned condi-
372 MARINE ENGINEERING PROPELLERS, SHAFTING, AND SHAFTING SYSTEM VIBRATION ANALYSIS 373
I
significant magnitude and are not considered in determin- shafts in excess of 6000 psi would result in shaft cracks.
tions. Digital computer programs have been developed
for making this analysis; one such pmgram is described ing the shaft factor of safety. However, these radial T = kld + -PC Therefore, it is not prudent to design with normal
in Section 5. loads can be of importance in that they give rise to operating bending stresses in excess of this stress level.
Lateral or whirling vibration of the shafting can result fretting corrosion when coupled with bending loads and where Furthermore, the endurance limit of a propeller shaft
in inqreased bending loads in the shafting. However, alternating torsional loads that cause minute relative T = minimum propeller shaft diameter assembly can be essentially independent of the fatigue
since the shafting system is designed to avoid whirling movement of the mating surfaces. Fretting corrosion kl = constant limit of the material in air. If seawater contacts the
criticals in the upper operating range, bending loads can be controlled by limiting the relative motion and by steel shaft, no endurance limit exists and it is ohly a
' from shaft whirling vibration are not considered when
designing the shafting.
3.6 Radial Loads. Radial loads in shafting are
cold-rolling the mating shafting surface. Cold-rolling
of shafting surfaces is discussed in Section 4.3.
Another consideration is that if the radial load is
d = required line shaft diameter
P = propeller diameter
C = constant relating to propeller shaft environment
matter of time before cracks will occur followed by
ultimate failure.
4.3 Bearing Locations. In the past, bearing loca-
caused by driving the propeller onto the shaft taper, applied abruptly, a stress concentration can occur. Although the formula for the tailshaft diameter is tions have been determined by criteria such as "each
shrink-fitting sleeves on the shafting, and shrink-fitting Therefore, design details should be developed so as to simple, it does recognize that bending stresses from shaft span shall have two bearings" or by intuitive judg-
removable flange couplings. The radial compressive minimize sudden changes in radial loads caused by propeller weight and off-center thrust exist and relates ment. With these criL-?ria.~roblemsdue to unload in^
stresses resulting from these loads are normally of in- shrink or press fits. these important factors directly to the propeller diameter. of bearings, excessive rates bi weardown, shaft whirling,
It has been expressed by some designers that classifica- and gearing misalignment were not rare. Problems
tion rule$ for tailshafts are not adequate because ,the were frequently related to the system having too many
level of bending stress is not controlled [19, 201. A bearings. In order to better understand the optimum
designer should review his own design against the im- locations for bearings, designers began analyzing shafting
Section 4 portant parameters and against his experience. Classi- as a continuous beam. However. the time reauired to
fication rules should not be accepted without question, analyze one shafting system confibration by hand cal-
Shafting Design particularly for unusual designs since the formulas are culations precluded complete analyses. The develop-
set primarily by past experience. ment and general dissemination of digital computer
4.1 Shaft Materials. With the exception of naval c = constant for type of shaft In any case, the propeller shaft is customarily manu- programs, such as reference [23], made it feasible to
vessels and merchant vessels of very high power, mild K = constant relating to operating environment factured with a diameter approximately 3 percent larger routinely conduct in-depth studies to optimize shafting
steel is used for both inboard and outboard shafting. In (10 percent stmnger) than the minimum classification systems as well as diagnose recurring problem areas.
the case of high-powered ships, the inboard shafting may It may be noted that equation (6) neglects bcnding requirements in order to provide an additional margin Factors to be considered in determining the number
be made of high-strength steel; however, high-strength loads, alternating loads, and stress risers. Furthermore,
of safety as well as to make provisions for removing a and location of shaft bearings
- are:
steel is not recommended for outboard applications. it presupposes that the shift will be a solid forging of
small amount of surface metal in the event the shafts
Because of the seawater environment and fretting corro- mild steel and that no unusual circumstances exist. 1 Ship's fixed structure and arrangement.
become superficially damaged.
sion conditions that exist at shaft sleeves and the pro- However, despite the factors not explicitly considered, 2 Equality of line shaft bearing reactions.
Reference [21] reports on a service life comparison of
peller interface, the fatigue limit of high-strength steel equation (6) does provide,a sound basis for designing line 3 Bearing unit loads and LID ratios.
15 oversized shafts (74 percent greater section modulus
is not reliably greater than that of mild steel, nor is the shafts. This is because the predominant torsional shear 4 Shafting flexibility./
stress is properly considered. The level of torsional than required by ABS) with 15 shafts of normal size
endurance limit in a fretting corrosion condition better (11.5 percent greater section modulus). The comparison 5 Lateral vibration natural frequencies (shaft whirl).
than that of mild steel. shear stress corresponding to equation (6) can be de-
termined by observing that showed that the mean expected service life of the over- Ship's fixed structure such as bulkheads and stanchions
Considerations in the selection of shafting materials sized shafts was less than the shafts of normal size. Al- will usually require compromises in the shafting arrange-
are: fatigue characteristics, weldability, the nilductility though the statistical sample was small, the study ment. Also maintenance and overhaul must be con-
temperature, and the energy absorption capability. An clearly showed that propeller shaft problems are not sidered before final bearing locations are set.
array of chemistry and physical property standards has necessarily solved by simply making the shaft larger. From a cost and interchangeability standpoint, all
been established for marine shafting materials that pro- By substituting equation (6) into equation (7) and The approach used to establish the size of naval shaft- line shaft bearines should be identical. Therefore. the
vides a range from which shafting materials can be se- setting K = 64, which is the case for oceangoing vessels ing is considerably different from that used with mer- bearings should bve spaced such that the bearing reactions
lected. Chapter 22 contains more specific information chant shafting. The procedure used to determine the are approximately equal. If this is done, the total num-
regarding shafting materials. size of naval shafting is delineated in reference [22]. As ber of bearings in the run of shafting is set by the total
4.2 Computation of Shaft Diameters. Shafting for may be noted from the reference, an effort is made to shaft weight, permissible design unit load, and the
merchant vessels is required to meet the minimum If c were specified as 0.95 (as was the case for a period assess all significant shafting loads in each particular acceptable LID limits. The number of line shaft bear-
standards set by the classification society which classes before 1965), the corresponding allowable steady tor- case, although some loads are by necessity handled in an ings required to support a run of shafting can be tenta-
the vessel. Classification societies use rather simple sional shear stress would be 5849 psi; with a c value of approximate manner. For example, in order to allow tively determined a s follows:
formulas to compute the minimum shaft diameters. 0.875 (which was adopted in 1965), the corresponding for the effects of off-center thrust and abnormal loadings
These formulas normally contain coefficients which are torsional stress becomes 7486 psi. When the allowable due to rough weather and the like, the propeller shaft
changed from time to time in recognition of experience torsional shear stress of 7486 psi is compared with the bending stress due to the static weight of the propeller is
or advancements in technology. The American Bureau material minimum tensile yield stress of 30,000 psi, it is multiplied by a factor of 3 for single-screw ships and where
of Shipping (ABS) line shaft diameter formula is of the seen that adequate margin is allowed for the secmdary 2 for multiple-screw ships. W total weight of shafting to be supported (note
=
following form [IS]: duences which appear to be neglected. Only vessels An additional difference between merchant and naval that gear and stern tube bearings may
M to be navigated in ice require special consideration. procedure is the criteria of acceptance. In naval prac- carry some line shaft weight)
d = C(K?) (6) The stern tube shaft diameter required by ABS for tice, dual criteria are used. Factors of safety are specified p = design bearing pressure (maximum permissible
where merchant ships is directly proportional to the line shaft for.al1 shafting and, in addition, a specific bending stress pressure less 5 to 10 psi to allow for varia-
diameter. The propeller shaft diameter is related to the limit is specified for the propeller shaft. The reason for tions) based on projected area
d = minimum line shaft diameter, in. line shaft diameter and the diameter of the propeller. the latter requirement is that fatigue tests run on models D = shaft diameter in way of journal (normal
The ABS propeller shaft diameter formula is of the of propeller shaft assemblies and crank pins [13] showed practice is to increase the shaft diameter
following form : that bending stress levels in surface rolled (cold-rolled) %-% in. in way of bearings)
MARINE ENGINEERING PROPELLERS, SHAFTING, AND SHAFTING SYSTEM VIBRATION ANALYSIS ' 375
Bearing Reaction Influence Numbers for Shafting Arrangement Shown in Fig. 1 Table 7 Tabulation of Bearing Reactions for the Shafting Arrangement Shown in Fig. 1
Table 6
(Pounds per Mil of Vertical Displacement) Fwd Aft
Slow- Slow- Fwd
Fwd After S eed S eed Line Line Line Line Line Stem
Slow- Slow- Fwd Aft 8ear Bear Shaft Shaft Shaft Shaft Shaft Tube Strut
S eed S eed Line Line Line Line Line Stern Bearing No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 '7 8 9
Bearing Bear Bear Shaft Shaft shaft Shaft Shaft Tube Strut Reaction
~ ~
Bearing No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Line-in-Line 26900 49500 23200 25500 25200 27200 . 15900 62600 . 89900 '
Cold (as aligned) 41700 29700 29600 23700 25700 27000 15900 . 62600 89900
Hot (as aligned) 36300 37300 26500 24900 25400 27100 15900 62600 89900
Weardown Condition5 36300 37100 26700 24300 27200 20100 30800 51000 '92200
Measured (Hot) ... 38500 26700 26400 26300 30300 11200 ... ...
a Assume a strut bearing weardown of 0.200 in. and a stern tube bearing weardown of 0.185 in. (consider weardown proportional to
bearing pressure).
Notes:
The numbers tabulated above represent the effect of raising a iven bearing one mil; e.g., if the forward line shaft bearing is raised one
mil, the forward slow-speed gear bearing reaction increaaea 336 lf~,the after slow-speed bearing reaction decreases 493 lb,the forward of unequal gear bearing reactions on gear performance mately equal slow-speed gear bearing static reactions
line ahaft bearing increases 259 Ib, etc.
and the maximum permissible differences between the when in the operating condition. I t must additionally
gear bearing static loadings. The gear manufacturer be ascertained that the line shaft bearing reactions are
should state the maximum difference permitted between satisfactory under all operating conditions.
LID = bearing length/diameter ratio apparent; however, the importance of bearing reaction the static loadings on the slow-speed gear bearings (see Since the actual positions of the slow-speed gear bear-
influence numbers is not as readily appreciated. Table 6 Chapter 9). ings are difficult to ascertain relative to the line of shaft-
After tentatively selecting the number of bearings and ;s a tabulation of the bearing reaction influence numbers The alignment in the athwartship direction should be ing, their positions are determined by measuring the
'pacing them a of for the shafting arrangementshown in Fig. 1. The such that no significant forces are imposed on the slow- drop and gap of the slow-speed gear shaft flange";elative
the bearing loads under all normal operating conditions numbers given ih Table represent the change in the speed gear bearings in the horizontal plane. to the line shaft flange. Drop is the vertical distance
is made. The conditions of primary magnitude of the bearing reaction of the various bearings The allowable setting error is conveniently used as an between the centers of two adjacent flanges; gap is the
tance are the cold starbup condition, the hot operating as a result of raising any bearing one mil. Thmugh the index of shafting flexibility in way of the reduction gear. differencein opening between the top and bottom of the
condition, and bearing weardown and misalignment application of these influence numbers, which reflect the The allowable setting error, ASE, is defined as the allow- two flanges (nonparallelism of the flange faces). It is,
conditions. Involved in this analysis is the influence of shafting system flexibility, it is possible to investigate able difference in the static vertical gear bearing loads of course,-necessaryto know the position of the line shaft
the shafting on the reduction gear bearing loads or diesel the influenceof shafting misalignment caused by thermal divided by the difference between the bearing reaction flanges relative to the line shaft bearings. One align-
engine bearing loads resulting from the themla1 change expansion, weardown, and &her such effects.Align- influence number of the forward slow-speed gear bearing ment technique is to support the line shafting sections so
in the position of these when going the on itself and the after slow-speed gear bearing on itself. that the centers of the flanges are concentric with the
mentrequirements are developed on the basis of the
cold to the hot operating condition. Criteria for aligning bearing reaction inRuence Also, the principles Therefore, the ASE is determined as follows: bearing centerline and the flange faces are perpendicular
the propulsion unit to the shafting are developed on the employed with the hydraulic jack method of checking to the bearing centerline; this is accomplished by s u p
basis of this analysis.
A parametric study of minimum line shaft bearing
shaft alignment ,(see Section 4.12) originate with the *ASE = I11
AR
- I22
(11) porting the sections at approximately the 2/9 points
bearing reaction numbers. from each end. When this is done, the drop and gap are
'pacing was carried and in reference [241' 4.5 Gear-to-Shafi Alignment. Particular care must AR = allowable difference between two slow-speed measured directly a t the flanges.
The conclusion n3ached was that for shafting arrange- be taken in selecting the aftermost and forwardmost line gear bearing static reactions The positions of the slow-speed gear bearings $elative
ments having one or more line shaft bearings the mini- shaft bearing locations to ensure that adequate shafting Ill = reaction influence number of forward slow- to the centerline of the line shaft bearings are readily
mum span ratio (i.e., ratio of bearing center distance to flexibility is provided. These bearings are subjected to speed gear bearing on itself determined from the drop and gap of the slow-speed gear
shaft diameter) should be 14 for shafts with diameters in a varying alignment in service. Weardown of the stern I22 = reaction influence number of aft slow-speed shaft flange relative to the line shaft flange; this is ac-
the range of 10 to 16 in. and 12 for shaft diameters of tube bearing alters the load on the aftermost bearing; gear bearing on itself complished by means of simple geometry. With these
l6 30 in' The 'pan ratio be in the the thermal expansion of the reduction gear structure The ASE number represents the total of the error data, the bearing reaction influence numbers can be used
range of 20 to 22 but the final determination must be changes the load on the foMiardmost bearing. These * to plot the bearing loads for various alignment con-
based On strength, shaft at the and vibra- permissible in estimating the thermal rise of the slow-
effectsmay be noted from the tabulatioh given in speed gear bearings relative to the line shaft bearings ditions. Such a plot is shown in Fig. 9. Figure 9 is an
tion characteristics. Table 7. informative means of illustrating the effect of thermal
4*4 shafting Calcu'ation Output. The im-
and the error permissible in setting the gear to the line
when the propulsion plant goes from the cold to the shafting without exceeding the maximum allowable dif- rise of thevslow-speed gear bearings and the effect of
portant output from most shafting calculations includes operating condition, the slow-speed gear besings may alignment errors in addition to bearing loads.
the following in addition to the required shaft diameters: ference in the static slow-speed gear bearing reactions.
rise to 30 mils relative to the line shaft bearings. An absolute minimum acceptable value for the ASE has Table 7 shows the cold alignment bearing reactions
(a) Line-in-line reactions. his rise can significantly alter the reactions of the slow- been recognized to be f.010 in.; see reference [26] for with an alignment corresponding to point A on Fi& 9.
(b) Slope of shafting a t discrete poids. speed gear bearings and the forward line shaft bearings. additional discussion of this parameter. The hot reactions listed in Table 7 are the bearing reac-
(c) Deflection of shafting a t discrete points. Of particular concern is the fact that the static load on If the flexibility of the shafting meets the ASE cri- tions estimated after the gear has reached operating
(d) Moments in shafting a t discrete points. the forward slow-speed gear bearing decreases while that terion, the analysis proceeds to an investigation of the temperature; this is point B on Fig. 9.
(e) Lateral natural frequency of shafting. on the after bearing increases,. As can be seen from the gear-to-shaft alignment. Beginning with the line-in-line Finally, bearing reaction influence numbers provide a
(f) Bearing reaction influence numbers. typical reduction gear bearing reaction diagram shown in reactions, that is, the bearing reactions with all bearings means to study the effects of bearing movements from
Chapter 9, this causes the slow-speed gear to assume a concentric, and with the estimated thermal rise of the hull deflections and bearing weardown. An analysis of
The significance of the shafting line-in-line reactions crossed-axis position relative to the slow-speed pinions gear bearings relative to the line shaft bearings when bearing reactions with the stern tube and strut bearings
(bearing reactions with all bearings set concentric), shaft which are not similarly affected. As a result, the tooth going from the cold to the operating temperature, align- worn down is given in Table 7.
slopes in way of bearings, shaft deflections, shaft mo- load will tend to be more heavy on one end of each helix. ment data are established which will provide approxi- 4.6 Propeller-to-Shaft Interface. Design details of
ments, and lateral natural frequency of the shafting is Reference [25] contains a detailed discussion of the effects
I'
initial surface contact area is approximately 50 percent, ,,, TYPICAL BOLT
thrust may force the propeller up the taper and overstress Fig. 10 Removable flange coupling
the hub.
4.7 Cold-Rolling. The development of fretting fa-
tigue cracks in propeller shafts a t the forward end of
I the propeller hub and a t the after end of the shaft sleeve Fig. 10. Although the design of virtually all integral
is one of the most common modes of propeller shaft shaft couplings is similar, details of shaft coupling de-
failures. Although surface cold-rolling will not eliminate signs can vary considerably. For example, despite in-
I
the occurrence of fatigue cracks, cold-rolling of propeller dividual preferences, no specific number of coupling bolts
shafts for a distance forward and aft of the forward end has been established as optimum and the proportions of
of the propeller shaft taper and in way of the ends of the flange dimensions may vary from one design to the next.
liners has been shown to be an effective means of retard- Guidelines for the design of flange couplings for mer-
Fig. 9 Gear-to-shaft alignment analysis
the propeller-to-shaft interface are a critical aspect of a quently, the contact pressure, material stresses, shaft
i'
I ing the propagation of fatigue cracks [28].
4.8 Protection from Seawater. Except in the case
of designs in which all bearings are of the oil-lubricated
type, outboard shafting involves the use of sleeves which
are shrunk on the shafting in way of bearings, stuffing
chant vessels are given in classification society rules such
as reference [18] and similar guidelines for naval vessels
are given in references [22,27]. An effort to standardize
shafting couplings was made in reference [19], and
SNAME T&R Bulletin 3-20 (Guide for the Design of
boxes, and fairings. Shaft sleeves are made of bronze Line Shaft Couplings) was subsequently prepared.
shafting system design. DuringWorld War I1 and earlier taper, propeller-shaft interface friction coefficient, and t
or other materials which are resistant to attack by sea- Couplings with removable flanges are required in some
years, propeller shaft failures in way of the propeller the push-on force must be thoroughly engineered. water. instances; for example, those cases where a liner must be
were not rare; and difficulties have been experienced in Although some keyless propeller designs use oil pres- Ships having a single short section of outboard shafting installed on a shaft which requires a bolted flange on
more recent times [20, 211. However, the advances in sure to expand the propeller hub while the propeller is employ a single continuous sleeve. Where continuous each end. Figure 10 illustrates a typical removable-
design technology (e.g., stress relief grooves a t the for- forced onto the shaft taper, most designs call for the 1
sleeves are not used, the sections of shafting not covered flange coupling and shows the means provided to trans-
ward end of the propeller and the aft end of the liner, mating surfaces to be thoroughly degreased before the -by sleeves are protected by applying a rubber [29] or mit both thrust and torque. Both torque and thrust are
shortened-and spooned keyways, slotted keys, and im- propeller is fitted to the shaft taper to ensure that plastic [30] compound directly to the shafting surface. normally transmitted by friction between the shrunk-on
proved sealing methods) have significantly improved the the highest coefficient of friction is obtained. However, The adequacy of both rubber and plastic protective muff and the shaft. The keys are a backup for the trans-
reliability of propeller shafts and increased their service it is maintained by some that when oil is used to expand coverings for outboard shafting has not been unifornily mission of torque and the split collar is a backup for the
lives. Also, improvements in inspection technology have the hub for fit-up, shortly after the pressure is relieved good. The protection offered to outboard couplings by transmission of thrust.
provided the means to detect incipient cracks and thus the oil layer is squeezed out of the propeller-to-shaft such coverings has been particularly unsatisfactory on On occasions shafting arrangements are designed such
have greatly reduced the loss of propellers at sea. interface, resulting in a friction coefficient equal to that occasions. Rotating coupling covers (fairwaters), which that it is necessary to remove the forward flange of a
Details of the propeller-to-shaft interface required for when the propeller is pushed up dry. Most designs use clamp onto and rotate with the shaft, thereby eliminating stern tube shaft in order to withdraw the stern tube shaft
naval ships are specified by reference [27]. The naval a hydraulic pressure in the propeller-to-shaft interface the violent erosive flow of water around coupling bolts, aft; this is not a preferred arrangement because it is most
type of propeller-to-shaft interface is consistent with a t least equal to the calculated radial pressure to expand have been used to avoid the deleterious effect of the difficult to remove a flange without damaging the flange-
merchant praltice and is reported to have a comparable the hub for removing the propeller. water. shaft interface. A preferred arrangement is one in
service history. For a dry, greaseless, installation the coefficient of A reliable static sealing arrangement a t the propeller, which the stern tube bushings are made sufficiently large
The propeller keyway is a stress concentration and a friction may vary from a low of approximately 0.13 to a which prevents seawater from contacting the propeller so that they can be removed to permit the stern tube
weakening factor to the shaft even though the keyway high of approximately 0.1s. The value of the effective I shaft, is of the utmost importance. A propeller-shaft shaft to be withdrawn aft with the forward flange
has generous fillet radii and the forward end of the key is friction coefficient is dependent on the percentage area assembly which allows seawater to contact the shaft will in place.
slotted to relieve the key load at the forward end. For of the mating faces which are in contact at initial fit-up not have an endurance limit and therefore it is only a 4.10 Shaft Axial Movements. Axial movement of
1
this reason, propeller nuts have been developed which (prior to forcing the propeller up the shaft) and the ma-, I matter of cycle accumulation before a failure occurs. the shafting relative to structure that is fixed to the hull
incorporate annular pistons moved by hydraulic oil or terials in contact. Some keyless propeller designs in- Details concerning propeller-hub sealing arrangements, must be considered to establish proper clearances be-
grease. These "hydraulic" nuts provide the means to corporate a cast-iron sleeve in the propeller hub bore which are necessary with systems utilizing water-lubri- tween the propeller and stern frame structure and the
apply large forces of known magnitude to the propeller, because tests have shown that higher coefficients of cated stern tube bearings, are contained in reference [31]. clearances between bearing housings and rotating ele-
pushing it onto the shaft taper such that no propeller friction can be obtained this u-ay. Using an intermediate 4.9 Shaft Couplings. Except in instances where ments secured to the shaft within bearings (oil slingers,
key is required. Keyless propeller designs rely entirely nodular iron sleeve with an initial surface contact area special considerations preclude their use, shafting sec- oil disks, etc.)
on the friction between the hub and the shaft to with- between the sleeve and shaft taper of 95 percent or more, I
tions are connected by means of integrally forged cou- There are four factors which contribute to the move-
stand the propeller torsional and thrust loads. Conse- a coefficient of friction of 0.18 can be achieved. When the plings as illustrated on the line shaft section shown in ment of the shaft relative to hull structure; these are:
I-
378 MARINE ENGINEERING PROPELLERS, SHAFTING, AND SHAFTING SYSTEM VIBRATION ANAtYSlS 379
effect a static balance. Good practice dictates that shaft lift at a given jack load for the increasing load curve that the bearing should be raised or lowered should be
CALCULATED MEASURED adjoining shafting sections be installed such that the than for the decreasing load curve. Experience indi- based on the calculated influence numbers rather than
residual static unbalance, as determined by a check on cates that the true relationship between the jack load the influence numbers determined by jacking.
the rails after final machining, tends to cancel. and shaft lift is approximately midway between the lines When jacking bearings that are very close together and
Although shafting sections have occasionally been determined when raising and lowering as indicated by in cases where the jack must be located some distance
specified to be dynamically balanced (shaft sectiorls Fig. 11. However, in cases where the increasing and from the bearing, the jack load should be multiplied by
SHOWN IN FIG. I
rotated in a balancing machine to determine both static decreasing load lines are significantly different, the mean a correction factor to obtain the load a t the bearing.
and dynamic unbalance), there are conflicting schools of line should favor the increasing load line. The correction factor is as follows:
thought regarding the necessity of a dynamic balance. With the mean line representing the true relationship
FIRST MEASUREMENT
+ SECOND MEASUREMENT It has been argued that the tolerances customarily im- between the jack load and shaft lift established, the load
posed on the manufacture of shafting sections in con- which would be on the jack a t zero shaft lift and with
junction with good shop practice precludes objectionable the bearing removed is determin$ by extrapolating the
shafting unbalance. mean line downward to zero shaft lift. Since the jack where
4.12 Determination of Shaft Alignment. There are and bearing are close together, the load as determined
basically two ways that the alignment of an installed I& = influence of bearing on bearing
can also be considered as the load on the bearing if the l i b = influence of jack on bearing
and complete shafting system can be checked. One, jack were removed (or the bearing load being sought).
which is akin to the drop-and-gap method of alignment Under favorable jacking conditions (no binding of the These influence numbers are determined by including
a t initial'installation, is to remove the bolts from a shaft in the bearing due to athwartship misalignment, both the jack and the bearing being jacked as support
coupling and compare the relative position of the two interference with stuffing boxes, etc.) experience shows points in the shafting system calculations. To be
o 1000 2000 3000 4000 SOW flanges with the calculated value. The second method, that the accuracy of the bearing reactions determined is theoretically accurate, this correction factor should be
JACK PRESSURE, PSIG which is both easier to accom~lishand more meaninnful. - , usually within 10 percent. However, the influence num- used for every bearing that is jacked; however, only in
F i 11 baring reaction determined by hydraulic lack
is the so-called hydraulic jack method. bers obtained by jacking may not be as accurate. When the aforementioned two caqes is it a factor of significance.
With the hydraulic jack method of checking shhfting the bearings being jacked are located towards the middle Table 7 contains a tabulation of the measured bearing
alignment, a calibrated hydraulic jack is used-to deter- of the shaft and span lengths are fairly equal, jack influ- reactions for the shafting system in Fig. 1 and illustrates
mine the actual load Y U D D O bv ~ ~ a~ bearinn
~ and this ence numbers are generally within 30 percent of the typical jacking results. The oil in the reduction gear
1 Thrust bearing clearances. Axial clearances be- actual load is then compared with the desired gad. The calculated influence numbers. For bearings located near was heated and circulated a t operating temperature;
tween the thrust ccrlla~and shoes permit a corresponding actual bearing load is determined by placing a hydraulic the ends of the shaft, the influence numbers obtained by therefore, the measured reactions should be correlated
fore-and-aft movement of the entire shafting system. jack as close to the bearing housing as possible (bearing jacking may disagree with the calculated values by with the hot reactions.
2 Axial deffections. The propeller thrust results in a foundations are often designed with an extension to 50 percent or more. The hydraulic jack procedure can also be used to
small axial deflection of the shafting and thrust bearing. provide a jack foundation). A dial indicator is located Both the load and influence number errors aye due to detect bent shafts in that the bearing reactions can be
3 Temperature difierences. The shafting can be a t immediately above the jack so as to measure vertical inaccuracies which are inherent in the jacking procedure; determined with the shaft rotated in 90-deg increments.
a wa& temperature (70-80 1;") relative t o that of the movement of the shaft. Where possible, the anchor e.g., the jack not being located at the bearing center, the If the bearing reaction changes significantly with shaft
hull structure (about 30 F). point for the dial indicator should be independent of load center in adjacent bearings shifting as the shaft is position, a bent shaft can be suspected. This technique
4 Hogging and sagging induces bending strains in the bearing housing. Before recording any readings, the raised, and hysteresis in the shafting system. Conse- is very useful when analyzing a shaft that is suspected
the hull wWe the shafting is not similarly strained. shaft should be lifted at least once to ensure that the quently, when a bearing is to be realigned, the distance of being bent.
This is conveniently amessed by assuming an extreme shaft can be lifted 20 to 30 mils without coming into
fiber hull bending strem and the neutral axis of the hull contact with the upper half of the bearing; this pre-
in bending; the 8tress, and corresponding hull strain, a t liminary jacking tends to reduce hysteresis in the shaft
and erratic readings. For short shaft spans, a dial
the s h d t centerline ia then determined by interpolation.
indicator should also be installed on adiacent bearings - Sectiwn 5
The foregoing factors would generally not reach maxi- so that any rise of the shaft in these dearings can be Bearings
mum values simultaneously, but they are prudently noted. At a later time, this may help t o explain un-
considered to do so. Typical axid movements of the predicted readings. 5.1 Introduction. Main propulsion shafting is sup- main shafting, there is located inside the ship a main
propeller (the point a t which movement is a maximum) With the dial indicators and jack in place, the shaft is ported by bearings which maintain the shafting in proper thrust bearing which transmits the propeller thrust from
d a t i v e t o the hull are 0.5 in., for tankers with very short raised and lowered in increments, noting the jack load alignment. These propulsion shaft bearings divide the shafting to the hull structure. Figures 1 and 2 show
shafts, to 2 in., for ships with long shafts. corresponding to each increment of shaft rise. These themselves naturally into two groups; those bearings the two typical main thrust bearing locations. Often,
4.1 1 Shafting Balance. Solid shafting is inher- data are plotted as shown in Fig. 11. The data points inside the watertight boundary of the hull and those the main thrust bearing is designed as an integral part
ently bdmced, but hollow shafting requires attention in will conform to two basic slopes. The slope of the lift- bearings which are outside the hull watertight boundary. of the main engine and is provided by the main engine
thb regard. The bdanee of hollow shafting is accom- versus-pressure curve as the load is transferred from the The requirements imposed upon the design of main manufacturer. l'or details concerning main thrust bear-
plished during the machining operation by shifting lathe bearing to the jack represents the spring constant of shaft bearings are extremely severe. The bearings are ings, see Chapters 9 and 20.
eentem prior to the fina.1 machining cuts. The amount the bearing shell, bearing housing, and the like. Wllerl the required to operate a t speeds ranging from 0.1 rpm, 5.2 Line Shaft Bearings. Bearings located inside
of unbalance in a shaft can be determined by either a shaft lifts clear of the bearing, an abrupt change in when on jacking gear, to 100 or more rpm in either the ship's water-tight boundary are called line shaft
static OI dynamic balancing technique. the slope of the data points occurs. The second slope direction of rotation. And, unlike some applications, bearings, although they are sometimes referred to as
After the rough machining cuts have been made, a corresponds to the bearing reaction influence number the bearing loads do not vary with rpm but are essentially steady or spring bearings. Almost without exception,
shaftipg section can be ataticafly balanced by removing for the bearing. constant at all speeds. Reliability is heavily empha- these bearings are ruggedly constructed, conservatively
the shaft seetion from the lathe, placing it on rails, noting Due to friction in the shafting and jack system, the sized'in the design of bearings because there is no re- designed, babbitt lined, and oil lubricated. Except in
the equilibrium position of the shaft section, shifting the data points when raising and lowering the shaft do not dundancy for bearings and a single bearing failure may special cases, the bearings are self-lubricated by rings
lathe centers to compensate for the unbalance, and then coincide, the result being the equivalent of a hysteresis incapacitate the propulsion system. or disks arranged in such a manner that lubrication is
taking additional machining cuts on the shaft section t o loop. The deflection-versus-load plot will show a lower I n addition to the radial bearings which support the effected by the rotation of the shaft. Roller bearings
MARINE ENGINEERING PROPELLERS, SHAFTING, AND SHAFTING SYSTEM VIBRATION ANALYSIS
OIL SCRAPER
7 rANTI- ROTATION DOWEL r HALF WINGED INSPECTION COVER
\ ,-OIL LUBRICATING RING 7
COOLING COIL
CONNECTION
have been used in the smaller shaft sizes, but the ad- chant applications, it is general practice to babbitt only
vantages of lighter weight and lower friction have in the bottom half of the bearings since these bearings should not exceed two times the shaft diameter where, a part of the oil is transferred to the shaft and
general not been sufficient to offset the higher reliability would never be expected to be loaded in the top. How- (LID = 2) nor should it be much less than one shaft subsequently carried into the contact region of the bear-
and lower maintenance costs of the babbitt-lined type. ever, the aftermost bearing (the one closest to the stern diameter (Ll D = 1). These limitations are set to assure ing. Ring-lubricated bearings have proved to be capable
Line shaft bearing housings are made of steel castings tube) may become loaded in the top particularly when uniform bearing contact in the case of long bearings and of accommodating large angles of list and trim and have
or fabricated of steel plates welded together. Completely the stern tube bearing is water-lubricated. Water- to prevent excessive end leakage of the oil from impairing proved to be reliable in service with design bearing unit
satisfactory bearing housings are obtained by either lubricated bearings are subject to a large amount of adequate lubrication for short bearings. loads of 45 psi. With regard to the possible adverse
method, and manufacturing costs govern the construc- wear which can result in severe misalignment. It is The oil reserv.oir must be sized to operate during ex- effects of trim, tests have been conducted which demon-
tion method used. Since rigidity is of more concern than considered good practice to provide the maximum prac- treme roll and pitch conditions without leaking oil by strated that ring-lubricated bearings can accommodate
strength, low carbon steel is used as the material for ticable amount of babbitt in the top half of the aftermost the shaft or disabling the bearing lubrication system. angles of approximately 10 deg from the horizontal with
bearing housings with the exception of bearings for naval line shaft bearings when water-lubricated stern tube Furthermore, the oil quantity and sump surface must be no sacrifice in performance. Reference [32] discusses
combatant vessels, in which case high-impact shock re- bearings are used. With oil-lubricated stern tube bear- sufficient to dissipate the heat generated. Line shaft the performance of oil rings based on laboratory tests
quirements may necessitate the use of high-strength steel. ings, the probability of the after bearing becoming bearings are sometimes designed with cooling coils lo- and shows, among other things, the sensitivity of the
Bearing housings are split horizontally a t the shaft loaded in the top is considerably reduced. . cated in the sumps as shown in Fig. 13; however, experi- quantity of oil delivered to the oil viscosity.
centerline. The bottom half of the bearing must be very Babbitt that is centrifugally cast onto the bearing i ence has shown that the cooling coils are rarely, if ever, Disk-lubricated bearings use a metal disk clamped to
ruggedly designed since it carries the vertical shaft load shell is considered preferable to that which is statically needed. the shaft a t one end of the bearing shell. The disk may
and any side load that exists. poured. The former technique dependably provides a Line shaft bearings may be lubricated by means of oil have a flange as illustrated by Fig. 12. As the shaft
The bearing housing supports a h h v y steel removable more secure bond between the babbitt and the bearing rings, an oil disk, or by a supply of oil under pressure turns, thelower portion of the disk, which is immersed in
shell which is limed with babbitt. The shaft rests on the shell. The desire for centrifugally cast babbitt has 1 (wick-lubricated bearings have fallen into disuse). Ring an oil r e s e ~ o i r is
, coated with oil. This oil is carried to
babbitted surface. The bearing shell can be made with required some adjustments in bearing shell and housifig oil-lubricated bearings contain two or three metal rings the top where a metal bar scrapes the oil from the disk
a self-aligning feature by providing a spherical or crowned design. with a diameter of 1.25 to 1.5 times that of the shaft (the and guides it into passages where it is admitted to the
seat at the interface between the bearing shell and hous- Babbitt can be of either the lead or tin base type. ratio decreases with larger shaft diameters). The num- top of the shaft and then into the contact region of the
ing. This allows the axis of the bearing shell to align Tin-base babbitt has greater strength and is generally ber of rings in a bearing should be selected such that no bearing. Disk-lubricated bearings have been success-
exactly with that of the shaft. Figure 12 is a section preferred for shaft bearings; it is specified almost exclu- ring is required to distribute oil for an axial distance fully applied with design unit pressures of 75 psi.
through a bearing with a self-aligning feature and Fig. 13 sively for centrifugally cast bearings. Lead-base babbitt g,reater than 7 in. on either side of the ring. The rings I n special cases, line shaft bearings may be lubricated
is a section through a bearing that is similar but without is preferred where embedding, conforming, and anti- rest on top of the shaft and dip into an oil reservoir by oil supplied by a pump. If the shafting system is
a self-aligning capability. The general construction of friction are primary considerations. Lead-base babbitt located beneath the bearing shell. Figure 13 is an exam- very long, sump pumps are required to return the oil
bearing housings and shells can be observed from Figs. has a lower yield point and a slightly better fatigue ple of a ring-lubricated bearing. As the shaft turns, the from the bearings since a gravity drain is not feasible
12 and 13. resistance. rings are rotated by the frictional contact with the top considering the possible trim and pitch conditions of
Except for the aftermost line shaft bearings in mer- Physically the load-carrying length of the bearing of the shaft. Oil which adheres to the ring in way of the ship. While this method of lubrication assures an
the oil reservoir is then carried up to the top of the shaft adequate supply of oil a t all shaft speeds, it has the dis-
PROPELLERS, SHARING, AND SHAFitNG SYSCEM VIBRATION ANALYSIS 383
382 MARINE ENGINEERING
advantage of the extra pumps and complexity. Further- water-lubricated bearings was caused by the larger ship
more in the event of pump failure, the bearings may be sizes which had greater bearing loads and more con- FhClLtTATE SMAFT WlTHDRAWI)L
a line shaft bearing do not correspond to full-power, full- Oil-lubricated stern tube bearings also reduce the eOMPOSITIQLIBLOCUS
rpm operation, but to the condition when the shafting is power losses in the shafting system. For a 22,000-shp
rotated by the turning gear a t about 0.1 rpm for ex- ship an efficiency improvement of about 1.5 percent can
tended periods of time to facilitate uniform cooling or be expected with oil-lubricated vice water-lubricated
heating-of the main turbine rotors. If the lubrication outboard bearings.
system fails to deliver adequate oil to the journal under Although oil-lubricated outboard bearings are favored
this condition, the oil film which separates the bearing by many, water-lubricated bearings remain in common
PEAK BULKHEAD
journal from the babbitt will not be replaced as it is use. Figure 14 illustrates a typical water-lubricated
squeezed out; consequently, metal-to-metal contact and strut bearing design. A water-lubricated stern tube
damage to the bearing surface may occur. Lubrication bearing design is similar ;xcept 'that the bearing bushing SEAL SLEEVE
provisions have a strong influence on a bearing's ability is fitted inside the stern tube rather than the strut barrel.
to operate satisfactorily in the critical jacking mode of Water-lubricated bearings basically consist of a bronze
operation; and, consequently, the means of lubrication bearing bushing which retains a number of bearing con-
.strongly influences the extent to which line shaft bearings tact elements that may be made of either lignum vitae
can be loaded. As a guide, it has been found that as wood, phenolic composition, or rubber bonded to brass
little as 25 drops of oil per minute on the journal surface backing strips. A sleeve is installed on the shaft to
is adequate to sustain indefinite operation in the jacking provide a corrosion-resistant contact surface. Careful
mode a t bearing pressures of about 75 psi. consideration must be given to the selection of the liner
With proper attention given to design details, ring- material in relationship to the bearing material [34].
lubricated bearings, disk-lubricated bearings, and pres- When brass-backed rubber strip bearings (rubber stave
sure-lubricated bearings can carry increasingly higher bearings) are used, as is common in naval practice, dove-
unit loads in that order. Disk-lubricated bearings can tailed slots are accurately cut in the bushing to accom- Fie. t 5 TweuI aif-hbticcrled rtacn hrbe bearing
carry a higher unit load than ring-lubricated bearings modate the bearing staves. Sufficient metal is left be-
based on the assumption that the oil scraper functions tween each slot to hold the staves securely; the space
properly. Very close controls must be maintained in between staves also provides a cooling water flow ~ a s s d e .
the manufacture of oil scrapers because manufacturing As indicated by Fig. 14, bearings employing lignum conhim details pertinent to the application of lignum Outbwrd baring materials msy w a r 0.2 to 0.5 in.
flaws which are hardly perceptible can have a large vitae and phenolic materials are similar to rubber stave vitae ta prapelIer shaft bearings. M o r e being replaced.
influence on their performance. bearings. A "V" or "U" shaped groove is cut a t the Water-lubricated bearings are designed with L / D O u t b o d hearings are occasionally aligned to ZL slope
5.3 Outboard Bearings. Outboard bearings can ratios of the order of 4 for the bearing adjacent t o the corre8pnding ta the static slope of the shaft in way of
be further classified as stern tube or strut bearings. longitudinal joints of the blocks to provide lubricating
and cooling water flow. Brass retaining strips are gen- prop&er and 2 for those forward of the prnpdh3r bearing. the bearing in order to obtain mom uniform bearing
Figures 1 and 2 show the locations of these bearings GIassifieation societies often specify these values as eantmt when initially placed in service. However, this
relative to the ship arrangement. erally placed at four points around the circumference to
secure the contact elements. minimum lengths. Unit loadings of the bearings based procedure has not proven entirely satisfactory from a
Outboard bearings can either be water lubricated or on prcrf&ed area (shaft diameter times hearing length) we&down standpoint since only the starting point of the
oil lubricated. Almost without exception in this coun- Lignum vitae and phenolic materials absorb water and
consequently tend to swell. Phenolic materials are are normally under 40 psi; however, great care must be wear process is changed and there may be little influence
try, all outboard bearings were water lubricated up till taken in placing importance on the absolute value of on the ultimate wear pattern.
about 1960 when a transition to oil-lubricated bearings usually installed when dry and consequently swell sig- bearing eontact pressures which are based on the pro- OiMuhricated beprings, as illustrated by Fig. 15, have
began. This transition to oil-lubricated bearings was nificantly when put into service. Swelling must be con- jected area. Not only does the eccentricity of propeller been used in stern tubes and bossings more so khan struts.
stimulated by the unduly short service life of many of sidered in the design of both lignum vitae and phenolic thrust alter the loading but also the load distribution is This Is partly because of the fewer bearing problems with
the water-lubricated bearing assemblies during that bearings. Lignum vitae must be kept damp a t all times both difficult to assess and is subject to radical .change. water-lubricated strut bearings and partly due t o the
period. It is believed that the shortened life of the as it will otherwise become dry and crack. Reference [35]
3 84 MARINE ENGINEERING PROPELLERS, SHAFTING, AND SHAFTING SYSTEM VIBRATION ANALYSIS 385
),
T FILL
Fv7
CONNECTION
~ ~
I 0 FT. A8OVE LOAD
~
stern tube bearing have ranged widely. Early designs
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
had ratios of 2.5 but a trend toward a value of 1 was
~ ~ L
6.2 Propulsor Types. As noted in Chapter 1, the
type of propulsor
y to be used must be selected very early
in the ship design process as the type of propulsor can
obtained by controlling the oil pressure on a piston which
is mechanically linked to the propeller blade throws.
WATER LlNE
subsequently established. The hydraulic pistons are located in the propeller hub
LOW LEVEL ALARM Oil-lubricated stern tube bearings are totally sub- have a strong impact on the design of the ship itself. or in a section of shafting located inside the ship. For
merged in oil, and seals on the after and forward ends The vast majority of ship propulsors are of the solid a description of a typical CRP installation, see refer-
GRAVITY LlNE
of the tube prevent the ingress of seaw3ter and the fixed-pitch propeller type. Nevertheless, there are a ence [36].
leakage of oil into the ship, respectively. iThe pressure number of other types of propellers which may be more Propellers in Nozzles. There are two types of arrange-
of the oil in the stern tube is maintained above that suitable in particular instances. A brief description of ments which fall into this category; namely, the pump
of the ambient seawater by means of a head tank which the mechanical aspects of the various types of propellers jet and the Kort nozzle. In the pump jet arrangement
is located about 10 f t above the full-load waterline. is as follows: the propeller is placed in a rather long nozzle with guide
Ships which have large draft changes may require two Canventional. Fixed-Pitch Propellers. Most propellers vanes either forward, aft, or both places relative to the
are of the 'Conventional fixed-pitch type and are made propeller. The pump jet is normally considered where
head tanks; one for full-draft operation and one for
ballast operation. Figure 16 illustrates a typical lube
, from a single casting. Conventional fixed-pitch pro- propeller noise is important. Due to the resistance of
oil diagram for an oil-lubricated stern tube bearing. A pellers usually have an efficiency, cost, and simplicity the nozzle and guide vanes, the overall efficiency of the
small pump is usually installed M shown to force oil advantage over other types of propellers. pump jet arrangement is strongly dependent on particu-
circulation through the stern tube. The oil flow is such Detachable-Blade Propellers. Detachable-blade (or lar circumstances.
THERMOMETER that oil is circulated through both bearings. Many varia- built-up) propellers consist of a separately cast hub and Kort nozzle propeller arrangements show efficiency
CONNECTION
tions of this system have been used including the deletion blades. The blades are bolted to the hub to form the advantages in applications where the thrust loading is
-DRAIN CONNECTION
of the pump; owners often specify filters, heaters, coolers, composite propeller. When operating conditions are high; examples of such applications are tugs, trawlers,
Fig. 16 Stern tube lubricating oil diagram and coalescers to condition the oil as it passes through such that there is a great probability of propeller blade and large slow-speed ships (see Fig. 4 of Chapter 1).
the circuit. Coolers are rarely used as the temperature damage, detachable-blade propellers offer the advantage The Kort nozzle arrangement consists of a propeller
leaving most stern tubes does not exceed 120 I?. that individual blades can be replaced. Also some located in a nozzle of relatively short length (the length/
Although the unit bearing pressure based on the blade attachment designs have elongated bolt holes diameter ratio of the nozzle is in the range of 0.5 to 0.8).
difficulties in adapting the system to struts. Oil-lubri- projected area normally falls in the 70-psi range for oil- which offer the advantage that small modifications in Kart nozzles are extensively used in connection with
cated bearings do not require a liner to be installed on the lubricated bearings, the actual operating pressure is pitch can be made, which permits adjustment in the tugboats because the bollard pull and towing pull can
shaft since contact with seawater does not occur nor is probably closer to twice this value. An inspection of operating rpm. The disadvantages associated with de- be increased 30 to 40 percent as compared with a pro-
there any significant shaft wear. Also, no bushing is the bearing contact area after operation reveals that the tachable-blade propellers, as compared with propellers peller operating alone without a nozzle.
inserted in the stern tube; the bearing shells, which have after bearing is loaded only on the after end for a length made from a single casting, are the greater first cost, Tandem Propellers. As the horsepower requirements
heavy wall thicknesses, are pressed directly into the of about one shaft diameter; shorter bearings are often greater complexity, and inherently lower propeller effi- for a ship increase, a single propeller can become inade-
stern tube. The L I D ratios of the heavily loaded after advocated for this reason. ciency (resulting from the larger hub). quate due to restrictions on the propeller diameter, draft
Controllable- and Reversz3le-Pitch Propellers. The blade limitations, or excessive thrust loading. When this oc-
angle (propeller pitch) on a controllable- and reversible- curs, an increase in the number of propellers is required.
pitch (CRP) propeller can be controlled remotely. This Since a single shaft is desirable from an economic view-
type of propeller is advantageous in any of the follow- point, there is justification for considering two propellers
Section 6 inp: situations: in tandem on the same shaft.
Propellers Only small losses in propulsive efficiency (2.2 percent)
1 Where the operating conditions vary widely (such were reported from model tests in reference [37] for the
M tug and trawler applications). tandem arrangement over a twin-screw arrangement for a
6.1 Introduction. Very early in the preliminary Figure 4 of Chapter 1 compares the optimum efficiency 2 Where diesel engines or gas turbines are used for
design spiral, the hull resistance and propulsion system values for a number of different types of propulsors. large tanker. The economy of a single propulsion plant,
propulsion (the CRP propeller permits adjustment of the
must be established. Section 4 of Chapter 1 deals with This information gives guihnce as to the relative merits as opposed to two propulsion plants, in addition to the
engine rpm-power relationship to provide gr~ateroperat-
the considerations involved in developing the main pro- of one propulsor versus another from an efficiency stand- ing flexibility). sing%-screw simplicity of the shafting arrangement are the
pulsion system. The propulsor, a device which converts point. However in the preliminary design stage, more advantages offered by a tandem propeller arrangement.
3 Where reversing capabilities are not readily obtain-
engine torque to ship thrust, can be one of the important specific information is required in order to make the able from the main engine (e.g., gas turbines). Contrarotating Propellers. Contrarotating propeller
determinants of the type of propulsion plant employed. necessary trade-off studies to support a design selection. arrangements consist of two propellers positioned in
4 Where rapid or frequent changes in the direction
Because of the interfaces between the machinery, hull, Systematic model tests of propulsors provide the neces- tandem on coaxial shafts which rotate in opposite direc-
of thrust is a desirable capability.
and propulsor, the design of the propulsor is usually a sary information for the trade-off studies, and in many tions. Higher efficiencies can be achieved with this
task undertaken jointly by a naval architect and a marine cases the final design. Reference [I] provides the in- At the propeller design point, the efficiency of CRP propeller awangement because no rotational energy need
engineer. The responsibility for the design of the pro- formation necessary to carry out in-depth propulsor propellers approaches the efficiency of fixed-pitch pro- be left in the propeller wake. Reference [37] reported
pulsor varies from one organization to the next, but one studies. pellers. The larger hub of a CRP propeller prevents its a propulsion efficiency improvement of 6.7 percent for a
approach is to assign the naval architect the responsi- Section 6.2 provides a description of the mechanical efficiency from exceeding that of a fixed-pitch propeller. 136,000-ton-displacement tanker with contrarotating
bility of developing the hull lines and the propulsor aspects and performance characteristics of the various Off the design point, the CRF propeller efficiency is less propellers as compared with a conventional single-screw
hydrodynamic design; he is supported by the marine types of propulsors to aid in defining the circumstances than that of a fixed-pitch propeller designed for that arrangement; similar tests for an 18,170-ton-displacement
engineer who provides the proper interface between hull involved with the possible alternatives. operating condition. This is because all sections of a dry cargo ship indicated a 12-percent improvement [38].
and machinery to assure that an optimum overall pro- Most ship propulsors are of the propeller type; there- CRP propeller blade are rotated through the same angle Contrarotating propeller arrangements have not been
pulsion system is obtained. This is the general basis fore, Section 6.3 provides detailed guidance regarding as the pitch is changed; thus, the angles of attack of the used in connection with commercial ships due to the
upon which the Society's two publications, Principles of the preliminary selection of the characteristics of ship various blade sections along the propeller radii are mechanical complications involved with the coaxial pro-
Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, have been propellers. Propeller manufacturing tolerances, which optimum only a t the design point. pulsion system arrangement (see Chapter 9). Should
written. Accordingly, details regarding the propulsor a marine engineer is frequently called upon to control or Pitch changes are controlled remotely. The torque the advantages of a contrarotating system become en-
hydrodynamic design are not covered in this text. specify, are discussed in Section 6.4. required to turn the blades and hold them in position is hanced because of higher horsepower, higher fuel costs,
PROPELLERS, SHAFTING, AND SHAFTING SYSTEM VIBRATION ANALYSIS
MARINE €NGINEERING
or lower first costs of the drive system, contrarotating optimum propeller rpm. This envelope curve is used to
blade sections awav from the direction of rotation.
Propeller blades with skew tend to enter and leave the
MWR = mean width ratio I
systems may appear ip merchant ship applications. assess the sacrifice in &ciency which must, be awepeed regions of high wake more gradually, resulting in a reduc- - developed area per blade
Some naval installations have been made, but their per- for any increase of revolutions. Data fmm this curve tion of the alternating propeller loading due to wake D (blade radius - hub radius)
formance has not been made public. combined with the effect of the revolutions on the weight, irregularities. The results of model tests have shown
FdEy Cwitating Propellers. The primary chjection to cost, and space requirements of the main p p d l i n g ma- that blade skew is an effective technique for reducing
BTF = blade thickness fraction i
propeller cavitation is the deleterious effect that it has chinery permit the final selection to be made. the fluctuating forces and moments acting on a propeller. maximum blade thickness extrapolated
on the propeller blade surfaces. Once the propeller It will be noted that at revolutions slightly higher than It is normal practice to skew propeller blades a moderate to shaft axis
loading conditions become such that cavitation can no the optimum propeller rprn for a given propellerdiameter, -
amount based on past experience, without specific knowl- D
longer be avoided, as may be the case with very fast the propeller efficiency d e e m only slightly. But on edge regarding the benefits achieved.
ships, then rather than accept a limited amount of cavi- the other hand, the effect of relatively small incraws of Developed Area. With heavily loaded propellers, Care must be exercised in the use of approximate
tation a more satisfactory choice is to design the propeller propeller rpm (with the power remaining the same) on which is usual with most modern ships, the developed methods because of considerations such as unusual hub
such that it cavitates fully. In this event, the cloud of the weight, cost, and spme requirements of the main area must be established with care. Considerations in dimensions and allowances for ice strengthening.
vapor which forms on the suction side of the blades does machinery can be significant. I n the case of higher- 6.4 Manufacturing Tolerances. As indicated in
the selection of the propeller developed area are the
not collapse until it is clear of the propeller blade, thus powered vessels, it is usual to select a propeller rpm penalty in efficiency associated with an excessive de- Table 8, there is an array of tolerances which control the
having no deleterious effect on the propeller blades. higher than optimum and to w p t some sacrifice of velo~edarea and the effects of cavitation due to an dimensional accuracy of propellers. Table 8 gives a
Operation at offdesign conditions may result in severe propeller dciency in order to reduce the &e of the inadequate developed area. Effects due to inadequate range of propeller tolerances which have been used and
propeller cavitation erosion; and such operation (ac- propelling machinery. area can be of greater consequence than those due to an also shows recommended tolerances which are expected
celerating, decelerating, etc.) cannot be entirely avoided Propeller revolutions higher than the optimum are dm excessive area; therefore, prudent practice dictates that to produce satisfactory results. Unless care is exercised
in service. For this reason and to withstand the high accepted for mamns related to the type of maehery. 4
a developed area be provided which is sufficiently large in establishing manufacturing tolerances, the tolerances
stresses resulting from the large thrust load, fully mvitat- Direct-drive diesel engines and electric-drive machinery to entail a minimal cavitation hazard. kcor a more can easily be over-specified; that is, the tolerances may
ing propellers are frequently made of exotic materials. usually operate a t speeds higher than the optimum to detailed discussion of propeller cavitation (and conse- be so tight that increased manufacturing costs may be
Reference [ I ] gives the expected performance of a theo- permit the use of a smaller engine or motor; %veij&t,cost, quently developed area) see reference [I]. incurred with no corresponding increase in the value of
retical series of 3-bladed supercavitating propellers which and space requirements are factors of major importance Propeller Blade Thickness. Requirements concerning the finished propeller.
can be used for estimating performance. with these types of machinery. the minimum allowable blade thickness are given in Various approaches have been used to check the di-
In order to achieve fully cavitrvting performance in a N a d w of Blsdes. Propellers may have t h e , fod, classification society rules such as i~ference[18]. A mensional accuracy of propellers. The usual technique
speed range too low for the usual fully cavitating pro- five, six, seven, or more blades. Over the years, the thorough discussion of the development of the classific* used with merchant propellers is to measure the blade
peller design, but still in the range where conventional trend has been to use a larger number of blades; three tion society rules is given in reference [40], which in thickness and pitch at discrete points and to check the
.propellers would cavitate excessively, ventilation may blades fell into complete diswe for large ships during addition provides the basis for making an in-depth remaining blade surfaces for fairness. A flexible steel
be conmdered. Ventilation is the term used to describe the 1940's. During the I W s , six- and seven-bladed analysis of the propeller blade stress. straight edge is held against the blade contours as a
the introduction of air into the cavitation areas to pro- propellera came into use. The major factor in the =lee- Prweller Hub. The controllintz dimensions for the means of detecting irregularities of the propeller surface.
duce a fully developed cavity. Experience with ven- tion of the number of propeller blades is vibration con- propeiler hub outside diameter an; length are the stern The technique used with naval propellers is considerably
tilated propellers is very limited, but some model testing siderations. Both the hull hydrodynamic pressure forms frame (or strut barrel) and the propeller blade fore-and- more rigorous; Cylindrical, edge, and fillet gages (which
has been carried out; reference 1397 is a report of one and the forces transmitted through the shafting system aft length at the interface with the hub. These param- are sheet metal templates machined to the desired blade
such test. bearings are strongly influenced by the selection of the 1 eters onlv establish the lower limit. and thicker hubs contour) are prepared which make it possible to compre-
6.3 Propeller Characteristics. An underatanding of number of propeller blades. I n general, the,propeller may be rkquired to provide adequate strength. Exces- hensively check the conformance of the propeller blades,
the considerations and trade-offs involved in selecting exciting forces decrease rapidly with larger numbers of sively large propeller hubs are disadvantageous in that at a number of radii, to the design dimensions [42].
the design characteristics of a propeller is required when blades; however, there are exceptions. For more detrtib they increase the expense of the propeller and propeller In addition to the tolerances governing the propeller
developing a shafting arrangement. Assuming that the concerning the relationship between We number of pro- weight (and consequently propeller shaft stress). physical dimensions, balance tolerances are also specified.
ship's power and speed requirements have heen estab- peller blades and the vibratory f o m generated, see Propeller Weight. An estimated propeller weight can Ship's specifications usually require that propellers be
lished preliminarily as outlined in Chapter 1, the follow- Section 3.2. Prudent selection of the number ofpropeller be obtained in several ways. The most accurate is to balanced (with static or dynamic equipment) such that
ing propeller characteristics must be settled: blades iq an important variable which can be used to conduct a calculatibn based on detailed drawines. Un- the static unbalanced force at rated rpm is no greater
Propeller Diameter. In general, higher propeller e%i- avoid the excitation of natural frequencies in the pro- fortunately, however, the need for the weight than one percent of the propeller weight. The following
ciencies are associated with larger propeller diameters pulsion system. has usually passed by the time detailed drawings are expression may be used to determine the static unbalance
and lower shaft revolutions. Therefore, it is u m d y PropeEkr Pit&. The selection of propeller pitch can available. There are a number of approaches which may corresponding to an unbalanced force equal to one percent
desirable to install the largest propeller diameter that be made when the power, speed, revolutions, and general be used to approximake propeller weights; one approach of the propeller weight:
can be accommodated by the hull structure. The pro- hull characteristics have been settled. The pitch ratio is given in reference [40]. One of the less accurate
peller diameter is limited by the lines d the ship as may be selected on the basis of standard propeller m d e l methods, but one requiring the least information, is
discussed in Section 2.2. series data. However, when a propeller is highly loaded given in [41J; this method entails the use of wrves which where
h
PropeUer rpm. The choice of the propeller rpm in- or operates in a non-uniform wake field, it may be relate the weight of a propeller to its torque rating.
volves establishing a balance between propeller efficiency
and the weight, cost, and space requirements of the main
desirable to design a propeller with a pitch ratio and
pitch distribution tailored to suit the particular operating
, I
There are other methods such as
U static unbalance which will generate an alternat-
=
ing force equal to one percent of the propeller
weight, in.-lb
machinery. This is accompliihed by using standard conditions. This can be accomplished by desiping a
propeller series data (such as reported in reference [l])to propeller in accordance with the circulation theory (see W = propeller weight, lb
compute a series of curva of propulsive efficiency versus reference [I] for a description of circulation theorgr where N = maximum rated propeller rpm
a
revolutions for various propeller diameters. The enve- methods). W = propeller weight (manganese bronze), Limits are not generally placed on dynamic unbalance
lope of these curves indicates the best efficiency and BE& Skew. A propeller blade is termed skewed when lb (including hub) because of the large diameter-length ratio of propellers,
optimum propeller diameter that can be obtained at its outline is asymmetrical with respect to a s t d g h t K = conhnt, approximately equal to 0.26 but good practice dictates that corrections made for
each propeller rpm. The point of maximum efficiency radial reference lime inthe plane of the propeller. Skew D = propeller diameter static unbalance be accomplished so as to improve the
on this curve for a propeller diameter is termed the is usually introduced by successively &placing the I
388 MARINE ENGINEERING PROPELLERS, SHARING, AND SHAFTING SYSTEM VIBRATION ANALYSIS 389
I
Table 8 Propeller Manufacturing Tolerances the slow-speed gear and the antinode is a t the propeller;
Dimension
-
Merchant
Rmge of Experience -
Naval
Recommended
Practice
in this mode, the inertia of the propeller vibrates against
the inertia of the turbines and gears. For vessels with
Blade Thicktw.88 fairly long runs of shafting, the first-mode frequency is
Maximum -0.00, +% in. or 2% of +%.$a in. or + l % of design -0.00 +>$ in. or 2% of excited by blade rate excitation at a very low propeller
deaign th~ekness,whichever thickness, whichever is greater deaign thickness, whichever
is greater is greater rpm (at about % of maximum rated rpm). For this
Minimum -0.00, +% in.
+ +
- .02 in. % % of thickness)
d 4 in. +I % of thickness)
reason it is seldom objectionable as the alternating
torques developed are not of sufficient magnitude to be ( a ) First Mode ( b ) Second Mode
Blade Width
Maximum +g2in. or 1% of width +>b in. deleterious. On the other hand, in the case of ships
Minimum 4 in. +0.25% of width) which have short runs of shafting, the first mode may
iRd2 in. +0.5% width) occur above 50 percent of the maximum propeller speed Legend
Bhde Position in Transverse Phne and warrant a comprehensive analysis.
Maximum +30 min +15 min +15 min I L P Turbine
Minimum &15 min +15 min Second and third torsional vibration modes are de-
2 L P High-Speed Reduction
Blade T r d at Tip termined primarily by the characteristics of the prime
Maxlrnum +1.0 in. &%6 in. &% in. mover. With geared turbine drives, the turbine-gear
3 HP Turbine
Minimum +% in. & x 6 in. 4 H P High-Speed Reduction
Pro e* Diameter system generally cannot be designed such that the second 5 Slow-Speed Retjuction
daxlmum &% in. -1.25 in., +0.00 &% in. 0 mode of torsional vibration (the one in which the two 6 Propeller
Minimum +% in. -.20 in., +O.OO turbine branches vibrate against each other) is out of the
Deviation of Pitch cf.tany Radius from Designed value 5
Maxlmum +2% +1.5% operating range. This being the case, a so-called "nodal
Minimum % +l.O% drive" is frequently provided [43]. In a nodal drive, the (c) T h i r d Mode
Geatest Variation i Any Avetage Blade Pitch to Average Propeller Pitch turbine branches are designed to have equal frequencies;
.Gum +I% this forces the slow-speed gear to be a nodal point. The fig. 17 Mode shapes of first three modes of tonional vibration of a turbine-
Mi imum &0.75% z?5% driven propulsion system of nodal-drive type
second mode of torsional vibration will then consist of a
motion in which the two turbines vibrate so that their
vibratory moments oppose each other with a nodal point
a t the gear. This being the case, the turbine branches
dynamic unbalance. Dynamic unbalance is generally where
not found to be a problem; nevertheless, the dynamic cannot be excited by the propeller. ness of the turbine shafts are very high compared with
unbalance should be limited such that the alternating D = dynamic unbalance which will produce same In the third mode of torsional vibratiqn, the vibratory those of the first reduction gear elements.
force generated at the aftermost bearing is no greater force at aftermost bearing as a static' unbal- torques of the propeller and turbines oppose that of the If only the first mode of torsional vibration is of inter-
than an alternating force a t the aftermost bearing ance equal to one percent of propeller weight slow-speed gear. The third mode usually occurs con- est, then it can be approximated in either of two ways.
corresponding to a static unbalance equal to one percent applied a t propeller center of gravity, in.-lb-in. siderably above the operating range; consequently, it is One way would be to directly add the equivalent inertia
of the propeller weight at the propeller center of gravity. W = propeller weight, lb rarely of concern. However, very high rpms or a large of the turbine branches [JTL and JTH in Fig. 18(c)] to
A useful expression for the maximum allowable dynamic L1 = distance from propeller center of gravity to after- number of propeller blades may bring it within the the slow-speed gear inertia (Ja) and make an analysis
unbalance under these conditions is as follows: most bearing reaction, in. operating range. The third mode is difficult to excite based on a two-mass system. A more practicable ap-
Lz = distance from aftermost bearing reaction to re- because the antinode occurs a t the slow-meed gear, - proach, since the inertias of the turbines and gears are .
action of next bearing forward, in. which is not a source of excitation with modern gears, frequently unavailable, is to assume that the nodal point
N = maximum rated propeller rpm and the node occurs near the propeller, which is a source in the first mode of vibration is four percent of the
E = shaft modulus of elasticity, psi of excitation but has a very small vibratory amplitude. distance from the slow-speed gear to the propeller aft of
I = shaft rectangular moment of inertia, in.4 The mode shapes of the first three modes of torsional the slow-speed gear. With such an assumption, the
vibration are shown in Fig. 17. first-mode natural frequency can be simply determined
7.3 Models for Torsional Vibration Analyses. A by considering the system to be a one-degree-of-freedom
typical steam turbine propulsion system is schematically model as shown in Fig. 18(d).
illustrated in Fig. 18(a). From an .inspection of2Fig. All of the system parameters which are needed in order
Section 7 18(a), it is apparent that a comprehensive torsional vi- to evaluate the torsional natural frequencies can be
bration analysis of such a system would be prohibitively directly determined from the physical properties of the
Torsional Vibration complex if the classical approach were used; cobequently, system except for the propeller entrained water. Assess-
simplifications must be made to facilitate a practical ment of the propeller entrained water can be made from
7.1 General. Severe torsional vibration difficul- driven main propulsion shafting systems is included in analysis. The system can be reduced to an equivalent the work of Burrill and Robson [49]. I n order to avoid
ties experienced with the early reciprocating engine the following pages. The fundamental theory of tor- svstem (model) in which all elements are referred to the the tedious labor associated with calculating the moment
drives and particularly diesel engines moved the im- sional vibration is well documented in the existing sime rdtationil speed, thereby greatly simplifying the of inertia of the propeller in air, an approximate method
portance of torsional vibration as a design consideration literature; therefore, it will not be reproduced here. A analysis. Such a procedure may be used to obtain the such as that described in reference [41] may be used or
to the forefront. Subsequently, torsional vibratian be- discussion of details peculiar t o torsional vibration of model shown in Fig. 18(b). Figure 18(b) can be used to the propeller radius of gyration may simply be estimated
came established as a factor which had to be carefully diesel-driven main propulsion shafting systems is simi- evaluate all modes of torsional vibration which would to be between 0.40 and 0.44 of the propeller radius (lower
considered in the design of all types of main propulsion larly not included. be expected to be of interest in practice. However, if values correspond to larger propeller hubs and smaller
shafting systems, and the design methodology required 7.2 Modes of Torsional Vibration. The design of only the first three modes of vibration are of interest, numbers of blades).
to conduct a reasonably accurate torsional vibration most large turbine-driven ships is such that one or more which would generally be the case, the model shown in 7.4 Determination of Natural Frequencies. The
analysis has been formulated [41,4349]. resonant modes of tonional vibration will occur within Fig 18(b) can be further simplified to that shown in Holzer method of computing the natural frequencies of
A summary of the analytical methods used to evaluate the operating range. The first mode of torsional vibra- Fig. 18(c) without a serious loss of accuracy due to the lumped spring-mass systems is a convenient procedure
the torsional vibration characteristics of geared turbine- tion is the one in which the node is immediately abaft fact that the equivalent inertia of the turbines and stiff- for determining the torsional natural frequencies of
MARINE ENGINEERING PROPELLERS, ,SHAFTING, AND SHAFTING SYSTEM VIBRATION ANALYSIS 391
:ond reduction rn Table 9 Determination of First Natural Mode of Torsional Vibration for a Turbine Driven Propulsion System
Modeled as Shown by Fig. 18(b)
Number of pro eller blades = 6 o = 6(22.38) (2a)/BO rad/sec
LP f i r s t reduction r o t i o = n 2 Assumed propefler rpm = 22.38 oa = 197.7 rad'/sec"
HP f i r s t reduction r a t i o = n, J = in.-lb-set' + 1W
k = in.-lb/rad + 10"
( a ) S c h e m a t i c i l l u s t r o t i o n of a geored t u r b i n e
d r i v e n propulsion system
B L = -0.06477 Bp
011 = -0.06417 Bp
+- ++
2Q = 1213 B L 321 .O OH 98.8 BP
2Q = -78.57 Bp 20.60 BP 98:s BP
2Q = 0; therefore a resonant condltlon
( b ) Equivolent 6 moss system w i t h a l l details concerning torque excitation, see references dependent and independent variables, moving along a
bronches r e f e r r e d to t h e propeller r p m [3, 50-521. constant pitch line.
7.6 Damping. There are several sources of damping The energy loss via the propeller per cycle of torsional
which tend to reduce the maximum attainable amplitude vibration can be written as
of torsional vibration; one of the most important is the
propeller, particularly in the first mode due to its being E, = ~ b w 8 , ~ in.-lb (201
(c) Four mass system w i t h o l l bronches r e f e r r e d where
t o t h e p r o p e l l e r r p m f o r opproximoting t h e a t the antinode. Propeller damping can be determined
f i r s t t h r e e n o t u r o l frequencies o f torsionol ( d l Single degree o f freedom system f o r in several different ways [44-46, 531. I n general, the w = circular frequency of vibration, rad/sec
vibrotion opproximating t h e f i r s t noturol frequency propeller damping coefficient, b, can be expressed as
of torsionol vibrotion 8, = amplitude of propeller vibration, radians
Fig. 1 8 Equivalent systems for determining natural torsional f requencies of geared turbine-driven propulsionsystems
in.-lb-sec Energy is also dissipated as a result of elastic hysteresis
b = KQ/Q in the shafting, sliding fits, etc. Although such internal
rad
damping losses in a shafting system would be expected
where to be small when considered individually, they are
K = a constant frequently estimated to dissipate about 5 percent of the
turbine-driven propulsion systems. I n order to review previously mentioned, only the first three modes would Q = mean propeller torque, in.-lb vibratory energy per cycle when totaled. The energy
the computational procedure for a practical example, generally be of interest. The mode shapes of the first Q = rotative speed of propeller, rad/sec dissipated due to internal damping crtn be expressed
consider a turbine-driven vessel that is modeled as shown three natural torsional frequencies are shown in Fig. 17. as [46]:
by Fig. 18(b). Typical values of system inertia and The node in the first mode is seen to be immediately If propeller model test data are available, it may be
spring constants and calculations for the first torsional abaft the slow-speed gear. The two turbine branches shown that
natural frequency are given in Table 9. The calculation are tuned in the second mode such that the slow-speed I
is accomplished by first assuming the resonant frequency gear is a nodal point. The third mode is the one in where
of the system, relating this frequency to the propeller which the slow-speed gear is the antinode with the ar = fraction of energy dissipated; the value of this
rpm, and then calculating the corresponding vibratory terminal end of the three branches being near nodal where s is the propeller slip. quantity is approximately 0.05
torque and torsional amplitude a t the slow-speed gear points. If the propeller data are given in the form of J, KQ J, = moment of inertia of mass n, lb-in.-sec2
(inertia JG) in terms of the amplitude a t the terminal 7.5 Excitation Factors. There are several possible curves 8, = amplitude of vibration of mass n, radians
end of each branch. For convenience the amplitudes sources of torsional vibration excitation with turbine-
a t the terminal ends of the three branches are initially
assumed to be one radian. Since the three branches
(propeller, LP turbine, and HP turbine) must have the
driven ships, but the propeller is the only one of conse-
quence. With the accurate cutting of modern gears,
gear-excited criticals are either wholly absent or are of If given in the form of a Troost diagram (B,, 6) as in
The damping action of the turbines would general be
expected to be of secondary importance especial1 in
modes where the turbines have small relative amplitudes;
9
same amplitude a t the slow-speed gear mass, the ampli- negligible amplitude. reference [I] : however, it may warrant assessment under some circum-
tudes of the three branches can be expressed as a func- Propeller excitation of a frequency higher than blade stances. The energy dissipated due to turbine damping
tion of the same unknown amplitudefor instance, the rate exists but it is normally negligible in magnitude. A can be expressed as
propelle~thereby obtaining the mode shape. The
torques imposed on the slow-speed gear are then summed;
number of factors, such as the propeller loading, pro-
peller aperture clearances, number of propeller blades, As an approximation for many propellers, K = 3.7 to
ET = z ~ c w 8 , ~ - in.-lb (22)
if the sum is zero, a resonant condition is established. hull lines, and hull draft, influence the magnitude of the where
4, which may be used in the absence of other data; a
If the sum is not zero, the process is iterated until the vibratory torque; consequently, generalizations in this value of 4 corresponds to a damping constant which is c = turbine damping constant which can be approxi-
sum is zero by assuming a different resonant frequency. area must be used with care. Nevertheless, typical double the slope of the torque-speed curve. I n all cases mated as the ratio of turbine torque to
The same procedure can be repeated to determine the ranges of torque excitation, expressed as a percentage of the derivatives are computed a t the operating point of turbine rpm a t the speed corresponding to
remaining four torsional natural frequencies but, as the mean torque, are presented in Table 2; for additional the propeller by taking the ratio of small differences in the point under study, in.-lb-sec/rad
392 MARINE ENGINEERING
PROPELLERS, SHARING, AND SHAFTING SYSTEM VIBRATION ANALYSIS 393
w = frequency of vibration, rad/sec
8, = amplitude of vibration of turbine rotor, radians evaluation. These attempts have not proven successful As a broad rule it may be stated that untuned torsional
due to many variables which must be considered. For vibration resonant frequencies should not occur in the
If damping is introduced into the vibration calcolrlr and by substituting the expression 4Q/Q, equation (16), example, the propeller design (pitch distribution, skew, range of 60 to 115 percent of rated rpm; however, this
tions, the computational procedure is modified con- for the propeller damping coefficient and letting w = ZQ, number of blades, etc.), propeller aperture clearances, rule does not in fact ensure satisfactory torsional vibrs
siderably. An external source of damping, such as that equation (25) can be simplified to hull lines in the vicinity of the propeller, harmonic tion characteristics; furthermore, there may be aatis-
at the propeller or turbines, introduces an external content of the wake in way of the propeller in conjunc- factory systems in service which it would exclude.
moment of -jbw8 on the respective mass concentration; tion with the type of reduction gear, system damping, Generalizations can serve as a broad guide, but the
and internal damping, such as shafting hysteresis, where Z is the number of propeller blades. ship operating practices (shallow water, partial propeller hazard associated with generaliiations is that their
between two masses is equivalent to changing a spring The maximum amplitude of propeller vibration can emersion, operating point) and similar considerations limitations may not be appreciated. There appears to
constant k to a complex spring constant be determined from the foregoing expression. In vary so much from one ship to the next that there are be no satisfactory alternative to conducting an analysis
conjunction with the normalized mode shape determined numerous exceptions which can be taken to all, except of each particular system and studying each factor
from the system natural frequency calculation, Table 9, the most trite, generalizations. individually.
where ar is the fraction of the elastic energy absorbed by the propeller amplitude is used to assess the vibratory
the damper [45]. torque at resonance at any element of the system. The
Calculations which incorporate damping as just alternating torques in the quill shafts between the high-
indi'cated are somewhat tedious, particularly if the cal- speed gears and low-speed pinions are usually the largest Section 8
culations must be done by hand; an easier procedure is to from a relative viewpoint; consequently, it is customary
compute the effect of damping at resonance only by to analyze these elements when investigating the possi-
equating input energy to dampening energy. bility of torque reversals.
As an example, referring to the calculation in Table 9, 8.1 Introduction. Severely objectionable longitu- The accuracy obtained with a discrete spring-mass model
7.7 Vibratory Torque Calculations. In many cases,
the torsional vibration characteristics of a shafting with a propeller excitation equal to 3 percent of the mean dinal vibrations were not encountered until the advent of will depend upon the masses used to represent the shaft-
system can be shown to be satisfactory in the design propeller torque, the alternating torque, q, in the low- several classes of large naval vessels in early 1941. ing system.
stage with only a computation of the system natural pressure quill shaft in the first mode of torsional vibration Reference [54] contains a description of the difficulties A third approach is the mechanical impedance method
frequencies and without predicting vibratory torques would be : experienced with these ships and also presents the most proposed by Kane and McGoldrick [MI. This method
I
and amplitudes. Normally this is possible when a q = 1213 8~ X lo6 thorough treatment of longitudinal vibration that has is inherently more accurate than the Holzer method since
compar&on is made with a similar system that has q = 1213 (0.06477 8,) X lo6 been prepared. The works of Panagopulos [47], Rigby the weight of the shafting is considered to be distributed;
proven satisfactory in service. For designs where the q = 78.6 (r/4Z) X lo6 [55], Couchman [56],and others have added to the knowl- however, the impedance method has the slight disadvan-
system natural frequencies, vibratory excitation, or q = 98,300 in.-lb edge of the subject; yet the fundamental problem areas tage of being somewhat more complex and diicult to
anticipated system operation may cause concern, investi- This is the torque in the low-pressure quill shaft referred encountered today are the same as those identified by grasp. For illustrative purposes, a calculation of the
gation of the magnitude of the vibratory torques and to line shaft speed. With a second reduction ratio of Kane and McGoldrick [54]. natural modes of longitudinal vibration of the shafting
stresses is necessary. The low level of shaft axial stress associated with even arrangement shown in Fig. 1 will be made using the
7.5, the actual vibratory torque in the quill shaft will be the most violent instance of longitudinal vibration is not mechanical impedance method. Figure 19 is a model of
In order to illustrate the procedures used to assess 98,300/7.5 or 13,100in.-lb. In this particular case at the
vibratory torque amplitudes, again consider the calcula- resonant frequency, the low-pressure turbine develops sufficiently large to induce failures in the shafting itself; the shafting arrangement which is suitable for analysis
tions shown in Table 9. In the absence of speed-power 55 percent of the total power delivered to the propeller. nevertheless, longitudinal vibration can produce effects by the mechanical impedance method. I t may be
curves for the ship, the mean operatingtorque correspond- The mean torque in the low-pressure branch a t resonance which are destructive to engine room equipment. Shaft- noted that the difference in the diameter of the inboard
ing to the resonant frequency can be approximated by is consequently 33,500 in.-lb whereas the alternating ing systems which have longitudinal vibration character- and outboard shafting is taken into account; in general,
determining the rated propeller torque (the torque torque is estimated to be 13,100 in.-lb; therefore, torque istics that are resonant with propeller blade rate f r e
corresponding to 22,000 shp at 115 rpm) and assuming reversals in the low-pressure train at the first resonant quency forces experience a significant magnification of
that the propeller torque varies as the square of the mode of torsional vibration are not expected. The the exciting forces. Such a force magnification can
propeller rpm; therefore, the mean operating torque at vibratory stress in the quill shaft, kz, can be calculated result in such deleterious effects as:
the resonant frequency is estimated to be using the alternating torque across this shaft of 13,100 1 Accelerated wear of gears, flexible couplings, thrust
in.-lb. bearings, etc., and destruction of turbine clearances due
In the more general case, where system damping in to the increased relative axial movements.
addition to that associated with the propeller is of 2 Large vibration amplitudes and stresses in steam
M p ,= mass o f p r o p e l l e r , 227 lb-sec2/in
importance, the maximum amplitude of propeller vibra- piping, condensers, and main and auxiliary machinery
The exciting torque can be expressed as rQp where tion at resonance can be found by solving the following which ultimately result in fatigue failure. M g = mgss c f gears, 147 lb-sec2/in
taken from Table 2, is the alternating torque expressed equation for 8p: 3 Cracks in foundation and hull structures. M c = mass o f machinery, 7 6 7 lb-sec2/in
as a fraction of the mean torque. With a maximum m l = mass o f larger (outboard) shafting, 301 lb-sec2/in
propeller exciting torque of r ~ the , vibrating energy EE = E, + +El ET (27) 8.2 Determination of Natural Frequencies. There
are basically three approaches which may be taken in
m 2 = mass o f s m a l l e r (inboard) s h a f t i n g , 3 6 6 lb-sec2/in
input per cycle of vibration is:
+C
nrQ8, = ~ b ~ 8 ;
1
5
Y
+C T C U B ~ ~ (28) determining the natural frequencies of longitudinal kt = spring constant of l a r g e r (outboard) shafting,
2 0 . 3 x 10' Ib/in
EE = nrQ8, (24) vibration. The first approach would be to use a
All of the terms, except 8,) are either known or can be = spring constont o f smal ler (inboord) shafting,
simplified method for the purpose of quickly assessing a k2
In the first mode of vibration, the propeller would be expressed as a function of 8,. Once 8, is established, the , 5.9 x 10' lb/in
situation. Approximate methods suitable for investi-
expected to be the only significant source of excitation calculation can be continued as shown. gating the firstmode of vibration are given in references kt = t h r u s t bearing spring constant, 7 x 10' w i n
and damping; therefore, by equating the expressions for 7.8 Acceptable Limits for Torsional Vibration. [47,,541. kf = t h r u s t bearing foundation spring constant, Ib/in
the propeller excitation and damping energy, the maxi- Many attempts have been made to standardize the A second approach would be to model the shafting - 2 ' number of p r o p @ l l e r blades, 6
mum propeller amplitude can be determined as follows: procedure to be used for torsional vibration analysis and system as discrete masses and springs and use the Holzer Fig. 19 Representation of a geared tutbina propulnion hafting system
method to determine the system natural frequencies. ( ~ g I. ) for a longitudinalvibration analysis
394 MARINE ENGINEERING PROPELLERS, SHAFTING, AND SHAFTfNG SYSTEM VIBRATION ANALYSIS 395
especially with short spans of shafting, this additional given in [54] may be used for guidance in establishing Table 1 0 Longitudinal Vibration Calculations for Shafting System Model Shown by Fig. 19
degree of sophistication is not yarranted. the stiffness of thrust elements.
x 106
Z,, = osMp
ib/in. X 106 "= = -
180 kin
lb/in. X 10'
-
tan (elo el0) a1° - r1° =
The majority of the system parameters may be directly Determination of the thrust bearing foundation spring N o0 US <lo lr € 1 s-Z.
calculated from the system scantlings, and therefore no corlstant can be a difficult and nebulous undertaking k.~. a
difficulty is experienced in obtaining their value. How- even for an experienced analyst. In general, the thrust rpm red/sec red deg
70 43.98 0.0193 0.4381 0.1694 9.706 3.439 0.1274 7.260
ever, assessment of several of the system parameters can bearing foundatiori structure is arranged such that an 80 50.27 0.0253 0.5743 0.1936 11.09 3.930 0.1461 8.312
be nebulous. For example, determination of the water accurate calculation of its spring constant would be 90 56.55 0.0320 0.7264 0.2178 12.48 4.421 0.1643 9.330
95 59.69 0.0356 0.8081 0.2298 13.17 4.665 0.1732 9.$26
entrained with the propeller does not lend itself to an formidably complex. For this reason, longitudinal vibra-
accurate calculation; as a first approximation the tion calculatior~sare frequently conducted such that the
entrained water weight may be assumed equal to 60 natural frequency is expressed in terms of the thrust
percent of the propeller weight. The results obtained bearing foundation stiffness.
from the experimental work of Burrill and Robson [49] Table 10 contains a calculation for the first and second tan a1° = z* =
are widely used in estimating propeller entrained water, resonant modes of longitudinal vibration of the shafting 3 Zb/kl€l kla tan a1°
and reference [54] suggests other approaches. system modeled as shown in Fig. 19. Table 10 utilizes
The behavior of flexible couplings in connection with the mechanical impedance method described in [54] and red
0.3464
vibratory movements similarly cannot be stated with is arranged such that the resonant frequencies can be 0.3959
certainty. The impact of the behavior of flexible plotted in terms of the thrust bearing fourldation stiff- 0.4454
couplings, aside from the effect on the couplings them- ness. Figure 20 is such a plot and indicates the accuracy 0.4701
selves, is not great when the thrust bearing is located required of the thrust bearing foundation stiffness
well forward. But when the thrust bearing is located calculation. In some instances, as may be the case with
aft and there is an appreciable vibratory amplitude a t a ship having a very short run of shafting, an inspection
the slow-speed gear, the impact of flexible coupling of the appropriate thrust bearing foundation drawings
behavior can be significant. For a detailed discussion may be all that is required to provide assurance that the tan UP = zc=
e2O Z./krrp kaea tan as0
of the behavior of flexible couplings and the complications resonant modes of longitudinal vibration will be well
involved, see [54 and 561. clear of the operating range. On the other hand,
Some machinery liquid and foundation weight partici- lengthy and sophisticated thrust bearing foundation
pates with the shafting system when vibrating longitu- stiffness calculations may be required in order to ensure
dinally as a consequence of being near the main thrust that ships with long runs of shafting have satisfactory
bearing; but assigning a magnitude to these quantities longitudinal vibration characteristics.
entails numerous uncertainties. Assessment of the The thrust bearing foundation spring constant may be
"machinery mass," M,, to be included in the mathe- considered to corlsist of three constituents: the bending
matics requires judgment which must be based on the deflection of the thrust bearing foundation structure
specifics of each system. In instances w-here only the
first mode is of importance, the machinery mass has a
above the inner bottom, the shear deflection of the thrust
bearing foundation structure above the inner bottom, and
a Exciting freqiency, o 3. 2LN
-X number of propeller bladee.
small participation and consequently an accurate the deflection at the thrust bearing due to inner-bottom
assessment of its magnitude is not critical. On the other deflection. An appreciation for the effects of inner-
hand, the machinery mass is expected to have a signifi- bottom deflection may be obtained from reference [55].
8.3 Excitation Fackrs. Longitudinal vibration of
cant participation in the second mode, in which case care Calculation of foundation deflections above the inner
must be taken in its determination. In general, the first bottom entails the usual obscurities associated with propulsion shafting systems is exclusively excited by the
estimating the deflection of complicated structures. In ' variable thrust developed by the propeller due to the
reduction gear rotating elements, gear casing, turbines,
condenser, foundation structure, or portions thereof may order to assess the effects of inner-bottom deflection, it nonuniform wake pattern in which it operates. The NOTES:
predominant periodic component of the thrust developed ESTIMATED THRUST BEARING
be included as machinery mass. Reference [54] gives is necessary to make simplifying assumptions concerr~irlg
-
FOUNDATION SPRING CONSTANT
the extent (length and breadth) of inner bottom effec- by a propeller occurs a t blade rate frequency; i.e., the 7 X 10' LB/IN
some guidance in the assessment of the machinery mass. number of propeller blades times the rotational frequency
RATED PROPELLER RPM I I S RPM
NO.OF PROPELLER BLADES. 6
Reference [57] contains an interesting approach on the tivelj. supporting the thrust bearing and the boundary
of the shaft. Higher harmonics of blade rate frequency
treatment of machinery masses in that a portion of the conditions at its extremeties; each system must be
occur but, due to their relatively small magnitude, they
machinery mass is given a leverage ratio relative to the individually studied, in light of the degree of accuracy
desired, in order to establish appropriate assumptions are generally not of practical importance. A number of
centerline of the shaft. factors influence the magnitude of the vibratory thrust;
The spring constant of the thrust bearing, k t b , may be and calculation procedures. consequently, generalizations in this area must be used
considered to consist of three constituents: the spring In cases where design constraints make it impossible
with care. Nevertheless, typical ranges of thrust ex-
constants of the thrust bearing housing, the thrust collar, to design a shafting system such that it is free of objec-
citation, expressed as a percentage of the mean thrust,
and the thrust elements (or shoes). Aside from the tionable frequencies of resonant longitudinal vibration,
use may be made of a "resonance changer. " Resonance are tabulated in Table 3; for additional details concerning
tedious calculations, no diiculty is experienced in cal- thrust excitation, see references [3, 50-52, 591.
culating the spring constants of the thrust bearing changers are discussed in Chapter 20. Briefly, they
8.4 Damping. There are several sources of damping 0 10 20 30 40 50
housing and collar inasmuch as the majority of the ' are thrust bearings which are modified such that the in the longitudinal vibration system, the most important THRUST BEARING FOUNDATION
deflections are due to shear and can be estimated on the thrust pads are floating pistons. The volume of oil SPRING CONSTANT, K t , L B I I N X 10'
of which is the propeller. Other sources of damping
basis of well-established techniques. But the spring supporting the thrust pads can then be tuned to alter such as hysteresis and sliding friction are relatively
constant of the thrust elements can be difficult to the thrust bearing spring constant and avoid objec- small, difficult to estimate, and difficult to treat in the
Fig. 20 Effect of thrust bmring Youndotion Mness on bngiidinol resonon( .
frequencies
evaluate. In the absence of more specific data, the data tionable resonant frequencies.
MARINE ENGINEERING PROPELLERS, SHARING, AND SHAFTING SYSTEM VIBRATION ANALYSIS + 397
calculations; therefore, their effects are usually con- t = maximum amplitude of alternating thrust, lb established to be 2.95 X lo8; therefore, F d = 23,600 lb acceleration of the slow-speed gear should not exceed
sidered to be lumped with the propeller damping X, = maximum amplitude of propeller vibration, in. and the ratio of the alternating thrust to the mean 3 ft/sec2;but this recommended criterion is accompanied
allowance. thrust is established to be 0.215, an entirely acceptable with the statement: "It is emphasized that each partic-
A procedure for estimating propeller damping is This can be equated to the damping Per cycle value in view of the low power level a t which it occurs. ular case warrants individual attention and that the
described in reference [54]. The prpcedure entails 8.6 Acceptable Limits for Longitudinal Vibration. thrust variation levels must be given equal con-
D = nC,wXa2 in.-lb/cycle (31)
plottiug the propeller thrust coefficient CT as a function Several attempts have been made to enumerate accep sideration."
of the true s l i ~the
: rate of change
- of thrust with respect where tance criteria for longitudinal vibration characteristics. There are so many variables which must be considered
to the fore-;id-aft vibratory velocity can then be The most well-known criteria are those specified in when analyzing the vipration characteristics of a system
Cp = propeller damping constant, lb-eclin.
reference [ a ] . Other acceptance criteria have stated that there appears tg be no satisfactory alternative to
determined from the slope of the CT versus s curve a t the w = resonant frequency of vibration, rad/sec
operating slip point. The propeller damping constant, that reversals of thrust in thrust bearings are not condudting an analysis of each particular system and
C,,-, is accordindv
- - determined to be to obtain the following expression for the amplitude of permitted. One criterion [56] has specified that the studying each system individually.
vibration at the -
1
C, = - P ~ D '
12 . as
5 lb-sec/in. (29) X, = t/wC, (32)
Once the amplitude of vibration a t the propeller has been Section 9
established, the alternating force at other points in the
P = propeller pitch, ft system can be determined by using the mechanical Whirling Vibration
n = propeller speed, rps impedance method.
The procedure of determining the alternating force on 9.1 Introduction. Whirling vibration can best be kinetic energy is a t its maximum. D u r i n vibration ~ the
D = propeller diameter, f t visualized by considering the motion to be-the resultant total energy in the shaft system remains constant;
CT = propeller thrust coefficient, T/n2P2D2 the main thrust bearing may be illustrated by referring
77
to Table 10 and Fig. 20. In addition, the following data of two shaft v i b r a t i o ~each in perpendicular planes therefore, the potential energy a t the point of maximum
Va
s = propeller slip = 1 --
Pn are required : passing through the shaft neutral position. Depending iV&kfifitudeisequ91. to the kineticenergy a t the point of -
upon the manner in which the vibratory mptions com- ~ ~ ~ ~ l i ' T t 6 e maximum
d < kinetic and potential .
V, = propeller advance velocity, fps Mean propeller thrust a t 75 rpm bine in the two perpendicular planes, the iesultant enem*-re--~etermined'~~e- -
..gKliTt;. -dByz cti6iiiii,=-t;Ke . *
110,000
~
skip-rope), elliptical, or in a single plane (if one of the vibration. ese energies so determined may be equated
damping was taken by Rigby [55]. Rigby used full- lb two combining vibrations is of negligible magnitude). and this equation then solved for the critical speed, N, in
scale data to calculate an equivalent propeller damping Propeller damping constant (based on Visualization of whirling vibration is further complicated cpm, as follows:
coris$ant and concluded that for three-bladed propellers reference [55]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,800 by the fact that the whirling frequen~ymay be either at
the equivalent damping constant was about 16.5 lb-sec/in. the frequency of shaft rotation -or a multiple of shaft
lb-sec/in. times the propeller developed area in square Ratio of alternating to mean propeller rotation, and the whirling motion can be either in the
feet; he further concluded that the propeller damping thrust (based on an analysis of the direction of shaft rotation or opposite to the direction I n this formula d W is the weight of a short section of
constant tends to increase with larger numbers of blades propeller wake). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 percent of shaft rotation. Shaft whirling vibration is discussed shafting whose mass may be con$dered concentrated or
and suggested that a damping factor equal to 39 in references.[47, 61-63].
lb-sec/in. per foot of blade edge may give better results With these data the exciting force from the propeller is the weight of any concentrated mass caxried by the
9.2 Determination of Whirling Natural Frequencies. shaft (such as the propeller) and y is the deflection of the
based on tests made with four- and five-bladed propellers. established to be 3,300 lb and from equation (32) the There are basically two approaches which may be taken center of gravity of this mass. The summations
In cases where the thrust bearing is located well aft amplitude of vibration a t the propeller is in evaluating whirling natural frequencies. One method, include all of the masses in the shaft system.
and there is a significant amplitude of vibration a t the which has been used for many years, is to compute the
slow-speed gear, investigations made and reported in [54] X, = 3,300/[2~(75)(6)/60] [58001 The static deflection curve can be calculated as
X, = 0.012 in. natural frequency from the Raleigh approximation. I n described in any standard book on strength of materials.
indicate that machinery damping must also be con- applying this method, an assumption must be made with It should be noted, however, that the loads on the
sidered; feference [54] suggests a procedure which may The procedure outlined in [54] can now be used to regard to the shape of the shaft centerline when the shafting should be reversed in direction in alternate.
be used to include the effects of machinery damping. establish the amplitude of vibration a t the thrust bearing amplitude of vibration is a t its maximum. I t is not spans; ,that is, the weights are assumed to act down in
8.5 Vibratory Thrust Calculations. A meaningful (point d in Fig. 19). Based on reference [54], the necessary that the assumed curve have exactly the same one span and up in the next. This reversal is necessary
indication of the importance of a resonant mode of amplitude of vibration a t point b becomes shape as the actual vibration deflection curve, but it to produce a deflection curve which has the same general
longitudinal vibration can be obtained by assessing and should have the same general characteristics. I n form as the vibration curve corresponding to the lowest
Xb = X, cos (tan-' Zb/klal)/cos (tan-' Za/klal) (33)
comparing the alternating thrust component to the mean problems concerning the vibration of beams it has been natural frequency.
thrust component at the main thrust bearing and the and the amplitude of vibration a t point c becomes found satisfactory to use the deflection curve corre-
vibrat~ry'am~litude, velocity, and acceleration a t the This ortlculation is readily accomplished by means of
X, = Xb cos (tan-' Z,/k2a2)/cos (tan-' Zb/kz€z) (34) sponding to the static loading condition and this computer programs similar to that described in [23].
slow-speed gear. This can readily be qccomplished by
assumption is considered sufficiently accurate in connec- Such calculations were made for the shafting system
assuming that the only source of system damping is the (See Table 10 for a definition of terms.) A numerical tion with propulsion shafting. shown in Fig. 1 and a plot of the mode shape for the
propeller (the restriction need not be quite so severe in evaluation of the foregoing expression indicates a vibra- The total energy of vibration a t any instant consists whirling mode of vibration is shown in Fig. 21. It may
that an "equivalent propeller damping" may be used tory amplitude of f0.008 in. a t point d (the same as c). of two parts, kinetic ener_g;y_.due-Jovthe motion of the be seen from Fig. 21 that the large amplitudes of vibra-
which incorporates other system damping effects) and This is the amplitude at the slow-speed gear from which
that the propeller is also the only source of excitation. shaft-m~?es ~~te1?tk!. tion are confined to the aftermost regions of the shafting
the velocity and acceleration can be calculated knowing by the sb.scft
stresses caused-, system. From an inspection of the Raleigh equation it
With this asspmption, the propeller input work per cycle the frequency of vibration. The alternating force a t "-.s-m-
stktionary,~~t~eJinetic energy is-_. which have relatively large amplitudes have an important
energy stored up ~ n " i ; g i i s a its
t maximum. On the impact on the whirling critical frequency. This fact can
other hand, when the a m p l i t u ~ e ~ o " B ~ enoe bend-
is
, By interpolating the data shown in Table 10, Zd is ing in the shaft, so&g*gti-dle
be exploited to greatly simplify the problem when the
, but the calculations must be done by hand.
MARINE ENGINEERING
PROPELLERS, SHAFTING, AND SHAFTING SYSTEM VIBRATION ANALYSIS . 399
39 Richard Hecker, "Powering Performance of a 52 S. Archer, "Propeller Excited Vibration; Five CHAPTER XI1
Ventilated Propeller," DTMB Report 1487, June 1961. Blades or Four?" International Shipbuilding Progress,
40 K. E. Schoenherr. "Formulation of Pro~eller * March 1962.
Blade Strength," Trans. SNAME, vol. 71, 1963.
4 1 I. K. Mott and R. Fleeting, "Design Aspects of
53 S. Archer, "Torsional Vibration Damping Coefi-
cients for Marine Propellers," Engineering, May 13,1955. 1. Pumos. Forced-Draft Blowers,
M , k e Propulsion Shafting Systems," The Institute of
Marine Engineers, June 1967.
42 "Manual of Instructions for Design and Applica-
tion of Propeller Blade Gages," NavShips 387-0547,
Philadelphia Naval Shipyard, November 1964.
54 J. R. Kane and R. T. McGoldrick, "Longitudinal
Vibrations of Marine Propulsion-Shafting Systems,"
Trans. SNAME, vol. 57, 1949.
55 C. P. Rigby, "Longitudinal Vibration of Marine
Propeller Shafting," Institute of Marine Engineers,
0. W. Soete
I I '
1 CASING
2 IMPELLER
3 STAGE PIECE
. 4
5
6
CASING WEARING RING
SHAFT
SLEEVES
Fig. 4 Horizontal, axially split casing, two-stage boiler feed pump
7 THRUST BEARING
8 LINE BEARING
PPP P P
LEGEND
LEGEND
CASING
CASING
IMPELLER IST STAGE
IMPELbER
IMPELLER 2ND STAGE
CASING WEARING RINGS
IMPELLER WEARING RING
IMPELLER WEARING RINGS
CASING WEARING RING
SHAFT
INTERNAL BEARING
.SHAFT SLEEVE SHAFT
STUFFING BOX PACKING
SHAFTSLEEVE
GLANDS
JOURNAL SLEEVE
THRUST BEARING
BEARING HOUSING
LINE BEARING Fig. 5 Horizontal, axially split casing, fou~stageboiler feed pump
MOTOR BRACKET
BEARING HOUSINGS
PUMP FOOT
PUMP BASE 1
MOTOR BRACKET Vertical, axially split casing, two-stage pump
Fig. 3
COUPLING
LEGEND
SPRING
BELLOW
DRIVING BAND
SEALING RING
FLOATING SEAT
Referring to Fig. 1, the energy increase in foot-pounds M SEATRING
per pound of fluid transferred from point 0 to point 3 is N PUSHCOLLAR
The pump must also supply the total friction loss, hr, in
the piping. Thus, the total work done by the pump in the suction of the pump. When the latter is less than
foot-pounds per pound of fluid is the sum of these quanti- atmospheric pressure, it is generally called the suction
ties, or lift and is ordinarily expressed in feet, or as a vacuum in
H=l44(ps-po)/~$Z8-Zo+hr (2) inches of mercury. It should be noted that, whereas the
aymbol H represents feet of fluid, it also represents foot-
It is desirable to express the total pump head in terms pounds per pound of fluid.
of the energy conditions per pound of fluid at the pump c. Velocity Diagrams and Theoretical Pump Head.
suction and discharge connections, points 1 and 2 of Fig. The principal elements of a radial-flow centrifugal pump,
1. This is done by application of Bernoulli's equation consisting of an impeller with a central inlet and curved
for the conservation of energy, with an appropriate term vanes and an enclosing casing, are indicated in Fig. 1.
for the friction loss. First consider points 0 and 1, and The theoretical fluid velocity diagrams for the impeller
then points 2 and 3, with the following results: inlet and outlet are shown in Fig. 9.
The following additional notation is used:
R = impeller radius, f t
D = impeller diameter, f t
Thus, when Z1 = Z2 and VI = V2, as is the case for B = impeller passage width, f t
equal suction and discharge pipe areas and elevations, o = impeller angular velocity, rad/sec
and further noting that hnl +hn8 = hr, it results that N =
n =
impeller speed, rpm
impeller speed, rps Fig. 9 Velocity diagrams for a radial-low pump
the total head is given by
u = impeller peripheral velocity, fps
H = lab2 - PI)/P (5) , a = angle between peripheral and absolute velocities,
This equation simply expresses the fact that the total deg v = fluid relative velocity, fps
pump head is obtained by the difference between the B = angle between peripheral and relative velocities, ,= fluid kinematic viscosity, sq ft/eec
Fig. 7 Axial-low, or pmpelle~typepump total pressure at the dischaxge and the total pressure at del3 TV = weight rate of flow, lb/sec
PUMPS, KIRCED-DRAFT BLOWERS, COMPRESSORS, AND EJECTORS
406 MARlNE ENGINEERING
Q = volume rate of flow, cu ft/sec the discharge velocity triangle in Fig. 9, uz" +
VZ2 ~2~
LEGEND
TUEDRETICAL HEAD
q = volume rate of flow, gpm - 2~2V2cos a 2 . Similarly, at the entrance velocity tri-
T = theoretical rotor torque, ft-lb +
angle, q2 = V12 ulZ - 2ulVl cos al. Noting that Vu2
3.6
3.4
ACTUAL HEAD
I- CIRCULATING PUMP, RADIAL-FLOW TYPE
(a) NORMAL CHARACTERISTIC,& =2?.s0
H , = theoretical pump head, ft , = Vz cos a 2 and Vul = Vl cos all substitution of Vu2 and
a = acceleration due to gravity, ft/sec2 Vul in the foregoing expressions results in 2ulVu2 = VzZ 3.2
-
every particle of fluid hrts the same velocity entering the 5 2.6 4-CIRCULATING PUMP, AXIAL-FLOW TYPE
AXIAL-FLOW CHARACTERISTIC,~m=240
impeller, and a similar situation exists at the impeller P
2.4
exit. - It is necessary also to assume that the entire flow a
is steady (that is, independent of time), but other than The first term in equation (11) represents the change in K 2.2
this the conditions of flow within the rotor can be of any kinetic energy of the fluid as it passes through the impel- t*
ler. In order that this energy change may contribute to 2.0
sort whatever [I].' a
Following the treatment of references [2] and [3], if in the total head, there must also occur corresponding pres- 1.8
Fig. 9 a fluid particle enters the impeller through area da, sure changes elsewhere than in the impeller. Assuming \
then the moment of momentumof thisfluidparticleismass equal suction and discharge diameters (s and d) so that 2 1.6
per unit time X velocity X lever arm or V8 = Vd, then (Vd2- V12)/2g is the increase of pressure
energy a t the inlet to the impeller. Also (Vz2 - Vd2)/2g
represents the conversion of kinetic to pressure energy in
Integrating over the impeller inlet area all the total the discharge casing, and the Bum of these two energy
moment of momentum of the entering fluid is changes is equal to the first term in the foregoing expres-
sion for H I .
The last two terms represent the pressure changes
- occking across the impeller itself. The term (us2 -
u12)/2g containing the impeller peripheral velocities is the
The foregoing equation applies to incompressible increme of pressure due to centrifugal force, alld the final
as P is taken to be constant. In like manner, the moment term (&z - v1~)/2gis pressure change resulting from
of momentum of the fluid leaving the impeller is the change of relative velocity of the fluid. In an axial-
. - 's" VzVu2R2h
flow pump, this final term is the entire change.of pressure
across the impeller, but is not the entire head except in
FLOW RATIO = FLOWIRATED FLOW
Fig. 10 Theoretical and actual charactariatics of various centrifugal pumps
the case where V2 = Vl.
Since in most practical cases for pumps, Vu2R2> VulR1, e. The Head-Capacity Curve, Effect of Shape of
and the impeller exerts a net torque on the fluid, the Impeller Vanes. In the absence of stationary guide vanes
This equation shows that for a constant rotational 0.25 to 0.75 and this ratio is usually smaller when the
total theoretical torque is at the inlet, a desirable simplification is obtained by speed and with a discharge angle & less than 90 degrees capacity is greater or less than the design value. This
assuming that the absolute fluid velocity at the inlet is (backward-curving vanes), the theoretical head decreases discrepancy cannot be explained by the elementary
radial. Thus, there is no peripheral component regard- as the capacity is increased, following a straight line of theory previously outlined, which necessarily assumes an
less of the shape of the impeller inlet (that is, Vul is zero). downward slope. This is illustrated by curve l(a) in Fig. infinite number of guide vanes of zero thickness. How-
(8) Sincse Vl is perpendicular to ul, it follows that v12 - V12 10. ever, the '(circulation theory" of hydrodynamics shows
- u12 equals zero because the three terms are respec- In this figure the head-capacity characteristics are that for a finite number of vanes there must exist a cir-
In the foregoing, Vu2R2and VulR1are assumed to be con- tively the hypotenuse and adjacent sides of a right tri-
stant over the two surfaces of integration. shown in ratio form, with all heads, both theoretical and culation or eddy flow within the impeller which has the
angle. The expressions previously given for the theoreti- actual, being divided by the actual head at rated capacity effect of reducing the mean peripheral component of the
Since Vldal and V2da2are equal and represent the total cal head become
rate of flow through the impeller, then and plotted against the corresponding capacity divided absolute exit velocity [2]. This has been confirmed by
by rated capacity. experimental work.
If the discharge angle is 90 degrees (radial vanes), tan & Curveq 2 and 3 depict the characteristics of other radial
II in the foregoing equation is infinite, the second term of pump types. The characteristics of the axial-flow type of
The expressioti for work is obtained by multiplying To show the relation of theoretical head to the volume the equation is zero, and the theoretical head is a hori- pump are shown by curve 4. The theoretical head-
the impeller torque by the angular velocity o. After flow, or capacity Q, it is necessary to make another ap- sontal straight line independent of the volume as shown capacity curve of an axial-flow pump rises steeply, while
dividing through by the weight rate of flow, there is ob- plication of the cosine law, whereby by curve l(b). Likewise, if the discharge angle is made the actual head-capacity curve has an irregular shape,
tained the usual equation foi the theoretical head: greater than 90 degrees (forward-curving blades), then being relatively flat near design capacity but rising
tan /32 is negative and the theoretical head increases with sharply at lower capacity and falling rapidly at higher
To 1 9 capacity as shown on curve 1(c) . capacity. The elementary theory for this type of pump
Ht = -- = - (ulVu2- ulVul) (10)
w 9 The im~ellerexit area Az (in the diredtion of vz) is The actual head-capacity characteristic is always less is the same as for the radial type, but as shown in Fig. 11
d. Physical Interpretation of Theoretical Head. The rD2B2 sin '& in square feet (neglecting the vane tip?, and than the theoretical, and the various curves of Fig. 10 there is a different velocity diagram for every radius at
02 equals Q/Az, SO that
reveal the wide discrepancy between the theoretical and the pump suction and discharge. Thus, in setting up an
foregoing ex~ressionfor the theoretical head may be actual heads. In the region of the designed capacity, the
traniforked b y means of the cosine law. ~ e f e r r i i gto equation for the theoretical head, it is necessary to use
ratio of actual to theoretical head may be anywhere from the velocity diagrams at a mean discharge diameter Dm.
Numbers in brackets designate References at end of chapter.
MARINE ENGINEERING PUMPS, FORCED-DRAFT BLOWERS, COMPRESSORS, AND EJECTORS 409
11
equal -to rD. Thus, it is seen that this last group of
1. I CYLINDRICAL SECTION
NEAR RIM. R,
CYLINDRICAL SECTION
NEAR ,HUB, %
the development of various correlations. The applic*
tion of dimensional analysis that follows is a logical
derivation of the various centrifugal pump design con-
terms has the usual Reynolds number (R,) form, except
that it is inverted. This group will therefore be of im-
portance when considering the effects of frictional forces
stants. on the pump performance, but usually it is secondary in
Primary interest is focused on the volume flow Q, in importance to the more general characteristics indicated
cubic feet per second, and the actual net head H, in feet by the first three dimensionless groups.
of fluid, of a centrifugal pump, but it is also recognized Since the basic groups in equation (19) are dimension-
that the most important physical characteristics of a less, they may be combined without a loss of generality.
pump are the speed w, in radians per second, and the im- Thus, multiplying the two middle groups gives gH/
peller discharge diameter Dl in feet. Other physical n2DW and: denoting the head coefficient by #,
characteristics, such as inlet diameter, width of impeller
passages, inlet and discharge pipe diameters, and the cor-
responding area. or surfaces are described by ratios of
these quantities to the basic diameter D or D2,depending
f
0
1.6 characteristics of a centrifugal pump. After some
limited experience one can examine the shape of a cen-
g 1.4 trifugal pump impeller and make a fair estimate of its
D:
5 1.2 specific speed. Then, from curves such as Fig. 14, the
3 1.0 efficiency and other performance characteristics of the
W pump can be estimated. Of course, the brake horsepower
50 0.8 level is also an important index. ,
$ 0.6
22 0.4 One great value of the parameter specific speed is that
it expresses the requirements for similarity of flow con-
2 0.2 ditions in terms of the three essential pump character-
% o
istics-capacity, head, and speed-independently of any
Y physical dimensions ~f the pump.
a. Performance Curves for a Single Pump. By
means of the dimensionless constants derived in the fore-
going, it is ,possible to extrapolate the results of a con-
stant-speed test of a particular centrifugal pump to pre-
dict its performance at other speeds and also, within
reasonable limits, to predict the performance of any
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
FLOW RATIO r FLOW / RATED FLOW
geometrically similar pump of different size.
The extrapolation process for a single pump is illus- FLOW RATIO= FLOW/ RATED FLOW
Fie. 12 Copacitphead and efficiencycharacteristics of a cedtrifugal pump trated in Fig. 12. The solid curve represent, in ratio fig. 13 Characteristic curves for a aeries of geometrically similar pumps
at various speeds
form, the capacity-head and capacity-efficiency charac-
teristics from actual tests at a constant speed N. To pre-
dict the characteristics at a different speed NI, select any curve with the system head curve. It is customary to It sometimes is useful to plot the characteristics for
QIHl
-= - 1 - QH point (Q, H) on the test curve and calculate new values specify the rated pump performance at or near the best both the original and the new pumps to the same scale.
r8nl8Dl6 a8nlaD16 . aanaD5 (Q1, HI) for the new speed such that the dimensionless efficiency point (abbreviated BEP), and it w ill be noted For example, a design might be laid down for a series of
or
constants II. and q, remain the same. Thus for $1 = II., that the pump illustrated in Fig. 12 has a BEP (capacity
ra&o = 1.0) almost on the normal system head curve.
*
geometrically similar p,umps with a 10 percent range
of diameters. Then, since the capacity usually can be
The capacity-head curves of Fig. 12 tend to approach varied from about 0.75 to 1.2 times the rated values with
- -
zero at relatively high rates of flow. It is uncommon to
specify pumps for such a broad range of performance due
not over a 5 percent change in efficiency, this series of
Also, since qel = q,, it follows that pumps could cover a fairly wide useful range of head-
By combining only the last two equations: to the deleterious effect of high velocities beyond the capacity performance without any .change in the,pbxnp
BEP, which may cause erosion of the internal parts, and speed. This is illustrated by the zone outlined with cross
the extreme low head which may cause an upset of the hatching in Fig. 13. Referring to the foregoing equations,
internal axial hydraulic balance. When applying cen- it is seen that construction of the head-capacity curve
and It should also be noted that since the head coefficient II. trifugal pumps to a specific set of performance require- for a geometrically similar pump of different size is ob-
and specific capacity q, have remained unchanged, the ments, an operating flow limit twenty percent beyond tained by varying the head as the square of the diameter
specific speed N,, is also the same. The efficiency would the BEP or rated point is commonly accepted. and the capacity as the cube of the diameter, if the speed-
also be expected to remain the same, except for the influ- b. Performance Curves for a Series of Geometrically is held constant.
ence of losses which vary according to laws other than Similar Pumps. The same line of reasoning as described This same figure also shows how a new useful range
the fundamental forms in the foregoing. Test results, in the foregoing is used to predict the approximate per- zone can be constructed from the original one by increas-
such as those shown in Fig. 12, show the efficiency to be formance of a new pump which is of a different sise but ing the speed and using a different range of diameters.
essentially constant. geometrically similar to one that has been tested. I n I n this way it is possible to constmct a series of slightly
The principal results are again summariaed in the this case the advantage of plotting the capacity-head overlapping zones which would serve as a chart for select-
and finally familiar rule that if the capacity changes in proportion to values.in ratio form is that such a dimensionless lead- ing the required size and speed of pump for any desired
the speed, then the head changes in proportion to the capacity curve then represents approximately the per- combination of capacity and head.
square of the speed, the efficiency remaining relatively formance of a whole series of geometrically similar c. Factors Affecting Pump Efficiency. The d c i e n c y
constant. Also, since the horsepower is equal to capacity pumps, and only the values corresponding to the design of various sises and types of pumps may, be plotted as a
Usually the units of rpm and gpm are used. The sym- times head, it is seen that the bralce horsepower varies point need be calciiated from the similarity relation- function of the specific speed N,, with the results shown
bol N,, is sometimes used for specific speed (to dis- directly as the cube of the speed, provided the efficiency ships. If &, H, N , and D are used as the test values at in Fig. 14. The specific speeds were calculated on the
tinguish it from n,) and the expression becomes: is constant. The foregoing rules must be applied cau- the designed capacity and speed of the original pump, basis of the installation conditions of service and are not
tiously, taking into consideration deviations due to then the corresponding values for any other similar pump necessarily the BEP for the actual pumps. Owing to
changes in Reynolds number, size effect, and cavitation. of diameter Dl and speed NI may be determined as shown such considerations,aa reliability, maintainability, first
Also illustrated in Fig. 12 are curves representing the in the following equations: cost, space requirements, or choice of stock pump sires,
The specific speed as defined in the foregoing is not a normal system head and the throttled discharge head. pumps as selected are generally less efficient than those
purely dimensionless number, but this makes little dif-
ference since it can be made dimensionless simply by
A particular condition of capacity and head is produced
at the point of intersection of the pump performance Q1 = Q
Nl Dl
(z) and & =H (&)' (26) designed for optimum efficiency. Thus values of maxi-
mum efficiency are frequently found in practice that are
MARINE ENGINEERING PUMPS, FORCED-DRAFT BLOWERS, COMPRESSORS, AND EJECTORS 41 3
LEGEND I I I I I I I
A -RADIAL-FLOW CIRCULATING PUMPS
8- AXIAL 8 MIXED-FLOW CIRCULATING PUMPS
-
C FEED PUMPS
D- MAIN 8 AUXILIARY CONDENSATE PUMPS
E CARGO W M P S
EFFECT OF VISCOSITY
-
I MAX. EFF. PUMPING WATER AT ROOM TEMP.
-
2- MAX. EFF. SAME PUMP WlTH OIL AT 6 0 0 SSU
3 MAX. EFF. SAME PUMP WlTH OIL AT 2 0 0 0 SSU
I ,
e 0.2 I I
I I
I
I I I 1 I I
epecific speed for a given capacity is higher because of Vl, (c) the impeller inlet peripheral velhity ul, and (d)
u u
the reduced head. Most importantly, the horsepower re- the inlet shock angle. For complete breakdown at zero
a 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 quired is significantly increased, either overloading an shock angle (i.e., at about the designed capacity) the
ACTUAL FLOW ,---
RATIO= existing driver or requiring a new larger driver. relation is found to be
RATED FLOW
The values corresponding to the peak efficiency for
Fig. IS Hfect of viscosity on single-stage, double-suction pump
characteristics
each curve also have been plotted against specific speed
on Fia. 14, where they follow a curve which is not greatly
Haw= 1.485 -V12 0.085 -
2g
ulS
2s
(27) +
steeper than the effiEiency curves for constant ~ i ~ a c i t - Equation
~ (27) expresses the suction condition limits
RPM fin at low specific speeds. This resemblance supports the strictly as a function of impeller inlet design. For more
SPECIFIC S@EED,N, =
I n'" efficiencies are obtained with greater volume flows. foregoing conclusion that the reduced pump efficiencies general considerations it is found that the requirements
Both of these effects are mainly due to the iduence of the associated with low specific speeds are due primarily to for similarity of impeller inlet conditions can be expressed
frictional losses in the pump. . If the specific speed is greater frictional losses. Further information on viscous- by a dimensionless grouping faentical in form with the
maintained constant, then, as the capacity increases, the liquid performance may be found in references [9] and previously described 'specific speed. This parameter is
head loss due t b surface friction becomes a smaller per- [lo]. known as the suction specific speed S, and is obtained by
CEN MIXFLO PROPELLER
centage of the actual net head while the shock losses, e. Suction Lift and Cavitation. The maximum abso- replacing the total head H in the usual specific speed
Fig. 14 Repmsentahve pump diciencies Venus specitlc speed for actual clearance losses, and rotation losses remain a relatively lute fluid velocity in the suction part of the system usu- formula by the net positive suction head H,. [ll]. Thus,
installations
constant percentage. In the case where the volume flow ally occurs at the impeller inlet, hence this is the zone of in the customary units of rpm and gpm
is maintained constant and the specific speed is varied, minimum absolute pressure. If at any point in this zone
the percentage shock loss remains relatively constant the vapor pressure of the fluid is reached, then a portion
five to ten points higher than those of Fig. 14, for pumps while the percentages for clearance and windage losses of the fluid will evaporate and form vapor pockets in the
of low and medium capacities. decrease as the specific speed is raised. The percentage stream. These cavities disturb the flow stream and then
The zones on Fig. 14 indicate roughly the regions to friction loss decreases rapidly at first, reaches a mini- collapse as they are carried into regions of higher pres- I n a radial-flow pump where the suction and discharge
which the particular pump application is confined by mum, and then &dually becomes greater as the specific sure, thus producing noise, vibration, and rapid erosion zones of the impeller are clearly separated, the suction
experience and practice. The portion of zone A beyond speed is further increased. of the surrounding metal surfaces. This general behavior specific speed by itself is usually suf5cient to define the
6000 specific speed for radial-qow circulating pumps When using the curves of Fig. 14 for multi-stage is known as cavitation and the necessity to avoid it im- cavitation limits independently of the discharge flow
represents a comparatively small number of installations pumps, N,, must be computed for a single stage. When poses definite restrictions on the design and application conditions. However, when the inlet diameter ap-
where the puinps were selected for a capacity consider- considering double-auction pumps, the practice of using of centrifugal pumps. C~ndensatepumps are sometimes proaches the discharge diameter, the discharge flow con-
ably in excess of the maximum efficiency point. Con- one half of total capacity is not consistent and care must designed to operate in the cavitation range as a simple ditions also have an influence on the cavitation condi-
versely, the range of zone B below about 6000 for mixed- be taken to compare vyious pumps on the same basis. means of self regulation in spite of the many disad- tions, so that it becomes necessary to consider both S and
flow and axial-flow pumps represents a few cases where d. Viscous Liquids. The effect of viscosity on the vantages already mentioned. The effect of cavitation on the usual specific speed NEW.When considering double-
these types were selected for a capacity below the maxi- characteristics of a singlestage doublbsuction pump is the pump characteristic curve is shown in Fig. 16. The suction pumps, care myst be taken to use one half of the
mum efficiency point. In general the value of 6000 shown in Fig. 15. The head-capacity and efficiency beginning of cavitation is indicated at point B for ten- total flow rate.
specific speed at maximum efficiency represents the versus capacity curves are plotted as ratios referred to inch submergence and at point D for eightrinch sub- The curve's of Fig. 17-"~epr6sent %he upper limits of
dividing l i e between radial and mixed-flow pumps. the design conditions for pumping water. mergence. Points C and E on the steeply falliig curves specific speed, NEW, for double-auction pumps handling
Similarly, pumps above specific speeds of 7500 are of the Two important effects of increased viscosity are seen. are in the region of complete breakdown. clear water at 85 F at sea level, as published by the Hy-
axial-flow propeller type. First, the head-capacity curve at a constant speed is Conditions for incipient cavitation and also for com- dradic Institute [9]. For other conditions of higher
The c w e s reveal that the efficiency rises to a maxi- lowered so that the speed would have to be increased for plete breakdown are expressed by correlating: (a) the temperature, for liquids other than water, and for single-
mum and then gradually drops as the specific speed is the pump to operate at the rated head and capacity. net positive suction head H , , defined as the total suction suction, mixed-flow, and d - f l o w pumps, reference [9]
further increased. Also, up to a certain limit, higher The efficiency also is greatly reduced, although the head in feet of liquid, absolute, less the vapor pressure of contains additional data. When considering the cavita-
the liquid in feet, (b) the impeller absolute inlet velocity tion pe$ormance of a pump in relation to its application,
MARINE ENGINEERING PUMPS, FORCED-DRAFT BLOWERS, COMPRESSORS, AND EJECTORS 41 5
Fig. 2 are subjected to positive suction pressure and and discharge valves, low suction pressure trip) but may
therefore no special provision is needed to ensure a steady be associated with the diiver (i.e., automatic or remote
trickle of leakage through the packing rings. When the s t a ~arid
t stop or shutdown upon loss of lubricant).
atuffing box could be subject to lift or vacuum conditions, The wide range of uses and characteristics of cen-
such as with the pump in Fig. 3, provision must be mqde trifugal pumps on shipboard are described in the follow-
to inject sealing water under positive pressure at a point ing paragraphs.
~pproximately midway between several rings. Some b. C o n d e n s e r C i r c u l a t i n g P u m p s . Both the main
sealing water \vill therefore enter the pump, and a small and auxiliary condensers re@ire a largc+volume flow of
portion nil1 trickle from the box. The packed stuffing circulating water at relatively low heads; therefore, the
boxes in Fig. 5 require water cooling jackets due to the specific speeds of. pumps for this purpose are high. For
high temperature of the boiler feedwater being pumped the same con9tions of capacity and head, the higher the
(200-350 F), and due to the greater friction heat gener- specific speed, the lower the size and weight of the pump.
ated by the higher speeds. The pump in Fig. 4 contains Thus, circulating-pump designs of the radial-flow type
packless boxes. Condensate is injected into close- were developed in the direction of increased specific
running-clearance serrated bushings at both ends of the speed until the limit due to cavitation was reached-at
pump. A small portion of the injection water enters the about N,, = 6000 at maximum efficimcies for double-
I
pump, but the major part leaks out the ends, collects in suction pumps.
the drain chambers, and passes out the large drain con- At the same time, mixed- and axial-flow main circulatr
nections. The pump depicted in Fig. 8 contains a me- ing pumps are used widely for high-speed'qhips fitted with
chanical seal. Many commerical pump designs can be scoop circulation. In such cases the circulating pumps
SPECIFIC SPEED. Nw = RPY M
m FOR DOUBLE SUCTION PUMPS
Hv4 equipped with either conventional packing, mechanical are used only for very low ship speeds and for maneuver-
seals, or packless boxes. ing. Since they are operated at full capy5ty for only
Ill1If Fig. 17 Upper limita of speciflc speeds for double-suction pumps handling clear water at 85 F at sea level
Couplings connect the pump to its driver. Commonly short periods, the specific speeds are increased beyond
used types are pin and buffer (Figs. 2 and 3), gear (Fig. the usual cavitation limits. These pumps have slightly
bending loads that occur due to internal hydraulic forces, 4), rigid or solid (Fig. 7), and hub and spider (Fig. 8). lower efficiencies due to the higher specific speeds, but
the user must be careful to distinguish between the net
Couplings are flexible to accommodate small misalign- this is unimportant because of their infrequent oper*
positive suction head available (abbreviated NPSHA) external alignment forces, and weight of parts, and to
control critical shaft vibratory conditions. Practically ments between the pump and driver, except for the tion, and is fully justified by the large savings in weight
and the positive suction head required by ,the pump (ab- single-bearing pump of Fig. 7 which requires a solid
all pumps operating at 3500 rpm or less are designed with and space.
breviated. NPSHR). For satisfactory performance, (nonflexible) connection. Couplings for small pump
a first critical speed above the running speed. For speeds Motor-driven axial- and mixed-flow pumps require a
NPSHA must exceed NPSHR by a certain margin which
shafts and drivers usually have a straight pressed or larger motor than indicated by the design conditions,
depends on the particular application. An appreciation above 3500 rpm, such as for boiler feed pumps, the oper-
shrink fit (Fig. 8). Medium size and larger pumps usu- because the steeply rising head'yaracteristic results in a
of the extent of analysis and testing that is required in ating speed may be above the first critical speed but suitr
ally have the coupling hubs mounted on a tapered fit rising horsepower curve as the capacity is decreased. An
pursuing the solution to cavitation problems may be ob- ably below the ~econdcrikical speed. (Figs. 2 through 7) for ease of removal. error on the low side in estimating the system head re-
tained from references [12-141. Bearings are of the antifriction type (ball or roller Marine centrifugal pumps are almost universally quirements would result in overloading the motor, if its
bearings) or of the sleeve type. (hydrodynamic type). fitted with packing sleeves (Figs. 2 through 4, and 8) and ratihg were very close to the pump brake horsepower at
' 1.3 Pump Characteristics Ball bearings, such as depicted in Fig. 2, find frequent journal sleeves in water-lubricated bearings (Fig. 3). A the design capacity and head. Radial-flow circulating
a. D e s i g n F e a t u r e s . The physical components of a application. Pumps running above 3500 rpm usually use small flinger devise is usually fitted on the shaft immedi- pumps are available with a fairly flat, non-overloading
centrifugal pump consist of one or mor&+pellers, casing, journal bearings of the sleeve type and Kingsbury thrust ately outside the stuffing box for throwing off water
bearings, as depicted in Figs. 4 and 5. Figure 3 shows a horsepower characteristic, and these units can be used
shaft, bearings, stuffing boxes, coupling, minor compo- migrating along the shdft (Figs. 3, 4, 5, and 8). Casing safely with a motor which is rated close to the pump
nents associated with the rotating or stationary parts, combination of types, that is, a ball bearing for the I wearing rings are universally installed in all types, horsepower. A typical circulating pump of the vertical
instrumentation, controls, and supporting auxiliaries. thrust and upper journal bearing, and a sleeve bearing at ' i whereas impeller rings are generally furnished only on double-suction type, for smaller vessels, is depicted in
Energy is imparted to the pumped fluid by the impel- the lower or internal journal. In the latter case, the ball medium and larger size pumps up to 3500 rpm (Figs. 2 Fig. 2. Circulating pumps of the vertical mixed and
ler, which may be of any of the types described in Section bearing is grease lubricated and the internal sleeve bear- and 3). High-speed boiler feed pumps (Figs. 4 and 5) axial-flow types for larger vessels are depicted in Figs. 6
1.1. All other components play a supporting role in the ing is water lubricated. The ball bearings shown in Figs. generally do not have impeller rings, due to the relatively and 7.
makeup of a particular pump design. The casing guides 2, 3, and 8 are lubricated by a self-contained system; higher stresses in the impeller, and the difficulty of main- Seawater circulating pumps for submarines are of the
the fluid from the suction pipe to the eye of the impel- that is, fittings are provided for injecting fresh lubricant taining a reliable fastening 'at the joint. radial-, mixed-, or axial-flow types, but differ in con-
ler, collects the fluid exiting from the impeller outlet, and draining used or excess lubricant. Seals are provided Centrifugal pumps are usually fitted for a minimum of
to retain the grease or oil within the housing. Sometimes struction $ that their casings must be designed to with-
guides the fluid to the discharge pipe, and acts as the instrumetation consisting of discharge and suction pres- stand the ambient pressure due to submergence, shaft
major pressure boundary in the manner of a pressure cooling water is circulated in a surrounding cored pas- sure gages and a lubricant supply indicator. Additional seals must be suitable for the ambient pressure, and
vessel. Casing designs, classified as to type of flow, are -sage, as in Fig. 2. The bearings for the pumps in Figs. instrumentation may consist of a speed indicator, vibra- thrust bearings must be sized for possible high axial
described in Section 1.1. In addition, casings may be 4 and 5 are lubricated by a separate pressurized system. tion indicator, pressure gages for seal water, intermedi- thrusts. Circulating p u q ~ ~ r e e c ~ m m ofound n l y to be
classified as to the type of collector, i.e., volute casings The pump in Fig. 7 contains an internal water-lubricated ate-stage pressures, leakoffs, and lubrication systems, constant-speed and motor-dr~venin c;mme~cial vessels,
which have the form of a volute or spiral in the direction journal bearing immediately above the impeller. How- thermometers or thermocouples for indicating tempera- although multi-speed motors are sometimes used. Steam
of flow from the impeller, circular casings which have a ever, it has no thrust bearing, the axial hydraulic t h r u ~ t tures of the pump fluid, lubricant, bearings, and casing, turbine drives are often used on naval vessels due to the
constant cross section concentric with the impeller, or and rotor weight being carried by the thrust bearing in and' flowmeters to indicate pump flow, recirculation flexibility of the variabIe-speed driver and the reliability
diffuser casings which have a multiplicity of vanes to the driver. Water-lubricated bearings are satisfactory flows, or leakofl flows. of steam as a power source. Additional details regarding
guide the fluid exiting from the impeller and convert the only for clean-water service. Control devices are usually associated with the system circulating applications may be found in ~eferende
developed velocity head into pressure. Packed stuffing boxes prevail in marine centrifugal
.Shafts of centrifugal pumps are designed to transmit pumps, although mechanical seals and packless boxes are
(i.e., recirculation control, pressure or temperature con- .
r151.
A
trol of injection water for seals, remote-operated suction c. C o n d e n s a t e and rain P u m p s . Continuing de-
the torque needed fox &king the impeller,.to resist the finding wider usage. The s t a n g boxes for the pump in
41 6 MARINE ENGINEERING PUMPS, FORCED-DRAFT BLOWERS, COMPRESSORS, AND EJECTORS 417
relative to the volume of water it contains, and serious 500 H-o CHARACTERISTIC SYSTEM MAD CURVE is installed in a line connected from the pump discharge
OF PUMP WlTH PEEDWATER
REGULATOR FULLY back to the deaerating feed tank. For continuous recir-
P
damage to the running parts probably will result. For 400 OPEN
this reason most feed pumps are provided with low-suc- culation, no other devices are fitted, except stop valves
300 OESIQN -HEAD for isolating the line. For automatic intermittent recir-
tion pressure trips. For the same reason boiler feed
pumps cannot be operated safely at conditions approach- culation, a control device is required. This may be a
200 diaphragm-operated valve, controlled by an air signal
ing shut-off and are provided with a recirculating line ----- ~ O I L E RPRESSURE
PLUS STATIC from a flow transmitter, which in turn is connected to a
which discharges from 5 to 15 percent of the rated I ELCVATION
capacity back to the deaerating feed tank. The chances
L
C
flow-measuring orifice in thwpump discharge line. An-
+.I00
a
o
other type is a special discharge check valve in which the
W
of complete vapor binding at rates approaching shut-off r 90 I I OESIGN CAMCITY
80 movement of the-internal check operates a pilot valve
are greater than in condensate pumps, not only because 70
0 that opens or $lcises the recirculation line.
of the larger energy losses in the pump, but also because g 60
Most marine boiler feed pumps are driven by steam
a t higher water temperatures a small rise in temperature * 50 CAPACITY
5 (a1 TYPICAL BOILER FEED SYSTEM turbines. Whereas Figs. 4 and 5 depict coupled designs,
results in a greater increase of the vapor pressure. 40
single- and two-stage types that have pump shafts com-
The limiting suction conditions must depend, there- 30
In mon with the turbine shaft are frequently found. Small-
fore, not only upon the specific speed and suction spe- W capacity pumps for waste-heat boilers or small auxiliary
cific speed, but also upon the temperature of the water, 2 20 SYSTEM HEAD CURVE
boilers are usually of the end-suction type, Fig. 8, and
owing to the greater rate of vapor pressure rise. Figure k
V)
SPEED wlm FEEDWER
RESULATQR are motor driven. Some ir~stallationsutilize vertical
19, as presented in reference [9], depicts the recom- B
multi-stage pumps, either motor or turtine driven, and
/:
mended minimum NPSH for pumps handling water at
temperatures of 212 F and above.
k I0 some vessels have the feed pump driven by the main pro-
1
I
pulsion turbines or by the turbogenerator set.
Since, for boiler feed pumps, the specific gravity is CAPACITY, GPM URE
e. Feed Booster Pumps. Feed boosterr-pumps
usually less than 1.0, care must be taken to include this I'--- -- -*---
- - are
Fig. 19 Net positive suction head for single-suction, centrifugal, hot water ELEVATION needed in connection with deaerating heater type feed
factor when converting actual suction pressures in psi to Pump' BRAKE HORSEPOWER
values of NPSH, and when converting suction and dis- IMSIGN CAPACITY systems where
deaerating heater
space
at arestrictions
sufficient static
prevent
elevation
locating
above
the
charge pressures to total head. the boiler feed pump suction to provide the required net
A boiler feed pump is required to supply water a t a governor oontrols the turbine and pump speed to provide
a specified differential pressure across the feedwater CAPACITY positive suction head. In the absence of a large static
pressure sufficient to overcome the sum of the highest submergence a t the suction, the required cavitation
safety. valve setting of the boiler, the pressure due to the regulator. The pump discharge pressure coincides with tb) CONSTANT-SPEED GOVERNOR SYSTEM
the system head curve. limits are satisfied by the booster pump discharge pres-
static elevation of the boiler above the pump, and the ,
sure.
friction head loss in the system of piping, valves, and The diagram in Fig. 20(e) shows the system head curve
for the boiler feed system of a nuclear steam plant. In With this arrangement a relhxivelv low NPSH condi-
fittings. It is usual practice to plot the system head H-Q GHARACTERISTIC tion occurs at thevfeed booster However, these
curve and superimpose on it the head-capacity curve of this case the pump is called upon to operate at its highest OF PUMP-CWSTAMT SPEED WlTH F E E D W E R
speed at the low-flow condition. The operation of the pumps usually are designed for much lower speeds and
the pump as depicted in Fig. 20(a). heads so that the impeller is larger and the suction
A turbinedriven boiler feed pump may employ any of pump is stable, however, since, even though there may be
an inflection in its speed curve, there is no inflection in velocities are lower than in boiler feed pumps. The re-
the following three types of governors: sult is that, for about the same suction specific speed, 8,
its horsepower curve throughout the range of needed
1. Constant-speed governor only. capaoity. PLUS STATIC
2. Constant-pressure governor to maintain a con- When applying boiler feed pumps, the method and
stant discharge pressure at all capacities. amount of recirculation must be coordinated with the
3. Differential-pressure governor to maintain a speci-
fied differential-pressure across the feedwater
regulator.
method of pressure governing. A widely accepted prac-
tice [5] is to hold the temperature rise at low flows to 15
deg F, though rises of 20 or 25 deg I? may be found in use.
I
CAPACITY
I - H -Q CURVES AT
SPEEDS ABOVE 100%
These governors are described further by the simplified A boiler feed pump operating under the control of a dif- le 1 CONSTANT-PRESSURE GOVERNOR SYSTEM H-Q C M M E R I S T I C
diagrams of Fig. 20. In the constant-speed governor ferential-pressure governor system requires a certain OF PUMP-160% s m
system, Fig. 20(b), the feedwater regulator throttles all amount of horsepower at the minimum-flow condition,
the difference between pump discharge pressure and the aa indicated in Fig. 20(d). If for some reason the control H-Q CHARACTERISTLC
required pressure. The throttled pressure differential system is made inoperative and the pump then operates 0
REWLAlOR , W
represents a large waste of power, hence a constant-speed at constant speed, the horsepower to be dissipated is a r
V A R I a I L E PRESSU#
governor is rarely used alone; it is usually provided larger amount, as shown in Fig. 20(b). Thus the reek VARIABLE SPEED
along with a constant-pressure or differential-pressure culation flow must be sized for the \\?orst condition that
governor, in which caqe the speed governor provides a the system may encounter. In addition, consideration 5 STATIC
secondary means of control when the pressure governor must be given to whether the recirculation flow is per-
may be temporarily out of service. In the constant-pres- mitted only a t or near the minimum-flow condition, or
sure governor system, Fig. 20fc), the governor controls whether it is continuous.
the turbine and pump speed to provide a specified con- The various types of recircualtion devices and systema t I I
stant pressure at the pump discharge. The feedwater may be summarized as follows. All systems require a CAPACITY CAPACITY
regulator throttles the variable difference between the pressure breakdown device which may be a singb plate (dl DIFFERENTIAL-PRESSURE GOVERNOR SYSTEM (el NUCLEAR STEAM POWER PLANT
constant pressure and the system head curve. In orXce, a multiple orifice (spool type), or a small-bore
Fig. 20 Boiler feed pump and system characteristic curves
the differential-pressuregovernor system,-Fig. 20(d), the tube (friction tubing). The pressure breakdown device
MARINE ENGINEERING PUMPS, FORCED-DRAFT BLOWERS, COMPRESSORS, AND EJECTORS 42 1
a lower net positive suction head is permitted for the Fig. 21 of Chapter 18). The vapor passes through an usually that of the axially split casing type, either hori-
booster pump. Also, the possibility of complete vapor- interceptor tank, where any liquid carryover is removed zontal or vertical, similar to that depicted in Fig. 2, or
bation is reduced in the booster pump because the ratio and drains back to the main pump suction. The dis- of the end-suction type as depicted in Fig. 8.
of energy loss to pump volume is so much smaller than charge of the vacuum pump is piped to the overboard i. Primary Cooling Service. Pressurized water reac-
for boiler,feed pumps. vent system. Associated instrumentation and con.trols tor systems require a circulating pump that is of the end-
Feed booster pumps are in many respects similar to cause the vacuum pump to start and stop as the amount suction type with the impeller mounted directly on the
condensate pumps. Booster pumps do not operate in the of vapor accumulates in the separator tank. Another motor shaft. The bearings are lubricated by the pump
cavitation break, a s mentioned previously for condensate type, which is used with the deepwell type of pump, in- fluid, and the motor'windkgs are isolated in a separate
pumps, 'as a positive stable performance is required in corporates an automatic priming valve. casing.
order to provide the NPSHR for the boiler feed pump. In addition to steam turbine drives, cargo pumps may j. Jet Propulsion. Pumps are finding increased
be driven by electric or hydraulic motors, by diesel usage as pro dlsion devices, either as the main propulsion
device or asPan auxiliary device such as a bow thruster,
The capacity of the booster pump is essentially controlled
by the boiler feed pump, which in turn is controlled by engines, or by gas turbines. A common arrangement is a
the boiler feedwater regulator. A booster pump must be vertical deepwell-type pump driven by a vertical explo- These pumps are usually of the mixed-flow or axial-flow
provided with a recirculating line, usually piped back to sion-proof votor, or by a horizontal diesel or steam tur- type. The particular design depends on the exact match-
the deaerating feed tank, to protect the booster pump bine driviqg through a rightrangle gear. Such a design, ing of the pump capacity, total head, speed, and type of
when the feed pump is not in operation. A typical two- depicted in Fig. 21, is of the single-suction type and is driver, which may be an electric motor, internal combus-
stage booster pump is similar to the condensate pump multi-stage. It may contain a specially designed firstr tion engine, or gas turbine. Additional discussion of jet
depicted in Fig. 3. A singlestage booster pump would 1 stage impeller to suit the particular suction conditions. propulsion applications of pumps is contained in refer-
For the handling of low-temperature liquefied gases, ences [I91 to [21]. ,
be similar to that of Fig. 3 except that there would be no \
second (upper) stage. Booster pumps frequently use cargo pumps are almost without exception of the sub- k. Materials. Centrifugal pumps for merchant ves-
only ball bearings, due to the severe duty imposed upon merged deepwell type, or of the completely submerged sels usually are made entirely of nonferrous materials
them by tbe higher water temperatures and danger of canned-motor type. The deepwell type is mounted ver- when used for seawater applications. Cashgs and impel-
flashing w h i ~ bmake water-lubricated bearings less suitr tically, with its driving motor located on the deck above. lers are generally of cast and machined bronze. Shafts
able. It is also used for chemical cargoes. The canned-motor and sleeves are generally of nickel-copper alloys, suitably
f. Cargo Pumps. Representative efficiencies of cargo
pumps are shown in Fig. 14. Axially split casing types of
pumps, with double-suction impellers, similar to that de-
I
1
type is mounted vertically with the motor a t the bottom
of the cargo tanks. The motor windings and bearings
are completely submerged in the pump fluid. Both
hardened. Sleeves and wearing rings are of bronze or
nickel-copper alloys, depending on the severity of service
conditions. Occasionally impellers and the internal sur-
picted in Fig. 2, are used in the capacity range of 2000 to i types usually contain a special design of suction impeller faces of casings are coated with one of several commercial
20,000 gpm at total heads of 500 ft. This type of pump compatible with the low values of NPSHA. Additional coatings available. Seawater casings subject to sub-
can be horisontal or vertical, being driven by a geared discussi~nregarding cargo pumps is given in references mergence pressure aboard submarines are cast of high-
steam turbine in the main machinery space, with the LEGEND [lo], [16], [17], and [18]. strength alloy bronze or of a.8opper-nickel alloy.
driving shaft extending through a bulkhead or deck stuff- 1 SUCTION BELL
g. Bilge and Ballast Pumps. The general require- For freshwater services, cast iron is occasionally used
ing box to the pump located in an adjacent pump room; 2 FIR-AGE IMPELLER (AXIAL.FLOWTYPEI ments of bilge pumps are similar to those of condensate for casings, but bronze is the most common casing mate-
or the pump may be of the deepwell type. The geared
3
4
FIRSTSTAGE DISCHARGE BOWL
EWALlZER LINE
pumps in that, due to the liftrequired of bilge pumps, the rial for condensate and other low-pressure applications.
turbine drive permits the use of a highly efficient turbine 6 SPACER PIECE suction pressure is considerably below atmospheric. In Various grades of stainless steel are used for high-pres-
far the large power requirements and permits compatible 8 SECONDSTAGE SUCTION BELL
SECOND STAGE IMPELLER (MIXED-FLOWTYPE)
comparison, the capacity is larger and the discharge pres- sure boiler feed pump casings. Impellers for low-pressure
7
,matching of the most desirable pump and driver speeds. 8 SECONDSTAGE DISCHARGE BOWL sure is less. The impeller passages must be much larger services are of bronze or nickel-copper alloy and are of
It provides variable-speed operation in order to obtain B
10
THIRD,STAGE SUCTION BELL
THIRD STAGE IMPELLER (MIXED-FLOWTYPE)
, in order to pass dirt and bilge debris. stainless steel for boiler feed service. Shafts for low-
high speeds for producing the highest heads or lower 11 THIRDSTAGE DISCHARGE BOWL As no static submergence is available to fill the pump pressure services are of carbon steel or stainless steel and
speeds to suit lower values of NPSHA, thus enabling the 12 VENTLINE with water, an auxiliary priming devide is required. This are of stainless steel for boiler feed service. Sleeves and
13 SUPPORT COLUMN
pump to respond to the wide range of system head 14 WAFT usually ia a positive-displacement air pump either wearing rings are of bronze, nickel-copper alloys, or
characteristics that are encountered under different 15 PACKING BOX directly attached to the main pump shaft or operated stainless steel depending on the severity of the service.
18 DISCHARGE HEAD 81DRIVER SUPPORT
operating conditions. separately. An air float valve is used to isolate the air Materials for cargo oil pumps must be suitable for sea-
The horiaontal-shaft arrangement has the disadvan- Fig. 21 Deepwell-type centrifugal pump pump after priming has been accomplished, thus avoid- water, as they are often used for ballasting service.
tage that misalignment may ensue under different con- ing the chqrning loss of this element during normal oper- Pumps for low-temperature liquefied gases are usually of
ditions of vessel loading. To overcome this, and to re- ation. Some vessels employ an independent central stainless steel, the particular grade depending on the low
duce fore-and-aft space requirements, vertical double- priming pump for all bilge and ballast services. temperature encountered.
suction pumps are used in many vessels. Here the pumps cidently with the centrifugal cargo pump, where it effec- Bilge and ballast pumps are usually of the axially split Wearing rings for the caaing and impeller are always
are driven by a turbine and reduction gear located on a tively removed the vapor collection at the suction of the type, either horizontal or vertical, similar to the pump made of dissimilar grades of bronze or other alloys and
machinery flat extending from the main machinery centrifugal pump. A variety of systems for removing depicted in Fig. 2. are of different hardnesses to provide the best wearing
space, directly over the pump room. Vertical shafting is vapor is found in modern vessels. One such type em- h. General Service. Centrifugal pumps are used for properties at the close running cleyances. The same
used to connect the pumps and drivers. ploys an integral priming or scavenging impeller located many minor and supporting services for capacities up to practice is followed for th%rotatiig Eidd s t a h n a r y parts
Cargo pumps are required to pump a variety of vola- at both ends of the regular impeller. The vapor dis- 5000 gpm and for total heads up to about 350 ft. Typical of pressure breakdown labyrinths and balancing disks
tile liquids and thus require means to ensure continuous charged from the priming impellers is piped to a separa- applications are for fire main, flushing, cargo oil tank and drums.
pumping under possible vapor-binding conditions. Most tor tank, from which any liquid present may drain back cleaning, refrigeration condenser cooling, distilling plant Bolting is usually made of bronze or a nickel-copper
older vessels used reciprocating steam pumps, which were to the pump suction, and from which vapor is piped to feed, condensate, brine overboard, fresh water, and sani- alloy for low-pressure services and of low-alloy steel for
operated during the stripping operation. This type of the overboard vent system. Another type makes use of tary systems. Pump construction for these services is boiler feed pumps.
pump, being positive displacement,was capable of pump- a separate vacuum pump which pumps vapor from a
ing vapor6 as well as liquids. It wm operated coin- separator tank located in the main pump suction line (see
422 MARINE ENGINEERING
Sectien 9
Reciprecating Steam P~mps
2.1 Ckrssificdion and Types. The use of recipmcatr For simplex pumps:
ing pumps in the marine field has diminished such that
they are now primarily used only for specialized purposes. u=- WQ (30)
Reciprocating pumps are of the positivedisplacement (*/4)D2(1 - S)
type; that is, pumps which displace a constant volume
of fluid from the suction to discharge port, for each stroke pumps: '
the discharge to smooth out the flow pulsations to ac- and is then called "slip." The slip a t rated piston speed Fig. 22 Vertical simplex pump Fig. 23 Vertical duplex pump
ceptable values. for new pumps averages from 2 to 5 percent, but this
Basic piston speeds, as recommended by the Hydraulic value increases as the pumps wear in service, so that far
Institute [9], are shorn in Fig. 25. The curve applies to design purposes it is better to allow for about 10 percent
simplex and duplex pumps of conventional design operat- slip. The slip values at different rated pressures are allowance for mechanical friction, are equal and the
based on pumps with packings designed for these pres- The actual specific v o l p e of-the &earn a t the terminal
ing on cald water or on liquids possessing a viscosity of steam cylinder terminal pressure may be determined pressure will depend upon the amount of-wndensation
250 SSU or lees. However, for handling viscous liquids, sures. accordingly. The cubic content of the steam cylinder
2.5 Steam Consumption. The approximate steam
occurring during the stroke, and the steam leakage dur-
and when pumping hot water, lower piston speeds must divided by the specific volume of steam in the cylinder
consumptio~lof a reciprocating pump at any given rate of ing the stroke also must be considered. It is customary
be used; for recommended values, consult reference [Q]. gives the weight of steam contained in the cylinder at this to assume that the steam is in a saturated condition a t
Where U is the piston speed in fpm, Q is the volume fluid flow and total pressure is readily calculated from a inetant, and this weight of steam multiplied by the
consideration of the equilibrium of steam and liquid the terminal pressure and determine a corresponding
rate of flow in cfs, D is the liquid piston diameter in feet, double strokes per minute of the pump gives the approxi- overall condensation and leakage factor from actual
and S is the slip ratio, the piston speeds may be calculated forces on their respective pistons at the ends of the dis- mate steam consumption for each end of a double-acting
charge stroke. At this instant these forces, with due steam consumption tests. On this basis the steam con-
by one of the following formulas: cylinder.
sumption may be obtained as follows. Using the nota-
MARINE ENGINEERING PUMPS, FORCED-DRAFT BLOWERS, COMPRESSORS, AND EJECTORS 425
~ 1 24
~ . ~ 1 rate
0 ~ variation in reciprocating pump
pistons or plungers. In like manner a triplex pump has single-acting power Pumps are shown in Fig. 24. Owing
three, and a pump has more than three pistons to the crank action, the piston speed and pump capacity
or plungers. The reciprocating pistons or plungers may for a simplex pump have a sine wave character-
be single-acting or double-acting. istic. will be noted that the capacity variation is
greatly reduced in duplex pumps and is reduced still more
3.2 Fixed-Stroke Power Pumps in triplex pumps with equal crank phase angles.
General Considerations and Applications. The Limiting piston speeds of Power Pumps are somewhat
pump end of a fixed-stroke power pump is identical in higher than for directacting Pumps shown in Fig. 25. 1 FRAME
2 BEARINGS
function u<th the pump end of a direceacting recipro- The limitation on piston speed is, in general, due to the 3 CRANKSHAFT
eating steam pump. An important differencein principle time required for the neceSSwuY acceleration and retardam 4 CYLINDER
tion of all m0Vi11g elements including the of 5 LINER
is that the power pump is essentially a constant-speed
machine and rill deliver approximately the same capac- fluid in the suction and discharge pipes rather thanfrom 7 VALVE SERVICE
ity at any pressure within the capability of the driver and consideration of stress in the working pa*- The 8 PISTON PACKING
the strength of the pump. pump is limited to someurhat lower piston speeds because
The of motor-driven fixed-stroke power of the necessity of cushioning or smoothly retarding the
pumps is usually limited to systems which require a steam piston, connecting rod, valves, and linkages which
of speed change. These types are suitable for represent a considerable reciprocating mass that is not
start and stop service in conjunction with pneumatic present in the power Pump. Acceleration and retada-
tion of the fluid columns are often limiting f~Ct0mand
Fig. 29 Horizontal duplex power pump
PUMPS, FORCED-DRAFT BLOWERS, COMPRESSORS, AND EJECTORS 43 1
MARINE ENGINEERING
YOKE \ rn , " i
ADJUSTMENT
OMPENSATOR
PASSAGE "A"
/
YOKE RETURN
SPRING
YOKEPISTON
AC~UATING \
PASSAGE "8"
general, for a particular capacity, the efficiency is greater b. Axial-Piston Type. Axial-piston variable-stroke
for larger slower-speed pumps. pumps are used in the same applications as radial types.
The radial-piston type of variablestroke pump is They are subject to similar limitations of use with fluids
shown in Fig. 30. The rotating cylinder block contains which are suitable lubricants and exhibit the same range
several radial cylinders fitted with pistons. As the of relatively high efficiencies. The axial-piston type is
cylinder block rotates, the piston sleeves move in and shown in Fig. 31. A cylinder block contains several
out, and the amount of stroke depends on the eccentricity cylinders; as the swash plate rotates, the pistons are forced
between the housing and the cylinder block. Control of to reciprocate within their respective bores. The angle
the stroke may be automatic, that is, of the constantr of the yoke determines the piston displacement. Con-
pressure type, or the control may be of the start and stop trol of the yoke can be automatic or manual, as for the
type regulated by the rise and fall of pressure in a hy- radial-piston type.
draulic accumulator. Manual stroke control i~ provided Additional discussiod%f pow13 p"ump d - e ~ i 6features
usually in addition to automatic control. is contained in reference [9].
PUMPS, FORCED-DRAFT BLOWERS, COMPRESSORS, AND EJECTORS 433
MARINE ENGINEERING
and the seal is maintained by a stationary crescent on the
Section 4 open side. I n either type the fluid may enter the gear
spaces axially through ports in the cylinder head or
radially through ports in the ring gear. Either the ring
gear or the pinion may be the idler. The internal gear
4.1 Classification and Types. Rotary pumps, like pump has an advantage over the spur gear pump due to
reciprocating pumps, are known as positive-displacement its larger suction port area and longer arc of admission,
pumps, that is, mechanisms \vhich displace a constant together with less change ~f fluid direction entering the
volume of fluid from the suction to the discharge port for pump. This results in less suction turbulence and better
each revolution of the driving shafts. Additionally, vacuum performance at equal gear speeds. However, the
however, in the case of rotary pumps, the principal mo- ( 0 ) RlNG GEAR WITH ONE MORE ( b) RlNG GEAR WITH TWO MORE
internal gear pump cannot be hydraulically balanced,and
tion of the pumping elements is pure rotation and the TOOTH THAN PINION TEETH THAN PINION AND is, therefore; not as adaptable to high-pressure service as
WITH STATIONARY CRESCENT
pump has no valves except in some instances an internal the external gear pump,
relief valve. It should be noted that constant displace- I Fig. 34 Intemal-gear pumps 4.6 Screw Type. A single-screw pump is shown in
ment does not mean constant delivery, since there is Fig. 35(a). The rotor is a single-thread helix of circular
always some slippage of flow through the mechanical Fig, 33 Lobe pump (two-lobe typd cross section rotating and oscillating radially in a double-
Fig. 32 Simple geor pump
clearances. the lobe to the discharge side. This is essentially a gear threaded helical stator of oval cross section. The pitch
pump with only two teeth per gear. Power transfer be- of the stator helix is twice the pitch of the rotor helix.
tween the two shafts must be accomplished by timing At least one complete stator helix is necemary for sealing.
geara and the flow pulsations are, of course, greater than The rotor is hollow and is driven by a connecting rod
P, = pHQ/550 in the spur gear type. with universal joints on each end. The drive shaft is
This type of pump is also built with three and four supported on external bearings. Since _the rotor oscil-
E = pHQ/550 P lobes per rotor and as a combination lobe and spur gear lates, the inertia forces limit the speed of rotation.
E = pq/1714 P type. Renewable wearing pieces are often fitted a t the A twin-screw pump or single-idler screw is shown in
tips of the lobes so that the original clearances may be Fig. 35(b). The rotors are similar in appearance to
ieadily restored after a period of use. square-thread screws, but the helical mating surfaces
4.5 Internal Gear Type. Internal gear pumps are of must be concave. The discontinuous contact between
two general types. In one type, Fig. 34(a), the ring gear the rotors prohibits power transfer between them, so the
has one more tooth than the pinion, and the seal is main- shafts must be geared together by auxiliary timing gears.
tained by close clearance between the tips of the gear Two sets of pumping elements are usually opposed on
teeth on the open side. I n the second type, Fig. 34(b), the same shafts to balance the end thrusts. Since a lens-
the ring gear has a t least two more teeth than the pinion, shaped gap exists between the two concave screw faces
SECTION OF CYLINDER
PU
SECTION OF CYLINDER
SUCTION
(b) TWIN-SCREW OR SINGLE-IDLER TYPE ( C) DOUBLE-IDLER TYPE
LEGEND
1 ROTOR
2 ROTATING LIQUID CHAMBER
3 NARROW PART OF CASING '
4 WIDE PART OF CASING
5 ELLIPTICAL CASING
( 0 ) SLIDING-VANE TYPE (b) SWINGING-VANE TYPE (c) ROLLING -VANE TYPE 6 ROTOR VANES
when meshed, a number of pitch lengths are necessary to balanced and the pump is suitable for high-pressure
provide adequate sealing. service.
A two-idler-screw pump is shown in Fig. 35(c). The Vane pumps usually depend on centrifugal force and
central rotor is a double-threaded helix with convex sur- springs to maintain the vane tips in contact with the
faces, and the idling rotors are double-threaded with con- cylinder. Thus, for any condition of vane mass and
cave surfaces. Power transfer occurs directly between fluid viscosity, there ia a minimum speed below which the
rotors so that auxiliary driving gears are not required. pump will be ineffective. T h i type is at a disadvantage
Shaft bearings are not required since adequate bearing when handling high-viscosity liquids, because the speed
area is provided by the outside s u r f w s of the screws in and vane weight required for sealing produce high inertia
the rotor housing or liner. This type is also built double- loads on the bearings. The performance is not affected charge port also located in the central cone. This cycle
ended to balance the thrust loads and increase the by vane tip wear up to the point where the vanes fail to represents a half rotation, and occurs twice in a full revo-
capacity of the pumps. Transfer pumps are generally seat properly in the rotor recesses, or until the weight is lution, producing a fully balanced condition in the pump.
double-ended, but where high pressures are required, reduced below the amount required for centrifugal seal- The air removal capacity of single-stage pumps of this
such as in boiler fuel service, a single-ended pump is used. ing. type is relatively constant up to a vacuum of about 22
The twin-screw and two-idler-screw pumps are par- 4.8 Rotary Liquid-Piston Type. A rotary liquid-pis- inches of mercury, dropping off somewhat a t higher
ticularly adaptable to operation at high rotative speeds ton pump is shown in Fig. 37. This unit is similar in con- vacuums. Thia pump is used for vacuum priming
since the fluid velocity may be much less than the surface druction to the vane pump of Fig. 36(a) in that it con- service for centrifugal pumps and has been used in lieu of
speed of the rotors and a hydrodynamic film is developed sists of a vane-type rotor revolving in an e1lip;tical casing. air ejectors as main vacuum pumps for the condensate
at high speeds. The operating principle is, however, entirely different. system.
4.7 Vane Type. Vane-type pumps may have'sliding, The "vanes" have a different function, since these vanes, 4.9 Regenerative Type. The regenerative type of
swinging, rolling, oscillating, or stationary vanes. in combination with their side shrouds, really constitute a pump is shown in Fig. 38; it does not come within the
Typical examples are shown in Fig. 36. All vane pumps series of chambers which function very much as do the definition previously given for rotary pumps, since it is
involve reciprocating motion and the maximum speed is cylinders in a reciprocating air compressor. This is pri-
marily an air removal pump, and depends for its oper* not a positive-displacement pump. This pump is
limited by the inertia forces. The pumps shown in these definitely not a centrifugal type; the nearest physical
figures are basically identical except for the form of the tion on a water (or other liquid) seal which is maintained counterpart is the helical-flow steam turbine, so that it
vanes. The essential elements are a concentric-running a t a constant level from an external source of supply. .
might well be described as a peripheral or helical-flow
rotor carrying reciprocating vanes which maintain con- When the rotor is turning a t operating speed, the water, type pump. For many years, however, this type of pump
tact with an eccentric or elliptical cylinder. Although revolving with it, is thrown to the outer periphery of the has been given the inappropriate designation of "turbine"
some pumps have been built with eccentric circular elliptical casing by centrifugal force. Air, or other gas,
pump. It is included here because its range of usefulness
cylinders, it is preferable to make the portions of the is admitted to the rotor chambers by suitable ports, and and performance characteristics are more closely akin to
@
and deceleration. row part of the elliptical casing to the wide part, the tion passages connect with the casing channel surround- , "1 LINERS .
k-
- -
water, following the contour of the casing, leaves a gap ing the impeller vanes at a point near the casing dis- 2' IMP-EUER
The bearings may be subjected to a hydraulic load ap- at the inner portion of the chamber. Into this gap air, 3 CASING &COVER
proximately equal to the diameter of the cylinder times charge port. Liquid is carried once around the casing , 4 O.RING SEALS
entering the chamber through slots in the rotor at the from suction to discharge but, as shown in the radial sec- Fig. 38 Regenerative pump 5 IMPELLER BUSHING
the length of the rotor times the pressure differential. bottom of each chamber, is drawn from an inlet port in
However, pumps similar to Fig. 36(a) are built with four tion, the liquid is recirculated through several impeller 6 IMPELLER NUT
the fixed central cone in the rotor hub. As this particular passages in its course. The liquid is picked up in one
7 IMPELLER NUT WAS1
or more vanes and sometimes with two suction and two &amber passes the wide part of the casing and again passage between impeller vanes and then thrown out 8
9 SHAFT
PACKING SLEEVE
discharge ports disposed alternately at 90 degrees around approaches the narrow portion of the casing at the oppo-
site side, the entrapped air is forced out through a Cia- radially into the casing channel by centrifugal force, and 10 PACKING GLAND
the cylinder. The hydraulic loads are then completely 11 SEAL CAGE
436 MARINE ENGINEERING PUMPS, FORCED-DRAFT BLOWERS, COMPRESSORS, AND EJECTORS 437
later picked up by another impeller passage and the pro- liquid, slurry, or powder. Rotary pumps are used for LEGEND
cess repeated several times between the suction and d i s circulating lubricating oil to the bearings of engines, TYPE .LEGE% 8!Pate Y-lTf
RATIO
TIP SPEED VELOCITY
. FPS RATIO
charge ports. Thus the same liquid particles have energy turbines, .and other machinery; supplying fuel oil to oil A
~ A I C H T
[RMVLI eLAMS IS0 la0 180 0.65
imparted to them by the rotor not merely once as in the burners and diesel engines; pumping water for marine B c u u v e~ L~n a s 108 0.72
centrifugal pump, but several times. For this reason the engine cooling; and for transfer services.
head developed by a regenerative pump will be several Spur gear pumps are used for very small to medium
-- -0-
-_. D DOUBLE BACKWAR0
CURVED BLADES
300
300
0.60
0.50
times that obtained from a centrifugal pump of the same capacities and for high pressures. To reduce the slip and
rotor diameter and speed. shaft length and deflection, they are provided with ball
The pressure in the pump casing channel increases con- or roller bearings. Double- and triple-screw pumps are
tinuously around the periphery from the suction to the used for large capacities because higher rotative speeds
discharge port, and, therefore, the pump capacity be- are permissible. Internal gear pumps are limited to low-
comes less as the total head increases due to increased pressure services.
back flow through the casing channel. The regenerative Vane pumps are used for small to medium capacities,
pump characteristics are intermediate to the centrifugal for vacuum and low-pressure services, and for low- and
and rotary pump, and in the region of maximum effi- medium-viscosity fluids.
ciency are more closely related to those of the rotary-type Rotary liquid-piston pumps are commonly applied as
pump. primers for centrifugal pumps on bilge, ballast, and other
4.10 Applications. The major field of application services requiring a suction lift. They may be incor-
for rotary pumps is for high viscosity, small to moderate porated on the same shaft as the main impeller, or they
volume flows (fraction of a gpm to 5000 gpm), and may be used as separate pumps, either belt driven from
moderate pressures (25 to 500 psig) to high pressures the main pump shaft or as independent units. Rotary
(3000 psig). They are used also outside of this range for liquid pumps have also been used as vacuum pumps in
both small and large volumes and for high pressures condensate systems.
where their self-priming or constant-delivery character- Regenerative pumps are well suited to small capacities
istics are desirable. They cannot compete in efficiency up to 70 gpm at moderately high heads up to 750 feet.
with centrifugal pumps for large-volume, low-pressure, They may be used for distilling plant, freshwater, and
low-viscosity applications. In small sizes, the rotary sanitary services where there is little variation in flow
pump is more efficient than the centrifugal pump, even and wide variation in head. Unlike centrifugal pumps,
for low pressures and viscosities. As compared to the as the flow is reduced the head rises steeply as does the
reciprocating type, the rotary pump is valveless, it can power. Hence the pump driver must be sized for the
RATIO TO CAPACITY AT MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY RATIO TO CAPACITY A1,MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY
be run at higher speeds, and is usually smaller, lighter, maximum head that will be encountered.
and cheaper. The smaller sizes of rotary pumps can be Additional discussion of rotary pump design features Fig. 39 Characteristic curves for centrifugal blowen with straight Fig. 40 Characteristic curves for centrifugal blowers with backward-curved
direct-connected to standard-speed electric motors. and applications are contained in references [9], [15], and I and forward-curved blades blader
A rotary pump can be designed to pump any material [22]. Regenerative pumps are described further in
that will flow into the suction port, including gas, vapor, reference [7]. H, = total head, actual, f t air
H', = total head, theoretical, ft air
P = brake horsepower, hp
Pa = a u horsepower, hp It follows from the Bernoulli equation that the total
Section 5 V = air absolute velocity, fps , head developed by a blower is equal to the sum of the
v = air relative velocity, fps absolute static head and the velocity head at its d i s
Forced-Draft Blowers u = impeller peripheral velocity,fps charge less the sum of the absolute static head and the
p = weight density of water at 70 F (62.4 pcf) velocity head at its suction. When the suction is open
5.1 Classification and Types. Forced-draft blowers Axial-flow blowers are usually of the multi-stage type and at atmospheric pressure, then the total head is as
pa = weight density of air, pcf
are of two types, centrifugal and axial-flow. Forced- (generally two or three stages) consisting of alternate w = impeller angular velocity, rad/sec meastlred at the blower discharge.
draft blowers (sometimes referred to as "fans") are used rows of stationary and rotating blades having an airfoil The velocity diagrams in Fig. 9 for radial-type cen-
to develop a relatively low pressure, as contrasted with shape. The casing and rotor are arranged for single inlet The net energy output of a blower moving a column of trifugalgumps apply equally to centrifugal blowers. The
compressors. The term "blowers" normally refers to and through-flow in the axial direction. The required air is in ft-lb/sec, resulting in the following expres- develo~mentof the ex~ressionsfor the total theoretical
those equipments which are used for a compression of air rotative speeds are relatively high, making them adapt- sion for air horsepower: head fiom the ~ u l e r i kor momentum theory are identi-
from inlet to outlet resulting in an increase of density of able to direct-coupled high-speed prime movers. cal for the two cases. The theoretical head is conven-
up to seven percent. For practical purposes, the air is 5.2 Basic Fundamentals. The following notation is (43) iently expressed in the form
considered to be incompressible under these conditions. used in the ensuing discussion: The total head in feet of air, H,, may be expressed in
Centrifugal blowers consist of a runner or impeller hav- the customary units of inches of water, h,, as follows,
ing blades, whose sides generally are parallel to the shaft Q = volume rate of flow, cfs
axis; the impeller is enclosed in a casing. The blades q = volume rate of flow, cfm
,may be radial, backward curved, forward curved, or N = blower speed, rps
double curved. Centrifugal blowers are further classified
as single-inlet (where the air enters the impeller from one
re
h,
= blower speed, rpm
= static head, actual, in. water Substitution of this result in the previous equation h'' = 12 (=)
0.075 UZV,~
-= -
g
uzVUz
2230
(47)
end of the casing) and double-inlet (where the air enters h, = total head, actual, in. water leads to the following popular expression for air horse
at both ends of the casing). h', = total head, theoretical, in. water power: where Vuzis the tangential component of the absolute
11111' 1 438 MARINE ENGINEERING PUMPS, FORCED-DRAFT BLOWERS, COMPRESSORS, AND EJECTORS
Fig. 4 1 Characteristic curves for an axial-flow blower 5.3 Laws of Similitude. The similarity equations
and design coefficients for blowers can be derived in ex-
actly the same manner as was done for centrifugal pumps
discharge velocity Ve, and the weight density of standard in Section 1. The general sinlilarity laws which state
air is taken as 0.075 pcf. that the capacity varies directly with the speed and the
Centrifugal blowers are more responsive to changes in head varies as the square of the speed follow from the
vane outlet angles than are centrifugal pumps. Figures fundamental analysis and are equally applicable to cen-
39,40, and 41 depict the shape of the characteristic pres- trifugal blowers.
sure-capacity and horsepower-capacity curves as af- The efficiency of a blower is the ratio of the air horse-
fected by vane design. Static pressure, efficiency, and power (output) to the brake horsepower (input). Using
horsepower characteristics for radial, partially backward- the air horsepower as expressed in equation (43), for a
curved, and forward-curved vanes are shown in Fig. 39. brake horsepower, P, the blower efficiency is expressed as
The same characteristics for backward and double-
curved vanes are shown in Fig. 40, and for an axial-flow
blower in Fig. 41. The vane system of an axial-flow
pump depicted in Fig. 11is equally applicable to an axial-
flow blower. It is customary to assume that the flow
proceeds through the vanes in cylindrical layers of radius 5.4 Performance. The volume flow requirements of
R and thickness AR. Then, for each cylindrical layer, forced-draft blowers depend primarily on the air neces-
the Euler equation is sary for efficient combustion plus a margin for leakage 1 Caring inlet '5 Bearing
losses and special service conditions. Allowances must 2 Impdlen 6 Bearing housing
be made for deviations in air inlet temperature, pressure, 3 Guide vanes 7 Support bracket
4 Labyrinth seals 8 Shaft
and relative humidity and the composition and heating
The resulting head quantities at various radial sections value of the fuel. Air leakage losses may occur in duct- Fig. 4 3 Axial-flow blower
are then combined into a weighted average head for the work, boiler casings, s-nd air heaters, and at soot blower f':s= - - -
requirements for moderate speeds up to 1750 rpm and put in operation for the boiler overload condition. In two-cylinder machine is commonly termed "V" type, a divided equally between the various stages. For two
higher pressures up to 25 inches of water. Figure 40 general, any type of blower All parallel satisfactorily three-cylinder machine is termed "W" type, and a four- stages this requires pt := (plpz)'" where pi is the inter-
depicts the characteristics of blowers having backward- provided the system head curve for parallel operation cylinder machine is termed "X" type. mediate compression pressure. Perfect intercooling re-
curved blades. does not intersect the blower characteristic a t a point Compressors for low and medium pressures may be of quires a reduction of the interstage compression tem-
For naval installations, the importance of weight and considerably to the left of the blower's best efficiency the reciprocating, rotary, or centrifugal type. R ~ t a r y perature to the inlet air temperature, 80 that the net
space results in higher blower speeds, and pressures in point. Paralleling of a-c motor-driven blowers is readily compressors are further classified as screw, lobe, fixed compressive effectfor any stage and its aftercooler is iso-
excess of 45 inches of water. The axial-flow blower with accomplished as they are constant-speed machines. For vane, or sliding vane. Centrifugal compressors resemble thermal. This means that the pv product after each
a direct turbine drive fits these requirements. This type turbine-driven blowers, the nozzle control valves of a centrifugal pump in construction, and are typified by intercooler equals the initid pv value.
is operated in the range of 5000 to 10,000 rpm and gives a paralleled units must have matched characteristics. an impeller with a relatively large number of vanes dis- Application of these considerations leads to the follow-
performance typically as depicted in Fig. 41: This permits a single control handwheel to be mechani- charging to a vaneless or multi-vaned diffuser. They ing expression for minimum work of adiabatic compres-
5.5 Speed and Volume Control. With direct-current cally connected to the nozzle control valves of both units, may be single or multi-staged. sion in a mullti-stage compressor with perfect intercool-
motors, 30 to 50 percent speed adjustment below rated resulting in both units running at nearly the same speed. Compressors are further classified as to being air cooled ing :
speed is generally provided by rheostat control. A Another method is that of using a single steam throttle or water cooled.
further adjustment of capacity may be obtained by the valve for regulating the steam flow to the two units. 6.2 Basic Fundamentals. The following notation is 144
HP, = --
use of outlet dampers. Control of volume can also be accomplished by using used in the ensuing discussion:
When alternating-current motors are used, they are inlet vanes that can be moved in such a manner aa to
sometimes of the multi-speed type. Speed combinations vary the rotational velocity of the air entering the im- HP, .= theoretical horsepower for compression, hp where n represents the number of compression stages.
of 1800/1200/900/600 rpm are common. The rated peller, thus affecting the impeller's characteristics. pl = initial pressure, psia Other important advantages of intercooling are (1) a
5.6 Design Features. A centrifugal forced-draft p~ = discharge pressure, psia reduction in the temperature in the succeeding stages,
speed, in this case, would be 1200 rpm, that is, 2/3 of r = compression ratio = p2/p1
maximum speed. Thus a maximum speed 50 percent blower is depicted in Fig. 42. Blowers of this type are which greatly simplifies the lubrication of the pistons;
always mounted with their shaft axis horizontal. The VI = actual volume flow at initial pressure, cfm (2) a certain amount of the original water vapor content
greater than rated would be available; this is an advan- k = exponent for adiabatic compressioii (1.4 for
tage in vessels where a significant boiler overload is a re- shaft bearings may be of the journal type with ring or is condensed and can be drained off; (3) volumetric effi-
forced-feed lubrication, or the bearings may be of the air) ciency is higher, due to reduction of the clearance expan-
quirement.
ball or roller type. L sion loss; and (4) maximum piston loads are reduced.
Inlet vane control is generally used with blowers driven The work of adiabatic compression may be exprkssed
by either single-speed or multi-speed a-c motors. Vanes The figure depicts a double-inlet blower without inlet as 6.3 Performance. The volumetric efficiency of a
ducting; that is, the blower takes suction directly from compressor is the ratio of the actual intake air volume
a t the blower inlet are positioned in such a manner as to
vary the rotational velocity of the air entering the im-
peller, thus modifying the flow characteristics of the im-
the machinery space. Partially backward-curved blades
are used. The shaft is connected to the driver by a suit-
,-
HP -
-
144
( ) [
k
33,000 k -
I
k-l
-1 (50) flow to the compressor displacement. Volumetric losses
are due principally to re-expansion of the air in the clear-
peller to suit the air requirements of the system. When able flexible coupling. Such a unit is mounted where For air initially a t atmospheric pressure, this equation ance volume, heating of the air during admission to the
the blower flow is controlled by means of inlet vanes, as ,it can be accessible for operation and servicing in addi- reduces to cylinder, and leakage past valves and pistons. The first
tion to being near the boiler. With the low speeds and I item can be determined from the compressor indicator
opposed to the alternative of throttling the discharged
moderate pressures found on merchant vessels, noise is HP, = 0.225 Vl(r".286- 1) (51) card as shown on Fig. 44, but the overall volumetric
air with an outlet damper, the horsepower requirements
are reduced. seldom a problem, thus permitting the exposed blower and is, of course, applicable to any type of compressor, efficiency can be determined only by actual measurement
In lieu of using multi-speed motors and inlet vane con- inlets. either single- or multi-stage, in which the compression is of the air received by the compressor. For multi-stage
trol to achieve capacity variation with a-c motor-driven High-speed axial-flow blowers may be horizontal or substantially adiabatic with no appreciable external cool- compressors, the piston displacement of the first stage
blowers, a variable-speed fluid drive has also been intro- vertical; a horizontal one is depicted in Fig. 43. Lubrica- ing during or between compression stages. For very low only is commonly stated as that of the entire machine.
duced which can provide a flexibility comparable to tur- tion of the shaft bearings is by pressurized oil furnished pressure ratios approaching unity this equation can be Figure 44(a) depicts an idealized indicator card for a
bine drives. by a lube system common to the turbine driver and simplified to the following approximation single-stage compressor. At point 1, the piston is at the
For the blowers in naval vessels, a turbine drive is used blower. This type is often enclosed in a separate blower top end of its stroke and a certain amount of gas a t dis-
to provide the necessary flexibility of speed control to room due to its high noise level. charge is trapped in the clearance volume. At the top
meet efficiently and rapidly the wide range of boiler oper- A detailed discussion of design considerations for boiler end of the piston stroke, the clearance volume is that
ating conditions and maneuvering demands of the vessel. forced-draft systems is given in reference [24]. A special which exists between the piston and head and includes
instance where combustion air is provided under super- which, with proper regard for units, will be found to be the small amount around the piston down to the first
Frequently two blowers are installed with a single identical to equation (43), which is the expression for the,
boiler; one is used for air up to rated power and two are charged conditions is described in reference [25]. ring and under the valves.
air horsepower of blowers. As the piston starts its return stroke, the clearance gas
In a reciprocating compressor the actual compression expands until, at point 2, the inlet valve opens and a
curve follows a polytropic curve with the same type of charge of air starts to enter the cylinder. The cylinder
formula, but with an exponent m = 1.3 to 1.35 for air in
continues to fill until the piston reaches point 3. Just
place of the adiabatic exponent k.
Section 6 The horsepower for isothermal compression is
after leaving point 3, the inlet valve closes, permitting
the compression to take place. The piston then returns
Compressors HP c - -
144
33,000 PIVI log. r
to point 4, compressing-the gas along curve 3 4 . At
(53) point 4, the pressure in tiie cylinder exceekthat in the
6.1 Classification and Types. Compressors may be vertical plane. Compressors for marine services are discharge line and the discharge valve opens, permitting
of either the reciprocating, rotary, or centrifugal type. usually vertical. When the reciprocating action is in the For very low pressure ratios this equation also approaches the piston to discharge the compressed gas into the sys-
Compressors for medium and high pressure are of the same vertical plane as the horizontal crankshaft, it is the air horsepower expression given for blowers. tem along line 4-1.
reciprocating type, and are almost always multi-staged. termed "in-lime construction.'' When the vertical plane Intercooling between stages in a multi-stage compres- Figure 44(b) represents an idealized indicator card for
They are usually single-acting and are further classified of the reciprocating action is at 90 degrees to the hori- sor materially reduces the work of compression by reduc- a two-stage compressor. The compression begins a t
as h~rizontalor vertical depending on whether the orien- zontal crankshaft, the cylinders are disposed about the ing the volume flow to the succeeding stage or stages. point 3 and would ordinarily continue to point 4 in a
tation of the reciprocating action is in a horizontal or shaft in such a manner as to resemble letters. Thus a For minimum work of compression the work should be single-stage machine. In a two-stage compressor, how-
442 MARINE ENGINEERING PUMPS, FORCED-DRAFT BLOWERS, COMPRESSORS, AND EJECTORS
-
(a) SINGLE STAGE COMPRESSOR
- \6
1
2
3
COMPRESSOR
INCREASER GEAR
DRIVER
4 INTERCOOLER
5 CONTROLCABINET .,
6 AUXILIARY LUBE PUMP
1 INTERCOOLER '
2 FAN &BELT relative humidity of the compressed air is much lower pressure has dropped a certain amount. In order to
3 PISTON &PIN
4 CRANKSHAFT when discharged. However, after the air is discharged, start the motor without load, a special unloading device
5 MAIN BEARING it is cooled eventually to a condition approaching its is necessary which forces open the suction valves for both
6 DRIVESHAFT original temperature. At a constant temperature the stages and releases air in the discharge line up to the dis-
7 OIL PUMP
relative humidity varies almost directly with the pressure charge check valve. A del@ feature is incorporated in
Fig. 45 Two-stage reciprocofhg compressor so that condensation eventually will occur. I n the case this unhader which permits the motor to reach full speed
of air discharged to hydraulic-pneumatic accumulator before the compressor is loaded.
systems, using oil as a working fluid, it is important to Compressors of this type are used for many shipboard
remove as much condensed moisture as possible to avoid air services such as diesel engine starting, ship's service
contamination of the hydraulic oil and corrosion of parts. air, combustion and other control air, tube cleaning, air
VOLUME Compression efficiency is the ratio of the adiabatic Moisture causes excessive wear of valves, cylinders, and tools, and sand blasting. They range from 50 to 250 psig
(b) TWO-STAGE COMPRESSOR work of compression to the indicated horsepower from rings. For this reason moisture separators often are in- and from 15 to 600 cfm. Air or water may be used for
Fig. 44 Theoretical indicator cards for reciprocating compreuon compressor indicator cards. Compression efficiency ac- stalled at air inlet connectiops. cylinder cooling and intercooling. They may be belt
counts for all thermodynamic and fluid friction losses. Dust entering compressors from the inlet air causes driven, direct c o ~ e c t e dthrough a coupling, or close-
For multi-stage compressors the minimum work of rapid wear of working parts so that inlet air filters usu- coupled, and are usually limited to 1150 rpm.
diahatic
---- - com~re88ionwith perfect intercooling is some- ally are fitted. These are often of a silencer type which Multi-stage compressors are also found with their
ever, the compression in the first stage continues to point times used inAplaceof the adiabatic compression work also helps to reduce air compressor noise. cylinders in a horizontal plane, disposed radially about a
3a, at which point the gas is withdrawn from the cylinder without intercooling. The actual basis used should 6.4 Reciprocating Compressors. A cross section of a vertical shaft. For charging high-pressure flasks, O2N2
always be stated in any particular case. The compres- two-stage, single-acting, motor-driven reciprocating air plants, and submarine services, this type ranges from 500
and cooled, reducing its volume to that represented by
point 3b. Compression then continues in the second sion efficiency ranges from 85 to 93 percent. compressor for general ship's service is shown in Fig. 45. to 5000 psig, from 5 to 100 cfm, and usually has 4 or 5
stage along curve 3b4a. In the case of motor-driven compressors, the overall It is driven by a motor through multiple V-belts. The stages. 'Specific types for refrigeration, LPG, and other
The work of compression is considerably reduced by a efficiency of the compressor is defined as the ratio of the intercooler is of the air-cooled radiator type with the fan cryogenic services require the incorporation of special
lower inlet air temperature. On vessels where the instal- work of isothermal compression to the brake horsepower belt driven from the main shaft. The crankshaft is s u p design features in the seals, bearings, and lube systems to
--
ldinn - - an
-- - - nf ..- inlet air duct is economically unjustified, the
of the motor. The overall efficiency ranges from 75 to 85 ported by tapered roller bearings. Sleeve bearings are ensure no entrance of lubricant into the gas so as to main-
compressor should be located in a space where the tern- percent. used for connecting rod ends. All bearings are pressure tain the integrity of thet>w side, .-
perature normally does not run significantly above the It should be noted that the compression work equa- lubricated through holes drilled in the crankshaft; rods 6.5 Rotary Compressors. A two-lobe-type of posi-
outside air temperature, such as an auxiliary machinery tions and corresponding efficiencies are based on actual are pressure lubricated from a gear-type oil pump on one tive-displacement rotary air compressor resembles the
space or pump room. intake air and are, therefore, not influenced by the clear- end of the crankshaft. Cylinders and pistons are splash pump shown in Fig. 33. The speed of this type of com-
The mechanical efficiency of a compressor is defined as ance volume. The clearance volume affects only the re- lubricated. pressor makes it well suited for attachment to high-
the ratio of the air indicated horsepower from the com- quired cylinder sizes for a given duty and does not influ- Automatic stopping and starting of this type of com- speed diesel engines to supply scavenging air. The princi-
pressor indicator cards to the brake horsepower input. ence the horsepower required. pressor is controlled by an air-operated switch which ple of operation is identical with the lobe-type rotary
The mechartical efficiency accounts for all mechanical Air, of course, enters the compressor at the prevailing stops the motor when the accumulator pressure has pump described in Section 4.
friction losses and ranges from 88 to 93 percent. relative humidity. Owing to the rise of temperature, the reached the rated value and restarts the motor when the Other rotary pump types which are used successfully
444 MARINE ENGINEERING PUMPS, FORCED-DRAFT BLOWERS, COMPRESSORS, AND EJECTORS
445
as air compressors include the sliding-vane type and the may be direct connected to a turbine. Speeds in the LIVE STEAM INLET
liquid-sealed elliptical-casing fixed-vane type, similar to range of 5000 to 40,000 rpm are common. They are used 1
the vacuum priming pump described in Section 4. for diesel engine scavenging services and refrigeration and
Rotary types generally are suitable for pressures up to air conditioning services, as well as general ship air
100 psig, but are predominantly used for lower pressures. service. A high-speed turbine drive is ideal for special
Intermediate pressures up to 100 psig are usually fur- services requiring variable speed. Centrifugal compres- EXPANDING *
nished by reducing valves fitted in the 100psig (or higher sors may be either single-stage or multi-stage, and they SUCTION,
pressure) system being served by a multi-stage recipro- range up to 125 psig and 2500 cfm. A special advantage INLET
cating compressor. is their ability to deliver oil-free, clean air. They are
6.6 Centrifugal Compressors. A motor-driven multi- essentially free of vibration, and noise can be attenuated
stage centrifugal compressor of the tjrpe used for general to acceptable levels.
service air supply is shown in Fig. 46. A noise-atten- The theory for centrifugal compressors is similar to,
uating enclosure is usually provided, although such an and is as fully developed as, the theory for centrifugal
enclo~ure is not shown in Fig. 46. Details of con- pumps described in Section 1. However, the compress-
struetion, including the shape of impeller vanes, are quite ibility of the gas is an additional factor which must be CONVERGING
similar to those of centrifugal pumps. considered. A complete discussion of centrifugal com-
The inherently high speeds of centrifugal compressors pressor theory is given in references [3] and [6]. Special
require them to be driven through a speed-increasing compressor applications are described in references (171,
gear connected to the driving motor or engine, or they [18], and [25].
passed through a nozzle where it is expanded to a pres maximum allowable ratio of compression per ejector ating pressures from 80 to 300 psig constitute a prefer-
sure corresponding to the desired vacuum. The steam stage that will ensure stability, after giving due consider- able range, with the upper limit being 150 psig for small-
exits from the nozzle at a high velocity, and air and other ation to the governing factors. For conditions usually capacity ejectors. where
noncondensable gases surrounding the issuing jet are encountered with marine installations, it is customary to Superheat is of no economic benefit; however, a nomi-
entrained in the high-velocity jet and carried into a dif- employ single-stage ejectors for vacuum requirements up nal degree of superheat is desirable since it provides W = pounds of water vapor per pound of air leakage
fuser. The passage of the mixture through thii divergent to 26+ in. of mercury, thereby establishing a maximum added insurance for a supply of dry steam to the ejector pw = steam saturation pressure, inches of mercury
tube effects conversion of the kinetic energy into pressure compression ratio of 8.57 to 1, and two-stage ejectors nozzles. Wet steam seriously interferes with the opera- absolute, corresponding to the assumed tem-
energy, thereby elevating the pressure a predetermined where the requirements exceed thii figure. Threestage tion to an ejector, with the smaller sizes being affected perature of the air-vapor mixture
amount above the suction inlet pressure. The ejector, in ejectors can be designed having a better operating effi- more than the larger sizes. Wet steam also causes rapid pa = absolute pressure, inches of mercury, at the air-
schematic form, is illustrated in Fig. 47. ciency than two-stage ejectors for installations operating erosion of the ejector nozzles and should be avoided by vapor outlet of the condenser
Ejectors are classified as single or multi-stage depend- a t 29 in. vacuum or more, but they are seldom used in the use of suitable steam-line separators or other drainage 0.62 = 18/29 = ratio of molecular weights of water
ing on whether the compression is accomplished in one marine service by reason of their more. complicated devices located close to the ejector steam inlet connection. vapor and air
unit or several units in series. They are classified as structure, higher initial cost, greater weight and space The air leakage into a system under vacuum is subject
requirements, and certain operating deficiencies, all of
It is customary to provide sufficient ejector capacity
single or multiple element depending on whether one or to considerable variation and does not lend itself to a to permit a condenser vacuum of 29 in. to be developed
more units are installed in parallel. They are further which combine to offset the initial advantage of better precise assessment. Air leakage design values selected when thq cooling water temperature and loading condi-
classified as to being condensing or noncondensing, that economy. must be influenced by experience. The air removed from tions permit, even though a lower degree of vacuum is
is, with regard to whether or not the discharged steam is An ejector must be designed for a predetermined mini- a steam condenser is saturated with water vapor. It is,
mum motive steam pressure. If the steam pressure a t specified for the base design condition. For this reason
condensed. therefore, necessary to determine the amount of water the estimated ejector capacity is usually specified at an
7.2 Performance. The amount of pressure elevation, the inlet to the ejector nozzles is less than the design vapor contained in the air-vapor mixture to be removed absolute pressure of 1 in. of mercury when intended for
commo,nly referred to as compression ratio, that can be pressure, the ejector will not operate satisfactorily and from the condenser by the ejector. The water vapor turbines. Figure 48 i&&-rates fypical performance
accomplished satisfactorily in a single stage of compree will not maintain a vacuum. An ejector will work satis component is dependent on the absolute pressure and curves for a two-stage ejector having intesYand after-
sion is governed by the initial steam pressure available factorily with a reasonably higher steam pressure than temperature existing at the exit from the air-cooling sec- condensers for various suction inlet temperatures and
for operating the ejector, the vacuum to be maintained, that for which it was designed, with a resulting increase tion of the condenser or external air cooler. pressures when handling a saturated air-vapor mixture.
the importance of efficiency measured in terms of steam in ejector steam consumption proportionate to the in- To provide ample air ejector capacity, the temperature Figure 49 illustrates a similar set of c w e s applicable to
consumption, and the requirements for stability. Ejec- crease in absolute steam pressure above the design value. of the air-vapor mixture at the air-vapor outlet of a well- a single-stage ejector.
tor stability under all normal operating conditions is a It is normal to operate ejectors up to 10 psig above rating designed surface condenser equipped with either an in- The steam consumption of air ejectors for a specified
matter of prime importance. Unstable operation results to allow for steam line pressure fluctuations. Partial ternal or external air cooler is considered to be 73 deg F condition is dependent on design refinements and other
when the steam jet momentarily and at irregular inter- clogging of the nozzle has the same effect as reduced less than the saturated steam temperature corresponding highly important operating features; namely, the ability
446 MARINE ENGINEERING PUMPS, FORCED-DRAFT BLOWERS, COMPRESSORS, AND EJECTORS
0 I 2 3 4 5
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE AT SUCTION - INCHES MERCURY
Fig. 49 Capacity of single-stage ejector forvarious air suction pressures and
temperatures
CHAPTER Xlll
condensing surface-all of which reduce the temperature supporting shell structures, and various combinations of
difference between the condensing steam and the cooling -
these.
water. The net effect is a reduction in back pressure on While the pressure differentid between atmospheric
the turbine and improved cycle efficiency. pressure and the condenser operating pressure is rel*
Available space on board ship, the increased volume of tively small, approaching 14.7 psi as a limit, the condi-
steam at low pressures, the high moistlure content of low- tions under which this pressure must be supported require
pressure exhaust steam, and mechanical limitations as- relatively heavy or well-brayed structures. A loading of
sociated with turbine design generally determine practi- 14.7 psi is small when compared with the operating
cal condensing pressures in relation to cooling water pressure of boilers or high-pressure heaters, but it is
temperatures. However, improvement in heat transfer substantial with respect to vessels, such as condensers,
rates achieved through the design of the condenser, selec- subjected to Ahexternal pressure. There are several re*
tion of tube materials, and tube geometry are practical sons for this. First, condensers are relatively large struc-
means for reducing the size, weight, and cost of steam tures, especially the main condensers. Second, struc-
condensers for a given set of design conditions. There- tural failure from external loading is usually in buckling
fore, designing for the highest heat transfer rate possible with cylindrical shapes, and in bending with flat or near-
TUBE LENGTH, %
is of primary importance to both the designer and user. flat surfaces. This is in contrast with failures, generally
Because of its effect on the economy of the steam plant, in tension, for the cylindrical or spherical shapes used for
Fig. 6 Condensing and circulating water temperature dirtributions optimization in condenser design and application is con- boilers and pressure vessels subjected to internal pres-
typical surface-type steam condenser
siderably more important with main condensers than sure. As an example, a 72-in-dia cylindrical vessel
with auxiliary condensers. designed for an external pressure of 14.7 psi would be
1.3 Feedwater Recovery. One of the important suitable for an internal pressure of approximately 130
shin throu~houtthe condenser steam space. The T; functions of the surface condenser is the recovery of feed-
r psi.
Fig. 4 Typical auxiliary condenser [2] tion, whii; small, reflects internal pressure losses and water. In the process of condensing the exhaust steam Even though t'here are many variations in condenser
must be considered in the design of the condenser. from the main or auxiliary turbines, steam condensate shell geometry, only two basic configurations are gen-
T---- smaller the tem~eraturedifference between the
h e -- is recovered to be used'as feedwater. In a properly erally used. For small main condensers and for auxiliary
cooling water. As the cooling water absorbs this heat, heat source and the heit receiver, the lower will be the designed and maintained feedwater system the conden- condensers, condenser shells of circular cross section are
its temperature increases during its passage through the condensing temperature for a given flow of cooling water sate has the following three important characteristics: most frequent. This type of condenser shell is usually
heat transfer tubes. A typical temperature distribution and the lower will be.the amount of heat energy rejected designed with sufficient thickness to be self-supporting
from the cycle. If the condensing temperature could be 1 Condensate is of high purity, containing only
of the condensing steam and the heat-absorbing cooling extremely small quantities of dissolved solids. under pressure without the use of internal or external
water is shown in Fig. 6. reduced to that point at which it approaches the cooling bracing. The supports are, &tached so that external
water inlet temperature, a maximum availability of heat 2 Condensate is neutral or slightly alkaline in
For convenience, the steam condensing temperature is character, in terms of hydrogen ion concentration, with mechanical loads are properly distributed through the
shown as constant, although this is not completely ac- energy for producing useful work would result, and the use of saddles, ribs, doubling plates, and, on occasion, by
highest cycle efficiency might be obtained. An approach very small amounts of various gases (oxygen, carbon
curate. The condensing temperature shown in Fig. 6 dioxide, nitrogen, or ammonia) in solution. increased thickness of shell plate over that required for
may be considered as an average temperature; whereas to such a condition can be made by consideration of a pressure alone.
-
number of factors-among these are increased heat 3 Condensate is collected a t a temperature corre-
in the actual condenser the steam temperature and prea- sponding to condensing pressure or slightly higher, in the For main condensers, the condenser shell is usually
sure vary in a saturation temperaturepressure relation- transfer rate, increased cooling water flow, and increased designed as a flat-sided, box-like structure. It may be
order of magnitude of 1 to 3 deg F, providing the means
for effecting condition 2 as described above, ,and enhanc- ribbed, compression stayed, diaphragm-supported, or
ing the thermal efficiency of the cycle. supported withvarious combinations of bracing to achieve ,
Table 2 Recommended Air Pump Capacities [3] provide optimum hydraulic conditions for the condensate
Steam Condensed, CFM of pump. The water level in the hotwell may be controlled
lb/hr Dry Air at 70 F by the pump itself (i.e., the pump is permitted to cavitate
when there is insufficient condensate to maintain rated
flow of the pump) or by level controllers and condensate
recirculation systems. In general, most marine installa-
tions are arranged with devices to control the condensate
level in the condenser hotwell so as to minimize cavita-
tion erosion of the condensate pump impeller.
1.9 Condensate Storage. The steam surface con-
Special multistage vertical volute pumps have been denser can also serve as a means for collecting and storing
built which are capable of handling condensate from a feedwater. This function is of considerable importance
condenser hotwell with as little as 12 in. of water sub- with respect to the main propulsion system, as the storage
mergence. More frequently, submergence heads are volume in the condenser provides some additional surge
higher and may be as much as 60 in., especially with capacity for the boilers. The storage capacity provided
auxiliary condensers. Main condensers, because of their in most hotwells for main condensers corresponds to
location in the ship, require minimum-submergence con- about 1 to 1.5 minutes of full steam flow. COND~NSATE
I
densate pumps to permit the condensers to be installed With some installations, condensate levels in the hot- OUTLETS
low in the ship. Most marine condensate pumps are well are used to maintain an adequate suction head for Fig. 7 Large single-pau condenser with central air cooler [ I ]
designed to operate with 18 to 30 in. of water submer- the condenate pumps by using float-operated mecha-
gence. nisms to regulate the condensate pump discharge flow.
Condenser hotwells used for collecting the condensate The deaerating feed tank is used as the principal control
are usually equipped with strainers and antivortex de- point for the boiler feedwater system and provides the -.
STEAM INLET
vices at their condensate outlet. They are designed to necessary surge volume for control.
EXPANSION JOINT
/ FIXED MOUNTING
BRACKET
-AIR VAPOR
OUTLET *.
Section 2
Condenser Design
2.1 Steam Condensing Space. Most marine steam design pressure, are given in Table 3. Longitudinal
surface condensers are designed so that steam condenses flow velocities should not exceed 50 percent of the values
on the outside of heat transfer tubes, with cooling water given in Table 3 at the steam entrance section of the
flowing inside the tubes, and with the steam condensing condenser.
space contained by the shell. Good design practice re- The main condenser cross section shown in Fig. 7
quires that the steam entering the condenser have free illustrates the good steam distribution characteristics
access to all areas defined by the perimeter of the tube inherent with condensers of larger sizes. Steam d i e
bundles with minimum pressure losses. In order to tribution around the tube bundle is achieved by pro-
achieve this requirement, the condenser shell must be viding space above and below the tube bundle to permit l 6 A G E GLASS ! LSTRAINER PLATE
CONDENSATE
OUTLET
sufficiently large in cross section to allow the steam a effective lateral distribution of the steam.
relatively free passage around the tube bundles and also The auxiliary condenser cross section shown in Fig. 8 Fig. 8 Two-pass auxiliary condenser with centrally located air cooler [2]
to provide for longitudinal distribution of the steam to illustrates steam distribution provisions for accommo-
both ends of the condenser. The cross section of flow dating an off-center steam inlet. Baffles are provided to
areas must not be excessively blocked by braces, baffle reduce steam impact effects on the tubes and to direct The baffles are perforated to allow a predetermined por-
plates, ribs, diaphragms, or other obstructions. steam both laterally and longitudinally within the shell. 1 The depth of tube banks (number of tube rows
tion of the total steam flow to feed the tube bundle sec- deep) can be controlled by :
For main condensers, especially the larger ones, the tion directly beneath them.
steam inlets cover a substantial portion of the condenser 2.2 Arrangement of Condensing Surface. In recent changing the geometric shape by using substan-
shell, and lateral distribution of the vapor flow within the years, almost all condenser designers have adopted ar- tially circular, squaf9- rectangular, or trapezoidal
Table 3 Recommended Steam Design Velocities -
condenser can be readilv achieved without excessive rays of heat transfer tubes which are best described as cross section configurations, -- -.
pressure losses. Should the available space for steam Recommended Maximum bundles. Essentially, each bundle is an operating con- controlling the effective tube bank depth through
Condenser Design Main Steam Lane
flow be unduly limited, its effect on condenser perform- Pressure, in. Hg Entrance Velocity, fpsa denser. Small condensers need only one such tube the use of variable tube pitch,
ance is likely to be serious; therefore, pressure loss d e 1 500 bundle, but the larger main condensers may need two, selecting the optimum number of tube bundles per
terminations should be made and evaluated. 2 400 although seldom more. condenser as needed to control the tube bank depth
Steam velocities at the entrance to main steam lanes 3 300 The principles which apply to the design of a unit and steam flow distribution.
4 250
between tube bundles, or between tube bundles and the
shell, should be held below accepted maximum values.
Recommended velocities, which vary inversely with
. 5
Assumed as average velocity with
section area under consideration.
200
flow at the cross-
condenser tube bundle are quite fundamental. Five of
Ihe more important ones are listed as follows:
2 Steam fed to the tube bundle throughout its
whole perimeter decreases the average steam entrance
458 MARINE ENGINEERING MAIN AND AUXILIARY CONDENSERS 459
I
I rr possibility. However, in some instances, slats can be
installed between the tubes by cutting holes in the con-
denser shell. If this cannot' be done, the condenser must
I
he rebuilt internally, and additional support plates and
now tubes will be required to correct the problem. -
Ii With the present technology there is little or no need
to experience severe condenser tube vibration failures,
r~lthoughan occasional tube failure from vibration may
i occur, especially when a severe corrosive environment is
I present. In such cases the tube failures normally show
i ovidence of corrosion fatigue.
The primary cause of tube vibration is from the dy-
namic effects associated with the flow of steam. A sec- .
.-
ondary cause may be transmitted mechanical vibration MACH NUMBER
Fig. 9 Typical full-load h a m flow distribution at a turbine exhaust flange [4, 51
from attached machinery, from nearby machinery, or Fig. 10 Drag coefficient for tubes in cross tlow [6]
from other vibration sources, with energy transmitted
through the foundation, piping, or other solid connec-
velocity to the tubes and thereby mitigates the tube effectively accommodated. A steam flow distrib~t~ion I
tions.
bank pressure loss. map for a single-flow, downward exhausting turbine at a Transmitted mechanical vibration, as a general cause, V is the critical velocity when f equals the natural
3 Steam fed from all directions, including the bottom high flow is shown in Fig. 9. The numbers shown on the
is seldom of sufficient magnitude to be trouble-some. frequency of the tube. S ranges in valut? from 0.10 to
areas of the tube,bundle perimeter, aids in condensate flow contours are the factors by which the average veloc- . Transmitted vibration from the turbine has commonly 0.30 for Reynolds numbers varying between 100 and
deaeration. ity is multiplied to obtain the local velocity of the steam, been suspected as a major cause of tube vibration but is 630,000. A Strouhal number of about 0.20 is a typical
4 Location of tube bundles as separate modules in and it may be seen that there are areas where the steam value for steam entrance conditions to a tube bank,
velocity reaches 2.9 times the average velocity. With rarely a significant contributor. The allowable vibra-
the condenser shell promotes steam distribution to the tion amplitudes for large turbines and the resulting trans- whereas 0.10 is a reasonable value for the innermost
tube bundles and condenser surface areas. average velocities in the order of 500 fps, such a turbine mitted energy is geaerally too small to develop significant sections of the tube bank. For high-pressure closed
5 Means for direct steam flow to the condenser exhaust pattern can easily have flow areas which sustain tube vibration, even in those cases where the rpm of the heaters, the evaluation of the critical velocity is of funda-
hotwell provides for condensate reheating. velocities in the sonic range. turbine shaft corresponds to the natural frequency of the mental importance.
In general, the flow distribution shown in Fig. 9 will In the condensing environment, the velocity effects of
tubes. Field and laboratory tests have shown tube vi-
The tube arrangement in Fig. 7 is an example of a not interfere with the performance of condensers with bration amplitudes at their natural frequency to be within steam surrounding the tubes initiate the significant
single-tube-bundle condenser with no auxiliary steam single- or multi-tube-bundle designs, provided the tur- vibrating forces, and the tube4 vibrate at their natural
the limits of 0.011 in. and 0.030 in. when excited at the
inlet lanes in the tube bank, but with main feeder lanes bine shaft and the condenser longitudinal centerline are same frequency from their supporting structure, with the frequency. The steam floh causes a loading to be
around its perimeter. substantially parallel. When the turbine shaft is per- imposed on the tubes from both drag and l i t effects, and
energy input to the supporting structure in the laboratory
The tube arrangement in Fig. 8 is an example of a pendicular to the condenser centerline, the condenser results in tube deflection as a function of this loading.
tube bundle design can partially compensate for the non- equal to that measured on a condenser in the field. Vi-
single-tube-bundle condenser with no auxiliary steam bration amplitudes of these magnitudes do not result in Experience has shown that it is reasonable to assume that
inlet lanes in the tube bank, but with main feeder lanes uniform flow characteristics of the turbine. However, in
tube vibration failures. the velocity loading effects of lift and drag will deflect
around its perimeter. The main steam lanes reduce in some instances, offsetting the tube bundles from the The primary cause of condenser tube vibration is the tubes according to the theory of beams under static
cross section at the bottom of the condenser shell, but condenser shell centerline may be required in order to steam velocity and its lift and drag effect on the tubes. loading and that the tubes will vibrate with that ampli-
still provide adequate flow area for condensate reheating widen one of the main steam distribution lanes so that
For condensers it is not usually related to the von tude without significant amplification. The equations
and deaeration. The single tube bundle is circular in steam may be fed into the tube banks at high flow rates which apply follow:
from both the bottom and top of the tube bundles. On Karmen vortex effect of critical velocity. Laboratory
configuration. tests show that with condensers operating at a low abso-
2.3 Steam Flow Profiles and Distribution. Most aux- occasions, b d e s may be needed to redirect some of the
steam to other sections of the condenser. The use of lute pressure, the velocity energy level at which the von
iliary condensershave relatively small steam inlets in rela- Kannen vortex effect occurs is much too low to have a
tion to their shell size, and should be provided with im- baffles for this purpoee will result in some pressure loss in
the distribution of steam, although if steam flow condi- significant effect on tube vibration. For example, for a where
pingement and distribution b a e s to redirect the in- a/rin.-~dtube it is about 32 fps. Obviously, the flow
coming steam. The steam flow to small condensers tions are severe, a greater loss might result if baffling energy of steam at these velocities, with the low density W a= load on tube in direction of fluid flow, Ib
displays little or no stratification. I n some cases, were not used. Each case must be resolved with full Cd = +&agcoefficient
consideration of the specific conditions which exist. associated with condenser pressure, is negligible. How-
especially with long steam supply lines, its velocity con- ever, with auxiliary condensers, some of which may A = tube projected area, sq ft
tour may approach the ideal "flat" front flow. Gener- 2.4 Control of Tube Vibration [6]. The failure of p = fluid density, pcf
operate at atmosphere pressure where vapor densities are
ally, there is no major steam flow distribution problem heat transfer tubes in steam condensers through the appreciable, the critical velocity effect may need to be V = fluid velocity, fps
which is directly caused by the turbine exhaust steam mechanism of tube vibration has often created problems. examined. It can be computed from the following: g = gravitational acceleration, ft/sec2
flow pattern. Fortunately, high incidence of failure from this cause has +' '< - Pv2 -2
The main condenser, with its large steam inlet, is been periodic rather than general, and for the most part w, = CIA-
usually subjected to highly stratified steam flows. Its more annoying than catastrophic. If the interior of the
-- 7
' (3)
2s
design geometry, its installation in the ship, or both, can condenser is accessible, mechanical means such as in-
stalling wood, fibre, or metal slats between the tubes may where where
significantly affect the manner in which the undesirable I
characteristics of stratified flow can be lessened. be used to alleviate the vibration failure incidence. As W L= load on tube 90 deg to direction of fluid flow, lb
an interim repair, this is a reasonably effective modifica-
V = critical velocity of fluid stream, fps
The flow pattern characteristic of the downward ex- S = Strouhal number, dimensionless CL = lift coefficient
haust single-flow turbine is markedly stratified, but the tion for reducing tube failures.
With small condensers, the addition of slats is seldom
I f = tube natural frequency, cps The value of the drag coefficient Cs in equation (2)
pattern is reasonably symmetrical and usually can be d = diameter of tube, ft may be obtained from Fig.10. It is important to note
MARINE ENGINEERING MAIN AND AUXILIARY CONDENSERS 46 1
that Cd reaches a maximum value of 2.1 at Mach 0.95. produced by the air pump, assuming normal air leakage the main tube banks before entering the air cooler section.
Data on the lift coefficient CL, or coefficient of lateral rind subcooling of the air-vapor mixture. The portion At the same time, the air cooler should not be such a
thrust, is not as well documented as the data on the drag 4-2 of this line represents conditions wherein the air pumplarge portion of the total condensing surface that it
coefficient. Values which have been suggested range cannot remove the air-vapor mixture at as low a pressure significantly detracts from the high heat flux surfaces in
5
from 0.20 to 1.00, and 0.65 to 1.71. In general, for a rm that which the condenser can produce. The condenser the tube banks of the condenser. Air coolers containing
cylinder, the lift coefficient is less than the drag coeffi- operating presstre will then correspond to line 4-2, and 5 to 7 percent of the total condensing surface can be de-
cient, Cd,and the effect of drag controls the amplitude of (,he air pump is said to limit the back pressure. The signed to meet normal perfgrmance requirements effec-
vibration. portion of the line 2-5 represents a condition where the tively.
The value of Wd from equation (2), when used in con- Llir pump can remove the noncondensables at a lower The displacement flow path is extremely important to
junction with applicable beam deflection equations, can pressure than the condenser can produce; under these the correct fundtioning of an air cooler. If possible, it
be used to determine the minimum distance between oonditions, the condenser is said to limit the back pres- should be incbrporated into the design by providing large
support plates or between support plates and tube sheets
1
nure, and the condenser pressure then corresponds to line entrance areas into the air cooler with the flow cross
2-2'-3. The l i e 4'-2'-5' represents vacuum pump
for steam condensers operating at a low absolute pressure.
The design steam velocity should be determined from
data similar to that shown in Fig. 9 using full-load flow
I performance with a condition of excessive air leakage
(the same effect can be caused by too small a vacuum
pump or an inefficient air cooler). It should be noted
section decreasing gradually to the air-vapor outlet. It
is just as important, however, to use a geometry where
the length of the flow path through the air cooler is not
less than the effective depth of the main tube banks.
for determining the average velocity at the turbine
exhaust flange. If the product of the average velocity that in this case, the vacuum pump controls the con- One of the most important requirements for condenser
30 40 50 60 70 80 denser pressure from points 4' to 2'. Above point 2' the air coolers is40 provide means for positive flow, in and
and the local velocity multiplying factor approach the
sonic velocity, the design should be based on the sonic
velocity. The design should also be evaluated at the
CIRCULATING WATER INLET TEMPERATURE, F
LEGEND
I vacuum pump is adequate and the condenser will perform
along the l i e 2 ' 3 .
out of each section, between support plates. This re-
quirement is fundamental to good condenser performance
lowest absolute pressure expected in the condenser at IDEAL CONDENSER PERFORMANCE The total pressure in a condenser at any point is the because it eliminates short circuiting and a buildup of
full load to determine if those conditions are more severe
------- AIR PUMP PERFORMANCE WITH NORMAL AIR LEAKAGE ' sum of the vapor pressure at the lobal saturation tempera- large zones of stagnation with the attendant accumula-
AIR PUMP PERFORMANCE WITH EXCESSIVE AIR LEAKAGE
than the design operating condition. ture and the noncondensable gas pressures. This may tion of noncondensables that result in a loss in perform-
The classic equations for beams under uniform loading Fig. 1 1 Effect of air leakage on condenser pressure be expressed as: ance. It prevents the air pump or venting equipment
can be used to compute tube deflections. Because of the from being overloaded by causing all air cooler sections
relatively high span length to tube diameter ratio nor- to work equally and effectively, and the dehumidification
mally used, the deflection equation for a simply sup- maximum bending stresses in the tubes may be computed 1 where of the noncondensable gas-vapor mixture becomes
optimum.
ported beam may be used for the center spans, and the by using classical beam equations. The fatigue life P6= total pressure in condenser
deflection equation for a beam simply supported on one should not be less than the expected life of the tubes with P, = vapor pressure of condensing steam The determination of the heat transfer surface required
end and fixed at the other may be used for the end spans. respect to anticipated waterside and steamside corrosion Po = partial pressure of nondondensable gases for an air cooler to meet spepific requirements is a com-
The equations are as follows: and erosion effects. plex task. The heat transfer rates at.the
. - entrance
. . - - t,n
- - - the
- - -- -
As the vapor-gas mixture flows from the steam inlet to cooler, where the noncondensable gas content of the
2.5 Air Cooler Design. The purpose of the air
For center spans the vapor-gas mixture outlet, the ratio of P, to P, mixture is low, are close to the average rates for the con-
cooler is to reduce the water vapor content of the non-
decreases, while P6also decreases, thereby causing flow. denser. The velocity of the air-vapor mixture at the
condensable gases to be removed from the condenser. Bince the condehsing temperature also decreases along entrance to the air cooler is usually greater than at any
The Heat Exchange Institute recommends that the air- the flow path as P, decreases, the temperature of the other point in the air cooler. As dehumidification
vapor mixture be cooled 7.5 deg F below the saturation tii-vapor mixture also decreases. As this occurs, the becomes appreciable, the heat transfer rate decreases and
For end spans temperature correspond,ing to design pressure or 25 quantity of vapor in the vapor-gas mixture also decreases. the velocity of the mixture decreases. For the heat
percent of the difference between the saturation temper* The degree to which this is accomplished is related to the transfer system involved, the opposite situation for
t u e corresponding to the condenser pressure and the vapor flow path, which also affects the conductance of velocity is desirable and would aid in sustaining high
design inlet circulating water temperature, whichever is I;he condensing boundary of the heat transfer system. transfer rates throughout the flow path. In practical
where greater. In some instances it has been found practical As condensation takes place, the vapor-gas mixture designs this is not always possible to achieve and addi-
to cool to lower temperatures, and some condensers are becomes more impure, and if optimum heat transfer is tional surface is needed to compensate for the effect of
Y = tube maximum deflection, in. designed to cool to within 5 deg F of the cooling water
Wd = load on tube (sum of drag, weight, and contents) t,o be attained, the concentrating noncondensables must decreasing velocity.
inlet be displaced toward the end of the flow path in the con-
between supports, lb This increased cooling results in a decreased load on Design methods for determining air cooler size are, for
L = length of tubes between supports, in. denser by the incoming purer vapor. This displacement the most part, approximations and are largely based on
the air pump (or other venting equipment) for a given flow path minimizes the effect of diffusion of noncon- empiricism. The Colburn and Hougen basic method is
E = modulus of elasticity, psi air leakage, and as a result a smaller air pump may be
I = tube moment of inertia, in.4 densables throughout the condenser, and results in Po complex. Reasonably good approximations have also
used. Also, im~rovedcondenser performance can result being at minimum values in the major portion of the been made by Mickley. Simplified methods by Colburn
The mid-span or maximum tube deflection determined by applying standard-size air pumps to condensers unit. With suph a flow path, noncondensable gases can and Hougen, and by Smith, compare well with limited
from equations (4) or (5) must be less than one half of the provided with more effective coolig sections than those oasily be vented from the condenser without requiring test results. Silver al~&~eniploye*-an ap-proximate
ligament between tube holes in the tube sheet or the designed for 7.5 deg F cooling. An example of the effect excessively large air pumps.
of air leakage on condenser pressure under conditions of method for interpreting data from condensers where low,
tubes will contact one another. Good practice is t o The ability to maintain such a flow path is, in con- noncondensable gas velocities were encountered, with
limit the deflection to one fourth of the ligament, or one normal operation and under conditions of excessive air niderable measure, dependent upon the air cooler and its reasonable success. The fundamentals of these works
half of the ligament less one sixteenth of an inch, which- leakage or an undersized vacuum pump is shown in Fig. rolation to the remainder of the condenser. It must be may be found in reference [7].
eyer is greater. 11. located so that it draws the air-vapor mixture propor-
The line 1-2-2'-3 shows the typical performance of a The air coolers shown in Figs. 7 and 8 are single
The tube spans or support plate spacing should be lionately from all sections of the tube banks. I t must (vapor) pass types. Each air cooler section between
finalized only after determination that the bending condenser, in terms of absolute pressure versus cooling be large enough to maintain adequate steam or air-vapor support plates discharges into a collection header through
stresses in the tubes are of an acceptable magnitude, and water inlet temperature, avsuming that air leakage has no mixture flow velocities at the point where the fluid leaves proportioned orifices, assuring that each section between
that premature failure will not occur from fatigue. The effect. The line 4-2-5 shows the pressure which may be
MAIN AND AUXllLlARY CONDENSERS
462 MARINE ENGINEERING
duction of makeup feedwater, heater drains, and other light loads with cold water. Best performance begins a t The use of b d e s or trays to augment condensate
the support plates receives its share of the load and is about 45 percent load, but may be extended to higher deaeration in auxiliary condensers is seldom, if ever,
properly vented. condensate returns to the condenser.
The capacity of the air-removal equipment in operation loads by providing more reheating and deaeration surface practiced; nor are they often used with main condensers.
Liberal air cooling surfaces in the designs shown in or a larger air pump. In general, dissolved oxygen levels not exceeding 0.03
Figs. 7 and 8 have the potential of cooling very close to limits the condenser vacuum (Fig. 11) and consequently
affects deaeration. The effect is greatest a t very light (4) The effectiveness of converting velocity energy cc/liter are satisfactory since most conventional marine
the cooling water ,inlet temperature. These designs to pressure energy a t the condenser hotwell zone is power plants include deaerating feed tanks for further
effectively use the last rows of tubes in the air cooler loads and with cold cooling water. To install enough
vacuum pump capacity to overcome the effects of this usually a function of the directness of the main steam deaeration. The deaerating feed tanks reduce dissolved
which have a very low temperature rise, usually less than distribution lanes in relation to the inlet steam flow and oxygen levels to 0.01 cc/liter asd less before the feedwater
3 deg F, because of the extremely low heat flux charac- characteristic is usually economically unsound.
Four factors which influence deaeration are: (1) the to the bottom of the condenser. Single-bundle arrange- reaches the boilers. q
teristic of air-vapor mixtures which have a low percentage ments do not perform quite as well as condensers with 2.7 Condensate Returns and Feedwater Makeup.
of vapor. noncondensable gas pressure in the deaeration area, (2)
the amount and effectiveness of reheat and deaeration two bundles. The latter appears to be an ideal geometry. Condensate drains a t pressures above deaerator pressure
2.6 Condensate Reheating arid Deaeration. The The prediction of deaeration performance which may
surface, (3) the vacuum pump characteristics in relation are usually drained into the deaerator. Most of the
principles associated with effective deaeration and re- be expected from a given condenser design and its condensate drains which are discharged into the con-
heating of condensate zire not unlike those applicable to to air inleakage, and (4) the effectiveness of converting
inlet steam velocity energy to pressure in the hotwell associated special deaeration provisions is not easily denser are generated in the feed system at pressures less
power plant deaerators of the tray type. As the heat made. First, such predictions are related to the pro-
area. A further explanation of these factors is as than the operating pressure of the deaerating feed tank.
passes through the films of condensed steam adhering to jected area of the tube bundle as a measure of unit liquid The lower pressure drains are usually from the gland
the condenser tubes in its path to the cooling water, the follows :
(condensate) flow rate as it falls froq the tubes to the leakoff condenser, the gland leakoff ejector condenser,
condensate on these tube surfaces reduces in temperature (1) The partial noncondensable gas pressure in the
deaeration zone may be minimized with good steam water level below. Secondly, deaeration is related to the air ejector intercondenser, the shell-and-tube feed-
to slightly below the saturation temperature at condenser the height of fall or to the time of contact of the con- water heaters below the deaerator in the cycle, the drain
pressure. The temperature gradient across these con- distribution and by eliinating noncondensable buildup
from stagnation. Tube bundle arrangements with densate to be deaerated with the reheating and scrubbing cooler, and the distilling plant. (Since there are many
densate films, which must occur in order to produce a steam. Thirdly, if perforated or other types of trays are variations in feed system design, the components listed
flow of heat, requires that the mean temperature of this centraliued air coolers are most effective in this regard.
used, their effectiveness is not only a function of the may not apply in their entirety.) Some of these drains
film be less than the condensing steam temperature, but (2) The amount and effectiveness of deaeration and number of vertically disposed horizontal rows, but also
reheat surface below the tube bundles is of extreme in passing downward in the system are cascaded in order
greater than the temperature of the contacting tube of the area they cover (the projected bundle area or less).
importance. Figure 12 shows the deaeration effect of to impar$ heat to the feedwater, and thereby reduce
wall. Unless provisions are made to reheat this coh- In addition, the liquid-vapor flow paths within the
two arrangements of surface working in an environment thermal losses from the cycle. Not infrequently, and
densate before it is removed from the condenser hotwell, deaeration b d e section have a marked effect on deaera-
a measurable amount of heat energy is lost from the of very low partial air pressure. With one arrangement, especially in systems using cascading, drains are mixed
direct surface-producing bafiles made of perforated trays tor performance. Preferred arrangements have a cross- and are collectively discharged to the condenser.
cycle. Ih addition, the subcooled condensate absorbs counterflow design with a positive vapor demand, through
are provided. With the other arrangement, the con- The condensate drains are frequently at pressures
air an! other gases, such as carbon dioxide and ammonia, the baffled section, to a portion of the main condenser
from the condensing steam. If these gases are allowed densate falls without interruption from the bottom tubes below atmospheric and bg a s o q e of air infiltration
tube bundle directly above. to the condenser. The steam air ejector inter- sad after-
to accumdate in the oondensed steam, corrosion of the of the tube bundles to the water level in the bottom of
As an approximation, with a tube bundle construction, condenser drains are also a source of noncondensable gas
boiler feed system and the boiler may result. the shell or hotwell.
liberal steam flow around the bundle, and with the infiltration. In order to compensate for these possible
The heat loss from condensate subcooling may be (3) The effect of partial air pressure, resulting from effective feeding of steam around its perimeter, a dis-
eliminated by directing a portion of the incoming steam vacuum pump capacity limitations, is illustrated in Fig. sources of air inleakage, provisions must be made for
solved oxygen content of approximately 0.03 cc/liter their deaeration to a degree sufficient to maintain the
to the condenser bottom and hotwell area in such a 13. The curve shown is for a given cooling water inlet
may be expected with a 12 in. free fall of condensate. desired purity of the feedwater.
manner that a substantial amount of its velocity energy temperature. A family of curves would result if a
This arrangement is also usually adequate for condensate Most condensate drains are returned to the condenser
is converted to pressure. I n this way, the local static number of d i e r e n t cooling water inlet temperatures reheating.
pressure in the hotwell area and under the tube bundles were shown. at temperatures substantially above the temperature
MAIN AND AUXILIARY CONDENSERS 465
4 64 MARINE ENGINEERING
Single- and two-pass condensers are the designs most cooling water connections are just as easily removed to wsterboxes of the condenser may be opened to provide 5/8" 1.10 1.00 0.94
3/4" 1.06 1 .OO 0.95
frequently applicable to marine condensers, with the provide maintenance accessibility as their ring-and-cover uccess to the tube sheets such that urgently needed 7/8" 1.06 1 .OO 0.96
single-pass more commonly used with main condensers counterparts. Condensers with an even number of minor repairs may be accomplished, especially temporary Fig. 17 ridi ion loss in condenser tubes [3]
to accommodate the hydraulic characteristics of scoops, passes have cooling water connections on one end only, correction of leaking tubes or tube-end connections.
and multi-pass condensers more commonly applicable to and are almost invariably built with bonnet-type return Repairs may be made by plugging and/or welding as
auxiliary condensers. Constructions using three or waterboxes. The nozzle-end waterboxes may be of needed.
more passes are only occasionally needed to meet the either the bonnet or ring-and-cover type. Ordinarily, the condensing temperature at full load The most reliable data available for computing con-
performance requirements associated with marine steam Nozzle-end waterboxes of the ring-and-cover type wiil not exceed 105 F for condensers designed for 2.25 in. denser cooling-water flow losses are those pub-
power plants. Multi-pass condensers require less cooling provide complete access for servicing tubes, tube sheets, Kg absolute with 85 F cooling water. However, with lished by the Heat Exchange Institute, "Standards for
water but more surface than single-pass condensers for a and tube replacement without the need for disconnecting one half of the condenser out of service and with the full Steam Surface Condensers" [8]. These Standards
, given heat load. The smaller cooling water piping the inlet and outlet cooling water piping. Condenser steam load condensed by only half the surface and half provide graphs for determining the friction loss through
associated with the smaller flow may be desirable in maintenance is less d i c u l t than with nozzle-end bonnet- of the cooling water supplied to the condenser, the back tubes for various water velocities with correction factors
some cases. type waterboxes, and tube repair, cleaning, and replace- pressure and condensing temperature will increase. At for gauge and tube diameter and for cooling-water
b. Condenser Waterboxes. Waterbox designs used ment can be easily done. equivalent steam loads the cooling-water temperature temperature. The standards also include graphs for
for marine condensers may be divided into two classes: Nozzle-end waterboxes of the bonnet-type must be rise will approximately double. Should the condensing determining waterbox and tube-end losses for velocities
the bonnet type and the ring-and-cover type. In recent removed for servicing tubes and tube sheets and the temperature reach levels which impair maintenance through tubes or nozzles for single- and two-pass con-
years, the bonnet-type waterbox has been used almost cooling water lines disconnected, except in the case of activities, the load on the turbine may be reduced to densers.
to the exclusion of the ring-and-cover type. Figures 1, very large condensers wherein maintenance personnel provide more acceptable working conditions. The head loss resulting from circulating-water flow
2, 3, 4, and 5 illustrate bonnet-type waterboxes. A may enter the waterboxes for tube servicing. For Waterboxes for divided circulation may be made as through tubes and in the condenser waterboxes is shown
typical ring-and-cover type of waterbox construction is retubing, however, the waterboxes must be removed. single boxes with a partition or as separate boxes. If in Figs. 17 and 18 respectively. The data in Figs. 17
shown in Fig. 16. The disadvantage of the bonnet-type waterbox is partitioned single boxes are used, each side of the water- and 18 are limited to those tube sizes and gauges nor-
The bonnet-type waterbox is constructed with all mainly the limited accessibility to tubes and tube sheets box must be capable of withstanding the design working mally used in marine condensers; more complete infor-
elements of the waterbox, including waterpass partitions, for maintenance. The advantages are lighter weight, pressure when the other half is out of service. Divided- mationis given in the Heat Exchange Institute Stand-
flow dividing partitions, and inlet and outlet cooling better hydraulic design, lower cost (especially when cor- circulation cooling circuits are almost never used for ards.
water nozzles, combined as a unit structure. The ring- rosion-resistant materials are required), and fewer bolted auxiliary condensers.
and-cover type of waterbox is constructed with all joints. The selection of the type for a given installation d . Pressure Losses in Cooling-Water Systems. I n 2.10 Mechanical Design practice
elements of the waterbox, except for the cover, but should take into account the preceding, and also the ostablishing the total dynamic head required to cir- a. Tube Sheets and Tube Spacing. Tube sheets are
including waterpaas partitions, flow-dividing partitions, materials used for tubes, tube sheets, and waterboxes. culate cooling water through the condenser cooling-water drilled to a prescribed m&termto raeive the heat trans-
and inlet and outlet cooling water nozzles, combined as a The use of 90-10 copper nickel for these parts with its ~ystem,the pressure loss resulting from flow through the fer tubes. The holes into which the tubes are secured
unit structure comprising the ring section only. The excellent corrosion resistance (rather than aluminum condenser must be determined. For marine power plants have a number of geometries intended to meet specific
covers are separate and attached by means of bolted brass tubes, naval brass tube sheets, and steel or coated the pressure loss in the cooling-water circuit of the main needs. These geometries are described in paragraph c.
flanges. steel waterboxes) has been a major contributing factor condenser is solely from flow friction; but the pressure The tube holes are first drilled and then reamed for
It is obvious from s comparison of the figures shown to the use of bonnet-type waterboxes for marine con- lbss of auxiliary condensers may have a static-head com- finish and sizing. The shell sides of the tube holes are
that ring-and-cover waterboxes provide the greatest densers. ponent, such as in those cases where the overboard dis- chamfered, usually with a x6
in. X 45 deg bevel, or
accessibility for tube and tube sheet maintenance and
tube replacement. There is little or no advantage in
c. Single- and Divided-Circulation Condensers.
Most condensers used in marine services, and especially
charge is above the waterline of the ship. preferably with a x6 in. radius. The finished dimension
468 MARINE ENGINEERING
2.0
I I I I I I I I I I Table 5 Recommended Tube Sheet Thickness [3] specific service conditions. Details of the more com-
Area of Tube Sheet, sq in. Thickness of Tube Sheet, in. monly used methods of securing tubes are shown in Fig.
to 1965 19.
1966 to 3739 Figure 19(a) shows a typical configuration of a tube
3740 to 8495 expanded into a tube sheet with a rolled straight section
8496 to 30791
30792 and up and a swaged flared section. The flare is for irnpro9ing (a) INLET END (b) CUTLET END
the tube inlet-end geometry to miniize cavitation EXPANDED a FLARED EXPANDED ONLY
effects from the entering cooling water. Also, the tubes METALLIC RINGS
METALLIC RING ,
Table 6 Diagonal Tube Pitch Data mav be rolled and flared a t both ends. The cvlindrical -h
section of the rolled joint in Fig. 19(a) is shown smooth,
Tube diameter, in. 96 3/a W but it may be grooved for an improved holding ability.
Tube pitch (30' X 60'
diagonal), iw.
1H6 1x6, 1%
The grooves, which are machined into the tube holes,
No. tubes ~ e sar ft of 189 147 106 are usually two in number, spaced about in. apart,
tube sh&t *
, and are about 0.015 in. deep X x6 in. wide.
i Figure 19(b) shows a typical configuration of a tube
expanded into a tube sheet with a straight section only.
Also, they provide a convenient means for reinforcing When used, this design is applied to the tube outlet end. (cIINLET OR OUTLET END (d)
the condenser shell against external pressure. - The tube hole is shown without grooves, but grooves PACKED WITH METALLIC
OUTLET END
PACKED WITH METALLIC
WKING WITH FERRULES =KING W W T FERRULES
Support plates should be sufliciently thick to provide may also be added to improve the holding ability as
0 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 t O a good bearing surface for the tubes they engage. Typi-
cal thicknesses are to % in. for small condensers,
I noted above. Fig. 19 Tube-to-tube-sheet loinb
VELOCITY THRU TUBES OR NOZZLE, FPS Figure 19(c) shows a typical design of a packed tube-
I Fig. 18 Waterbox and tube end losses [3]
including most auxiliary condensers. Thicknesses of
to J$j in. are used with large condensers, including
to-tube-sheet joint using a combination of fiber rings and
metal-foil packing. The ferrules are provided with packed (outlet end) and one fixed (inlet end), allows
main condensers.' The tube holes should be chamfered clearance to allow for longitudinal tube expansion, but movement of the tube longitudinally in the tube sheet
of the tube hole should be made equal to the nominal to avoid cutting tubes on sharp edges. Accepted prac- the clearance is limited to prevent excessive longitudinal joint, thus minimizing differential expansion stresses.
tube diameter plus a minimum of 0.005 in. and plus a tice is to use a H6in. X 45 deg bevel or a x6
in. radius tube movement. If the tube is packed on both ends, This method has been used successfully for many years
maximum of 0.007 in. - on both sides of the support plate, or the equivalent by ferrules are required to prevent the tube from coming out but does have a tendency to develop leakage (cooling
The thickness of tube sheets varies with tube sheet the use of wire brush deburring. of the tube sheets. water to condensate) at the packed ends. However,
size (area). Tube sheets drilled for % in., % in., or The dimensions of the tube holes should be equal to Figure 19(d) shows a typical design of a packed tube- with proper design, assembly, and maintenance, the
74 in. tubes which are to be rolled or packed should not the nominal diameter of the tube plus a minimum of to-tube-sheet joint using a combination of fiber rings and leakage is small enough to be tolerated with moderate-
be less than J$j in. thick. If the tubes are welded and 0.010 in. and plus a maximum of 0.015 in. To provide metal-foil packing. The tube hole is threaded so that pressure steam plants; but s > j han arrangement would
rolled, the tube sheet should not be less than % in. a smooth surface, the tube holes should be reamed after the metallic packing can be driven into the threads and not be acceptable for use with a nuclear steam plant.
thick. The earlier recommendations of the Heat drilling. hold without ferrules. This design is used for the outlet When tubes are expanded on both ends or welded and
Exchange Institute regarding tube sheet thickness are The spacing of the support plates, in most instances, ends of the tubes only and must be used with inlet-end expanded on both eads, differential expansion between
shown in Table 5. The Heat Exchange Institute no will be about 40 to 45 tube diameters, but these dimen- geometries (such as rolled or welded joints) which secure the shell and tubes resulting from different materials
longer publishes dimensional standards; however, the sions should be verified using the procedures outlined the tube in position. and temperatures may be accommodated by arranging
standard established by Table 5 remains in general use. in Section 2.4. A geometry similar to that in Fig. 19(a) may be used the support plate positions so that the tubes are bowed.
The location of drilled holes in tube sheets for re- Support plate areas which do not engage tubes should to secure a tube to a tube sheet by welding; while the Under compressive loading the tubes act as eccentric
I
ceiving tubes is not only a function of the overall tube be cut out or relieved as much as possible to provide design incorporates a flared entrance to improve water columns which deflect easily and thereby hold the
bundle design but also a function#of tube diameter and means for longitudinal steam distribution. When they inlet flow conditions, this design is alsp used at the outlet stresses caused by end loading to acceptable levels. A
pitch. Most condensers are designed with a 60 deg are also used for reinforcing the condenser shell, support end of the tube. A geometry embodying a straight disadvantage of this method occurs if operating con-
triangular pitch, for which standard dimensions have plates should be securely welded in place and provided section only, with no flared section, may also be used, ditions place the tubes under tension. In this case
I
been developed. ".'he accepted standard used by most with sufficient bearing area against the shell to properly but specificallyfor the tube outlet end. The tubes should there is little flexibility in the tubes and the expansion
Table 7 Condenser Shell Thickness for Cylindrical Shells Table 8 Condenser Construction Materials
(fabricated stbel) [3]
Shell plate flanges, Steel, ASTM, A-285, Grade C, Flehge Quality
Cross Section Area Steel Plate Sbll ribis, and reinforcements steel, ASTM,A-283
of Shell, sq in. Thicknem, in. Tube support platea Steel, ASTM, A-285, Grade C, Flange Quality
to 2460 Bf; Steel, ASTM, A-283
2461 to 5670 ; Steel, ASTM, A-36
5671 to 11500 Steel, ASTM, A-7
11501 to 29000 Waterboxes and Iron. ASTM.
Cast Iron, ASTM, A-278
A-278
Fig. 20 Toroidal shell expansion loinl 29001 and above waterbox cwers
covers Cast NNodular Iron, -&TM,
ASTM, A-395
A-395 /,,
cast && I;&,
Steel, ASTM, A-285, Grade C, Flange Quality
-
Steel, &EM, A-283
Aluminum Bronze.
Bronze, ASTM.
ASTM, B-169.
E169, AUov n
Alloy D
however, experience has indicated that a
is usually adequate.
xs in. allowance Copper Nickel, 90/10,ASTM, E l 7 1
Tube sheets Muntz Metal, ASTW E l 7 1
f. Monitoring Condensate Purity. The need to Naval Brass, ASTM, E l 7 1
control condenser condensate purity, because of the Aluminum Bronze, ASTM, E169, Alloy D
Silicon Bronze, ASTM, B96, Alloy A
requirements of increasing boiler pressures or of thermo- Copper Nickel 90/10, ASTM, E l 7 1
nuclear steam plants, has resulted in the general use of Tubes Admiralty Metal, ASTM, Ell1
monitoring systems in steam surface condensers. The Aluminum Bronze, ASTM, Ell1
monitoring devices are usually instruments which mea- Aluminum Brass, ASTM, Ell1
Fig. 21 Diaphragm shell expansion foint Copper Nickel 70/30, ASTM, Ell1
sure the specific conductivity of the condensate as an Copper Nickel 80/20, ASTM, Ell1
indication of dissolved solids concentration or measure Copper Nickel 90/10, ASTM, Ell1
condensate salinity as an indication of tube-to-tube- Titanium. ASTM, B-338
sheet joint leakage or leakage through the tubes them- NOTE: This is a re resentative list of materials suitable for marine condensers and is not
scribing ring may be used as the tube-sheet bolting or intended to knit the application of other suitable materials.
welding flange. selves.
e. Condenser Shell. The important geometrical Monitoring systems designed as a means for mea-
characteristics of marine condenser shells are described suring condensate impurities may also indicate the
in Section 1.4. The methods for designing condenser general area where leakage occurs. There are two hotwell (if it is the whole condenser bottom) into four or The corrosion environments coincident with these two
shells to withstand external pressure generally vary with areas where the monitoring of leakage is especially im- more parts: two lengthwise and two or more crosswise areas or zones are significantly different and the corrosion
space requirements. Common practice is to provide portant. One of these is the tube sheet area. This of the condenser. Water flow is sequential, with the mechanisms involved, while similar in some respects,
compression stays to carry the external loading on large zone is used for determining the soundness of tube-to- outlet from each compartment monitored, thereby are vastly different in degree. The steamside corrosion
flat surfaces in preference to the use of ribs. While tube-sheet joints. The second area is that of the heat indicating by the change in concentration of impurities in marine condensers is usually minimal and is seldom
ribs may also be used, they are sometimes employed transfer tubes between the tube sheets. the location and degree of leakage. With small con- a major problem. The matsrials of construction, which
as secondary members or to distribute loads. Support To monitor the tube-to-tube-sheet joints there are densers, such as auxiliary condensers, it is usually are mostly carbon steel for'shells, support plates, baffles,
plates may be used as full ribs, partial ribs, or as four methods in general use: (1) the double-tubesheet sufficient to monitor condensate quality at the conden- and bracing, and nonferrous tubes and tube sheets,
anchors for compression stays. arrangement may be monitored by pressurization with sate outlet only. present no serious problem in this environment. The
I n the case of cylindrical shells, support plates may condensate between the tube sheets, with leakage indi- 2.1 1 Materials of Construction. Materials used in low operating temperatures, low dissolved oxygen levels
be used as circumferential supporting rings; however, cated by pressure decay; (2) an inner supporkbaffle marine condensers are selected to meet the requirements in the condensate, and very pure condensate (in terms of
cutouts must be provided for longitudinal steam flow. plate, located close to the tube sheet, may be used to of strength, cost, and corrosion resistance. A number of dissolved solids) do not present a severely aggressive
Also, cylindrical shells may be designed as self-supporting confine tube-to-tube-sheet joint leakage between the material types and grades may be suitable for the same environment to the materials normally used. An ex-
structures with the support plates used to carry external support-baffle plate and the inner surface of the tube I
part or parts of a condenser, and the determining factors ception, however, can occur due to carbon dioxide
mechanical loading. sheet; (3) a catch dam may be used to catch condensate I
in making a selection should include,those criteria listed which, if present in significant quantity, may attack the
The Heat Exchange Institute promulgated standards and any tube-to-tube-sheet joint leakage which drains above as well as other considerations which may be condenser tubes, especially in the areas at the support
for the thickness of condenser shells. These standards, down the inner faces of the tube sheets; and (4) a I controlling. Strengtfi, corrosion resistance, and in some plates and adjacent to the inside face of the tube sheets.
which are listed in Table 7, have been accepted by most compartmented hotwell may be arranged with series instances weight are of major importance and may take The action may be chemical, with carbonic acid attacking
condenser designers. While these thicknesses are recom- flow, from initial compartments at the tube sheets precedence over economic considerations. the copper-base alloy tubes, or it also may be galvanic
mended and establish an economic guide for average or through other compartments in sequence to the con- Condenser shells, support plates, internal bracing, with the, carbonic acid acting as a local electrolyte at the
normal conditions, they do not necessarily represent the densate outlet. and nozzle connections which comprise the condenser interface between tube surfaces and support plates.
optimum selection of plate thickness for marine con- The double tube sheet arrangement is used with shell structure, except possibly minor parts, are fabri- The soyrce of carbon dioxide is the breakdown of carbon-
densers. The design principles described in Section marine nuclear power plants; it may be noted, however, cated by welding. The materials most frequently ates and bicarbonates in the salt water evaporator
that the high reliability of tube-to-tube-sheet welding has I
VIII, Division 1, of the ASME Code for Pressure Vessels I
used in the construction of marine condensers are which provides feedwater makeup (see subsection 2.5 of
are applicable in addition to the thicknesses listed in resulted in the almost exclusive use of welded tube-to- tabulated in Table 8 and are described in the designated chapter 15). The evaporator temperature, point of
,
Table 7. Stress levels for the materials used and the tube-sheet connections in the major applications of specifications. admission of the evaporated vapor as makeup, and the
joint efficiency factors listed for vacuum or external nuclear power. The inner support-bae plate used to There are two major arem or zones in a condenser provision for venting.~condenmt>lesall affect the
pressure also apply. One exception is the pitch dimen- confine condensate and leakage from the tube-to-tube- which are susceptible to significant corrosion attack. concentration of carbon dioxide in the steam and con-
sion for compression stays. Experience has shown that sheet joints is effective and improves the reliability of They are: (1) the steam or condensing area, comprised densate. Air cooler designs which eliminate short
the 8% in. pitch dimension limit listed in the ASME monitoring. I t is more costly than the use of catch of the condenser shell, hotwell, tube sheets, internal circuiting and stagnation of air-vapor mixtures, thereby
Code may be exceeded and that the alternative dimen- dams or weirs, described as method (3), but also is more baffles, piping and ducts, and the outside surfaces of the reducing the carbon dioxide concentration, are helpful in
sion of 15 times the diameter of the stay is a safe and reliable. Method (4), that of compartmenting the heat transfer tubes, and (2) the cooling-water side of controlling carbonic acid corrosion. Ammonia is seldom
practical limit. hotwell and providing series flow, is used in combination the condenser, comprised of the waterboxes, tube sheets, a by-product of saltwater evaporation at sea, but may be
Corrosion allowance is usually a matter of judgment; with methods (11, (21, or (3). Most designs divide the and the inside surfaces of the heat transfer tubes. a factor with the evaporation of polluted harbor waters.
472 MARINE EN MAIN AND AUXILIARY CONDENSERS 473
It may also be present in the condenser condensate if it is a protective iron oxide film on the metal surfaces. Such culating-water system of marine condensers, the selec- Table 9 Recqmmended Design Water
used for pH control in the feed system. In condenser a film can be established by injecting a ferrous sulphate tion of materials such as 70/30 and 90/10 copper nickel Velocities Through Tubes
service copper-nickel tubes and tube sheets are quite solution into the condenser cooling water circuit before for tubes, tube sheets, and waterboxes is an effective Tube Material Water Velocity, fps
resistant to ammonia and may be considered to be a the f i s t use; the solution is circulated for about three means of controlling crevice corrosion. Titanium 3-15
most reliable means for avoiding ammonia corrosion days. The coating may be maintained by providing (8) The water velocity in the cooling-water circqit is 70/30 copper nickel 3-15
effects. The brasses, Admiralty and aluminum, and anodes of soft grey iron or low-carbon steel which will a major factor in the selection of materials in the design 90/10 copper nickel 3-9
Aluminum Brass 3-7
also aluminum bronze are susceptible to stress corrosion continue the plating action on the metal surfaces in the of marine condensers. The damaging effects of corrosion Admiralty , 3-4
from ammonia, even at the characteristically low con- system. If the coated surfaces are subjected to an ero- are greatly accelerated by the erosion effects of water NOTE: The 3 fps lower limit is'lbecauae of heat transfer considera-
denser temperatures. The susceptibility of these alloys sive washout of the oxide coating by a high water veloc- velocity. The major concern is with the condenser tubes. tions. It is not a corrosion limitation for the materials
to ammonia attack is reduced if the tubes, especially ity, cavitation, or suspended abrasive particulate mat- They are subject to inlet-end attack and to general at- listed. .,
those in the air cooler, are not under significant tension ter, the protection can be damaged and concentrated cor- tack, both of which may be related to the velocity of the 0
stresses. Some control of this may be achieved by using rosive action can result. cooling water. The usual method of controlling this kind
packed tubes in the air cooler section, or by rolling air The use of protective coatings or paints on cast iron or of attack is to select a tube material which not only is
cooler tubes last, if rolled or rolled-and-welded tube-to- fabricated-steel waterboxes requires special considera- suitable for use in a seawater galvanic system, but is also reduced by special designs to absorb the velocity head
tube-sheet joints are used. Experience has shown that tion. Defects in the coating can cause accelerated cor- compatible with the design velocity of the condenser. energy; however, additional space is required. Where
the corrosion of steel condenser shells and internal baWe rosion where the seawater penetrates the coating. Ap- Table 9 lists some tube materials commonly used in conditions, economic or otherwise, require high tube
parts is very minor and that a corrosion allowance of plying the coating to the face of a nonferrous tube sheet marine service and the recommended design water veloc- entrance velocities and high waterbox entrance velocities,
about in. is adequate on the steam side for the used in combination with a cast iron or steel waterbox, ity for which they may be considered suitable. Adher- the effect of cavitation may be greatly reduced by the use
planned operating life of almost any condenser in marine and leaving the ferrous material exposed, frequently ence to these values usually achieves satisfactory results of tube inlet-end inserts.
service. offers greater protection to the system than coating the with respect to the general corrosion of tubes but may Tube inserts are usually made of a plastic material,
Corrosion can be extremely severe on the cooling- iron or steel surfaces themselves. not be satisfactory in terms of tube inlet-end corrosion. although some are made of corrosion-resisting metal.
water side of marine condensers if not properly controlled (5) Sacrificial anodes attached to the inside of the Tube inlet ends may be subject to accelerated corrosive They are inserted into the inlet end of -the tube, and
by design, selection of materials, and installation. Sea- waterboxes are useful in protecting iron or steel surfaces attack should cavitation flow occur. Cavitation may re- cemented in place. They are made with a well-rounded
water, the condenser cooling medium, is an excellent and are especially needed when the ferrous material is sult when the contraction of the flow stream a t the en- entrance with their thickest wall just inside the entrance,
electrolyte. It promotes galvanic and crevice corrosion protected by coatings or paints. Common metals used trance is greater than the contraction contour of the tube forming an almost imperceptible throat. The wall then
in combinations of materials which are displaced from for anodes are soft iron, zinc, and magnesium. For these at the entrance and the water flow stream leaves the side tapers gradually to a feather edge, offering a minimum
one another in the galvanic series. Not only must the materials to function properly in the galvanic system of the tubes. This causes an erosion action and wears discontinuity where it terminates in the tube. They are
difference in corrosion potential between materials be they should be of high purity, except for magnesium away the protective film that the tube material develops. made in various lengths (about 4 to 10 tube diameters)
considered, but the relationship or ratio of their respec- which is frequently alloyed with manganese, or with zinc Thus, unprotected metal is continuously exposed and and are selected on the basis of the extent of cavitation
tive areas in contact with their environment must be and aluminum to increase the duration of the required corrosion proceeds rapidly. Cavitation is increased with previously experienced or exppted. Tube-end inserts
taken into account. For example, highly corrosion- current levels. Iron or steel anodes have been used suc- 1
I
waterboxes of poor hydraulic design, especially those have proved to be effective %hen properly installed. It
resistant materials such as the nickel-copper alloys or cessfully with most systems which do not include iron or I where the velocity of the cooling water entering the is important that they are securely cemented or wedged
high-nickel stainless steels may be safely used for steel. If cast iron condenser waterboxes are part of the waterbox equals or exceeds the average water velocity in into place and that the feather edge is extremely thin and
bolting or for fasteners in combination with major parts system, zinc anodes should be used to reduce the rate of the tubes. The cavitation effect caused by the high well bonded. Otherwise, the junction may set up its own
made of cast iron or steel because the ratio of their re- wastage of the waterbox material. Zinc anodes should entrance velocity of the water in the waterbox, with re- cavitation effect downstream and transfer the damage to
spective areas (alloy to steel or iron) is small. The steel not be installed on systems which do not have iron or steel spect to the water velocity in the condenser tubes, can be another tube area.
or iron is sacrificed by galvanic action in protecting the components; otherwise corrosion is usually accelerated.
high-alloy materials. The steel or iron, by comparison, Combined with coatings, anodes improve the distribution
is so great in area that its loss through galvanic corrosion of current and the protective coating used may be allowed
becomes insignificant. to have some porosity without damaging effects (also see 3
Some basic principles and recommended practices section 1 of chapter 14). Section 3
with respect to mitigating galvanic corrosion in con- (6) Galvanic corrosion can be accelerated by stray
densers are as follows: currents. It may be greatly reduced or eliminated by Surface Cnsdenser Performance
(1) Where possible, use one material for all parts of bonding. Usual practice with condensers is to metal-
the condenser cooling-water system, or select materials lically connect the condenser shell, tube sheet, and water- 3.1 General Considerations. The Heat Exchange through their application can be designed and built to
close to one another in the galvanic scale. box with a number of nonferrous metal straps, usually Institute Standards for Steam Surface Condensers pro- meet the performance specified.
(2) The materials used for bolting and fasteners, made of copper or high-copper alloy. Because of the low vide a comprehensive treatment of surface condenser 3.2 Tdrms and Nomenclature. The terms and no-
and in some instances welding, should be selected to be voltages associated with galvanic systems, an adequate performance and describe levels of performance which menclature that are commonly used to describe steam
more corrosion resistant than the materials they join. number of bonding straps should be used (they may be oan be obtained from well-designed condensers. The surface condenser performance are as follows:
(3) Provide a greater corrosion allowance for less spaced on 18in. to 24 in. centers around the periphery of aotual operating performance of condensers is usually Condenser Duty-Condenser duty is the net heat
noble materials in a galvanic system (such as carbon the tube sheet). I oompared for meanful interpretation with the HE1 per- transferred to the cooling water f r o u l l sources of heat
steel or cast iron as opposed to copper-base materials or (7) Crevice corrosion develops where there is an formance standards. These standards do not serve as a entering the condenser. 16% also called the-hourly heat
high nickel-chromium alloys of steel). irregularity in surfaces, a junction, sharp bends, or other design tool except that they establish a guide for the /and is expressed in Btu per hour.
(4) The use of corrosion-resistant metals such as discontinuity where oxygen does not have ready access. application of rational design methods and procedures. Absolute Pressure-Absolute pressure is the measure of
copper-nickel, aluminum brass, and naval brass has The difference in oxygen concentration in the crevice and The Heat Exchange Institute Standards are suitable pressure with reference to a perfect vacuum. It is ex-
'
been an effective means for controlling corrosion. These that outside the crevice sets up a corrosion cell. It may for determining condenser size and type and can readily pressed in inches of mercury, absolute.
materials resist corrosion by the formation of a durable be manifested by corrosion within the crevice itself, or bo used as a basis for determining equipment costs for Static Pressure-Static pressure is the stagnation pres-
protective oxide film on the exposed surfaces. Corrosion external but adjacent to the crevice. It may be avoided line in economic optimization studies. Also, their valid- sure less the pressure effect of velocity. When the veloc-
has also been mitigated by using ferrous sulphate to form by design, or by the selection of materials. I n the cir- ity is sufficient to assure that condenser selections made ity of the fluid is zero, the static pressure and stagnation
MARINE ENGINEERING MAIN AND AUXILIARY CONDENSERS
fouled, to the overall heat transfer of new clean tubes. J Corrections to 0, for the variable specific heat may be
pressure are equal. Static pressure is expressed in inches
of mercury. It is dimensionless. neglected. For calculations which require extreme ac-
Condenser Pressure-Condenser pressure is the ab- C h s e r SurfaceCondenser surface is the surface curacy, such as thdse associated with the establishment
solute static pressure in the condenser shell, measured measured on the outside of the heat transfer tubes be- of condenser final designs, equation (8) should be modi-
within one foot of the f i s t tubes in the inlet steam flow tween the inside faces of the tube sheets, including in- fied to compensate for the changes in T, which result from I
path, and with the distribution of measurement points in ternal and/or external air coolers and that portion of the pressure losses in the condenser and the effect of the
conformity with ASME PTC 12.2 Steam Condensing tubes within the support plates. It is expressed in square partial pressure of noncondensable gases. This will re-
Apparatus. feet. flect the true heat transferponditions as they exist in the
C o n d e ~ n gSteam Temperature-Condensing steam condenser; see Section 4 for additional discussion on this
temperature is the saturation temperature of the con- Nomenclature 3.4 ~oeffiidentof Heat Transfer. The coefficient of
subject.
densing steam at the "condenser pressure" and is ex- C = condenser tube heat transfer constant from
pressed in degrees F. Table 11 heat transfek recommended by the Heat Exchange Insti-
Initial Temperature Diference-The initial tempera- C' = ratio: gpm of cooling water to square feet of tute is expressed by an equation which is a reasonably
ture dierence is the difference between the "condensing condensing surface, p m / s q f t accurate simplification of the classical heat transfer re-
steam temperatureJJ and the temperature of the inlet D = outside tube diameter, in. sistance summation equation. The Heat Exchange In-
cooling water expressed in degrees F. Fl = heat transfer temperature correction factor from 30 40 50 €0 70 80 90 100 stitute equation is as follows:
COOLING WATER INLET TEMPERATURE, O F
Temperature Rise-The temperature rise is the dif- Fig. 22
ference between the cooling-water outlet temperature Fa = tube material and wall thickness correction fac- Fig. 22 Heat transfer temperature correction factor [3]
and the cooling-water inlet temperature expressed in tor from Table 10 Equation (9) is limited to water velocities in the tubes
degrees F. Fa = heat transfer tube cleanliness correction factor, of 3 fps minimum and 8 fps maximum. For velocities
Terminal Temperature Dzference-The terminal tem- selected as indicated from experience greater than 8 fps,'the equation usually yields high values
perature difference is the difference between the "con- Hl = initial temperature difference : condensing T, = saturation steam temperature in condenser for U. +-
densing steam temperatureJJand the outlet temperature steam temperature less cooling-water inlet steam inlet, corresponding to P,, F The factor FI may be obtained from the graph in Fig.
of the cooling water expressed in degrees F. temperature, deg F U = overall heat transfer coefficient, Btu/hr-sq ftr 22, and Fais given in Table 10. The factor Fa is selected
Logarithmic Mean Temperature Diference-The loga- Hz = terminal temperature difference: condensing deg F on the basis of experience. Values of C for different tube
rithmic mean temperature difference is the ratio of "tem- steam temperature less cooling-water outlet V = water velocity in tubes, fps sizes are given in Table 11.
perature riseJJto the Napierian logarithm of the ratio of temperature, deg F W = steam condensed, lb/hr
the "initial temperature dierenceJJto the "terminal tem- h = heat transferred to cooling water, Btu/lb (of Y = ratio of initial temperature difference to terminal 3.5 Heat Transfer Performance Standards
perature differenceJJexpressed in degrees F. steam) temperature difference, dimensionless a. Fourier Equation. The Fourier equation for uni-
Condensate Temperature Depression-Condensate tem- Kl = surface constant for tube diameter and gauge. 19, = logarithmic mean temperature difference, deg F
directional heat transfer is used to express the hourly
perature depression is the difference between the "con- See Table 12 heat floly in terms of the hehkmtransfersurface, coefficient
L = exposed length of tubes, ft 3.3 Mean Temperature Difference. The true mean
densing steam temperatureJJand the temperature of the temperature difference across the heat transfer path from of heat transfer, and mean temperature difference. For
condensate leaving the hotwell. It may be either posi- N = number of tubes condenser calculations it is written as follows:
P = number of water passes in condenser the temperature of the heat source to the temperature of
tive (cooling)
-- or negative
- (heating) and is expressed in the heat receiver is most accurately expressed as the
degrees F. P, = absolute static pressure in condenser steam inlet,
Coolino-Water Velocit~i-Cooling (circulating) water in. Hg logarithmic mean temperature difference. I t is as im-
Q = quantity of cooling water, gpm portant in determining heat flow or required heat trans-
velocitv is the average velocity of the-cooling water flow- fer surface as is the overall heat transfer coefficient.
ing through the h e 2 transfer tubes. It is expressed in S = exposed tube surface, sq f t b. Heat Balance Equation. The heat balance equa-
Ti = cooling-water inlet temperature, F As commonly used in condenser calculations, the tion used for condenser calculations equates the heat
feet per second. logarithmic mean temperature diffexence is a close ap- given up by the heat source to the heat absorbed by the
Heat Transfer Coemnt-The heat transfer coefficient To = cooling-water outlet temperature, F
Tt = cooling-water temperature rise, deg F proximation of the true temperature difference between circulating water. It is usually written as follows:
is the average rate of overall heat transfer, from all heat the temperatures of the heat source and heat receiver.
sources, to the cooling water. It is expressed in Btu/hr-
sq fMeg F. The reasons for the errors are as follows: First, it is
Cleanliness F a c t o ~ T h ecleanliness factor is the ratio based on the condensing temperature, as previously de-
Table 1 1 Values of Tube Heat Transfer Constant, C [3] fined, which is assumed constant throughout the con-
of the overall heat transfer of tubes in service which are densing steam space; actually the condensing tempera- NOTE: Wh in equations (10) and (11) may be from a
Tube OD, in. eat Transfer Constant ture reduces as steam flows through the tube banks. number,of heat sources in addition to the exhaust steam
Second, it is based on the assumption of constant specific from the turbine. When considering all heat sources,
Table 10 Values of Tube Wall Thickness and Material +
heat; actually, a constant specific heat is not attainable Wh = W I ~ I Wahz . . . W.h,. + +The constant 512
Correction Factor, Fp [3] when condensing impure vapor. is for a seawater coolant; for a freshwater coolant, the
Tube Wall Gauge, BWG Fortunately, however, the total error is relatively small, constant is 500.
Tube Material 20 18 16 Table 12 Values of Surface Constant for Tube and the logarithmic mean temperature difference as c. Equations Used-'&I Sizing-. Condensers. The
Admiralty Metal 1.02 1.00 0.96 Diameter and Gauge, K1 generally used in condenser performance calculations is four basic equatioas used in sizing condensers are
Aluminum Bronee 1.00 0.97 0.94 sufficiently accurate. The equation for the logarithmic equations (8), (9), (lo), and (11). Additional equations
Aluminum Brass 1.00 Q. 97 0.94 Tube
Copper Nickel 90/10 0.94 0.90 0.85 Diapleter, mean temperature difference is: derived from these and other relations of tube geometry
Copper Nickel 80/2@ 0.90 0.86 0.81 m. 16 BWG 18 BWG 20 BWG and surface simplify the computations for determining
Copper Nickel 70/30 0.87 0.82 0.77
% 0.272 0.240 0.216 surface, general dimensions, and other characteristics of
Titaniumb 0.77 0.71 0.67a 0.175
94 0.208 0.188 condensers. The more commonly used supplementary
a Estimated values.
b Tentative values. Y 0.168
0.141
0.155
0.131
0.144
0.123 equations are as follows:
476 MARINE ENGINEERING MAIN AND AUXILIARY CONDENSERS
b. Establishing Condenser Size (Example 1). There Waterbox inlet loss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.82 f t
are a number of mathematical procedures used in estab- (good practice requires waterbox
C' =
V For values of Kl lishing the size of a condenser, depending upon the in-
-
P L K ~ see Table 12 inlet nozzle velocities of 0.70 to 0.80
formation assumed for the application. One of the more times the condenser tube water ve- 3 825 '
N = -=, 865 tubes
commonly used procedures is outlined in the following locity; in this case 0.75 X 6 fps = DL
example for an auxiliary condenser. 4.5 fps was used) The condenser friction loss is the same as for Example
Assume Waterbox outlet loss (V = 4.5 fps; 2 1, because the water velycity in the tubes, the tube
Tf = 75 F pass). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.15 ft lengths, and the waterbox characteristics were assumed
T, = 8 deg F Total condenser friction loss. . . . . . . . . . .l.70 ft of water to be the same. The amount of surface and cooling
D =%in. water required'change because of the difference in the two
Recapitulation of results back pressures, one calculated, the other assumed.
Tube gauge = 18 BWG
Tube material = 90/10 copper nickel Condenser surface = 1362 sq f t
V = 6 fps Cooling water required = 1892 gprn Recapitulation of results
L = 9 ft 0 in. exposed Condenser pressure = 1.450 in. Hg Condenser surface = 1273 sq f t
P-, = from steam tables, P =2 Condenser friction loss = 1.70 ft of water
corresponding to T, 1 Cooling water required = 1768 gprn
W = 7750 I b / h i Number of tubes required = 925 Condenser aressure = 1.50 in. HE
h = 1000 Btu/lb Condenser kction loss = 1.70 ft;f water
c. Condenser Designed for a Given Back Pressure
F8 = 0.85 (85y0 clean tubes) (Example 2). When the condenser is to be sized for a Number of tubes required = 865
3.6 Design Criterici and Performance Standards Derive from the abbve assumptions given back pressure, the computation procedure is d. Determination of Condenser Performance (Ex-
typically as follows for an auxiliary condenser: ample 3). In the process of testing a condenser, it is
a. Considerations in Determining Condenser Size. F1 = 1.020 Fig. 22 Assume
The design of condensers, based upon a desired perform- F2 = d.90 Table 10 general practice to compare the condenser performance
ance, is influenced by eight principal variables as follows: Kl = 0.240 Table 12 Tf = 75 F with a standard, such as those published by the Heat
C = 267 able il D =%in. Exchange Institute. A procedure commonly used for
(1) Total hourly heat transferred, or condenser duty, To = T i + T, = 7 5 + 8 = 8 3 F Tube gauge = 18 BWG i determining condenser performance from test data is out-
in Btu, which is a function of: Tube material = 90/10 copper nickel lined below using the condenser from Example 1.
The condenser surface, cooling water required, con- V = 6 fps Given
Weight of steam condensed densing pressure, number of tubes, and cooling-water
Enthalpy of entering steam less the enthalpy friction loss are computed as follows: L = 9 ft 0 in. exposed
of the condensate P =2 5 = 1362sqft
W = 7750 l b / h D
Tube
=% i n . = 1$ BWG
gauge
Heat loss or gain from drains and makeup v h = 1000 Btu/lb
, z2
the steam condenser is a thermodynamic device which organic vapors are in good agreement with the Nusselt and
incorporates both the principles of heat transfer and the prediction; for steam condensing on small tubes at low rf, + rr* =rr Table 13 Values of r., the Resistance of the Oxide Film
thermodynamics of fluid flow, and both of these disci- condensing rates, the conductance determined with the
so that on the Inside and OtikMe-Surfacas.of Clean Tubes
plines must be carefully considered in its design. The Nusselt equation for a single tube is about 65 per- -
roz + rf + rtco
literature contains a large amount of data, on heat trans- cent of that empirically determined for a single tube. rc =
tor,
fer which relate to water flowing through tubes and Experimental results with steam for a bank of 20 tubes (22) Tube Material hr+q ft-deg F/Btu
steam condensing on tubes. Generally, these data apply is in reasonable agreement with the Nusselt equation for The resistance of the tube wall is determined from the Admiralty Metal 0.000136
Aluminum Bronze 0.000153
to single-tube condensers and they describe performance a single horizontal tube. The adjustment for additional thermal conductivity of the tube material and its thick- Aluminum Brass 0.000167
with good accuracy. If applied to multi-tube condens- rows of tubes is small, with the heat transfer coefficient ness. For thin-walled tubes there is no need to correct 90/10 Copper Nickel 0.000178
for tube diameter; nevertheless, the general equation for 80/20 Copper Nickel 0.000193
ers, serious error will result unless other factors in addi- reducing only about 10 percent for tube banks with as 70/30 Copper Nickel 0.000243
rt,', 1s: Titanium 0.000195
b
480 MARINE ENGINEERING MAIN AND AUXILIARY CONDENSERS 48 1
olds numbers greater than 2100. rtw= resistance of tube wall, sq ftrhr-deg F/Btu
ro, = resistance of new clean-tube oxide film, sq fbhr-
Nu = C(Re)"(Pr)* (24) deg F/Btu
where rf = resistance of fouling in service, sq fbhr-deg F/
Btu
Re = Reynolds number
Nu = Nusselt number 4.3 Steam Space Pressure Losses. In the process of
P r = Prandtl number condensing a vapor, the condensing temperature is a
function of the vapor pressure in accordance with the
With the exponents evaluated, equation (24) is com- saturation pressure-temperature relationship of the
monly referred to as the McAdams equation, or the thermodynamic fluid involved, in this case steam. The
Dittus-Boelter equation, which is as follows : steam flow from the condenser steam inlet, around the
tube bundles, and through the tube banks is character-
ised by a pressure loss with the condensing steam tem-
perature in conformity with the saturation pressure-
where temperature relationship. This pressure loss results in a
reduction in temperature in the direction of flow, and the m H "
h, = conductance (inside tube surface to water), Btu/ resulting change in temperature from steam inlet to air
hr-sq ft-deg F cooler inlet affects the rate of heat transferred in the vari- (a) Tight tube spacing, low steam entrance velocities (b) Moderate tube spacing, moderate steam entrance'velocities
D = inside diameter of tube, f t ous pressure zones of the condenser.
k = cooling-water thermal conductivity, Btu/hr-sq The mechanism of heat transfer requires that heat
fbdeg F/ft flow take place from one temperature to another lower
p = cooling-water density, pcf temperature. To correlate with theory, heat flow must
V = water velocity, ft/hr bank. Consequently, it is 10Ger than the heat transfer
be based on the temperature of the steam in contact with computed on the basis of the average condensing tem-
p = cooling-water viscosity, lb/hr-ft the tubes themselves, rather than the commercially ac-
C, = water specific heat, Btu/lb-deg F perature in the tube bank. The two condensing tem-
cepted definition of condenser heat transfer performance peratures can be related to condensing pressures, one
C = constant of the Heat Exchange Institute or the ASME Per- representing contract pressure, and the other represent-
The proposed values of C vary as follows: formance Test Code. mg the average pressure within the tube bank. It is de-
To simplify the analysis of the heat flow system, it can eirable to produce a design so that there is a minimum
McAdams, 0.0225 be assumed that a single tube can be selected which will
Dittus-Boelter, 0.0243 difference between the pressure representing contract
represent the average performance of the entire tube condenser performance and the average pressure within
HE1 data, 0.0240 bundle, or bundles. Considering - such an average tube, the tube bank. To accom~lishthis it is necessarv to Dro-
For steam operating in the temperature the steam pressure at its surface is quite dieerent than duce a design wherein thk internal losses are less than
range characteristic of marine power plants, c = 0.024. that at the condenser steam inlet; and, consequently,
those included in the contract performance standard
is recommended. the steam temperature, in conformity with the saturation (inherent in HE1 performance).
l-he physical properties of the cooling water pressure-temperature relationship will also be different. In order to illustrate the principles involved in the de-
spend to the mean bulk temperature of the cooling In addition, the performance standards of the HE1 and
- termination of condenser pressure losses, consider the
rrm41.r test measurements conforming to the ASME Performance
wal,Gl. condenstr design shown by Fig. 23. Figure 23 repre-
d. Overall Heat Transfer. The overall heat transfer Test Code for Steam Condensers are based on static pres- sents a condenser shell geometry which is based on a
coefficient U,can be calculated from the conductances sure. The condenser tube, however, senses a tempera- given available space. It is assumed that the condenser
for condensing vapor and heating water, and the total ture more closely related to total or stagnation pressure surface, water flow, and tube size, gauge, length, and
of the conduction resistances. In condenser practice than to static pressure. It is, therefore, necessary to con- number have been determined. The task remaining is to
it is customary to calculate the coefficient U,based on sider these relationships in performing a rigorous heat establish the optimum tu&g.arrangement.
the outside surface of the heat transfer tubes. transfer analysis. The steam flowing from the steam id& to the air
The general equation for the overall coefficient U,for The heat transfer representing the contract perform- cooler inlet incurs a pressure loss. This loss may be con-
steam condensers, with steam condensed on the outside ance of the condenser and the actual heat transfer of sidered to be made up of two components: (1) the dis-
of the tubes and cooling water heated on the inside of the the average tube in the tube bank are based on the same tribution loss, that is, the loss in pressure required to
tubes, is as follows: duty. The heat transfer corresponding to contract per- cause the steam to flow from the condenser steam inlet,
I
formance includes losses within the condenser steam throughout the length of the condenser, and around the
1
- - -
1
+
u, h8 h W a
Do
- +rho + +70, 71
space and is based on a higher condensing temperature
(26) than the average condensing temperature within the tube
(c) Loose tube spacing, high steam entrance velocities
UNITS OF
PRESSURE
Loss
steam inlet lane. The average of these three total or
stagnation pressures may be considered to be a reason-
ably valid estimate of the average stagnation pressure of
the steam entering the tube banks.
The steam flow in a condenser is a compressible, vari-
7 PRESSURE ZONE 1
where
AP,, = mean total pressure loss around tube bundle.
- 3
in. Hg
APla\= pressure loss at zone 1, flow path L1, (gener-
A = & ( P - D~)L,
I P
ally zero), in. Hg. Pressure at location 0
in pressure zone 1 is to be taken aa P. where ,
from equation (28). A = entrhnce area to tube bundle, sq f t
APu = prewure loss from zone 1to zone 2, flow path L = perimeter of tube bundle, f t
L2, in. Hg P = tube pitch (for variable pitch use equivalent
APa-2 = pressure loss from zone 2 to zone 3, flow path value), f t
L,,in. Hg Do = tube diameter, f t
= pressure loss from zone 3 to Zone 4, flow path Lt , condenser tube length, ft
AP,* =
-
Lr, in. Hn
entrance loss, zone 1 to flow path L2, in. Hg, With this flow area the steam velocity entering the
equation (29) periphery of the tube bank is computed 'as
AP, = exit loss, from end of flow path La to zone 3,
in. Hg, equation (29), except the coeffi-
cient becomes 0.25 (approx.) /
where
and where
V = steam velocity, fps
REYNOLDS NUMBER: R.= W = steam condensed in tube bundle, lb/hr
p = steam density at the mean static pressure
Fig. 26 Friction factor for steam distribution losses around the tube bank, pcf
The preceding example illustrates the principles used.
The specific treatment of flow and geometry in the exam- VI, the steam velocity in ft/hr, is used in calculating
ple should not be considered to be limiting. Many sim- the Reynolds number. The )Reynolds number may be
p = steam density, pcf p = density of steam, pcf plifying assumptions were made and improved accuracy calculated from equation (30) modified as'
Vl = steam velocity, ft/hr C = conversion constant, psf to in. Hg = 0.01414 is possible by the application of more rigorous techniques.
p = steam viscosity, lb/hr-ft It is recommended that after a condenser is selected
This procedure is repeated to determine the frictional
D, = equivalent diameter of flow area (i.e., the ratiopressure loss from pressure zone 2 to pressure zone 3, through the procedures described, a more rigorous check
of flow area to wetted perimeter multiplied byagain taking into account the reducing mass flow along of APdm be made by applying the principles to the com- where Do = outside tube diameter (ft), and all other
41, ft plete tube bundles and making an allowance for stratified terms are as described for equation (30) at the tempera-
La. It is repeated along L4 to the centerline of the tube ture corresponding to the mean pressure at the tube bank
Using the mean of the two Reynolds numbers for zones 1 bundle where the terminal flow and velocity is assumed flow a t the pressure measurement zone, pressure zone 1.
to be zero. In this case the flow area is calculated as the b. Determination of Pressure Loqs in Tube Banks. entrance.
and 2, refer .to Fig. 26 and determine the friction factor, The friction factor is determined by entering Fig. 27
f, on the basis of a roughness equal to that for smooth distance from the tubes to the maximum hotwell level For the calculation of the pressure loss through tube
(assutning no other obstructions) times the condenser banks, the actual bank is replaced by an equivalent with an adjusted Reynolds number equal to one half of
tubes. the value calculated from equation (36).
The pressure loss due to friction from pressure zone 1tube length. rectangular one having the same perimeter and number
An exit loss due to the change in flow direction from of tubes. The equivalent number of rows in the depth of The tube bank pressure loss equation, modified for a
to pressure zone 2 can be calculated using the Fanning uniformly decreasing mass flow, is [9]:
such a tube bank may be computed from the equation
. the main steam lane to the underside of the tube bank
equation as follows (the entrance loss from equation (29)
must be added to the associated A P , in this example must be added. For this purpose, equation (29) may be
AP9-1) : used with a coefficient of 0.25 instead of 0.05. Such losses,
which are entrance and exit losses, are added to the fric-
tion losses calculated at the various zones of the main where
where
steam distribution lane; i.e., at pressure zone 1-2 (flow \
path L2) and pressure zone 3 4 (flow path Ld) which are AP, = pressure loss through tube bank, in. Hg
where N o = equivalent number of tube rows f' = dimensionless fgsion factor (Fig. 27) .
illustrated by Fig. 25. N = total number of tubes in tube bundle being con-
APa-l = pressure loss from zone 1 to zone 2, in. Hg The process for computing the mean total pressure loss
N, = equivalent number of tube rows - ,
sidered p = mean density of steam at tube bank entrance,
f = friction factor from Fig. 26 around the tube bundle involves averaging the losses for P = tube pitch (for a variable pitch use an equivalent
L = flow length from zone 1 to zone 2, ft selected incremental flow distances. This may be done pcf
value), ft V = entering steam velocity between tubes, fps
V = average velocity between zone 1 and zone 2, fps by graphic integration, by algebraic averaging, or by .L = perimeter of tube bundle, ft g = gravitational acceleration, ft/sec2
D, = average equivalent diameter (i.e., the ratio of other convenient methods. An acceptable result may be
flow area to wetted perimeter multiplied by obtained by using the following equation, which is based The next step is to calculate the velocity through the The mean effective pressure loss through the tube bank
4) between zone 1 and zone 2, ft on a three-pressure-zone analysis with flow directions minimum flow area between the outer tubes. The flow is used to determine the mean condensing pressure in
g = gravitational acceleration, ft/sec2 and distances as shown in Fig. 25. nrea may be calculated from the equation the tube bank and its corresponding temperature, which
486 MARINE ENGINEERING MAIN AND* AUXILIARY CONDENSERS 487
determined by first determining the hourly heat or duty terms of total resistance or in terms of overall heat trans-
per square foot of condensing surface (Btu transferred fer. It is more meaningful if the fouling resistance ex-
per hour square foot). _The mean temperature of the pected in service is excluded. It is expressed as
condensate film is equal to the product of the unit
hourly heat and the sum of the following resistances from
Fig. 2 7 Friction factor for steam
oquaiion (26),(&
.- -
+ r, + r, + r i), ,added to the The PF should be greater than unity, and it is considered
penetration (tube bank) louer
mean bulk temperature of the cooling water. Using good practice to design for a performance factor of not
t,his temperature to cdculate h, from equation (20)) cal- less than 1.05.
uulate U, from equation (26). The predicted operating pressure for the condenser
c. Performance Evaluation. By comparing the based on its d'esign geometry and on rational heat trans-
values of U, the heat transfer coefficient related to pres- fer can be determined using the previously calculated
aure loss, and Ur, the rational heat transfer coefficient, mean tube bundle pressure, PmJ as the base. Using equa-
tbe adequacy of the condenser design can be determined. tion (39)) cialculate a new value for P,(Udm and AP,, as
To meet specified performance requirements, the follow- previously determined are assumed to remain constant).
ing relationship must exist: Using equation (28) determine P,, the static pressure
is used to calculate the basic heat transfer. The mean transfer coefficient as related to the fluid flow character- the condenser will produce in the pressure-measurement
pressure loss in the tube bank, with units of in. Hg, is istics, the procedure delineated in Section 4.3 may be zone as defined in the H.E.I. Standards. As a check, P,
computed from used to calculate P,,, the mean total pressure correspond- The greater the difference, the greater will be the design will be less than the H.E.I. specified condenser pressure,
ing to the average tube representing the tube bundle ~narginor excess performance characteristics of the con- provided Ur > Up, as required by equation (41).
design conditions based on P,, the mean condenser total denser. U, represents the heat transfer needed to meet The methods and procedures outlined represent a
pressure. The temperature corresponding t o P, is the porformance requirements, U, represents the heat trans- reasonably accurate method for evaluathg condenser
In order to calculate the pressure in the tube bank re- condensing temperature used in determining the heat for attainable. Should the relationship shown in equa- design geometry and performance. Accuracy can be im-
lated to AP, the following procedure is suggested. All transfer necessary in,the tube bundle to meet the con- lion (41) be the reverse, the condenser will not meet its proved by a more rigorous treatment of the fluid flow
heat transfer calculations in this procedure are based on denser performance requirements. performance requirements and other condenser configma- chaxacteristics. The degree of accuracy improvement
total pressure and, therefore, the mean condensing pres- Using the temperature corresponding to P,, to deter- Iions should be investigated. Up, can be significantly necessary depends on the circumstances of a particular
sure, P,,, in the tube bank representative of the con- mine Om, the heat transfer coefficient can be calculated ahanged by modifications in the condenser design geome- case.
denser as a unit is referred to the design condenser pres- using equation (10) of Section 3, modified as follows: tlry; Ur is only slightly affected by the condenser de- While the descriptions presented have been related to
sure plus its velocity pressure, i.e., P,. P, is calculated ~ i g ngeometry. If a correction cannot be accomplished the normal geometry of the larger main condensers hav-
as follows: by changing the tube bundle design, the condenser shell ing two separate and distinc$kube bundles, the method
would normally be the controlling factor; in such an is also applicable to single-bundle condensers such as
P, = Pt - APhn - AP, (39) instance, it should be made larger. those generally used for auxiliary condensers. The prin-
In this instance, U, = heat transfer for the tube bundle In some respects it is more convenient and more under-
where ciples can also be adapted to condensens having more
related to pressure loss considerations, i.e., the mean ntandable to use resistances rather than conductances for than two separate tube bundles or to any shell-and-tube
the mean total pressure corresponding to the bundle pressure, P,. All other terms are as geherally making the comparison of performance. In this case, apparatus which condenses a vapor on the shell side.
average tube representing the tube bundle defined for equation (10).
design conditions calculated with P, as the The value of U,, as computed from equation (40) may References
reference, in. Hg not include a cleanliness factor, except as the value of S, where 1 Courtesy, Foster Wheeler Corporation.
mean condenser total pressure (see equation the condensing surface, reflects any cleanliness factor
2 Courtesy, Worthington Corporation.
28)) in. Hg used in the determination of condenser size. R r = -1= overall resistance frdm rational equa- 3 Courtesy, Heat Exchange Institute.
mean distribution pressure loss (see equation b. Heat Transfer CoeflBcientas Computed by Rational ur tions, hr-sq ft-deg F/Btu
4 Courtesy, American Society of Mechanical Engi-
32)) in. Hg Equations. The procedure for computing the heat 1 overall resistance from fluid flow char- neer,
transfer coefficient by rational means is delineated in R ~m = -u,,
= acteristics, hr-sq ft-deg F/Btu
mean penetration pressure loss (see equation 5 J. E. Fowler and R. E Brandon, "Steam Flow Dis-
no\ .- n g
JUJ, 111.
TT- Section 4.2. First the conductances for condensing and If fouling resistance is introduced (it must be con- tribution at the Exhaust of Large 'steam Turbines,"
convection heat transfer are determined and converted lridered to be the same for both the resistance calculated ASME paper 54SA-62.
4.4 Performance Prediction and Evaluation. Out- to resistances. To these resistances, add the resistance by rational means and by fluid flow characteristics) equa- 6 J. P.&bald and W. D. Nobles, "Control of Tube
lined in the preceding aragraphs are two elements of a due to conduction heat transfer; namely, that due to tion (42) becomes Vibration in Steam Condensers," Proceedings of the
procedure which may Fle followed to determine if a se- tube wall resistance, inside clean-tube resistance, and
outside clean-tube resistance. If a cleanliness factor was American Power Cmference, ~llinbis1nstitute7of ~ e c h -
lected condenser design geometry is adequate to meet the (43) nology, Chicago, Illinois, 1962.
condenser performance requirements. The first consists included with equation ( a ) , the resistance due to fouling, t~ndmay also be written as 7 -A. P. ~ i l b u r n "Problems
, in Design and Research
of an investigation of the heat transfer relationship as calculated from this cleanliness factor, must be included
discussed in Section 4.2; and the second procedure in-
volves an analyk of the fluid flow and ressure loss rela-
here.
Convert these resistances to UrJthe rational heat trans-
'
Rdm = (R, + +
ry) - (Rr rf)
on Condensers of ~ a ~ o u i k T a nVapo3
d
(44) Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 1951.
MixtgesJJJThe
fer coefficient representing the tube bundle performance, where Rdm= design margin as a resistance, hr-sq ft-deg 8 "Standards for Steam Surface Condensers," Heat
tionships as described in Section 4 . 1 A method of lp/Btu, and must be positive if the condenser is to meet Exchange Institute, New York.
combining these two procedures in order to evaluate the using equation (26). Note that in calculating U, the
physical properties of the two fluids, condensing steam
i t ~required
l performance. 9 W. H. McAdams, Heat Transmission, McGraw-
performance of a condenser from its design geometry is The performance factor PF may be expressed either in Hill Book Co., New York, 1954.
outlined as follows: and heating water, must be evaluated at their correct
a. Heat Transfer Coefficientas Related to Character- temperatures, see equations (20) and (25).
istics of Fluid Flow. In order to determine the heat The mean temperature of the condensate film may be
t HEAT EXCHANGERS 489
CHAPTER X I V
Charles D. Rose
Philip Liu I Heat Exchangers
Section 1
ITEM
LWBICA~G
OIL COOLER
Low-paEssmr~1
F ~ HEATER
D
HIGH-PEEBSUBE
FEEDHEATEB
- TANKCLEANING
HEATER
---
SYBTEM
DRAINCOOLER
ELECTBONICB
EQUIPMENT
T* side COOLER
Fluid Seawater Feed Saltwater
Steam Steam steam' Chilled Water Boiler Makeup Water
Velocity, fps 0-7 4-7 0-7 or Seawater Water
1-4 Condensing Condensing Condensing
R ~ 2 ~ 5/8"
7lowODfin-19x 0.049"
1
fins
5/811 OD x 0.049"
2-8
5/8" OD x 0.049" 3/4" OD x 0.049" 2 2 2
34
1
5/8" OD
:;"
1/4" OD
/
4-7
2
5/8" OD
per inch X 0.049 X 0.035" XO.049"
Tube Material 90/10 CuNi 90/10 CuNi 70/30 CuNi 90/10 CuNi (bayonet tube) (bayonet tube) BWG ,. BWG
H a d Material Bronze Steel Steel Steel CuNi 90/10 CuNi Steel Steel 90/10 CuNY 90/10 CuNl
Steel or Cast Steel Cast Steel Bronze 4 90/10 CUNI
Tube Sheet 90/10 CuNi Steel Forged Steel Bronze--Composition G 90/10 CuNi
Bronze- Steel Steel 90/10 CuNi or ... 90/10 CuNi
Composition G Bronm
SluU Side or steel Composition G
Fluid Oil Steam Steam Heater dr-ains
Velocity, f s
Number 6 P
2-3
10-16 (baaed)
Condensing
6 (baaed)
Condensing
6 (baaed) i'i (bafled) I
{ lrrt~dsteam
!rb~dst~sing
fi rlr H (baffled)
Fresh Water
...
Open Shell
Lubricating Oil
2-3
1 (baf8ed)
Fuel Oil
1-3
1 (baffled)
Fresh Water
3-5
1 (baffled)
Seawater
1-8
None
Steam
Condensing
1 (baffled)
Pas= Segmental
Type of b d e Segmental Segmental
Flow counterflow ... Counterflow, last pwa None
Boiling
Segmental
Counterflow
Segmental
Counterflow '
Segmental
Counterflow
None ,
Counterflow
Cbnslrvdion
Tube Joint Expanded m d e d Expanded or
welded Expanded Expanded Expanded Expanded Welded or
(buter) brazed
Thermal Floating Expausion joint U-Tubes U-Tubes Ferrules (inner)
Ekpansion tube sheet
Full Face
Floating head
or U-Tube ,
Bayonet Bayonet ... ... U-Tubes
Gasket Full Face Ring or flexible Ring (shell aide)
Solid co per ring Full Face Ring Ring Full Face Ring
(tube d e )
Bolting
Surfaca
Collar bolts
Finned
Stud Bolts
Bsre
Collar Bolts
Bare 8;;h l t a Stud Bolts
Bare
Stud Bolts
Finned
Stud Bolts
Finned
Stud Bolts
Bare
Stud Bolts
Bare
Stud Bolts
Bare
Therm41 PerfOnna?ca
Heat T r a d e r
Coefficients
~tu/hr-fd 40 800 600 200 , ,=
Surfaca 0.3 to 0.4 gpm L.O. 3 0 0 lb feed per 2.7 gpm seawater 180 lb drains per 10-20 60 45 400 500 500
Requirement per sq ft hr per sq f t per sq ft hr/sq ft 6-10 111 team %-50 lb steam 6-8 gph 75 gph 7-12 gph 150 h per 0.25 m 150 hper
Terminal &r Irr/sq ft per hr/sq ft
P Y = #?sq per sq ft T
Sq t boXr water
per sq ft
sq%
Temperature
Diffknce
(or LMTD) 18°F 10°F 190°F 100°F
200°F drop in d r u i ~ ~ ~
Temoerature 20°F d r o ~in L.0. 1 0 0 9 rise in feed 110°F rise in
8% non-
ucr~~tlansable
80°F
Boiling a t
100 pa aba
120°F
250°F
50°F
100°F
100-150°F
20°F
5°F drop in
fresh water
400°F
400°F drop in
sample temp.
200°F
80°F rise in
water temp.
corrosion products adhering to the base metal of the tube extend Ne in. beyond the face of the tube sheet.
wall. This protective a m is replaced a t the expense of Where s considerable temperature differential exists Heads are designed so that it will not be necessary
further corrosion of the tube wall. As continued removal withim a heat exchanger, a packed-tube design may be to disassemble piping to gain access to the inside of the
and replacement of the protective film of corrosion employed. Packed tubes, such as shown by Fig. 4 and heads The
and tubes.
tube bundle is usually of the removable type
proceeds, the tube wall is gradually thinned and the tube Fig. 8(c), allow considerable differential tube expansion
to tube sheet joint is weakened and ultimately fails or since each tube is free to move independent of the for easy cleaning and maintenance.
the tube wall just beyond the tube sheet is perforated. others. The combined low-pressure feed heater/drain I n the design of cooling water spaces and connec-
This type of erosion is generally termed impingement cooler/gland-exhaust condenser (which is described in tions, a smooth flow path must be provided to minimize
erosion, inlet end attack, air erosion, or bubble attack. Section 3.5) is a typical marine exchanger normally erosion-corrosion attack. Sharp comers and projecting
The occurrence and rapidity of the attack are governed employing packed tube ends. edges are avoided.
by the water velocity (for recoinmendations see Table 1)) Marine heat exchangers are designed in accordance Internal fittings are arranged to result in a
the amount of air entrained, and the design of the water- with the Standards of the Tubulas Exchanger Manu- minimum of interference with the water flow and a
box as it affect8 the velocity, ,direction, and turbulence facturers Association [I]' and the American Society of ' Rg. 4 Packed tube minimum of turbulend? Y
of the fluid flow approaching the tubes. Mechanical Engineers [2] in addition to compliance with Cooling water velocities a t the design point must
The inlet ends of the tubes are normally ground flush marine regulatory body wde requirements such as not exceed those specified or recommended by the
with the face of the tube sheets, and no gaps should be Lloyd's [3], U.S. Coast Guard [4], and the American material supplier.
left between the edges of tubes and the radius of the holes Bureau of Shipping [5]. Many additional standard requirements have been incorporated in specifications for Heat exchangers having tubes of length exceeding
on the inlet sections as gaps here tend to promote marine heat exchangers due to stringent space limitations 4 f t are designed so that the o r d e ~ n glength of tubes
impingement erosion. The outlet ends of tubes may 1 Numbers in brackets designate References at end of chapter. and reliability requirements. The following points are will be in multiples of 6 in. The ordering length of
emphasized in the design of marine heat exchangers: tubes is determined by addbg M in. to the face-to-face
MARINE ENGINEERING HEAT EXCHANGERS
(a) Flat face ring shell flange with full (d) Welded shell tube sheet joint with gasket. sheet area exposed to the flow of the cooling water into P
face unconfined gaskets on both shell semiconfined gasket on head side. the tubes. For cylindrical two-pass coolers, the water-
and head side.
box head depth ~houldbe not less than 35 percent of the
inside shell diameter.
All heat exchangers must be provided with
tuiequate foundation supports. When required by the
oonditions of service, provision is made in the design of
the supports to provide for expansion or contraction of
the shell. Heat exchanger supports are usually indepen-
dent of any att,ached piping. Supports must be given (bl Single W m n t e l
special consideration when designing for high-impact
ggmpatible fluids; should a tube joint fail, the leak can be is made small to minimize thd%esponseof the tubes to
(d) Rotated square tube pitch detected immediately, avoiding contamination of the shock loadings.
guids. The usual applications permit liquid and vapor There is considerable latitude in selecting the pitch for
prassures up to 1000 psig and 400 3 '. tubes. The four most common tube patterns, as viewed
1.3 Spseifle Construction Detuils. I n shell-and- from the tube sheet end,, am shown in Kg. 7. The
Cube heat exchangers, baffles are generally used to guide triangular pitch and rotated triangular pitch are the
(b) Rotated Triangular tube pitch flow and increase the velocity of the fluid flowing on the most compact forms, and the triangular pattern is the
rrhell side of the heat exchanger. The most commonly one most commonly used for marine heat exchangers.
uaed baffles are of the segmental type or its variations, as Square pitch and rotated-square pitch pattern have
Illustrated by Fig. 6. $
see-through lanes which facilitate manual or mechanical
of providing for shell or tube thermal expansion. When gaaketed joipt at each head end for servicing the tubes. Segmental baffles are formed by cutting out thin cleaning of the outside of the tubes. The square pitch
the packing on one side becomes deteriorated and There are no limits on pressure or temperature except metal plates to an outside diameter slightly less than the is common in submerged-tube boilers where passage for
eventually develops a leak, the leak is readily detectable for gasket considerations. b i d e diameter of the shell. A segment is cut out of the fluid circulation is important. It is a h applied in
through the vent and drain holes in the retaining ring The design indicated in Fig. 5th) is recommended baffle to form a segmental opening, the size of which s e ~ c e whme
s minimum pressure drop is a paramount
and the packing can be replaced. The studded retainer where contamination of one fluid medium by the other may vary from approximately 15 to 45 percent of the design criterion. Tube patterns other than' the four
ring permits repacking the tube side with full p r e m cannot be tolerated and provides for excellent thermal nhell cross-sectional area (with single segmental, double illuatrated in Fig. 7 could be used to dtisfy specific
maintained on the shell side. The usual applications ex~ansionof either the shell or tubes. The studded regmental, disk, and doughnut ba&) or higher than design co%iderations as to pressure drop or turbulence,
permit liquids axid vapors to 300 psig and 300 F (the r e k n e r ring permits repacking the tube side with full 46 percent of the shell area (with triple segmental but they would be more costly to manufacture.
temperature is limited by the packing material). pressure maintained on the shell side. The double tube baffles). The tubes must be supported at intervals Tube center-to-center distances are normally 6.25
The design indicated in Fig. 5 0 is an alternative sheet type of construction is often specified by the Navy dong their length to minimize tube vibrations excited times the tube diameter, or greater, and uniform over the
means of providing for shell or tube t h e d expansion. in cases where the greatest assurance against mixing of by the fluid flowing across the tube or by pulsations of the tube field. .*@ -
On the she11 side, liquids and vapors at pressures up to the two fluids is desired. Liquids and vapors to 300 psig flow rate. The maximum permissible unsupported tube Since the shell and tubes operate at&fFerenbtempera-
500 paig can be accommodated but the temperature is and 300 F (with due consideration to packing material) longth will depend on the tube material and tube tures, it is n q s a r y to provide meam to accommodate
limited (usually to about 300 F) by the type of packing. can be accommodated with this design. diameter. For nonpulsating flow, the maximum un- the diflerence in their thermal expansion, as h i
On the tube side, the pressure may reach 600 psig at The joint described by Fig. 5(23 is excellent for vacuum supported tube length is 60 to 80 times the tube stresses could otherwise be developed within the heat
temp&rattwesof 500 F with proper gaaket materials. and very-high-pressure service, and the temperature iR diameter. For pulsating flow, the unsupported length is exchanger. The various types of construction which
Figure 5(g) describes a joint which is relatively limited only by the O-ring gasket material. The design uonsiderably less, and welding or brazing is used in lieu have been used to accommodate thermal expansion are
inexpensive and is used when it ia desirable to eliminate requires precise machining of the O-ring grooves. Tho of spacers and nuts to secure the tube support plates. illustrated in Fig.5(e), Cf), and (h) and Fig. 8; each has
the shell-rside gasket. This design employs only one double tube sheet design-is excellent for use with non- When designing for high shock, the tube support spacing its own area of application.
I
496 MARINE ENGINEERING HEAT EXCHANGERS
expansions present no difficulties with this type of design. T9 TUBE ?ALL SCALEPR DIRT
When the tubes are firmly fastened to the tube sheets
and the tube sheets are fastened to the shell (i.e., fixed
tube sheet designs), shell expansion joints are used to
lessen the stresses caused by the difference in thermal
expansion between the shell and tubes. The shell
expansion joints illustrated in Fig. 9 are adequate only
for small differential thermal expansions (say 0.06 in.
for a 5-ft tube). For large thermal expansions, expansion
joints of the bellows type are normally used.
To provide for thermal expansion when the shell of a
(a) Shell expansion joint using flanged heat exchanger operates at an elevated temperature, Fig. 10 Heat transfer through a tube
and flued heads only one "foot" or "leg" of the shell is anchored to the
foundation and the other is designed to permit free axial
movement sg that the axial expansion of the shell is not t = temperature of cold fluid
resisted. Freedom for axial movement may be provided A, = tube outside surface area
by either a sliding foot (slotted holes with ferrules) or a 2~ = rio + + + +
rdio rw rdo ro
slender leg (in the case of heavy heat exchangers) which r, = resistance across the fluid film on the inside of
provides little resistance to lateral force. the tube
1.4 Design Data Requirements. In order to speci- rdh = resistance of the deposit or scale on the tube
fically direct attention to the items which govern the inside wall
Fig. 11 Temperature gradients auou'tubes
design of a heat exchanger and which must be furnished r, = resistance of tube wall metal
to the design engineer (or assumed by him), those rdo = resistance of the deposit or scale on the tube
items which should be included in a specification for a outside wall
marine heat exchanger are listed below. ro = resistance of the fluid film on the outside of the location within the exchanger. Consequently, the heat
Substance to be heated (and cooled) tube flow rate, Q, also varies from location to location. To
(b) Split pipe shell expamion joint Quantity of substance to be heated (and cooled) obtain the total heat transferred per unit time for a heat
These quantities are illustrated by Fig. 10, and the exchanger, it is convenient to base calculations on the
within a given period of time oorresponding temperature gradients across a tube are
Fig. 9 Shell expansion iainh Initial temperature of the substance heated (and average temperature difference across the tube over the
ahown in Fig. 11. I t may be noted that "new clean-tube entire tube length. Such a temperature difference is
cooled)
oxide film resistances" have not been included on the defined as the log mean temperature difference (LMTD)
Final temp rature desired for the substance heated
The simple U-tube illustrated by Fig. 8(a) is the most (and cooled) b inside and outside of the tubes as they are not of sufficient
magnitude to warrant consideration in the design of
and is expressed mathematically aa
economical and commonly used means to separate the When the heating and cooling media are other than
thermal expansion in the tubes from that of the shell. water or commonly known substances, the following
I t is widely used in small condensers and instantaneous should be specified : 1i
viscous fluid or water-to-water heat exchangers.
The film resistances in equation (1) are further defined LMTD = -1
1
.A0
(T - t)dA (5)
heaters. (a) Viscosity as
I By combining equation (5) with equation (1) and noting
The bayonet tube, illustrated in Fig. 8(b), is suitable (b) Specific gravity ri0 = - 1 =- 1 - 1 that Zr is equal to the reciprocal of U: the heat transfer
for use with a tight, cross-flow baffle spacing. Bayonet ' (c) Specific heat (2)
hiAi/Ao hi, tube-side film coefficient through a tube is determined to be
tubes are used in viscous oil heaters. (d) Thermal conductivity
Packed-tube joints, Figs. 4 and 8(c), permit some axial Working pressure of the heated (and cooled) i 1 1 +
To=-- -
movement of the tube. Packed-tube joints are used in substance ! h. shell-side film coefficient
(3)
Equation (6) is the basic analytical tool employed to
rectangular (box type) low-pressure feed heaters and in Allowable pressure drop through the shell and tube A, and A; are the tube outside and inside surface areasestablish the thermal design of a heat exchanger. The
smaller straight-tube condensers.
In cases where a large differential thermal expansion
can be expected, a floating head arrangement may be
.
sides of the heat exchanger
Desired construction materials
Typical features of a variety of marine heat exchangers
respectively. The terms hi and ho are called specific
conductances or heat transfer film coefficients and are
factors to be considered in assessing this equation are
briefly discussed in the following.
With known terminal temperature differences between
generally a function of flow velocities and fluid properties.
employed. As can be seen from Fig. 8(d), large thermal are listed in Table 1. the shell and tube streams, the mean temperature
The scale resistance or fouling resistance terms, rdo
difference between the shell 'and tube flows can be
u,nd rdo,do not lend themselves to analytical assessment
and little is known regarding them. The resistance of derived [7] if the following aasumptions are made:
the tube wall metal is readily analyzed and it can be The overall heat transfer coefficient is constant
quantified without difficulty. along the entire flow path.
Section 2 The overall heat transfer coefficient, U, which is The flow rate and.pxific heaj of both the shell
-
Heat Transfer in Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers and tube streams are constant.
defined as the reciprocal of Zr, is a convenient means of
The heat transfer surface is uniformly distributed
axpressing the resistance to heat transfer through tubes.
2.1 Heat Transfer Relationships. The fundamental
theory dealing with heat transfer was discussed in
Chapter 2, and a discussion of heat transfer by con-
Q =
Ao(T - t)
Zr (1)
I1 The overall heat transfer coefficient can be stated as
1
along the flow paths.
The temperature of either fluid is constant over
densation is given in Chapter 13. The application of where I
U =
(I/&) + + + +
rdo rw rdio (Jlhio)
(4) any cross section of its path (i.e., there is complete
mixing and no stratification).
this theory to the transfer of heat through the walls of a Q = heat transferred In the case of shell-and-tube heat exchangers, the There is no internal leakage or bypassing of fluid
tube leads to the equation T = temperaturk of hot fluid temperature difference (T - t) varies from location to around the tube bundle.
498- MARINE ENGINEERING HEAT EXCHANGERS 499
film coefficient are tedious and time consuming, and a With 50 gpm of fresh water at 78 F entering the shell side
HEAT EXCHANGERS
particularly troublesome aspect of the calculation is the of the heat exchanger, the outlet temperatures and heat NOTE: Nomograph is valid for turbulent
assessment of the effective flow area for segmental exchanged when the fresh water is cooled by 37 gpm of flow with a specific pmity of
baffled flow. To simplify calculations, Figs. 14 and 15, chilled water at 50 F entering the tube side will be unity within 518" O.D. #18 BWG
which are based on references [ l l ] and [12], were prepared computed. tuk "
to provide an approximation of the effective flow area. First, it is established that the tube inside and outside
Figures 14 and 15 cover the tube sizes and pitches nor- diameters are 0.305 in. and 0.375 in. respectively. The
mally used with marine heat exchangers. It should be water velocity through the tubes is computed to be 4.5
noted, however, that manufacturing tolerances on the fps, and from Fig. 13, the uncorrected film coefficient
shell, tubes, and baffles vary and their variation can inside the tubes is found to be 750 Btu/hr-sq ft-deg F.
appreciably affect the value of the effective flow area, Correcting for the tube size. results.in a film coefficient
especially in the case of small heat exchangers. There- hi, of 820 Btu/hr-sq ft-deg F.
fore, these nomographs, which are based on a particular With the stated values for the b d e spacing and shell
set of tolerances nominally followed by heat exchanger ID, the effective flow area is determined to be 6.1 sq in.
manufacturers, are of value primarily as an indication from Fig. 14. The shell flow rate was given as 50 gpm
of the influence of the various factors which enter into which then corresponds to a mass flow rate, G, of 164
the design of shell-and-tube heat exchangers. .For lb/sec-sq ft. Entering Fig. 16 with this value for G and
instance, it may be seen from Fig. 14 that small b d e a water temperature of 78 F gives a shell-side film coeffi-
spacings (small in relation to the shell diameter) are cient, h,, of 1735 Btu/hr-sq ft-deg F.
progressively less effective in creating small effective The tube metal resistance, i.,, is readily calculated by
flow areas (or high velocities). These nomographs are employing the following equation for heat conduction
particularly useful as devices for checking a design and acrom a cylindrical wall:
narrowing down some of the parameters (shell size,
tube size, b d e spacing, etc.) in the course of designing I, = A, log. (doldi)
a heat exchanger. 27rLK
Figure 16 is a nomograph which relates the shell-side where L is the tube length, K is the metal thermal con-
film coefficient to the water temperature and mass ductivity, and A, is the tube outside area. For a
velocity. Figure 16 is based on the data presented in smooth tube, A, is equal to 7r dJ, and the tube metal
reference [lo]. resistance reduces to
Two means have been commonly employed to allow
for the additional thermal resistance when scale or I, =
do log. (do/&)
deposit begins to accumulate on the tube wall. The most 2K
ri&rous means is to assign values to the tube inside and Since K = 70 Btu/hr-ft-deg F for Admiralty metal,
outside fouling resistances, rdio and rh, as a function of
fluid type, temperature, velocity, etc., and compute the equation (16) gives an r, value of 0.0000461 hr-sq ft-deg
required heat transfer surface accordingly. I n applica- F/Btu.
tions with mild rates of fouling, however, the fouling Based on experience, a clean factor of 0.9 is considered
resistances are difficult to separate and evaluate meaning- appropriate for this service; therefore, the scale resist-
fully, and furthermore, they are small. Consequently, ances, r& and rdi,, are considered to be zero. This being
the "clean factor" concept has found general acceptance the case. substitution of the com~uted values into
in conventional steam power plant and marine heat equation'(4) gives an overall heat transfer coefficient,
exchanger applications. The clean factor is a factor U, of
less than unity by which the clean overall heat transfer
coefficient, U, is multiplied to allow for fouling.
I n order to illustrate the procedure employed when -
1
1735
+ 0 + 0.0000461 + 0 + &
performing heat transfer calculations for a shell-and-tube = 544 Btu/hr-sq ft-deg F
heat exchanger, consider such a heat exchanger with the
following characteristics: When the clean factor of 0.9 is applied, there results
U = (0.9)(544) = 490 Btu/hr-sq ft-deg F
Shell size = 6.075 in. I D
Tube size = % in. OD 20 BWG and this is used as the design value. It may be noted
(plain tube) that the effect of the term corresponding to the thermal
Tube material = Admiralty metal conductivity of the tube wall material is small when
Number of tube passes = 2 compared to the effect of the film resistance; for this
Number of tubes = 36 U-tubes reason the thermal conductivity of the tube wall is often
Tube length = 44 in. neglected.
Tube pitch = 1 x 2 in. I n order to compute the quantity of heat transferred,
Cross baffle spacing = 2% in. equations (6) and (10) are used in conjunction with the ma. 17 R.roun drop idde tub-
Effective heat transfer surface = 24 sq f t following heat balance relationship :
MARINE ENGINEERING HEAT EXCHANGERS
E = exp
(2:)
-
In order to illustrate the use of design charts to obtain of tube rows that the flow crosses between each pair of
approximate, but quick, estimates of the pressure drop baffles, as the ensuing calculations are greatly simplified.
through heat exchangers, the example problem in Section The equivalent number of tubes citn be determined if
2.1 will be continued. Entering Fig. 17 with a water details regarding the baffle window height, baffle spacing,
velocity of 4.5 fps and temperature of 50 F gives a tube spacing, and shell are known; but such is seldom
pressure drop within the tubes of 0.085 psi/ft. Since the caae in preliminary design work. For estimation
there are two tube passes, the total tube length is twice purposes, Fig. 19 has been prepared oh the basis of a
44 in. or 7.34 ft, and the total uncorrected pressure drop commonly used heat exchanger configuration to give
is 0.624 psi. The inside diameter of the tubes is actually guidance in determining the equivalent number of tube
0.305 in. and the specific gravity of the fresh water is rows crossed between baffles. Entering Fig. 19 with a
unity; therefore, the corresponding correction factors to shell I D of 6.075 in., a baffle spacing of 2.25 in., and a
be applied to the pressure drop taken from Fig. 17 are triangular tube pitch of 17dZ in. gives an equivalent
read from Fig. 18 aa ad = 1.95 hnd a. = 1. Applying number of tube rows of 11.5. Consequently, the
these to the uncorrected pressure drop of 0.624 psi gives equivalent total number of tube rows is computed as
a corrected pressure drop of 1.22 psi.
In order to calculate the baffled-flow pressure drop on NR = (NB + 1)N. = 21.9 rows
the shell side, the number of baffles must be established. The pressure drop per row of tubes can be evaluated
The number of tube baffles can be estimated as from Fig. 20. A line is drawn between a water temper*
ture of 78 F and a mass velocity of 164 lb/sec-sq ft
tube length -1 = - 44
NB = -1 = 18 (line 1)) and the interception with the reference line is
baffle spacing 2.25 noted. Next, line 2 is drawn from the reference line
I n addition, the number of tube rows which the flow intercept and the second mass velocity curve, and the Fig. 21 Meciive flow area for segmental baffle flew
crosses between each pair of baffles and the baffle cut-out product of the fluid specific gravity and pressure drop
area (baffle window) must be established before the per tube row of 0.024 psi/row is obtained. Since the
calculations can proceed. It is convenient to introduce fluid specific gravity is unity, the shell-side baffled-flow
the term N,, which is defined as the equivalent number pressure drop is (0.024) (21.9) = 5.26 psi.
MARINE ENGINEERING HUT EXCHANGERS 51 1
that the resistance to heat transfer increases rapidly
initially, but the rate of increase subsequently drops to a
very sm* value. The tests h indicated that the
fouling characteristics of finned tubes are similar to those
of plain tubes, and both types of tubes have comparable
percentages of reduction in performance. At the end of
the four-week test period, ,the fouling resistances for
both fin-tube and plain-tube bundles were below the
value of 0.005. During the tests, both the finned and
plain tubes were cleaned by a kerosene-water-detergent
emulsion and the heat transfer rate waa restored to that
initially achieved.
In order to illustrate the princjples involved in the
e,pplication of finned-tube heat exchangers, consider
such a unit with the following characteristics:
Shell imide diameter, Di = 23.265 in.
-- Tube size = %-in. low fin
Tube material = aluminum
Number of tube passes = 2
Number of tubes, N = 652
Tube length, L = 96 in.
Tube pitch = in. h
=
,'
1
B~UIM~Z-F
B&e spacing = 9 1 % ~in. % + Rdo
Tube length between tube sheets, L, = 89% in.
fig. 23 Fin resistance of low-fin tubes
A check will be made to determine the suitability of this
unit for the following service:
Shell Side Tube Side pute the tube-side film coefficient. The tube inside
Fluid. .................. diameter is 0.402 in., the average fluid temperature is
oil water 158 F, and the tube-side ve10lcit"~
is computed as 1.03 fps.
Flow rate, W, lb/hr.. .... 123,400 66,500
t
Specific gravity at A value for h, of 435 Btu/hr-sq ftaeg F is taken from
average temperature. . . Fig. 13 for Yrin. OD 18 BWG plain tubes which have an
NOTE: Multiply ho mad above by (2/z1,-~)-14 0.84
when, Thermal conductivity, outside/inside area ratio of 1.186. Low-fin tubes have
Btu/hr-fMeg F ....... an inside/outside ratio of 0.26; and therefore the cor-
Z = viscosiw at average tempenturn, centipoi~er
0.0665 rection for low-fin tubes is made as follows:
& 5 vMcosiw at tube wall temperature, centipdnes Viscosity: 2,centipoises
at 210 F.. ............
at 167 F.. ............
106
280 hio = ( L ~ )
Ai plain tube
(4)
Ao finned tube
0.527 O''
300
This is reasonably close to the assumed temperature of a2
167 F ; therefore, the viscosity correction factor of 0.873 /
Therefore, with an 8-ft tube length and two passes, the [12], and Donahue 191. Details of the derivations and
P.T. WNN-NEAR P.T. VENT-NEAR SIDE
tube-side pressure drop becomes assumptions involved with the method have not been & FAR SIDES OIL W N N . PLUGGED
reviewed as they are not of primary interest to the a \ PIPE TAP (P.1.) /
Section 3
Heat Exchanger Applications
3.1 Lubricating-Oil Coolers. In addition to serving and such requirements must be considered in the cooler
as a lubricant between moving mechanical parts, design. Limitations are also provided for maximum
lubricating oils generally also accomplish a second fluid velocities and pressure drop, and shock resistance
objective of removing the frictional heat generated. requirements may also be specified for military appli- \
Therefore, some means must be provided for removing cations [6]. SFE DETAIL "A"
the heat absorbed by the lubricating oil. With small In the late 1950's, it was determined that the perform-
systems, the natural heat transfer by radiation and ance, in terms of fouling properties and service life, of
convection may be adequate; but with larger systems, low-fin tubing is approximately equal to that of bare
particularly those employing forced circulation, lubri- tubes, and a gradual change has taken place such that
cating-oil coolers are required. %-in. and %-in. low-fin 90/10 CuNi tubing has become
LEGEND,
The main lube-oil coolers (i.e., those in the lube-oil the preferred tubing in lieu of the previous %-in. and
system serving the main turbines, reduction gears, and %-in. bare tubes. With low-fin tubes, the greater 1. Shell
main thrust bearing) are generally the largest used amount of heat transfer surface within a given shell size 2. Water Channel SHELL FLANGE GI
aboard ship. A shell and straight-tube exchanger with a outweighs the disadvantage of the somewhat lower heat 3. Channel Cover
DETAl L "A"
removable tube bundle and a double-packed floating transfer rates of finned tubes, and the net result is a 4. Return Channel
5. Fixed Tube Sheet Detail of Floating Tube Sheet End
tube sheet type of construction (such as illustrated by smaller, more compact, and more economical unit for a 6. Flpeting Tube Sheet
Fig. 26) is the design most commonly used for main given performance requirement as compared with bare 7. Tubes Section at pecking retaining r i ~ g w e p h o l e .Mixing of
lube-oil coolers. Oil flows in a single pass via transverse tubes. 8. Baffle Assembly the shell and tube side fluids thru the packing is
bafaing in the shell, and seawater is the normal coolant Lubricating-oil coolers are also used aboard ship for 9. Retainer Ring impossible with this detail. Any seepage from either
10. Packing side, rwulting from loosening of the bda, d r i p out
flowing in one or more passes through the tubes. auxiliaries such as main feed pumps and air compressors. 11. Shell Flange Gasket thru the copper-lined packing ring weep-holes, thus
The floating tube sheet is centered between the shell These units are similar in design to main lubricating-oil 12. Channel Gasket putting the m t i n g personnel on notice. The nuts on
flange and waterbox flange. A gland ring retains the coolers but are smaller, having a shell diameter of 6 to 13. W r r Gasket both sides may be made up to tighten packing without
packing. Separate packing rings are provided for the 10 inches. 14. Zinc Amdo# (wha~Imludd) hutdown or interruption of operation.
shell (lube oil) side and the coolant side. The gland ring The thermal design of oil coolers is treated in detail in fig. 26 Typical main lube-ail c o o k
is grooved around the inside, and leak-off holes are Section 2.
provided so that leakage past the packing rings on either 3.2 Fuel-Oil Heaters and Lubricating-Oil Purifler
side will be relieved to the outside and attract the Heaters. The residual fuel oils usually burned aboard
operator's attention. ship are so viscous at atmospheric temperatures that they
The stationary tube sheet, baffles, and support plates must be heated before they can be pumped from the
are assembled and held in proper relative position by tie storage tanks (the properties of fuel oils are discussed in
rods and spacer sleeves. Tie rods are threaded into but detail in Chapter 23). The more viscous fuels may
not through the stationary tube sheet. The waterbox require heating to 120 F or more before they can be
and stationary tube sheet are secured by collar bolts or pumped; and when supplied to the burners, the fuel oil
by stud bolts driven into tapped holes in the tube sheet must be at an even higher temperature in order to attain
so that the tube-sheet to shell-flange joint will not be a fuel viscosity sufficiently low for proper fuel atomizrlr
broken when the waterbox is removed. tion in the burners. Therefore, two stages of fuel-oil
The packing retainer ring is usually "scalloped" so heating are provided; the primary heaters are installed
that there is a stud hole for every second stud in the in the fuel-oil tanks, and the secondary heaters are
shell flange st the floating tube sheet end of the cooler. installed between the service pumps and the burners.
This enables the gland ring to double as a test ring and The primary oil heaters are installed in the tanks in
allows the shell to be hydrostatically tested without the either of two forms: as steam-supplied pipe grids or
waterbox in place. coils or as open-ended tank-suction heaters. The latter
In some of the more demanding applications, such as alternative has become increasingly popular due to (a)
submarine heat exchangers cooled by seawater, there are lower initial cost, (b) lower maintenance costs, and (c)
special requirements for bolting as well as for materials, lower steam consumption (only the oil to be pumped is mg. 27 Typicol tank rudon fuel-oil heator
MARINE ENGINEERING HEAT EXCHANGERS 517
I
heated as opposed to heating the entire tank). A serves aa a shell. The Navy haa set forth specific
typical tank-suction fuel-oil heater is shown in fig. 27. design criteria for all three of the foregoing designs, and
hi horizontal U-tube heat exchanger has an outer further describes an "evaporator" type of fuel42
shell flange that is bolted directly to the tank. The oil heater which uses an intermediate fluid to transfer heat
is drawn in through the open end of the shell and across from a prim- heating coil to the bayonet oil-heating
the tube bundle. As the heating medium (condensing
CLEANING FLUID INLET elerpents; this precludes any possibility of contaminating
steam) circulates through the tubes, the portion of oil in the condensate with fuel oil in the event of a leaky tube
the heater shell in contact with the tubes rises in or tube sheet joint [15].
temperature with a corresponding decrease in viscosity. Steel construction throughout is standard practice.
The entire process is continuous with the oil flow being A minimum of two heaters is normally provided, sized
and so arranged that either heater can provide full boiler
requirements at overload with the other heater serving I
I
as a standby. Heaters are fitted with a relief valve I
which usually discharges to the settling tanks via a
check valve. The automatic temperature control valve
MOUNTING BOLTS
is normally installed in the steam supply line with the
sensing element located in the oil outlet flow line
RELIEF VALVE CONN.
immediately adjacent to the heater. The steam flow
valve is usually installed immediately adjacent to the
steam inlet connection to the heater. Adequate steam
traps are necessary in the condensate lines from the
heater since flooding of the heater will have an advem
effect on its performance.
Sectionalized heaters or banks of heaters are commonEy
used in order to provide the flexibility of using all or a -
portion of the heating surface over a wide range of
heating capacity (from minimum port steaming con- SECONDARY
ditions to 120-percent ovedoad). With such an arrange-
from those surfaces. CLEANING FLUID OUTLET ment, individual heaters or sections of a heater can be
Steam is delivered to the steam chamber, and from cut in or out as the demand fluctuates and thereby
maintain a steam supply suflicient to ensure adequate
there enters a series of small tubes, cdled "inner" tubes,
through which it travels until it is dpcharged into the control of the oil outlet temperature. Such a control of
annulus between the inner and outer tubes at the far end , the amount of heat transfer surface in service avoids
of the outer or oil-heating tubes [see Fig. 8(b)l. Thus cyclical heater operation wheh the heating requirements
steam (free of condensate) is in contact with the heating are very small as compared with the effective heating
surface at that part of the surface where the highest oil
temperature is desired. The design requirements for lubricating-oil purifier
The space between the inner and outer tubes is small heaters are much like those for fuel-oil heaters in that the
so that the volume of steam flowing in the annular space oil n~ustbe heated to a prescribed twperature range
PRESSURE GAGE CONN. I
generates a velocity of flow sufficient to continuously (normally 100 to 160 F) in order to attain a sufficiently
sweep the condensate from the surface as it forms, thus low oil viscosity for effectivepurification. Lubricating-
reducing water-film losses and preserving high transfer oil purifier heaters are generally of the tubular type and
are similar to those used as fuel-oil heaters.
rates on the steam side. 3-3 Boiler Feedwater and Desuperheater Leakage
Test Sample Coolers. Daily tests of the condition of the
boiler water and feedwater are necessary to ensure
continued efficient operation and protection of high- mi. 29 Boiler water sample coder
fig. 28 Bayonet-tube fuel-oil heater
Pressure steam generators. These tests are necessary to :
Maintain the specified boiler water chemistry
through chemical treatment to ensure that the correct are relatively s m d heat exchangers due to the small
proportions of the essential chemicals are present. quantity of sample requifd for testhg. One of the
Check the effectivenessof the blowdown procedure common arrangements is a cooler system consisting of
by the concentration of the soluble and primary and secondary coolers connected in series. The
suspended solids in the boiler water. coolers have a cylindrical cast bronze shell that contains
Determine the amount of dissolved oxygen in the a helical mil wound around a core positioned in the c a t
boiler water and feedwater to guard against excessive shell; such a cooler is shown in Fig. 29. The sample
p=es through the coil and cooling water flowa across the
The collection and cooling of water samples is the outer surfaces of the coil. The boder water sample
first in the test procedure. The coolers required cooler coil is usudy made, of 90/10 or 70/30 CuNi and
MARINE ENGINEERING HEAT EXCHANGERS 66 519
the cooler and valves are designed to the boiler working conditions and installation requirements, the tubes may
pressme. The cooler uses seawater at 85 F as be arranged for single- or m ~ l t i - ~ a flow
s s of the seawater.
a and reduces the sample temperature to Zinc anodes are provided in the water heads to minimize
approximately 140 F; the cooler uses chilled galvanic corrosion on other parts of the heat exchanger
50 F fresh water as the coolant to reduce the temperature (galvanic corrosion is discussed in section 1.1).
of the sample to that desired for testing. The maximum Occasionally the heater and drain cooler are combined
temperature for oxygen determination is 70 F; in Navy in a single shell, but the arrangement preclude the
practice100 F is considered the maximum temperature I
possibility of the condensate rising above its normal
euitable for pH, hardness, and chloride determination. level and submerging the tubes in the heating section, each point and a k l i a r exhaust
~ pressures, furnished
The coils far desuperheater leakage test sample coolers which would reduce the effectiveness of the unit. In and the temperature of the feedwater entering each drain r e d a t oa rpackage with the glsnd-exhauster fan and
can be madeof copper or a similar material since they mounted on the unit.
some cases, only a heater is installed and the drains are
me designed for a'rnoderate pressure and are normally discharged through a steam trap to the deaerating feed Due to the
Since the heat transfer coefficient of condensing steam combined heattemperature
exchangers,difference
the outletbetween
ends ofsections of
the tubes
cooled with fresh water. heater or a suitable vessel or receiver. is
3.4 Tank Cleaning System Heaters and Drain Where a separate or combined heater and cooler is of velocity, and feed pressures are usually me u s u d y secured in the tube sheet by
quite high, the feed is generally in the tubes with the of
alternate rings of metalic and fibre packing (see 1,-ig.
Coolerr. When a different grade of oil is to be carried installed, a liquid level control is employed to ensure in the
in a tanker (e.g., gasoline vice crude oil), it is necessary submergence of the drain cooling tubes. Relief valves For a given steam Pressure, the heat 8 ( ~ ) and
) are therefore free to expand independently.
are provided on both the shell and tube sides of the salt- is dependent upon the feed velocity through the 3.6 Dim.Montact Dwerating Feedwabr ~ ~ ~
to wash the cargo oil tanks before receiving the different tubes. of to 7 fps result in a reasonable
grade. The tank cleaning systems use hot seawater water heater. pressure and satisfacto~heat h n s f e r conditions. Since marine boilem are operated at high temperatures
supplied from heat exchangers. Cargo vessels utilize a For naval applications, there are a number of special and pressures, there is a hazard of attack due
The heater should avoid the Occurrence
smaller system than tankers for tank cleamg- design requirements (such as construction materials and to the presence of dissolved oxygen or carban diofide in
The heat, exchangers usually consist of a seawater shock requirements) which must also be considered [16I. of dead spaces, and drain cooling sections should hold impossible to prevent the
the feedwater. It is ~ t u a l l y
3.5 LOW-PressureFeedwater Heaters. h he classifi-
'lose baffle-to-shrOud tolerances so as to avoid excessive entry of air into the feed system, particularly during
heater rwlddrain cooler connected in series SO that the bypasing beat transfer surface which would result in plant st&tup; therefore it is necessary to provide
seawater flows first through the drain cooler and then cation (i.e., low pressure ar high ~ressure)of feedwater
heaters depends upon their location relative to the boiler insdequate drain caoling. Both the shell and water deaerating equipment for the removal of air and co~osive
through the heater. Steam is used as the heating sides should be self-venting.
medium in the heater, and the resulting condensate is feedwater pump; low-pressure heaters are located on The pre-e CQntr0l.i the constlTl~ti0ndetails gases from the boiler feedwater. Although &aeration
cooled in the drain cooler. The seawater is heated to a the suction side of the main feed pump, whereas high- feedwater can be largely acomplbhed in the condenser, ucondenser
temperature of 180 to 200 F. pressure heaters are located on the discharge side. Feed- heaters with design deaeration' is not suffci$n&during @ant stertup; and
pressures UP to PS~Fare considered low-pressure
As illustrated in Fig.30, the exchangers are typically water heating is accomplished in a number of steps or heaters. It is common practice to combine Several low- without further &aeration there be no-provision
of the horizontal shell-and-tube type; the heater (above stages and the heaters are usually referred to as the first for the removal of air introduced later in the system,
pressure heaters one shell to save space, C O S ~of particularly a t the condensate pumps.
the d r h cooler) is of the U-tube type, and the drain stage, second stage, third stage, fourth stage, etc. equipment, piping, and installation costs. Figure 31
cooler has a fixed tube nest and a shell expan~onjoint. Multiple stages of feed heating are essential to the Flash &aeration, whereby saturated water at 10 to 15
depicts a ty~lcalcombined low-pra4sure feed h e a t e d r a i n psig is introduced into a surge tank at atmospheric
The tube nest in the coolers is usually fitted with trans- efficiency of a steam turbine power ~ l a n t ,as may be cOO1er/dand-exhaust condenser. similar heaters com- pressure, is simple and economical. H ~ the ~
verse baffles to create a flow path for the drains perpen- noted from Chapter 2. The ~ l a n heat t balance estab-
bing two Stages of h e a t h with the drain cooler are
dicular to the run of the tubes. Depending upon design lishes the number of heating stages, feed flow through resulting flashing of steam will not ensure the low
sometimes used. The heater is normally dissolved oxygen content (i.e., 0.005 cc per liter) reqUired
MARINE ENGINEERING HEAT EXCHANGERS 52 1
makeup are sprayed into the steam-filled primary major factor is the temperature of the water delivered
heating and deaeration chamber through a series of to the spray nozzle; this temperature determines the
VENTED STEAM spray nozzles and a vent-condensing spray nozzle. The size of the steam-regulating valve which admits steam to
CONTAINING OXYGEN WATER SUPPLY
REMOVED FROM WATER spray nozzles provide an even distribution of water over the deaerator. This valve is sized as closely as possible
the entire heating area. The steam flow, which- is to furnish the quantity of steam required to maintain
WATER SPRAY essentially counter-current to the water flow, heats the the deaerator a t the operating temperature, plus about
VENT CONDENSING water close to the saturation temperature such that the
WATER SPRAY NOZZLE
10 percent additional capacity/of steam over that required
PRIMARY HEATING solubility of the gases is zero, and approximately 95 to heat the inlet water at the design conditions as a
AND DEAERATION CHAMBER percent of the oxygen content is thereby released. safety margin to handle surges of incoming feedwater.
Water and condensate collect in the conical water However, sincpc the steam capacity is considerably
collector and flow to the atomizing valve, where high- affected by the pipe size of the regulator and the incom-
velocity steam strikes the mixture, atomizes it into a ing steam pressure, it is difficult to provide a valve that
fine mist, and raises the temperature the last few degrees exactly matches the desired capacity. Proper deaera
to its saturation point. The mixture strikes a deflecting tion requires that the temperature.of the incoming water
baffle which separates the water and steam. The hot be raised to the saturation point; therefore, the volume
gas-free water drops to the storage compartment. of the inlet water must be controlled in relation to its
The complete atomization and heating of the feed- temperature to stay within the heating capacity of the
water by the steam jet ensures that the dissolved gases steam supplied by the steam-regulating valve. An
will be released. After the atomization process, the excessive flow of cool water will, of course, quickly
steam and released gases flow through the primary condense the steam in the deaerator, making it difficult
heating/deaerating chamber where a large portion of the to maintain the desired pressure. This emphasizes the
steam is condensed as it heats the incoming water. A necessity to provide an adequate safety mapgin in sizing
small portion of the steam and all of the gases pass the steam-regulating valve so that its capacity and I
SPRING LOADED through the integral vent condenser which condenses the response rate are capable of handling surges of cool water.
ATOMIZING VALVE majority of the remaining steam. The small amount of The storage tank is usually selected to retain about
steam vapor that is mixed with the released gases is then five minutes of storage. If high-pressure (high-tempera-
discharged to the atmosphere or to the gland leak-off ture) returns are available, they may be returned directly
condenser. to the deaerator storage tank. Here they will flash and
The deaerator conditions feedwater such that its provide a certain amount of steam for preheating the I
dissolved oxygen content is less than 0.005 cc per liter. water introduced into the dyapator. If these returns
In addition, it substantially reduces the carbon dioxide exceed 25-30 percent of the total capacity of the
1
content of the feedwater. deaerator, more steam will be available than is needed I
Since the feedwater is at saturation temperature and and some other means must be employed to use the
above atmospheric pressure, the arrangement of the returns. I
I
deaerator is of great importance as there is a strong Deaerating feed heaters are normally equipped with I
possibility of the feedwater flashing into steam at the two spring-loaded relief valves: one to prevent a high I
pump suction. There are two means of ensuring an pressure from accidentally building up within the tank;
adequate suction head at the main feed pump. One is and the second, known as a vacuum breaker, to prevent a
Fig. 32 Direct-contactfeed heater to position the deaerator high in the maqhinery space; or high vacuum from developing in the tank by allowing I
an alternative is to provide a booster pump between the atmospheric air to enter the tank in the event that the
deaerator and feed pump which will maintain an adequate pressure in the tank drops below a prescribed value.
(boiling conditions), the solubility of any gases in the suction head on the feed pump. Damage control The shell and majority of the internals are normally
of the feedwater unless suflicient agitation is positively
provided. There is also a loss of steam through flash liquid is zero.
2 Providing a design that ensures thorough agitation
considerations dictate that the booster pump arrange-
ment be used in naval ships. The booster pump must
of welded-steel construction; however, the 'steam baffles,
spray nozzles, atomizing valve, and vent condenser are
~
I
deaeration. For example, a deaerator operating at 15 I
and scrubbing of the feedwater by the steam. Complete be designed to handle condensate at saturation tempera- generally manufactured from nonferrous alloys or stain-
psig flashing down to atmospheric pressure loses about ture, and it is important that the booster pump suction
4 percent as flashed steam. The flashed steam should agitation of the feedwater and contact with the scrubbing less steel. , I
I
steam ensures that equilibrium will be reached and that line be short with little or no turns and adequately 3.7 High-Pressure Feedwater Heaters. A high-pres- I
not be condensed and returned to the feed cycle since it vented so that pump cavitation and suction line flashing sure feedwater heater may consist of one, two, or three
will normally have re-entrained a portion of the undesir-
able dissolved gases. Therefore, standard marine
the zero potential solubility condition (Henry's Law)
will be attained. will not occur. The alternative of locating the deaerator sections (a three-section heater contains desuperheating, ~
3 Continuously venting from the system a mixture high in the machinery space is the preferred arrange- condensing, and condensate cooling sections). All II
deaerators are more sophisticated in design than those ment with merchant ships as a pump is eliminated and
of gases and steam. Through the use of adequate sections are normally integrkkd in oneshell fpr conipact-
of the flash type. damage control is not a design criterion. ness and simplicity of piping. In addition to the marine
The practical considerations involved in the removal venting, the partial pressure of the noncondensable gases 1
in the system will be kept low and the saturation boiling Proper performance of a deaerator requires correct regulatory body design requirements [3, 4, 51, the code
of dissolved oxygen from boiler feedwater may be sizing of components and control of the rate of flow to the requirements of the Feed Water Heater Manufacturer's
briefly summarized as: point of the liquid will be maintained.
The heater immediately preceding the suction side of storage tank portion of the deaerator. The first major Association [18] are often applied. The construction
1 Heating the water to the boiling temperature for the consideration is the boiler steam output. This deter-
the boiler feed pump is usually the "direct contact" or features of a typical high-pressure feedwater heater are
pressure under which the process is conducted (satura mines the size of the deaerator and affects the storage
tion conditions). From the chemical relationship termed deaerating feed heater (generally known as a "DFT" shown in Fig. 33.
for deaerating feed tank). A typical direct-contact tank, the makeup valve, the transfer pump, and the The tubes are usually N-in.-OD tubes, arranged on I
"Henry's Law," it is known that when a partial pressure feed heater is illustrated in Fig. 32. Condensate and number of water spray nozzles in the unit. The other a 1x6-in. triangular pitch. The tubes in the condensing
of a liquid is equal to the total pressure above the liquid
522 MARINE ENGINEERING 1 HEAT EXCHANGERS 523
densate cooling section also consists of a shroud enclosing
a portion of the tubes and cross-baffle plates. When
designing the condensate cooling section of the unit, the
possibility of condensate reheating must be considered.
Condensate reheating is caused because the steam
condensate inside the shroud, while being cooled by the
feedwater inside the tubes, is dso heated by the steam
condensing on the outside of the shroud. This reheating
I of the condensate is a matter of great importance at the
drain outlet end of the heater where the temperature
difference between the condensate and feedwater is often
as low as 10 degrees, while the difference between the
condensate and steam outside the shroud can be as high (a) Torrgueand-Growe
as 100 degrees. Several means can be taken to avoid Flange Joint lbl Sheer-block d a r e
excessive reheating of the steam condensate. One
(a) HORIZONTAL INSTALLATION would be to increase theratio of the condensate cooling fig. 34 Tubedde cfoums
tube surface area to the shroud area; another would be
to insulate the shrouds.
The attitude of the feedwater heater as it will be by the designer so aa to provide the most effective
1. CHANNEL arranged aboard ship must be established before the utilization of heat transfer surface.
2. CHANNEL COVER
3. STATlONdWY TUBE SHEET
thermal design of the feedwater heater can commence Of major importance in the design of high-pressum
4. TUBES because the various alternative arrangements impose feed heaters is the adequacy of the c l o m s for the
6. TUBE SUPPORT different restrictions on the thermal design of the unit. pressures and temperatures involved. A breakable
6.SHELL SKkRT
7. PARTmKlN PLATE When the unit is installed in a vertical position with joint should be provided for the shell-side c l ~ soethat
IL PARTITLON COVER the feedwater entrance and exit channel (or waterbox) the shell can be removed from the tube bundle for
S. TRANSVERSE BAFFLES
10. tMPINGEMENl PLATES on the top, as in Fig. 33(b), the bottom region of the shell inspection and cleaning purposes. Under the usual
11. DESUPERHEATIMG ZONE can be used as a steam condensate collector. The operating conditions, a bolted flange joint ifil suitable for
12 SUBGOOLING ZONE
13. SHELL shrouded condensate cooling section extends the full this purpose. However, under conditions which would
14. HEATER SUPPORTS length to the top of the shell in this instance, and the
15. FEEDWATER INLET involve temperature distortion or when there is an
16. FEEDWATER OUTLET height 'of the unit is relatively short. infrequent requirement for removal of the shell, a welded
17. DRIP INLET
la STEAM lNLET A vertical arrangement with the feedwater entrance joint provides positive sealing lihd is economical to fabri-
r a CONOENSATEOWLET and exit channel at the bottom [the inverse of that shown cate. A back-up ring is provided to protect the tubes
20. WELL RELIEF VALVE CONNEmlm
- - - --
21- TtlEE
- SIDE
-.- - -RELIEF
.- - VALVE CONNEmlON in Fig. 33(b)] is normally selected for long units that are when a flame cut is made to open the welded joint.
a.LIWLD LEVEL CONTROL CONwmlONS designed for outdoor land installations; however, a lack The feedwater that enters the channel and the tube
% *G GLASS CONNECTIONS
of space usually precludes its application in marine
24. OPERATING AIR VENT Q)NNEmIONS side of the unit is under a relatively high pressure which
plants. With this type of arrangement, the unit is imposes a severe requirement on the tube-side closure
designed such that the steam eondensate exitcl at the and seal design. The bolta of a flanged joint are
feed inlet end in order to take advantage of the colder required to take the hydrostatic load (whieh depends on
- feed temperature for cooling. To accpmpliish this, it is the closure diameter and fluid pressure) and at the same
(M VERTICAL INSCALLATIOM necessary to flood a portion of the tubes with steam time maintain a pressme on the gesket s d c i e n t ts
Fig. 33 Typical fedwafer haatam oondensate, which results in poor ueilization of part of ensure a seal. This often results in huge bolts which
the heat transfer surface. require enormous torques to tighten, e q e d l y so when
When it is possible to do so, high-pressure feedwater the larger shell diamet~?rsme involved with pressures
section &t supported by plates spaaed at intepvak n d the highest possible temperature. By arranging tho over 1200 pig. Nevertheleae, bolted-flanged joints can
heaters should be arranged horizontally aa illustrated by
exmetkg 48 in. to avoid tubs vibration Beetions me Row this way, the feedwater temperature may eve11 be properly applied in the design of heaters with diam-
exceed the &teamsaturation temperature in the desuper- Fig. 33(a). Compared with a vertical position, a
cut out of the support plates to pmvide passages for horizontal arrangement affords the following advantages: eters as 1-e as 20 inches and for pnxmes of less than
steam flow and drainage. heating section. The desuperheating section consists of lux, psig.
a shroud wrapped around a group of the tubes so as to There is less restriction on length. A heater of
If the steam which enters the shell side of the feed- longer length normally results in a smaller shell diameter Flat metal or metal-jacketed gaskets are frequently
water heater is hi&ly superheated (e.g., a superheat of confine the inlet steam. Cmss baffles are provided with used with bolted tube-ride closures. The force required
the shroud to decrease the dry-vapor thermal resistance. and a more economical unit.
100 deg F or above), the tube amface in contact with the to adequately compress the gasket is a mbt~dltiat
superheated steam will have a wall temper- higher Other design features incorporated in the desuper- The ieheat problem is less severe in the steam
condensate-cooling section because this section need percentage of the h y load ag~the end .clow~e
~
than the saturated steam temperature; this lneans that heating section are means to shield the other regions of and may even exceed it. The force required toobtain an
the tube wall will not be wetted by condensate and the unit from the high-temperature steam and means to not be exposed to the steam and a short condensate-
adequate gasket seat can be reduced by narrowing the
thst the transfer of heat will be low d e s s special preeau- prevent distortion due to unequal temperature distri- oooling section can be used to achieve the proper width of the gasket and at the same time confining the
ticr11~are made. It is found economical sometimes bution. proportion of the tube surface to shroud surface. gasket to an enclosed space to prevent the gasket from
essential to ban a desuperheatbg section to mntml the The eonde~mate-coolingsection is Located at the feed- w A higher condensing heat transfer coacient is deflecting freely. An example of this design feature is
desugerhesting of the steam. water inlet end of the beater so that the condensate (or achieved on a horizontal tube bundle than on a tube illustrated by the tongue-and-groove hnged joint in
The desuperhestiing section is h t e d at the feedwater drains) from the condensing section can be subcooled to bundle that is vertical. Tbis fact is not reflected in Fig. %(a).
exit end so that the leaving feedwater can be heated to approach the feedwater inlet temperature. The cotl- most design analyses; however, it should be considered A shear-block closure design that is used in some of the
i
MARINE ENGINEERING HEAT EXCHANGERS
PRESSURE REDUCING
larger and higher-pressure feed heaters is depicted by of the low-pressure feed heater (see Section 3.5). When SAFETY VALVE (TYPICALLY 600 TO 150 PSIG)
F i p . 34(b) and 35. The hydrostatic load is resisted by it is a separate exchanger, it is of the U-tube design and
the shear ring, and the pressure on the gasket is main- is arranged to receive low-pressure steam in the shell,
tained by the hydrostatic load. Figure 35 shows the and cooling water is passed through the tubes to effect
method by which the tube-side operating pressure is the necessary condensing of the steam.
used to seat and seal the solid copper ring gasket. The fan which forms a part of the gland leak-off FROM DESUPERHEATER'
With the larger high-pressure heaters, a point is system is designed to handle the leakage air plus the
uncondensed steam vapor. The gland leak-off exhauster ,
'
reached where a simple bolted-flange closure must give
way to a more elaborate high-pressure closure; experience (which is the common name for this fan) is usually
STEAM LINE
indicates that when the product of the operating pressure mounted on top of or immediately above the condenser
(in psi) and the shell I D (in inches) exceeds 25,000, a (or condenser section of the first-stage heater).
bolted-flange joint is no longer economical. In actual The Navy has set forth specific design and material
design practice, the availability of a standard flange for requirements for this condenser and similar condensers
the size and pressure intended often decides the question for other shipboard applications [17]. TO
as to the specific closure design. The economic advan- 3.9 Unflred Steam Generators. Unfired steam gen- D.C HTR.
tage of a ready-made versus a custom-made item will erators (which are also referred to as contaminated water
often influence the selection of the specific closure. evaporators or steam service evaporators) supply low-
3.8 Gland Leak-Off Cqndensers. I n order to avoid pressure steam at a pressure of 50 to 150 psig to a
an ingress of air into the steam system at the points system that is independent of the main steam system.
where the steam turbine shaft penetrates the turbine The independent system provides steam for services
casing, and similar locations, a gland-sealing steam which could possibly contaminate the main system in the
system maintains a pure steam atmosphere at a pressure event of a system malfunction. Some of the "con- ORIFICE
slightly above atmospheric just outside the turbine taminated" services include the fuel-oil suction and
shaft-casing interface; this ensures that atmospheric air service heaters, cargo-tank heating coils, galley and
will not enter the turbine. heating systems, and steam-driven deck machinery.
The gland leak-off system consists of a fan which The contaminated evaporator tube nest drains are *ONE OF MANY POSSIBLE
removes an air and steam mixture from the turbine gland normally piped to the deaerating feed heater via a trap. FEED CONTROL ARRANGEMENTS
leak-off pockets, and a condenser through which the Figure 36 depicts a typical contaminated steam system.
mixture is drawn in order to condense the steam so as to Contaminated evaporators operate on bleed steam FLOWS TYPICAL FOR
NORMAL OPERATION
recover the water and reduce the quantity of gas which from the high-pressure turbine, auxiliary steam, or in
1
the fan must handle. some cases, high-pressure steam (up to 500 psig). The
The gland leak-off condenser may be either furnished bleed steam is a variable-pressure source which depends
as a separate heat exchanger or combined as a section on the percentage of full power being developed. The
CONTAMINATED DRAIN TANK
requirements of the contaminated system also vary
greatly. Operational requirements, as depicted on a Fig. 36 Typical contaminated steam system
normal-power plant heat balance, may be only a small
percentage of the maximum performance requirements.
The maximum performance requirements must be taken LOW PRESSURE
as the design conditions with checks niade to ensure that STEAM OUTLET
the design is satisfactory for other operating arrange-
SPLIT RETAINING RING
Two sets of design conditions are generally set up:
one for bleed-steam operation and one for auxiliary-
I N N E R COVER steam operation. Both conditions must be considered
to determine the effectson the evaporator design as well
as the safety valves and orifices.
The evaporator bundle is normally of the U-tube type
POSITIONINGR I N G as shown by Fig. 37. When the tube bundle becomes
very large, straight tubes should be used, incorporating
the outside-packed head type of construction illustrated
by Fig. 38. Tubes are usually %-in. OD on a lxs-in.
square pitch, except in the case of a low temperature BLOWWW
difference when a closer pitch may be used (N in.). Fig. 37 Typical contaminated water evapaata
H-in.-OD tubes, when used, are placed on a 1%-in.
(J SHEAR-BLOCK TYPE CHANNEL COVER (b) CONSTRUCTION DETAILS OF SHEAR-BLOCK TYPE CLOSURE
water gage glass, steam supply r e d a t i n g valve, ther- The overall clean-tube heat transfer coefficients that
Fiq. 35 shear-block closure
526 MARINE ENGINEERING HEAT EXCHANGERS I
=
105f[P.(Pl - P2)I1/'
if P2 > 0.58P1
a drain to the bilge. A probe for oil detection and an
if P2 < 0.58P1
associated alarm are also normally provided.
The filter section is packed with a loose filtering
medium, usually loofa sponges, arranged for easy access
and replacement of filter material.
A, = orifice area, sq in. The storage section is provided with a gage glass,
P1 = upstream pressure, psi thermometer, removable cover, cooling coil, a drain and
P2 = downstream pressure, psi overflow to the bilge, and a vent.
W#,,= steam flow rate, lb/hr 3.1 1 Hot-Water Heaters. Hot-water heaters are
The safety valve should be sized for the maximum used to provide water at controlled temperatures for
steam flow entering the generator, i.e. showers, lavatories, and galley services. Hot-water
heaters are generally steam heated and can be classified
W = 105.3 Ao[P4(Pa - Pr)]1'2 into two types: storage heaters and instantaneous heaters.
A storage type of heater has the advantage that the water
W = 51.45 AZa, if P4 0.58Pa < can be heated and stored during nonpeak periods of hot
water demand, thus reducing the peak heating-steam
requirement. Also a less sophisticated temperature
control device is required for a heating rate that is
Pa = Pressure of line (Assume independent of the rate of hot water withdrawal. The
P, = set pressure of shell safety valve however, the heat loss is rarely a deciding factor. Space
The other major item in the contaminated system, and weight are usually a t a premium aboard ship, in Fig. 39 Contaminated drain impadion tank
namely the drain inspection tank, is covered in Section which case an instantaneous hot water heater, which
heats the water as fast as the rate of withdrawal, should
3.10 Contaminated Dmin Inspection Tank. The be considered since a large storage tank is not required.
contaminated drain inspection tank is used in the Figure @(a) illustrates the storage type of hot-water hot water withdrawal rate, then the storage tank is not flow friction inside the heating tubes, and therefore is
contaminated-steam drain collecting system to act as the heater and its accessories. The notable features of this necessary and the storage type of heater becomes an flow rate sensitive. Consequently, the thermal bulb,
receiver for contaminated drains from fuel oil, lube oil, heater system are the pump which circulates the water instantaneous heater.
and oil-tank heating systems. This system is kept from the tank to the heating element, and the thermal which ac$uates the steam control valve, senses the
The most complex aspect of a hot-water heating system combined effect of the hot-water outlet temperature, the
isolated from the clean-steam drain system. bulb [labelled "remote bulb" in Fig. 40(a)] located at the lies in the scheme of temperature control. Figure cold-water inlet temperature, and the hot-water with-
Normally one drain inspection tank is furnished per outlet of the heating element. It can be seen from this @(b) illustrates the principles involved in controlling the drawal rate; as a result the time lag of the steam control-
system; the tank consists of a welded-steel (at least % in. arrangement that the heat input to the system is temperature of a typical instantaneous hot-water heater. valve action is minimized. The shrouds around the
thick) fabrication that issuitably stiffened and galvanized independent of the rate of hot water withdrawal. Tho The flow bypass gate, bypasses a small portion of the thermal bulb point out w t h e r crit&al aspect .of the
after assembly and is fitted with a cooling coil to prevent flow circulation rate, together with the thermal bulb and inlet cold water, and the bypassed cold water is directed design; namely, that the flow around the sensing element
h h i n g of hot drains. The tank, as illustrated by Fig. the temperature of the water to be circulated (i.e., to flow over the thermal bulb (or temperature-sensing should be guided to produce an accurate signal that gives
39, is sized to accommodate all heating drains a t peak temperature of the water at the lower part of the tank, element) located in the water outlet channel. The a prompt indication of an incipient temperature change.
load conditions and is usually divided into three sections which may or may not mix with the inlet cold water), amount of cold water bypassed depends not only upon The permissible variation in the hot-water outlet
(i.e., storage, filter, and inspection sections). will dictate the heat input rate through the action of the the adjustment of the bypass opening but also on the temperature should not be over-specified. A hot-water
The inspection section is fitted with an inspection port control valve. The control valve regulates the amount pressure difference between the inlet and outlet sections outlet temperature variation of 10 deg F will result in a
with a light set a t the waterline. It is also fitted with a of steam admitted as well as the steam pressure. If tho of the waterbox. The pressure difference between the hot-water heater system of less expense and complexity
scum drain, test connection, removable cover, vent, and water circulation rate is sufficiently larger than the peak inlet and outlet sections of the waterbox is created by than would be the case if a 5 deg F variation were
i
VENTS
INLET
\
NULUS BETWEEN TUBES
HEATING STEAM
COLD WATER
References 10 Kenneth J. Bell, " ~ i n i i l ~ e ~ofothe
r t Cooperative
INLET Research Program on Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers,"
1 'Standards of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers
University of Delaware En+eeriog Bulletin No. 5,
Association, " Tubular ExchangerManufacturers Associa- January 1963.
tion.
11 Townsend Tinker, ''Shell Side Characteristics of
'lASME Boiler and Pre8sure Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers-A Simplified Rating
Division I, Section VIII, American Society of M e c h c system for Commercial Heat Exchangers,,, Trans.
fig. 40 Hot water heaten
Engineers. ASME, 1958.
3 Rules and Regulations for the Construction and 12 Devore, Try T~~~simplified Method for
ClasSiJication of Steel Ships, Lloyd's Re'gister of Shipping. Rating Exchangers,,, May
4 Code of Federal Regulations, Title 46-Shipping, 1961.
on its cover is bolted to the heater in place of a steam Chapter I-Coast Guard, Department of Transportation,
specified. However, there is a tendency for hot-water Subchapter F-Marine Engineering, published by Office 13 D. L. Katz, J. G. Knudsen, G. Balekjian and
heater procurement specifications to stipulate an outlet chest cover. Navy applications consider such arrange- of the Federal Register. 8. S. Grover, "Fouling of Heat Exchangers," Petroleum
temperature control of plus or minus 5 deg F at varied ments since the general lack of "contaminated" systems ReJiner, 1954.
on Navy ships increases the necessity to take adequate 5 Rules for Building and Classing Steel Vessels,
flow rates [IS]. American Bureau of Shipping. 14 H. H. Keller and E. V. Somers, "Heat Transfer
3.12 Fail-safe Heat Exchangers. Some heat ex- precaution to prevent oil contamination [15]. 6 ucoolers, ~ l ~ i d~ ,~ d ~ ~ t~~~~l ~ i a shipboard
l , from an $Annular Fin of Constant Thickness," Tram.
changer applications require a design that precludes the Double-tube-sheet and double-tube, double-tube- Lubricating Oil, Hydraulic Oil, and Fresh Water," ASME, 1959.
entry of one fluid into the other in the event of a tube or sheet exchangers are often specified for Navy applica-
tions where a "fail safe" feature is desired [6]. Figure Military Specification MIEC-15730. 15 "Heaters, Fluid, Fuel Oil, Naval Shipboard,"
tube sheet leak. For example, the contamination of 7 R. A. Bowman, A. C. Mueller, and W. M. Nagle, Military Specification M1L-H-16313.
condensate systems by seawater or fuel oil must be, 41 is a cutaway view of a double-tube, double-tube-
"Mean Temperature Difference, in Design," Trans. 16 "Heater, Fluid, Seawater; Shipboard Use, " Mili-
prevented. Electronic equipment coolers and hydraulic sheet heat exchanger as provided for hydraulic-oil
ASME, May 1940. tary Specification ~1~-B?T6423. "
system oil coolers are also areas where "fail safe" heat cooling aboard submarines. Any leak that develops at 17 "Condensers, Steam, Surface, Naval Shipboard,"
8 E. N. Sieder and G. E. Tate, "Heat Transfer and
exchangers are used. the tube-to-tube-sheet joint or as a result of a tube Pressure Drop of Liquids in Tubes," Industrial and Military Specification MIL-C-15430.
The "evaporator" type of fuel-oil heater whereby an rupture will flow to the void between the double tube-
Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 28, 1936. 18 "Standard of Feedwater Heater Manufacturers
intermediate fluid is used to transfer heat from a primary sheets and out the drain. Alarm devices may also be
incorporated to automatically warn of leakage into this 9 Daniel A. Donahue, "Heat Exchangers," A Association, Inc., " Feedwater Heater Manufacturers
heating coil to the oil-heating elements can be used in Special Petroleum Processing Report, March 1956. Association.
lieu of conventional oil heaters and thereby preclude the void space. Similar designs with only the double-tube-
contamination of primary steam condensate with oil. An sheet feature are used on seawater-fresh water coolers to
evaporator section with a primary heating coil mounted reduce the risk of saltwater contamination.
DISTILLING PLANTS
( Distilling Plants
VAPOR T ~ M A I NOR
/ AUXILIARY CONDENSER
CIRCULATING
WATER OUTLET
Section 1 SAFETY VALVE
Distilling Plant Designs EVAPORATOR
1.1 Introduction. Distilling plants are used aboard evaporate the raw water by means of steam-heated tubes
ship to produce high-purity distilled water from sea- or coils, a condenser (called a distilling condenser or PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE TO
water. They are also used to produce distilled water more simply a distiller) to condense the vapor, and the SHELL VAPOR, PRESSURE GAGE MAINTAIN STEAM PRESSURE I N
EVAPORATOR COILS DISTILLER
from raw freshwater supplies of insufficient or doubtful necessary interconnecting piping, valves, etc. COIL STEAM PRESSURE GAGE
purity. The capacity of marine evaporating plants Multiple-effect plants were generally used for the
varies from a few thousand gallons per day (24 hours) up larger capacities so as to reduce to reasonable proportions GAGE GLASS TO INDICATE
to 100,000 gallons per day or more, depending upon the the amount of operating steam required. In multiple- WATER LEVEL I N SHELL
size and purpose of the ship. effect plants, the vapor from the first evaporator (first-
Distilled water is required to furnish high-purity make- effect evaporator) is condensed in the coils of a second LINOMETER POT FOR
BRINE SAMPLING
up water for the boilers and potable water for drinking, evaporator (second-eff ect evaporator), thereby serving CIRCULATINQ
cooking, dishwashing, ablutionary, hospital, and laun- as the heating medium, etc., with the vapor from the last WATER INLET
DISTILLATE
OUTLET
dering purposes. Additional capacity is often incorpo- effect only being condensed in the distiller. FF
ELL
rated to enable the application of freshwater sanitary sys- Figures 2 and 3 illustrate the two types of submerged-
tems. tube evaporators commonly used in the early distilling STEAM TRAP 6 $ H
RV.PACS
The standard Navy specifications and U. S. Maritime plants. The horizontal-tube evaporator shown by Fig. PET COCK FOR AIR VENT, TO BE
KEPT OPEN WIDE ENOUGH TO
Administration specifications require a distillate purity 2 required conservative design criteria in order to attain PREVENT AIR BINDING IN COILS
of less than 0.065 equivalent parts per million of chlo- a level of performance considered acceptable in its day. Fig. 1 Early single-effect submerged-tube distilling plant arrangement
rides. This is equal to of a grain of sea salt per gallon, Below brine temperatures of 130 F the fouling of tube 1
" s-
or aboub 4.3-ppm total dissolved solids. Most marine surfaces was minimal, and for brine temperatures up to
distilling plants can produce distillate substantially be- about 180 F the scale formati011 was not considered ex-
low these limits. The specifications for nuclear-powered cessive provided the temperature gradient across the in the shape of a helical coil. However, despite the [2]. Flash evaporators became widely accepted for
naval ships require a distillate purity of one half that of heating tubes was maintained below 50 F. At higher efforts to improve the design of submerged-tube evapom application in marine distilling plants because their low
the normal specifications, or % grain of sea salt per gal- temperatures, scale formed rapidly such that vapor tors, they continued to be characterized by high operat- operating temperatures result in virtually scale-free per-
lon. Tests on marine distilling plants demonstrate that temperatures above 250 F were not considered practi- ing costs, high space requirements, high maintenance formance with normal seawater. Chemical treatment of
the units are capable of producing water containing less cable from an operator's viewpoint. costs, complex piping systems, and low performance feedwater is not required in connection with low-tem-
than x-ppm total dissolved solids with purity deter- "Cold shocking" or thermally cracking the scale for- under continued service conditions. perature flash evaporators as they will operate three
minations made by means of the sodium tracer method mation from heating tubes by suddenly changing the The state-of-the-art of distilling design has, how- months or more without feed treatment and without
and a flame spectrometer. temperature of the tube metal was a technique used to ! ever, changed considerably since World War 11. Since cleaning. In addition to being smaller and lighter for a
When operating in normal seawater of 35,000-ppm minimize the extent of marlual tube cleaning required. World War 11, a variety of distilling plant designs has given capacity, the flash-type evaporator is also more
solids (a definition of "normal" seawater is given in Cold shocking greatly improved the heat-transfer rates of been developed from which the most appropriate system simple to operate-an advantage from an automation
"The Oceans" by Sverdrup [I ]I), a distilling plant should the tubes, especially for the so-called self-scaling tube
for a given marine power plant can be selected. I n lieu standpoint.
be capable of operating for a period of a t least 90 days a t designs which were in the form of helical coils or bowed of the previously predominant distilling plant8 that em- The flash type of evaporator produces distilled water
rated capacity without shutdown for cleaning. Depend- tubes with restrained ends such that the tubes were dis- ployed submerged-tube evaporators, the distilling plant by dischqrging heated seawater into a chamber that is
ing on the specific design, this can be accomplished with torted by a temperature change. However, the cold-
dwigns considered for marine use emerged as : maintained a t a pressure lower than the vapor pressure
or without chemical feed treatment. Such extended shocking process was only partially effective. Scattered
operating periods without shutdown for cleaning is a Plants employing flash evaporators of the entering heated seawater, and subsequently con-
patches of scale were left on the tubes and they some-
requirement of both the standard Navy specifications Planta employing thin-film evaporatora densing the water vapor thereby produced.
times built up to a considerable thickness before cracking Figure 4 is a simplified diagram that illustrates the
and U. S. Maritime specifications for $hipboard distilling off. The heat-transfer rates obtained after cold shock- Plants employing the vapor compression cycle
plants. "Normal" seawater is found in most areas of Plants employing basket-type evaporators basic internal constructiop-sf a two-shge flash-type dis-
ing were considerably less than for tubes that had been
the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Plants employing a membrane process tilling plant. The majority of the marine unit's are of
thoroughly cleaned.
1.2 Early Distilling Plant Designs. As shown by Fig. The high maintenance associated with submerged- this multistage type with integral horizontal condenser
1, the single-effect distilling plants designed before
1.3 Flash Evaporator Designs tube bundlea. The heated aeawater is introduced and
tube evaporators was recognized and, insofar as practi-
World War I1 consisted essentially of an evaporator to cable, design provisions were made to facilitate their care
a. Marine E'lash Evaporators. Since the initial appli- released via "spray pipes" in each stage to achieve the
aation of flesh evaporation to marine distilling plants, a most effective flashing of a portion of the brine into
and cleaning. The vertical-coil evaporator in Fig. 3 in-
vast majority of all steam-driven ships, commercial and vapor. The development and application of the "spray
cludes such features as a track for ready removal of the pipe" design for flash evaporators enabled substantial
naval, have been equipped with flash-type distilling
Numbem in brackets desigmte References at end of chapter. coil assembly, removable heating coils, and heating tubes
plants for the supply of makeup feed and potable water reductions in the size and weight of the flash plant [3].
MARINE ENGINEERING DISTILLING PLANTS - 533
DISCHARGE
Feedwater leaving the spray pipe is directed downward of heat which must be added in the seawater heater.
in curtains of water by a spray cap located above the This feature is shown in more detail by Fig. 5, which is a
spray pipe. The first separation between the flashing flow diagram for an 8000 gpd,"two-stage, flash distilling
vapors and the brine occurs at this point. The down- plant.
ward velocity of the feedwater direots all but the fine As indicated by Fig. 5, the initial vacuum in the stages
droplets to the lower section of the flash chambers. is normally cre'ated by a high-pressure steam-driven air
The small droplets that are entrained in the flashing ejector vacuum system, but vacuum pumps are some-
vapor are removed in the demisters located in the upper times used where high-pressure steam is not available.
portion of the distilling plant, after which the vapors pass The stage condenser bundles are internally baffled to
to the stage condenser. It is most important that the direct the flow of noncondensible gases to vent connec-
TOP COIL MANIFOLD
design incorporate a positive seal aroynd the demisters tions leading to subsequent stages or to the air ejector.
to preclude the passage of any salt-laden vapors around The air ejector normally provided is of the two-stage non-
I the separators. condensing type. It is suitably sized for the efficient
Since the vapor pressure of the heated feedwater enter- removal of air and noncondensible vaDors from the d i e
ing the first-stage spray pipes is higher than the first- tiller condensers. Air ejectors are covered in more detail
GAGE stage chamber pressure, a portion of the feedwater in Section 2.6 of this chapter.
flashes into vapor, thereby removing heat from the feed- The feedwater heater and separate or "built-in" air
water, until the temperature of the feedwater reaches ejector coydenser are of the multipass shell-and-tube type
the saturation temperature corresponding to the chamber with removable flanged waterboxes. The seawater
pressure. I n other words, the heated feedwater is evap- flows through the tubes. The water velocity through
orated by a pressure reduction instead of a temperature the heat exchanger tubes should not exceed 6 fps at rated
elevation. After an equilibrium condition is reached in capacity. The condensers and saltwater heater may be
CONNECTION the first stage, the remaining brine is introduced into a provided with means for ci@mdic protgction in a manner
second stage that is maintained at a lower pressure than similar to that described in Chapter 14 in mnhection
the first, and the process is repeated. The distillation with other heat exchangers in seawater service.
TRACK FOR REMOVING process can operate from a positive pressure in the first The saltwater heater is usually designed to maintain
COlL ASSEMBLY
stage to a high vacuum in the last stage, with a stage-to- the temperature of the feedwater entering the first stage
stage pressure differential being the key to repeated of the evaporator between 165 F and 175 F. The steam
li] &OW OFF CONNECTION flashing. condensate temperature from the saltwater heater does
HALF END VIEW HALF SECTION "AA" Figure 4 shows that the entering seawater feed is used not exceed 200 F under normal operating conditions.
Fig. 3 Early vedical-coil type evaporator as the condenser coolant, thereby reducing the quantity A shell-and-tube distillate cooler is installed when the
MARINE ENGINEERING
536 MARINE EN DISTILLING PLANTS
evaporator is to provide potable water. The distillate line are normally furnished separately for installation by
cooler is designed to provide a distillate temperature the shipbuilder or owner.
leaving the distilling plant of 95 F or less with an initial The following items are also common to a packaged
seawater temperature of 85 F. Occasionally, this cooler flash evaporator such as illustrated by Fig. 7:
is incorporated as an integral part of the last-stage con- Feedwater pump and motor with pressure gage
denser bundle. at pump discharge usually separately mounted from the
Shown in Fig. 6 is a feature frequently provided for distilling plant package.
distilling plants that must operate in polluted harbors. Optional condensate return system:
When in polluted harbors, it is desirable to use water 1. A drain regulator is used when the condensate is
from shore as makeup to the distilling plant. To reduce returned to the condenser by vacuum drag.
the amount of shore water that is required to operate the 2. A condensate pump with drain regulator which
distilling plant, the feedwater is recirculated through the is required when discharging to more than one
saltwater heater. Temperature levels are maintained in system.
the distilling plant by circulating harbor water through Controls for unattended and automatic operation:
the stage condensers and then overboard. Thus, the 1. Steam pressure-reducing valve which is required
polluted harbor water is not put into the evaporator when the steam supply pressure is subject to
heater and the flash chambers; this is an important fluctuation.
feature in some harbors that are highly polluted and con- 2. Seawater temperature-sensing switch and timer
tain debris and mud which can seriously impair normal for dumping the distillate to the bilge in case the
plant operation by clogging and fouling high-temperature seawater temperature leaving the heater falls
tube surfaces. below 165 F. The timer will not permit the dis-
Pressure gages are supplied on marine flash plant tillate to be returned to the storage tanks until
packages in the steam supply line, evaporator shell, the unit is thoroughly flushed out; adequate
evaporator inlet, high-pressure steam to air ejectors, low- flushing normally requires at least 15 minutes.
pressure steam to orifice, and at each pump discharge. 3. High brine level alarm to be located in the last
Thermometers are provided on the saltwater heater evaporator flash chamber.
shell, steam line to the saltwater heater, feed inlet and 4. Desuperheater failure alarm switch.
outlet lines of the saltwater heater, distillate outlet line 5. Automatic temperature control valve maintain-
from the distillate cooler, and on the evaporator shell ing the saltwater heater outlet temperature at
(one per stage). A positive-displacement type flow- 170 F. Fig. 7 photograph of flash evaporator
meter is also installed in the distillate discharge line to Instrument panel. 1 -" sz
+ STEAM
1
IN TREATMENT OUT STEAM VENT STEAM
i I 1 t. I t
VACUUM
SYSTEM TURBINE
(IF USED)
I
I
i
t
!
FEE0 FEED
HEATE R HEATER
STAGES 4 I ( 1 EVAPORATOR I
1 1 RECIRCULATE 1 I I
t 1 t 1 t
BRINE DlSTl LLATE BRINE CONDENSATE
DISTILLATE CONDENSATE
> BLOWDOWN
Fig. 9 Flow diagram of a long-tube tlash evaporator, once-through system
Rg. 8 Flow diagram of a long-tube tlash evaporator, brine reci~ulationsystem
from the main propulsiori plant condenser as the coolant HORIZONTAL CROSS SECTION
As indicated by Fig. 9, treated seawater is pumped that the condensate which forms has surface tension in the distilling plant condenser, have been installed
through all of the condensing tubes, from the last stage to
the first, enroute to the feedwater heater. As the feed-
forces acting to drain it from the crests into the grooves.
This feature results in the major portions of each crest
aboard ship. With such an arrangement, the conden-
sate-cooled distillirig plant accomplishes a secondary
.-
EVAPORATION SlDE
water flows through the condenser tubes, it is heated on the evaporating and condensing side having a very objective of functioning as a low-pressure feedwater
WALL THIN FILM REGION
thin film of liquid to greatly reduce the resistance to the /
progressively in each stage by the vapors which condense heater in addition to its primary objective of producing
on the tube outer surfaces. The feedwater then passes heat flow through the crest area. The liquids in the potable and high-purity makeup feedwater from sea-
through the tubes of the feedwater heater where it is grooves are channeled off by gravity, and the heat flow water. The combination results in a higher overall cycle --
heated to its terminal temperature. through this area is somewhat less. Seawater is intro- efficiency [4]. A typical flow diagram of a condensate- 'CONDENSATE
The heated feedwater is discharged to the shell side of duced on the inner surface of the tubes by a spray nozzle; cooled spray-film evaporator is shown in Fig. 12.
THIN FILM REGION
4
the evaporator first stage for flashing. The remaining and the falling film of brine on the evaporating side tends HEAT FLOW
The heating bundle of a spray-film evaporator con-
brine flows successively from the first to the last stage, re- to collect in the grooves by surface tension. A secondary sists of a horizontal tube bundle with the heating medium
but important function is performed by the flutes in CONDENSING SlDE
flashing in each stage, and is pumped from the last stage on the inside of the tubes. The heating mediumcan be
back to the ocean. organizing and controlling the falling film to assure uni- bleed steam from steam turbines or steam produced from Fig. 10 Double-tlute thin-tllm heat-transfer surface
1.4 Thin-Film Evapora?ors. Section 2 of Chapter 14 form distribution of the brine down the length of the waste heat from diesel engines or gas turbines. The brine
discusses details relative to the transfer of heat from one tube. level is maintained in a hotwell below the evaporator
fluid to another through tube walls, and Fig. 11 of Two-effect thin-film evaporators, such as illustrated tube bundle and a brine pump provides the necessary
Chapter 14 illustrates the resistance to heat transfer en- by Fig. 11, have been installed on a number of ahips. pressure to recirculate the brine to the spray nozzle pump can be used to maintain a low shell pressure in the
countered when transferring heat through a tube wall. Such t h i n - h evaporators offer the advantages of good header. Recirculated brine from the spray nozzles is evaporator. The air ejector after-condenser can be a
By analyzing the temperature gradients involved with heat-transfer characteristics, easy tube removal (pro- "rained" over the top of the heating surface where it separate heat exchanger or it can be incorporated within
the transfer of heat through tube walls, it becomes vided by O-ring joints), and low probability of distillate flows from tube to tube in thin films, resulting in rela- the evaporator heating bundle, thereby utilizing the heat
apparent that if thin films can be created and maintained contamination due to brine carry-over (only a small tively high "thin-film" heat-transfer rates. An a u t e
quantity of brine is maintained in the evaporator). How- content of the air ejector steam without necessitating a
on the tube walls, a relatively higher overall heat-transfer matic chemical feedwater treatment system is provided separate after-condenser heat-exchanger assembly.
coefficient can be maintained. Doubleflute tubes have ever, chemical feedwater treatment is required with to retard the formation of scale on the heating surfaces. Since a spray-film evzqm-ator opeates at relatively
been employed in several marine evaporator designs as a these evaporators, and experience has shown that the The vapor generated at the tube surface counterflows higher shell pressures arid lower feed rates than a marine
means of maintaining thin liquid films. The configura- feedwater chemistry must be diligently maintained in through the curtain of recirculated brine and fine liquid once-through type flash evaporator, the vacuum equip
tion of the so-called "thin-film" tube design employed is order to avoid a rapid accumulation of scale on the thin- droplets are thereby removed from the vapor. Removal
film heat-transfer surfaces. ment handles a lower volume of entrained air and corro-
shown in Pig. 10. The arrangement of the double-flute of the liquid droplets in this manner, coupled with the sive gases and at a lesser vacuum level. As a result, the
tubes in the evaporator is such that the tube orientation The "spray-film" evaporator is a popular form of the secondary entrainment separation in the demister column,
thin-film type of marine evaporators. The spray-film application of vacuum pumps in lieu of air ejectors be-
is vertical, with steam condensing on the outside and a enables the production of distillate having a very high comes more attractive.
falling film of feedwater evaporating on the inside, as evaporator is especially adaptable for application in an purity. To ensure conformance with the regulations of the
indicated by Fig. 11. "in-cycle" or "condensate-cooled'' distilling plant SYS- A steam-motivated air ejector or mechanical vacuum U. S. Public Health Service [5], the shell temperature
The operating principle of the double-flute tube is such tern. Spray-film evaporators, employing condensate
540 MARINE ENGINEERING DISI'ILLING PLANTS 54 1
must be maintained at a minimum temperature of 165 F ing economy of the packaged feedwater heater/con-
so as to pasteurize the vapor and distillate. A tempera- densate-cooled distilling plant are of significant impor-
j
ture switch is provided to sense the shell temperature tance from the viewpoints of machinery space arrange- t
I-
and actuate the distillate dump valve, diverting the dis- ments and overall cycle efficiencies. latent heat is given up by the vapor and the condensate The distillate collected in the flash tanlc of the distiller
tillate to waste should the shell temperature fall below the 1.5 Basket Evaporators. Evaporators of the basket produced is discharged to the flash tank on the distiller condenser is pumped through the distillate cooler after
165 F minimum. Where lower operating temperatures type are specifically designed to employ "cold shocking" condenser. which it is either discharged to a distillate storage tank
are desirable or necessary due to a low-temperature heat- as a means of preventing an accumulation of scale on the The vapor produced from the seawater in the second or dumped to waste.
ing medium (such as engine jacket water), a separate dis- evaporator heating surfaces; also, the deeply corrugated effect passes through separators, similar to those in the Returning to the design of the basket itself, the basket
tillate sterilizer must be incorporated. basket provides a large amount of heatrtransfer surface first effect,and then goes to the distiller condenser where is made in sections of 0.043 to 0.050 in. moilel sheet that
As indicated by Fig. 12, a blowdown cooler cools the in a given area as may be noted from the evaporator its latent heat is transferred to the seawater in the con- are given a corrugated configuration in a press. The
hot blowdown while simultaneously preheating the in- sectional view in Fig. 14. denser tubes. After absorbing heat in the condenser, the sections are then welded to form the basltet shape shown
coming makeup feedwater. The brine concentration in The diagram of a double-effect basket-type distilling majority of the seawater coolant is discharged over- in Fig. 14. On the seawater side, the basltet surface is
the evaporator sump is maintained at the proper density plant illustrated by Fig. 14 shows that the cycle is com- board; however, a small quantity (equal to about three highly polished; this is done to minimize the tendency
by setting a continuous blowdown rate. A rotometer is menced by supplying steam to the basket-type heating times the distillate produced) passes through the tubes for scale to firmly adhere to it.
provided to indicate the blowdown rate. section of the first effect. The latent heat of the steam is near the top of the condenser where further heating takes In order to control the accumulation of scale on the
A shell-and-tube type distillate cooler is used to reduce transferred through the basket wall to the seawater and place. T h i ~ quantity of seawater, now called feedwater, basket surface, it is necessary to execute a cold-shocking
the temperature of the distilled water produced. Sea- the condensate formed is returned to the boiler. is discharged from the condenser to the feedwater heater procedure every 75 to 100 hours of continuous operation.
water is normally used as a coolant in the distillate cooler A circulation baffle or "skirt" is located a fixed dis- where the feedwater is heated to within several degrees of To do this, the brine is drained from the unit and steam
in order to reduce the temperature to a "potable" water tance around the basket on the seawater side. As a the evaporating temperature in the first effect; finally at about 15'psigis admitted to the basket heating section.
temperature. Blowdown and distillate coolers have result of the skirt, violent boiling action takes place the feedwater enters the bottom of the firstrstage The flat sides of the corrugations expand, and the 250 F
sometimes been combined into one plate-type heat ex- between the skirt and the basket. The heavy foaming shell. steam dries the scale. Next, the steam line is secured
changer utilizing a 3-fluid flow pattern, i.e., hot brine, hot characteristic of the boiling seawater inside the skirt The excess feedwater (about twice the evaporation and cold seawater is allowed to cascade down over the
distillate, and cold makeup feed. produces high velocities and a low static head, thereby rate) maintains the required level of seawater in the basket. As the steam insidsthe b a s k t condenses, the
Condensate-cooled distilling units are often used in reducing the pressure in the region of boiling. In addi- shell. The entrained excess,feed is carried up with the pressure inside quickly drops from 15 psig to-approxi-
conjunction with a combined firstr and second-stage feed- tion, the high velocity over the basket surface has a scrub- vapor produced, but it js removed from the vapor in the mately 28 in. Hg vacuum, causing the flat sides of the
water heater/gland exhaust condenser in a manner similar bing effect which tends to retard rapid scale formation. separator and falls into a brine gutter in the bottom of basket to contract. The scale is consequently cracked
to that discussed in Section 3.5 of Chapter 14. The re- After leaving the evaporator section, the vapor passes the separator section. The brine collected is discharged off the basket and drops to the bottom of the shell where
sulting packaged spray-film evaporator feedheater is through a cyclone separator and a "snail" where par- to become feedwater for the second effect. The quantity it is removed through the cleanout door. Repeating this
illustrated in Fig. 13, which is a photograph of a unit ticles of brine entrained with the vapor are removed. of brine carried off from the first effect by entrainment is process several times removes the majority of the scale
ready for installation aboard ship. From the snail the vapor passes through the feedwater sufficient to feed the second effect and to maintain the from the heating surface. In addition, at infrequent
The advantages of compactness and increased operat- heater and into the basket of the second effect. The correct brine density in the first effect. intervals, cleaning with a solvent is recommended so as to
- I
MARINE ENGINEERING
DISTILLING PLANTS 543
SECOND EFFECT
AIR OFFTAKE 1
TO EJECTOR OR
VACUUM WMP
HEATING SECT10
CIRCULATING
WMP
LEGEND
EQUALIZEA
STEAM
SKIRT
IST EFFECT VAPOR
CORRUGATED
ZND EFFECT VAPOR BASKETTYPE
SEAWATER HEATING SECTION
CONDEWSATE EVAPORATOR
SHELL
SECTIONAL VIEW
OF EVAPORATOR
Fig. 13 Spray-fllm evaporator
Fig. 14 Double-effect basket-type distilling plant
flow rate is normally set at twice the total distillate flow The vapors produced from the brine on the shell side
dissolve any accumulation of scale on the basket, heat of evaporators include the spray film, submerged tube, for best operation.
basket, or vertical type of tube bundle with seawater in of the evaporator are drawn through demisters into the
exchangers, separators, and pipes. The boiler section integral with the evaporator pro- vapor compressor. Vapor compressors of a centrifugal
1.6 Vapor-Compression Distilling Plants. Vapor- the tubes. Figure 15, which is a diagram of a vapor-
vides the small quantity of starting and makeup heat design, that operate at a relatively high speed and low
compression distilling plants are designed for service compression distilling plant that employs a spray-film
evaporator, illustrates the principles involved with a required for the operation of the distiller. If the boiler noise level, are most suitable; however, many plants
where low-pressure steam or diesel engine waste heat are is steam heated, low-pressure steam is piped into a small have been equipped with a single-stage, positive-dis-
not available in sufficient quantity to operate an evapora- vapor-compression distilling plant. Feedwater is
pumped through a solenoid valve, control valve, flow- U-tube bundle to provide the necessary heat. A low- placement, three-lobe rotary-type compressor. The
tor. The major advantage of a vapor-compression pressure (15 psig) steam supply free of contaminants is compressor normally operates with a 2 to 4 psi differential
evaporator is its high thermal efficiency and that it meter, heat exchanger, vent condenser tube bundle, and required to maintain a compressor suction pressure of 0.5
then into the spray pipe manifold from which it is sprayed pressure between the suction and discharge; the maxi-
operates on a self-contained thermodynamic cycle that is psig and is usually regulated by a diaphragm-type con- mum allorvable differential pressure is about 5 psi.
dependent only upon a source of power to provide the over the tube bundle in the evaporator shell. Some of
trol valve. During the compression process, the steam vapor in-
input energy required. The power supply may be in the the sprayed brine striking the hot tube bundle evaporates If the boiler is electrically heated, three electric immer-
into steam vapors which are drawn through the demisters creases in' pressure and temperature after which, in a
form of electrical energy to operate the electric boiler, sion heaters are generally used with two of them being spray film evaporator, it is discharged into the tube side
motor drive for the vapor compressor, and motor-driven into the vapor compressor. The brine that is not
manually controlled and the third one operated auto- of the evaporator tube bundle. The latent heat of the
pumps; or the compressor can be driven by a diesel vaporized collects in the bottom of the evaporator shell matically. All three heaters are put in service during
and flows into the evaporator sump. The recirculation steam vapor is transferred through the walls of the tubes
engne or gas turbine. When the compressor is driven start-up to get the plant up to normal operating tempera- to the brine being sprayed, over the tube bundle.= This
by a diesel or gas turbine, the exhadst gases can be utilized pump takes suction from the evaporator sump and re- tures as quickly as possible. During normal operation,
turns the majority of the brine to the spray pipe mani- transfer of heat condenses'tffe steam vzpor inta distillate
as auxiliary boiler heat. Special arrangements can also the manual heaters are used as required, along with the which flows out of the tubes into the bottom of the steam
be made to use steam heating coils for the boiler if a fold. Incoming feedwater is used as cooling water for
automatic heater, to maintain a compressor suction chest,
small amount of steam is available for this purpose. the recirculation pump mechanical seal and is then com- pressure of about 0.5 psig. The automatic heater is con-
bined with the recirculating brine. A spray pipe assembly is the standard means whereby
Most offshore drilling rigs are equipped with vapor- trolled by an evaporator shell pressure switch. recirculating water is sprayed over the evaporator tube
compression plants as are some gas turbine ships and The recirculation pump also pumps a portion of the A'fter start-up, some of the distillate is used as boiler
recirculating brine through the evaporator sump liquid bundle. A steam chest and vent condenser are bolted to
submarines. makeup water. A float-operated control valve in the the evaporator tube bundle. The steam chest channels
The evaporator in a vapor-compression distillation level control to the blowdown side of the heat exchangers, distillate circuit regulates the correct amount of makeup
and then to discharge. For seawater use, the blowdown the flow of steam vapors from the compressor jnto the
plant can be any of a variety of designs. Possible types water into the boiler. tube bundle and the flow of distillate from the tube
MARINE ENGINEERING DISTILLING PLANTS 545
DISTILLATE bundle. Incoming feedwater flows through the tubes of immersion heater. The temperature control unit auto-
S W A Y CONTROL PRESSURE
RELIEF
VALVE , the vent condenser, where it gains additional heat from matically energizes one or both of the heaters when the
I
the vapors condensing in the vent condenser section. incoming seawater temperature is below 55 F and turns
The vent condenser is vented to the atmosphere to dis- off the heaters when the temperature is above 65 F.
charge noncondensible gases from the steam chest. *
A rectangular shell-and-double-tube heat exchanger, or
The distillate pump takes suction from the steam chest one of similar features, is located in the line between the
and pumps the majority of the distillate through the heat feedwater preheater and the yent condenser. The shell-
exchanger, the flowmeter, and then to the discharge and-double-tube heat exchanger is vertically divided into
connection. A small portion of the distillate enters the two sections of equal size, a distillate side and a brine
-
boiler t h r o u b the boiler water level control valve as side. Inner anc)'outer tubesheets are bolted to each end
makeup water. Another small portion enters the com- cover plate. Larger, straight outer heat-transfer tubes
pressor suction duct and serves as compressor desuper- are roller-expanded into the inner tubesheets and smaller
heating and sealing water. straight tubes, inserted through the outer tubes, are
EVAPORATOR A spray-film vapor-compression distilling plant is roller-expanded into the outer tubesheets. Incoming
DESUPERHEATER furnished by the manufacturer as a package complete feedwater flows in the annular space between the inner
with all interconnecting piping, electric wiring, auto- and outer tubes while the distillate and brine, discharge
matic controls, and insulation; such a unit is shown by from the evaporator, flow through the inner tubes in
Fie. 16.
u their respective sides of the heat exchanger. The feed-
Over a period of time, scale-forming elements in the water flow is counter to both the distillate and brine
DISTILLATE OUT
feedwater gradually accumulate on the evaporator tubes flows, providing good heat transfer between the flows.
and lower the rate of heat transferred from the com- The unit serves to further heat the feedwater and simul-
*
FEEDWATER pressed steam to the recirculated water (scale control is taneously cool the distillate and brine.
SOLENOID discussed in Section 2.5). Normally the amount of steam The feedwater leaving the heat exchanger next passes
VALVE
--- FEEDWATER IN
compressed is constant. Therefore the compressor differ- through the tubes of the vent condenser, where it gains
ential pressure rises (causing an increase in the tempera- additional heat as the hot noncondensible gases vented
1
2
- -. BLOWDOWN OUT
ture difference) to counteract the effects of the scale accu-
mulation. 'As the compressor differential pressure rises,
from the evaporator section are cooled.
The hot feedwater leaving the vent condenser is dis-
Fig. 15 Vapor-compression distilling plant with spray-fllm evaporator there will be a slight decrease in distillate production; charged into the large circulation tube located in the
therefore, an acid cleaning system must be provided and center of the evaporating section and collects in
used when the rated distillate capacity can no longer be the brine recirculation sectioq. .- The temperature of the
maintained or when the com~ressordifferential Dressure brine in the recirculation section is raised to the boiling
exceeds 4.5 psi. When the lpressure differentiil across point by heat coming from the boiler section.
the compressor reaches 5 psi, the unit is operating at its The boiler section is located on the floor of the evapora-
minimum rated capacity and the evaporator tubes must tor. Its source of heat is three electric immersion
be cleaned to raise the distillate o u t ~ u t lower
. the elec- heaters. During operation the electric heaters keep the
trical energy input, and prevent overloading the com- distillate at the boiling point, which in turn further heats
pressor motor. the brine in the brine recirculation section located above
When it is desirable to use a diesel engine instead of an the boiler section. Since the feedwater is preheated
electric motor to drive the com~ressoka conventional when it enters the evaporator, comparatively litt~e heat is
four-cycle, in-line, medium-speed, industrial-type engine required from the immersion heaters to keep the brine at
is best suited for continuous operation. The engine the boiling point.
directly drives the compressor and both water pumps via A brine overflow tube, located in the center circulation
V-belts. Engine jacket water can be used as a heat tube, runs through the feed section to a sidewall connec-
source to the boiler thereby providing a means of return- tion. Two distillate drain tubes from the evaporator
ing the heat in the jacket water to the system. The section to the boiler section also run through the feed
boiler section can also use the engine exhaust gas as a section, astdoes a steam vent tube from the boiIer section
heat source; by doing so, maximum use is made of the to the evaporator section.
engine waste heat. When the brine boils in the recirculation section, it
Detailed material and design requirements for distilling passes into the evaporator section tube bundle where
plants of the vapor-compression type for Navy applica- more heat from the compressed vapor is applied. This
tions are contained in reference [6]. The plant installed heating increases the boil* action "o'f the ly-irie, and
on some submarines operates on the principle described about two thirds of the brine is vaporized at a pressure
in the foregoing, but the plant is completely electrically of about 1 psig in the tubes. The brine not vaporized
operated and incorporates a vertical-tube bundle as illus- flows into the brine overflow and is piped out of the
trated by Fig. 17. evaporator into the heat exchanger. Steam vapors from
Referring to the plant shown by Fig. 17, the entering the boiling brine in the evaporator section tubes rise into
seawater is preheated (for arctic operation or cold feed the vapor section and are drawn into the suction side of
due to deep submergence) in an assembly that consists the compressor through the baffle arrangement and de-
Fig. 1 6 Spray-fllm vapor-compression distilling plant
of two cylindrical shells, each containing an electric misters. The baffle arrangement and demisters remove
MARINE ENGINEERING DISTILI.ING PLANTS 547
entrainments from the vapor and allow relatively ('clean" rate of flow will be decreased. As the pressure is in-
vapor to flow to the compressor suction. creased, a point will be found at which the flow is brought
The vapor compressor, which is the "heart" of the to a complete stop, the tendency to flow being in equilib-
plant, is a centrifugal, liquid sealing ring type that is rium with the opposing pressure. This equilibrium pres-
directly driven by a constant-speed a-c motor. The sure (actually, the equilibrium-pressure difference
unit is mounted in the evaporator top cover plate and between the solvent and solution phases) is called the
extends down into the vapor section. It operates at a '(osmotic pressure"; the osyotic pressure is a property
suction pressure of about one psig at 215 F and a dis- of the solution and cannot depend in any way on the
charge pressure between 1.5 and 3 psig in the saturation membrane, so long as the latter has the necessary prop-
temperature range of 217 to 222 F. When in operation, erty of semipemeability. A further increase of the
the compressor reqqres a continuous flow (about 0.25 pressure on the solution causes reversal of the Ssmotic
gpm) of distilled water for sealing purposes. The seal flow, and pure solvent passes from the solution, through
water is necessary to provide proper suction and com- the membrane, into the solvent phase; this phenomenon
pression and to maintain the vapor discharge tempera- is the basis of the reverse-osmosis method of desalination.
ture within predetermined limits. The distillate dis- Most osmotic membranes have little mechanical
charge line, downstream from the heat exchanger, is strength and must be supported if they are to withstand
tapped to provide the seal water. large pressure differences. The development of support-
The compressor raises the temperature and pressure ing media to provide the necessary strength without
of the vapors and discharges the vapors into the evapora- seriously impeding flow is essential to the practical
tor section where a number of heat-transfer tubes are application of reverse osmosis.
arranged in a pattern surrounding vertical baffle plates. The most common semipermeable membrane used in
The baffle plate arrangement directs the flow of vapors reverse osmosis plants is cellulose acetate, the acetate
around the tubes and directs the noncondensable gases to ester derivative of cellulose. This is a chemical modifica-
a vent tube. A system of perforations in the vent tube tion of cellulose in which some of the hydroxyl groups are
collects the gases which are passed through an external replaced by acetate groups. Water selectively dissolves
vent condenser to the atmosphere. into the membrane and is transpoi-ted through the mem-
In the shell side of the evaporator section the vapors brane by pressure-motivated diffusion. This is called
condense on the tube outer surfaces to form distillate "solution-diffusion." The membrane will reject triva-
which collects in the bottom of the evaporator section lent ions better than divalent ions and divalent ions
(on the lower tubesheet) and flows through the distillate better than monovalent ions,. ,,Dissolved gases tend to
return tubes into the boiler section. The excess distillate pass through the membrane with very low rejections.
flows out through the outlet pipe into the distillate pump Membranes have been produced and tested in such
and is pumped through the heat exchanger and into the various forms and configurations as flat membranes
ship's storage tanks or to waste, depending on its purity. (called plate and frame membranes), spiral or rolled
1.7 Membrane Processes membranes, and the tubular concept. The tubular
a. Reverse Osmosis. Of the various membrane proc- membrane concept has emerged as one of the most
esses used in desalting, reverse osmosis has the most popular due to its moderate space utilization, ideal pres-
promise for shipboard applications. Developments in sure containment, light weight, ease of cleaning and serv-
reverse osmosis have made membrane dpsalting processes icing, and ease of membrane replacement.
widely accepted, and they are considered for seawater 'J'he application of reverse osmosis to shipboard desalt-
desalination. ing of seawater poses a somewhat different set of circum-
To understand reverse osmosis, it is necessary to re- stances than those encountered on fixed-base installa-
view the basic phenomenon of osmosis. Osmosis de- tions. The variation of feedwater temperature from 28
pends on the existence of a membrane that is selective in to 85 F presents system design complications, because
the sense that certain components of a solution (ordi- the osmotic membrane is sensitive to the water viscosity
narily the solvent) can pass through the membrane, variation that occurs with temperature change. Permea-
while one or more of the other components cannot do so. tion of solvent through a cellulose acetate membrane
Such a selective device is called a "semipermeable mem- varies approximately 1.56 percent per degree F from a
brane"; it is usually, though not always, in the physical standard design temperature of 77 F. This change in
form suggested by the word "membrane." As illus- rate of product water is partially offset by the change in
trated by Fig. 18, if a semipermeable membrane separates average brine concentratio* As the membrane permea-
a solution from a pure solvent, or two solutions of dif- tion rate is increased, with a constant feed rate, the
ferent concentrations, the tendency to equalize concen- salinity of the brine being circulated is also increased.
trations will result in a flow of solvent from the less con- The average brine concentration is defined as the initial
centrated phase-that is, the phrtse richer in s o l v e n t t o brine concentration plus the effluent or waste brine con-
t h e other; it is this flow of solvent that is termed centration divided by two. For every 1000-ppm salinity
"osmosis." I f an attempt is made to impede the flow by change of the average brine in the unit, permeation
exerting pressure on the more saline solution (assuming through the membrane will vary 1.8 percent due to the
for simplicity that the other phase is pure solvent), the change in osmotic pressure of the brine.
MARINE ENGINEERING
DISTILLING PLANTS
""U Q
1ST STAGE
MEMBRANE BANKS
"""U 9 )
2ND STAGE
MEMBRANEBANK
OSMOTIC PRESSURE
WATER
-
WATER I
MEMBRANE
"tube-sheets" by means of an "O-ring" seal not unlike a
Fig. 18 Osmosis, osmotic pressure, and revene osmosis shell-and-tube heat exchanger.
Seawater desalination by reverse osmosis to produce
potable water that meets the requirements of the U. S. WNC IATED BRINE WASTE I - 1
Public Health Service [5] has been dome in two stages as FRESH PRODUCT WATER
indicated by Fig. 20. The initial feedwater containing. Fig. 21 Schematic diagram of the electrodialysis process
approximately 35,000 ppm of total dissolved solids
(tds) is reduced to about 3500-ppm tds in the firstrstage
permeate and thence from 3500-ppm to 350-ppm tds in
the second-stage permeate. Research to develop a and negative (cathode) electrodes. This field forces the I
"single-pass" membrane and laboratory tests on cellulose positive ions to move toward the cathode and the nega-
diacetate, cellulose triacetate and cellulose acetate tive ions toward the anode. An ED desalting "cell" is
butyrate show promise that the "ideal" membrane to formed by two smooth, rigid plastic membranes with a
produce potable water (under 500-ppm tds) from sea- spacer between, which guides the water flow. One mem-
water in one pass will be developed. Reverse osmosis brane carries a permanent electrical charge that is posi-
will then challenge the evaporative processes for the lead tive and the alternate membrane has a negative charge.
in seawater desalination for potable use. Additional Just as magnets of like charge repel each other, the posi-
"polishing," such as the addition of a polishing demineral- tively charged membrane W*els positi3 ions, yet ljermits
izer in the permeate stream, would be necessary to pro- negative ions to pass through it. The membranes and
duce boiler makeup quality water (under 1-ppm tds). electrodes are so arranged to permit ions to leave an ED
b. Electrodialysis. Whereas other forms of desalina- cell but none to return. Therefore, water in one c a m
tion schemes entail the removal of the vastly greater bulk partment of an ED cell is desalted while the adjacent
of water from the salts, in the electrodialysis process the "brine" compartment is made more salty. Electro-
salts are removed from the water. As illustrctted by dialysis plants have successfully refined brackish waters
Fig. 1 9 80,000-gpd barge-mounted reverse-osmosis desalination plant
Fig. 21, with the electrodialysis (ED) process, an elec- of up to 2500-ppm total dissolved solids to produce pota-
trical field is imposed on the water by positive (anode) ble water in shoreside installations [7] but have not been
550 MARINE ENGINEERING DISTILLING PLANTS 55 1
proven to be economically feasible for converting highly up to 180 F has been considered. At such temperatures, U, = clean-tube overall heatrtransfer coefficient; i.e., because in a boiling evaporator the heatrtransfer coeffi-
brackish or seawater (feedwaters in excess of 5000-ppm the electrical resistance to the flow of current through a sum of film resistance on tube inside and cient is also a function of the driving force or temperature
tds) to potable levels. The cost of operation of ED solution is considerably decreased, resulting in lower outside surfaces and resistance of tube wall, difference. Most available data are based on experience
plants is in direct proportion to the amount of salt re- power requirements. A lower power consumption could Btu/hr-sq ftrdeg F and therefore include allowances for fouling. Figure 24
moved. Since the salts actually pass through the mem- place ED systems in an acceptable cost range for process- r = fouling resistance; i.e., resistance of tube de- is a curve showing typical values for submerged-tuhe
brane, the problems of fouling or "polarization" can be ing the more brackish waters, and seawater, for marine po&itsor scale, hr-sq ftrdeg F/Btu evaporators.
much more severe than encountered in reverse-osmosis applications. Figure 22 is a plot of the clean-tube overall heatr I n the case of a condenser such as encountered in a
systems. The use of cation-neutral membranes in ED Other membrane processes such as ultrafltration and transfer coefficient, U,, versus tube velocity that can be flash evaporator, the ternperdure difference between the
systems lessens the danger of fouling. piezodialysis show little promise of being able to economi- used in the design of a saltwater heater or condenser for fluids varies from location to location within the con-
The operation of electrodialysis plants at temperatures cauy convert the more saline waters to a potable level. a flash evaporator. The correction factor which must be denser in a manner similar to the temperature distribu-
applied to the coefficient read from Fig. 22 to compensate tion in a heat qx'changer. There is a difference, however,
for inlet water temperatures of other than 70 F is given in in that the heat transfer for the condensing fluid takes
Fig. 23; and correction factors for the tube material and place at a constant temperature and only the temperature
gage are given in Table 1. Typical values of the fouling of the liquid varies. For a condenser, the logarithmic
Section 2 factor are given in Table 2. For a stage condenser in a mean temperature difference (illustrated by Fig. 25) can
flash evaporator, the fouling factor, r, will typically vary be expressed as:
Distilling Plant Design Considerations from 0.0005 to 0.001 hr-sq ftrdeg F/Btu. In the saltr
2.1 Heat Transfer in Distilling Plants. The funda- values of heatrtransfer coefficients encountered in service water heater where elevated temperatures are encoun-
mental theory of heat transfer in heat exchangers and the are presented in references [8] and [9]. tered, the fouling factor ail1 normally vary from 0.001 to
application of this theory are discussed in Chapters 2 The overall heattransfer rate of a submerged-tube or 0.0015 hr-sq ftrdeg F/Btu; see Table 2.
apd 14. The basic analytical relationship employed in thin-film evaporat~rdepends upon the vapor pressure of A comparison of overall heat-transfer coefficients and where
the design of heat-transfer equipment is the liquid being evaporated, the temperature difference temperature differencestypical of flash, submerged-tube,
between the condensing saturated steam and the vapor and spray-film distilling plants is shown in Table 3.
Q = UA(LMTD) (which fixes the steam pressure for a given vapor pres- Heatrtransfer data for a submerged-tube evaporator
where sure), the disposition of the heating tubes in the shell, and are usually expressed as a relationship between the heat
the character of the liquid being evaporated as well as flux, &/A = UAT, and the temperature difference, AT,
Q quantity of heat transferred, Btu/hr
=
the cleanliness of the heatrtransfer surfaces. Heatr
U = heatrtrmsfer coefficient, Btu/hr- transferrates increase with increasing vapor and steam
sq ftrdeg F temperatures, with the temperature difference remaining
A = heatrtransfer area, sq f t Table 1 Heat-Transfer Rate Tube Material and Gage
unchanged, except that for seawater evaporation at tem-
LMTD = logarithmetic mean temperature peratures exceeding about 200 F and for some classes of Correction Factor
deg F raw fresh water at the higher temperatures (particularly -TUBE WALLGAQE-
for high-temperature differences), scale forms so rapidly TUBE 17 16 15
The main consideration in the thermal design of an MATERIAL^ Bwg Bwg Bwg
evaporator is that fluids in the evaporator undergo a as to offset the advantage that would otherwise be Admiralty metal 0.97 0.93 0.88
change in phase. In a flash evaporator, beat is trans- gained. Arsenical copper 0.97 0.93 0.88
ferred to the seawater in tubes by condensing a vapor on Under laboratory conditions with a single acid-cleaned Aluminum 0.97 0.93 0.88
Aluminum b r w 0.93 0.89 0.84
the outside of the tubes. In a submerged-tube or spray- tube re-evaporating distilled water, the temperature dif- Muntz metal 0.93 0.89 0.84
film evaporator, the heat i s trwsfemed from the con- ference has a pronounced effect on the heattransfer rate. Aluminum bronze 0.87 0.84 0.79 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Rates varying from about 1300 Btu/hr-sq ftdeg F a t a 20 90-10 copper-nickel 0.87 0.84 0.79
densing steam inside the tubes to the boiling seawater 70-30 copper-nickel 0.80
VELOCITY, FEET PER SECOND
deg F temperature difference up to over 3000 Btu/hr-sq 0.76 0.71
on the outside of the tubes. Type 304 stainless steel 0.56 0.54 0.51 Fig. 22 Condenser clean-tube heat-transfer rate
AB in the design of heat exchangers (see Chapter 14), ftrdeg F at a 100 deg F temperature difference have been
the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, is given by observed with the vapor at atmospheric pressure; the
heatrtransfer rate falls off with further increases of the
1
U=
(I/&) + + + +
9.a rw rdt~ (l/h@)
(2) temperature difference. However, for scale-producing
feeds, the scale resistance is such a large part of the total
where resistance to heat flow that the effect of temperature
difference
.- on continuous service rates is small.
- =; reciprocal shelhide film coefficient Since t,he scale resistance is generally such a large
h, ~ercentakeof the total resistance to heat flow for dis-
r* resistance of deposit or scale on tube outside
= iilling it is convenient to group all of the other
wall together and express equation (2) in Rg. 23 Hwt-transfer rate inlet
temperature correction factor
r, = resistance of tube wall metal the folbwing form:
rdto = resistance of deposit or scale on tube inside wall
- = reciprocal of tube-side flp coefficient us- 1
(3)
ho 1
-+r
All of the resistances listed in the foregoing are consist- Ue
ently based on the same area; by convention, the tube
outside area L usually taken as the base. Typical where TEMPERATURE OF INLET WATER. DEGREES F
MARINE ENGINEERING
DISTILLING PLANTS
553
Table 2 Fouling Resistances Typical of Various Types of Water, r,
hr-sq ft-deg F/Btv
Seawater
Brackish water
Cooling tower and artificial spray pond:
treated makeup 1
untreated
City or well water (such aa Great Lakes)
Great Lakes
River water :
mnlmum
Mississippi
Delawa~e,Schuylka
East Rlver and New York Bay
Chicago Sanitary Canal
Muddy or silty 0.003 0.002 0.004 0.003
Hard (over 15 grainslgal) 0.003 0.003 0.005 0.005
~ n g i n ejacket - 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001
Distilled 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005
Treated boiler feedwater 0.001 0.0005 0.001 0.001
Bbiler blowdown 1 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002
Table 3 Heat-Transfer Coefficients and Temperature saturation temperature loss associated with the pressure
Differences Typical of Feedwater Heaters in Various loss through the demister.
Types of Distilling Plants Condenser Pressure Loss (COND). The weighted Since the temperature differences are the same in both
saturation temperature loss associated with the pressure stages, the two tube bundles will be made to the same FEED, T i ----c
loss through the condenser. design. The LMTD in the two condensers will be
5-50
I n marine applications, the losses associated with the
LMTD = 33 - 8.25 = 17.85"F
Flash 450300 brine equilibrium temperature deviation and the con-
Submer ed tube 300-650 15-45
spray fifm 500-800 10-30 denser pressure loss are usually small and c m be ne- 33
glected; however, they are usually significant factors in In -
8.25
higher capacity and economy plants. Figure 26 is a
curve of boiling point rise versus temperature. Since The condenser tubes selected are %-in. o.D., 18-BWG
T, = vapor temperature the demister pressure loss is normally less than 0.5 deg F, (0.049-in. wall), 90-10 Cu-Ni tubes, and the tube design
1, = cold liquid temperature it is common to allow 1.5 deg F for the combined demister velocity is 5.5 fps. From Fig. 22 the heat-transfer rate
k = hot liquid temperature --- - boiling point rise loss in the design of once-
l n n ~and
*"--
for a % in. tube with a 5.5-fps tube velocity is 633
In a flash evaporator there are a number of tempera- through marine-flash evaporato~. Because the operat- Btu/hr-sq ft-deg F. Applying an inlet temperature
correction factor of 1.06 (since the condenser for the
ture losses which must be taken into account in the ing brine concentration is higher in submerged-tube and
two stages will be the same, the correction factor read
design of the equipment. These losses are associated spray-film evaporators, a value of 2 deg F is usually
with the brine equilibrium temperature deviation, the allowed for the combined loss for such units. from Fig. 23 is based on the lower inlet temperature of
86 F) and a material correction factor of 0.90 (read from TI, + +
----
boiling point rise, the demister pressure loss, and the I n order to illustrate the principles involved in the
Table 1) gives a corrected clean-tube, overall heat- Tb' --DEV.
f
+
condenser pressure loss. The effect of these losses on
the LMTD is shown in Fig. 25. The losses are defined
determination of the size of a condenser and saltwater
heater for a distilling plant, consider the two-stage, transfer coefficient of 604 Btu/hr-sq ft-deg F. With a #
Tv
--------
-----,--,-
as follows: 8000-gpd, flash evaporator illustrated by Fig. 5. The
condenser temperature differences are computed as
fouling resistance of 0.000675, the overall heat-transfer
coefficient is computed from equation (3) as Tv ---- -----
+ - CONbAp
Brine Eauilibrium Temperature Deviation (DEV).
~A
tions for ships constructed under the puwiew of the U. S. When an acid or acidic salt is added to a seawater
Maritime Administration are similar [ l l ] and 90-10 supply, it will neutralize what is commonly termed the
copper-nickel is also required for the flash chambers, with alkalinity of the seawater. The alkalinity is the sum of
the provision that steel evaporator chambers, suitably the hydroxide, carbonate, and bicarbonate ions in the
protected against corrosion by means of a protective seawater, although usually only bicarbonate ions are
R coating, will be considered. Protective coating materials present in significant ,quantity. The hydrogen ions pro-
P
provide definite savings in initial cost but the protection duced in the seawater by tfie added acids or acidic salts
they provide steel surfaces in a marine distilling plant is act to destroy or neutralize the bicarbonates by the
sometimes iinsatisfactory. following reaction :
It is significant that pradt,ide in the use of nonferrous
materials for distilling plants in ships built abroad fol- ~ ~ 0 + H+
3 - + COz t + Hz0
lowed that of the United States. Prior to 1950, distilling bicarbonate ions + hydrogen ion =
plants built in England and Germany used cast iron as
the material for the shells. If the shells were thick
carbon dioxide gas + water
enough, they were generally satisfactory, but the units Therefore, by treating the seawater with acid and con-
were much heavier than when more corrosion-resistant verting the bicarbonates to form carbon dioxide and
materials such as copper-hickel, monel, and titanium water, it is possible to eliminate the source of carbonate
CONDENSATEOUT were used. ions and prevent the formation of magnesium hydroxide
D dirtlllats Not only is it important to use nonferrous inaterial in and calcium carbonate scales. Such treatment is com-
V vapor
Jw w- the areas in contact with the brine, it is equally important mon practice in the operation of land-based multistage
FDW feed- that the condenser baffles and distillate troughs and vent desalters.
Fig. 27 Flow diagram of an evaporator having three heat sources sections be of nonferrous materials. These come in During the acidification of normal seawater, for scale
contact with the vapolg which are laden with oxygen and control purposes, approximately 100 ppm of carbon
carbon dioxide released from the heated brine and also dioxide is formed through bicarbonate alkalinity break-
are subject to corrosion. down. This."carbonated brine" is acidic and corrosive
Due to rising costs and long lead times experienced in to fermus materials of construction. The carbon dioxide
heat supplied. For multistage plants, fitted with such condensers that use the main propulsion plant condensate obtaining copper-nickel tubing, the use of titanium tubes can be removed by scrubbing the seawater with air or
features as evaporators which are heated by vapor as the coolant). in marine evaporators may become more common. steam.
produced in an earlier stage, the overall economy of the Since the overall economy of a distilling plant depends See Section 5.6 of Chapter 22 for additional details Calcium sulfate scales are ~grobablythe worst of the
plant may be estimated best by first preparing an upon the ship's power plant, and the interrelationships relative to the materials of construction for marine common scales which may bk encountered when seawater
approximate heat balance flow sheet. Such flow sheets between the two, it is not possible to accurately state the distilling'plants and heat exchangers. is heated and evaporated to form concentrated brine.
are approximate, but the balance a plant will assume in economy of a distilling plant independently of the power 2.5 Scale Control and Acid Cleaning Calcium sulfate scales are not readilv soluble in acid
sewice can be predicted with fairly good accuracy. plant. However, the following gives an approximate a. Scale Control. High-temperature, land-based solutions; consequently, they must often be removed
There are several factors which complicate a precise idea of the overall economy characteristic of four types evaporators-have a much inore serious scale control by mechanical methods.
prediction of the manner in which a plant will perform in of distilling plants: problem than do marine plants which operate at a low The mechanism of calcium sulfate scale forination is
sewice. A "clean" plant is capable of producing exces- Single-stage submerged-tube plants operating on temperature and normally under vacuum. Nevertheless, simply precipitation caused by the concentration of
sive quantities of vapor to such an extent that carry-over boiler steam at reduced pressure, 13 pounds of distillate the formation of scale is a major consideration in the de- calcium and sulfate ions beyond the solubility of calcium
will result, thereby contaminating the distillate; jn such per pound of additional fuel. sign of marine distilling plants. sulfate. Two crystal forms of calcium sulfate are in-
3
an event the steam or feed supply must be throttled or Two-stage flash plants operatipg on bleed steam, 50 One source of scale is the bicarbonate in seawater volved, the anhydrite and hemihydrate. The anhydrite
other means used to control the output. Tube surfaces pounds of distillate per pound of additional fuel. 1 which decomposes when the seawater is heated and then is the most insoluble form; therefore, its solubility is
of different units foul to a different degree; therefore, Three-stage flash plants operating on bleed steam, reacts with the magnesium and calcium in the seawater first exceeded uDon concentration of a feedwater con-
fouling cannot be predicted with exactness. Additionally, 75 pounds of distillate per pound of additional fuel. to produce magnesium hydroxide and calcium carbonate taining calcium and sulfate ions. Solutions supersatu-
the circulating water temperature varies with the season Spray-film vapor-compression plants with electric scales as shown in the following reactions: rated with respect to the anhydrite are stable for long
and locality. All of these factors affect the balance and motor drive and electric heaters, 200 pounds of distillate periods of time. Supersaturation with respect to the
economy of a distilling plant. per pound of additional fuel. hemihydrate is not as stable as that for the anhydrite,
The overall economy of a distilling plant, as distin-
guished from the so-called efficiency, may be expressed in Based op flash distilling plants operated with exhaust
2 bicarbonate ions = water + carbon dioxide gas + so that scaling does not usually take place until the con-
carbonate ion centration of calcium sulfate hemihydrate is exceeded.
terms of the pounds of distillate produced per pound of or bleed steam, the weight of additional fuel required, The solubility of both the anhydrite and hemihydrate
additional fuel required for the distilling plant, over and together with the operating weight of the distilling decreases with increasing temperature.
above the fuel otherwise required to fulfill the ship's plant, is bpt a small fraction of the weight of the distilled
power requirements. Establishment of the distilling water produced during an average ship voyage. For a i carbonate 'ion + water = carbon dioxide gas + The most common w & w f preverrting calcium sulfate
scaling in marine seawater evaporators is toMm&ntaina
plant overall economy entails an assessment of the given ship, investigations may show t h a t a worthwhile 2 hydroxide ions blowdown rate sufficiently high that the brine concentra-
amount of fuel used to produce the steam required for savings in tonnage can be effected by using distilled tion will not be saturated or supersaturated with respect
the saltwater heater, the electrical power required for water rather than tank water; and that, all things con-
the various pumps in the, plant, the useful work that sidered, the cost of distilled water is lower. carbonate ion + calcium ion = calcium carbonate scale to calcium sulfate hemihydrate. With proper distilling
plant operation, calcium solubility limits are avoided
20H- + Mg++ + Mg(0H)Z
could have been performed by the heating steam had it 2.4 Materials of Construction. The U. S. Navy has and no calcium sulfate scales will be formed.
been used for other purposes, and the heat returned to standardized on 90-10 copper-nickel as the material used Both thin-film and submerged-tube low-temperature
the boiler feed system from the distilling plant (a very for tubes, tubesheets, waterboxes, evaporator shells, and 2 hydroxide ions + magnesium ion = marine distilling plants incorporate a chemical feed treatr
important consideration for distilling plants which have piping for marine distilling plants [lo]. The specifica- magnesium hydroxide scale ment system. This feed treatment system basically
MARINE ENGINEERING DISTILLING PLANTS
I
consists of a chemical mixing tank and a proportioning indicator is dissolved in one gallon of water, the solution Table 4 Correlation of pH with Various Acidic and Basic %lutions
pump. A small amount of plyphosphate is auto- will turn a light red color, indicating sufficient acid con-
matically added to the feed stream so as to chemically centration to dissolve scale. If the solution is heated to pH T@;l pH of pH of Lodalue
arithmic
approximately 120-140 F, the color will change to a deep Value Strepgth Household Items to
react with scale-forming ions to produce a soft sludge- Industnd Chemicals Pure Water
type scale that is more readily washed from the tube red. As the solution is circulated through the evaporator INCREASING 0 Sulfuric acid 4.9% (1.ON)
ACIDITY 1.0 Purple Very strong Hydrochloric acid 0.37% (LON) lO,oOo,aa,
1,000,000
surfaces than the calcium carbonate and magnesium components and comes in contact with scale deposits, a
hydroxide scales which would otherwise be formed. chemical reaction takes place between the scale and acid 2.0 Red Lemon juice
2.5 Will dissdve / 100,000
b. Acid Cleaning, During the operation of a marine which dissolves the scale and reduces the concentration average
seawater distilling plant, scale will form on the heating of the acid. The by-product of the chemical reaction is scale
supfaces of the evaporator as reviewed in the foregoing. the liberation of large quantities of carbon dioxide gas 3.0 Pink Orange juice A&; acid 0.87 (0.1N) 10,000
This scale is usually 80-90 percent calcium carbonate. which must be vented to atmosphere at some point in 4.0 Orange Fairly strong Beer n
4.5 1,000
The remainder is a mixture of calcium sulfate, magnesium the cleaning circuit. Too weak to
As the acid is circulated and the chemical reaction dissolve
hydroxide, metal oxides, silica, and miscellaneous de- sde
posits. However, when seawater feed is improperly takes place, scale is dissolved, consuming acid in the 5.0 Gold American cheese 100
treated with polyphosphates, other deposits such as process, and the solution will gradually change in color 6.0 Yellow Mild M i
phosphate sludges may be formed in large quantities. to orange or yellow, indicating that most of the initial - . ib
NEUTRAL 7.0 White Neutral Distilled water at
If fresh feedwater is used, silicates or calcium sulfate may charge has been dissipated. At this time a recharge of - .F
77 -
i
be present. The rate of buildup and the composition of sulfamic acid will be required to increase the acid INCREASING 8.0 Mild Egg white
the deposits depend on such factors as the operating strength and change the color back t o red. ALKALINITY 10
temperatures, the brine density, and flow rates. Feed Beriodic recharging or makeup of fresh solution will 9.0 Grass Borax
Green 1w
treatment and cold shocking reduce the buildup of be required until the acid solution remains red for to 10.0 Dark Fairly strong Milk of Magnesia
scale, but do not prevent or remove deposits entirely. of an hour after the last acid charge. When this color Green ' 1,000
The symptoms of scale formation are: condition occurs, the operator can be assured that all Ammonia 1.7% (1.0N) 10,000
sohble scale in the cleaning circuit has been dissolved
(a) Consistently rising temperatures in the evapora- since the acid strength is no longer being dissipated by 12.0 Dark Caustic soda 0.4% (1.ON)
tor stages (decrease in vacuum). Brown 100,000
contact with scale. The acid should then be completely 13.0 Black Very strong 1,000,000
(b) Heating steam pressure to the feedwater heater, drained from the plant and the entire cleaning circuit
or heating tube bundle, is required to be above the design 14.0 Caustic soda 4.0% {l.ON) 10,000,000
flushed with large quantities of fresh seawater. NOTE: The color assumed by the indicator (e.g. litmus or pH paper) varies depending on the type and r a w of indicator used.
value t o produce the specified temperature at the feed- 2.6 Distilling Plant Vacuum Equipmenf. Proper vent-
water heater outlet. ing of the distilling plant condenser is most important
Sealed heat-transfer tubes can be cleaned chemically to prevent the buildup of noncondensible gases. Air is
by circulating a diluted acid solution through, or over liberated in the evaporator from the entering feedwater changes throughout the range of 28 F to 85 F. The be used on submerged-tube and spray-Mm units where
the tubes. Hydrochloric (muriatic) or sulfamic acid are which is saturated with air. Carbon dioxide may also vacuum system must, therefore, be designed to provide higher shell pressures are maintained.
the chemical reagents commonly recommended. Hydro- be released through a breakdown of bicarbonates in the proper operation at the suction conditions encountered The elementary operating principle of air ejectors may
chloric acid should be used only if sulfamic acid is not seawater. Since a low-pressure marine evaporator o p with inlet seawater feed temperatures in this range.
In a two-stage flash evaporator, the temperature in the be understood by reference to Fig. 30. High-pressure
available, and then only by qualified personnel experi- erates under a vacuum, small quantities of air also leak motive steam is led to the unit and passes through the
enced in its use. Chemicals used for acid cleaning are into the unit through the gasketed joints. If the con- second-stage evaporation chamber will be approximately nozzle where its pressure is dissipated in accelerating
denser is not properly designed, these gases collect in 114 F at a seawater temperature of 85 F; however, the steam to a high velocity as it passes from the nozzle
samewhat haaardous; they are hazardous in the sense
low-pressure pockets and render these areas ineffective, a t a seawater temperature of 28 F,?the second-stage
that most acids are dangemus. I t is essential that the throat through t$e expanding section of the norele. The
thereby reducing the performance of the unit. Figures temperature will drop to 70 F. The specific volume high-velocity jet of steam issuing from the nozzle entrains
operator understand the potential danger involved with of steam is 238 cu ft/lb a t 114 F, but at 70 P the specific
the use of acids. If proper precautions are taken, per- 28 and 29 @howthe vent baffling and shrouding in a the saturated air mixture entering the ejector element.
volume is 869 cu ft/lb. Consequently, the 28 F seawater f i c t i o n between the steam jet and the low-pressure air
some1 injury and equipment damage can be avoided and typical condenser and saltwater heater. feedwater condition controls the design of a flash evapo-
acid cleaning of the evaporator can be accomplished in Three different types of systems have been used to causes the latter to move with the steam into the con-
rator vacuum system. The vacuum system must be verging section of the diffuser tube where the steam and
a minimum of down time. establish and maintain the low pressure required in the capable of extracting large volumes per pound of steam
evaporation chamber; these are: steam-motivated air air mix. The divergent section at the downstream end
Sulfamic acid hasbecome the chemical mast commonly and noncondensibles removed a t the lower seawater feed of the difluser tube serves to decrease the velocity of
carried on board ship. No extra precautions are neces- ejectors, mechanical vacuum pumps, and water-moti- temperature.
vated air eductors. Of the three, steam-motivated air the moving gas and increase its pressure, thus converting
sary in storing or handling dry sulfamic acid; however, The highly corrosive nature of the noncondensibles
ejectors have been most common; however, mechanical released in a distilling plant vaporization chamber must the kinetic energy to pressure energy. I n this way the
since the acid dust will irritate the nose, eyes, and skin, air and noncondensible gases removed from the vacuum
careless handling which may result in its dispersion vacuum pumps and water eductors are suitable for limited also be considered in the design of a vacuum system. system are compressed, which is the object of,the air
should be avoided. Sulfamic acid is only mildly corro- applications. In addition to air inleakage and seawater deaeration ejector element. Por a d a o n a l dis<&ion regarding air
sive to metals and there is no fire hazard involved in its The service conditions of a vacuum system vary loads, the distilling plant vacuum system must also ejectors, see Chapter 12.
use. lulfamic acid is considerably less objectionable in depending on the design of the distilling plant. On a remove the COz which results from the breakdown of The elementary air ejector element shown in Fig. 30
all respects than dilute hydrochloric acid. submerged-tube or spray-film distiIler, the shell tempera- carbonates in the seawater when it is heated to 170 F comprises a single-stage ejector which is the type used for
The maximum acid concentration should not be nu- ture and vacuum are maintained at a predetermined as well as NH;I and HpS, which are also introduced by
polluted seawaters. low-pressure type distilling plants. In the case of multi-
merically lesa than pH 2.0. A reference for the correla- value regardless of the seawater feed temperature, and stage £lash plants, two-stage ejectom are generally e m
tion of pH values with various acidic and basic solutions the vacuum systems for these distillers operate at one a. Steam-Motivated Air Ejectors. Air ejector sys- ployed in order that a high vacuum may be economically
suction condition. I n a flash evaporator, the shell tem- tems used with most marine evaporators are of the two- obtained. In this case a second air ejector element is
is given by Table 4. stage noncondensing type, but singlestage systems can
When one pound of sulfamic acid powder with color perature varies widely as the seawater feed temperature placed in aeries with the primary air ejector element.
DISTILLINGPLANTS
MARINE ENGINEERING
SHELL
VENT
OUTLET
VENT
OUTLET '\ [ STEAM
INLET
STEAM
MAIN STEAM INLET
heater or part of the heating bundle in the submerged- temperatures. The greater complexity of the two-stage
tube or spray-film type of distilling plants. This arrange- system coupled with large,component sizes and high
ment simplifies the construction of the units and reduces costs involved in maintaining the pump under severe
maintenance requirements by avoiding the necessity of corrosive conditions has limited the use of mechanical
an additional heat exchanger. Since noncondensibles in vacuum pumps to instances where motive steam is not
the after-condenser section are highly corrosive, the available to operate an air ejector.
material in the after-condenser portion of a tube bundle c. Water-Motivated Air Eductors. A water-moti-
should be nonferrous. The material commonly selected vated air eductor has also been used for the submerged-
for this service has been 90-10 or 70-30 Cu-Ni. tube and spray-film designs which have shell tempera-
The air ejector steam chest is usually made of steel; tures above 125 F. In these distilling plant designs, more
the nozzle is stainless steel, and a stainless steel strainer water is required for cooling than is actually used as feed
is provided. The air chamber and the diffuser must be to the unit. This water is normally directed overboard
b of bronze or copper-nickel construction to resist the after passing through the condenser bundles; however,
corrosive vapors exhausted by the system. the excess cooling water can be used as motivating water
b. Mechanical Vacuum Pump. Mechanical vacuum for an air eductor, permitting operation of the eductor
pumps have been used on submerged-tube and spray- without havihg to provide an additional supply of
DISCHARGE TO INTER OR AFTER CONDENSER film distilling units, which have less severe vacuum sys- motivating water.
Fig. 30 Elementary air elector element tem requirements as compared with flash units. Sub- I n cases where an eductor can fulfill the vacuum re-
Fig. 29 Typical saltwater heater and air elector baffler merged-tube and spray-film units normally operate with quirements, its use permits a compact installation since
shell temperatures in excess of 125 F, and a single-stage some steam piping is deleted and an after-condenser is
vacuum pump can be employed. not required.
I n most cases, a liquid-ring pump using fresh water Very few water-motivated eductofs have been used
The first-stage air ejector compresses the steam and air complication involved and the fact that two-stage ejectors to form the liquid ring has been used to minimize the with flash-type evaporat'dT since it 'is difficult for an
to an intermediate pressure, and the second-stage element are capable of evacuating to a sufficient vacuum for all corrosion of pump parts. A typical liquid-ring vacuum eductor to satisfy the stringent vacuum requirements of
provides the h a 1 compression to atmospheric pressure normal installations. pump is illustrated by Fig. 31, and is discussed further in flash plants.
or slightly above to dispose finally of the air and non- The air ejector motivating steam is coridensed in an Section 4.8 of Chapter 12. The fresh water is cooled by 2.7 Distilling Plant Automation. The Maritime Ad-
condensible gases. A single-stage ejector unit is not after-condenser which uses the entering feedwater as the seawater in a heat exchanger which is built into the
cooling medium; such an arrangement is typically ministration Standard Specification for Cargo Ship Con-
suitable for operation at a vacuum higher than about vacuum pump seal water tank. struction [ l l ] requires that each desalination unit be
27 inches of mercury, and thus all high-vacuum ejector illustrated by Fig. 5. This reclaiming of the heat in the If a vacuum pump were used with a flash distilling capable of unattended, automatic operation after being
installations are provided with two- or three-stage ejector air ejector motivating steam increases the overall distiller plant, a two-stage pump would normally be required in put on the line locally. Most marine distilling plants can
elements in series. Three-stage ejectors are not nor- efficiency. The air ejector after-condenser is often con- order to provide satisfactory operation with low seawater be readily automated to such an extent with a few simple
mally employed in naval practice because of the extra structed as an integral part of the evaporator saltwater
DISTILLING PLANTS .
,
controls. Since the steam supply is normally from a low- secure the plant. A float switch with a one-minute not be touched or regulated to insure proper plant per- Art Conference," Sacramento, California, June 18, 1968.
pressure extraction paint, or alternatively, fram a higher delay proves the opening of the bypass valve; if a level formance. 3 Gordon F. Leitner, "Marine Distilling Plants
pressure source reduced to 5 psig and then controlled does not build up in the first stage, the plant will be The automatic timing of the stdrbup sequences is Current Practice for Specifications," presented to the
through a fked critical-pressure orisce in the steam secured. necessarily based on starting with a cold plant plus safety Northern California Section of SNAME, January 13,
supply line to the distilling plant, no autumatic control 2. The steam valve to the air ejector opens after a margins and, therefore, the timing of successive, se- 4 Charles D. Rose and Lee J. Hartenstein, "Con-
1966.
is normally required for the steam supply. three-minute delay; the delay is obtained by the use of quences is set for a much longer time than normally
It is necessary to maintain the brine temperature a timer. If the air ejector malfunctions and the vacuum required to manually start the plant under normal con- densate Cooled Evaps," Marine Engineering/Log, May
leaving the saltwater heater of a flash plant at a specified is not reduced to the operating level in 35 minutes, a ditions. Consequently, it would be common for the 1968. J
temperature, usually 170 F; this is done by means of an vacuum pressure switch and timer arrangement will trip operator to override the automatic start in many 5 "Handbook on Sanitation of Vessel Construction,"
automatic temperature control valve. No control of the the plant. instances to decrease the time required to get the plant U. S. Public pealth Service, Department of Health,
brine flow leaving the brine overboard pump is required 3. When the vacuum pressure switch indicates that on the line. Education arjd Welfm.
since a11 of the water entering the unit is pumped aver- the second stage has reached the operating vacuum con- The advantages offered by a completely automatic 6 "Distillation Unit, Water, Thermocompression,"
board. The only control required on the distillate is that ditions, the steam pressure-reducing valve opens to allow start-up system may not be justifiable when considering Military Specification MIL-b-16196.
of conductivity; a 3-way valve automatically diverts the 20-percent steam flow. Also activated at this time is a the initial expense, complexity, and maintenance of 7 Richard M. Ahlgren, "Electrodialysis as a Chemi-
distillate to the bilge in the event that the conductivity timer which continues to open the steam valve, allowing the automation system itself. The maintenance of the cal Unit ~ ~ e ~ a t i opresented
n)' to Americaq Institute of
is not within the specified control limits; the dump valve 35 minutes for full steam flow to be reached. Opening complex automation system will usually require more Chemical Engineera, St. Paul, Minnesota, February 20,
can be provided with an automatic reset. Provisions of the steam valve is proven by a temperature switch and man-houm than those required to manually open the 1962.
must also -be made to stop the feedwater flow in the timer in the inlet to the first stage; if the feedwater necessary valves in proper sequence for start-up. Most 8 D. Q. Kern, Process Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill
event of a brine pump failure to prevent accidental temperature does not reach 120 F in ten minutes, the distilling plants have been designed to operate auto- Book Co., 1950.
flooding of the evaporator. plant will be tripped. A solenoid valve in the "start-up" matically after a manual start-up. 9 W. H. McAdams. Heat Tramission. McGraw-
To insure that the water pmduced will meet the re- desuperheating water supply line is also opened by the Bill
quirements of the U. S. Public Health Service [5], an vacuum pressure switch in the second stage. Reterences 10Book Co., 1954.Unit@,Water; Steam, or Flashed
"Distillation \
arrangement or control in the circuit must be incorpo- 4. The condensate pump is started by an electric float 1 H. U. Sverdrup, M. W. Johnson, and R. H. Flem- Vapor Operated, or Fresh Water Heated, Low Pressure,
rated to inaure that all of the distillate is heated to at switch in the feedwater heater hotwell. Starting this ing, The Oceans-Their Physics, Chemistry, and General Naval Shipboard," Military Specification MILD-18641.
least 165 F; otherwise a distillate sterilizer must be pump secures the start-up desuperheater water supply Bwbgy, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1942. 11 "Standard Specification for Cargo Ship Construc-
incorporated. In a submerged-tube evaporator or thin- solenoid. Proof of the operation of this pump is deter- 2 F. A. Loebel, "The Flash Desalting Process," tion," Office of Ship Construction, Maritime Adminis-
film double-effect unit, it is necessary to add a sterilizer mined by a pressure switch in the feedwater heater. If presented at "A Seawater Conference--State of the tration, U. S. ~ e ~ k t m eofn tcommerce.
to the unit since in these types the normal operating the pump does not operate correctly, the level in the
temperature throughout the system is below 165 F. heater will rise and the pressure in the heater will
The steam supply to this sterilizer must incorporate an increase. The pressure switch will trip the plant if the
automatic regulating valve. heater pressure reaches 3 psig.
Figure 5 shows those controls necessary for a flash 5. The distillate pump is started by a float switch
plant to meet the unattended automatic operation located in the condenser trough above the normal operat-
requirement after being put on the line locally. ing level. Proof of the operation of this pump is obtained
Fully automatic operation requires that the plant be by the use of a low-vacuum trip in the second stage. If
equipped with automatic control devices to initiate all the condensate level in the condenser becomes excessively
starting sequences upon activation of one pushbutton. high, the air ejector suction line will be covered, the
The complexity of such a system is so much greater than vacuum will decrease, and the plant will trip,
a system in which each of the various starting and 6. Additional items also required include:
stopping sequences is initiated by an on/off pushbutton Pump back-pressure control vaIves are required on
or switch that distilling plant automation is normally the brine, distillate, and condensate lines. 1
restricted to systems with manual starbup provisions. Steam traps are required in all steam Iines; these
The practicability of completely automating the traps should discharge to a drain main in order to
start-up of a distilling plant is questionable due to the prevent water hammer,
variables encountered in vacuum and temperature condi- A panel is required at the local automatic start
tions coupled with the necessary timing of the sequences station to indicate the progress of the start-up
dependent upon these variables. The following se- procedure. If the plant trips during startrup, this
quence, requiring various controls and additional fea- is necessary to determine the component, switch,
tures, is necessary to accomplish automatic starting of a
typical two-stage flash plant by a single on/off push-
or relay which caused the trip. ,!
button or switch: Simply automating the opening of the steam supply
1. The feed pump is started, the brine pump is valve and air ejector steam supply valve can resdt in
started, an air-operated bypass valve opens in the inlet possible compromises to reliable and extended operation.
feed line to the first stage. Correct operation of the feed These services should be put on the Iine slowly with the
pump is proven by a 20-second time-delay pressure caution required by sound engineering practice when
awitch; if the pump pressure does not build up, the admitting steam to a plant. Therefore, additional con-
plant is secured. A high-level switch proves the opera- trol and timing devices to "bleed" warm-up steam prior
tion of the brine pump; if the pump does not remove to opening the valves are required. These two valves,
the brine from the second stage, the high-level switch will once opened during an attentive starting sequence, need
HULL 'MACHINERY J
565
CHAPTER X V I I
instances this is impossible, as in the cases of capstans Table 1 Wear Load Service Factor for Gears
and windlasses where the driving and driven assekblies
I Hull Machinery
-Equipmend , Fadm
are frequently mounted on different decks. When such Capstans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.35-0.5
Irving W. Smith two-deck arrangements are employed, provisions must be Crane machinery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . 7 -1.0
made to accommodate the deck deflections and small Steering gear drives.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0
Archer M. Nickerson, Jr. Winches, cargo.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.7
amounts of lateral displacement between the two assem- constant-tension mooring.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0
blies. Where a shaft connects the two assemblies, flexi- other.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.35-1.0
bility is usually provided by a slip or flexible coupling; Windlasses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . # . . . ..,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.35-0.5
if the connection between the two assemblies is hvdraulic
Section 1 piping, the relative movement between assembli~scan be
accommodated by designing flexibility into the piping instances whereX'anonoverhauling feature is more im-
General Design Considerations arrangement (i.e., by looping or offsetting the piping, portant than' the efficiency considerations involved.
taking care to avoid high regions which would trap air). Additionally, it is good practice to avoid the use of worms
.1.1 Scope. Broadly defined, "hull machinery" (or trol of many hull machinery components, and the in- Motors or gear boxes located in the weather should be on overhung shafts because of the misalignment which
"deck machinery") includes all power-driven equipment creased technical ability of ships' engineers have all provided with watertight housings, while those located can result from the worm shaft deflecting.
located outside the machinery spaces that is not associ- pointed the development of hull machinery drives away below deck or out of the weather may be provided with Brake linings should be of an incombustible material
ated with the main propulsion plant. Included as hull from steam and toward electric or electrohydraulic dripproof protected housings. that is not adversely affected by either heat or moisture.
machinery are such items as steering gears, anchor powering. Bearings may be, in general, of either the sleeve or anti- Woven linings are usually manufactured using a resinous
windlasses, all types of winches (including cargo, topping, With the advent of electrically driven engine room friction type. If of the sleeve type, the bearings should binder. I t is suggested that the linings be baked in ac-
vang, mooring, accommodation ladder, and boat auxiliaries, direct current was the almost universal choice be of a good grade of bearing bronze. Where bearings cordance with the manufacturer's recommendations to
winches), cranes, capstans, elevators, dumbwaiters, con- because it was easier to obtain multiple speeds for pumps, will be subject to impact loading, as on the wildcat shaft remove any excess amount of binder before the linings
veyors, escalators, bow thrusters, and active fin stabi- fans, and particularly for such items of hull machinery as of the windlass, they should be bronze rather than anti- are installed. (There is additional discussion regarding
lizers. Very few of these equipments require any design cargo winches, capstans, and anchor windlasses. Vari- friction because of the possibility of "brinelling" occur- lining materials and their installation in Section 2.2,
techniques beyond those of standard machine design able or multiple speeds were obtained by using either ring. Antifriction bearings should be used in any loca- which is devoted to the anchor windlass.)
practices, which are adjusted to make the equipments rheostats or power resistors. The power not used to drive tion where positive alignment, minimum lost motion, or Where flexible couplings are used, as between motors
suitable for the marine environment and to cope with the the equipment was converted into heat in either the rheo- freedom from wear is essential for proper operation. and pumps, they should be of the all-metal type and
oftentimes unique situations encountered on shipboard; stat or resistors, and it was necessary to provide extra Some locations that fall into these categories are: motor preferably of the all-steel type.
therefore, this chapter concentrates on the design con- ventilation to dissipate this heat. Shortly after World bearings, steering gear differential control assemblies, All fasteners exposed to the weather up to and in-
siderations peculiar to marine equipment. War 11,economic studies indicated that very appreciable worm and worm wheel shafts, and tension-sensing assem- cluding % in. diameter should be of nonferrous material
Close cooperation is required between the marine engi- savings could be realized by changing from two-wire, blies as on constant-tension mooring winches. or of stainless steel. Iiarger fasteners may be cadmium ,
neer and the naval architect in the design of hull ma- 240-volt, direct-current ships' systems to three-phase, Reduction gears should be totally enclosed and pro- plated or galvanized steel. Breathers and drain check
chinery. As a consequence,this chapter has been written 450-volt, alternating-current systems. vided with an oil bath lubrication and with means for valves should be of a nonferrous material or of stainless
to complement the Society's publications Principles of The methods of obtaining variable or multiple speeds filling, draining, and measuring the lubricant level. steel. Dowels and taper pins should be of stainless steel.
Naval Architecture and Ship Design and Construction, for the several categories of hull machinery will be dealt Properly gasketed inspection and maintenance openings Aluminum should not be used for watertight enclo-
which emphasize the naval architect's role in the design with as the equipments are described. For the moment should be provided in all gear enclosures. It is suggested sures.
of hull machinery. it is sufficient to say that these speeds may be obtained in that the interior of gear cases be sand blasted and thor- The rope-contact surface of capstan, gypsy, and wind-
1.2 Types of Drive. There are, for most practical any of several ways either electrically, mechanically, or oughly cleaned before final assembly. lass heads should be hardened to a depth of a t least 4f6
purposes, only three types of drives for hull machinery: hydraulically. The design and manufacture of gearing for hull ma- in. to a minimum of 300 BHN to provide an abrasion-
steam, electric, and electrohydraulic. However, one 1.3 Mechanical Details. One of the obvious points chinery should be in accordance with recognized stan- resistant surface.
occasionally encounters a diesel engine drive, as for a bow to be considered in the design of hull machinery is that it dards such as those of the American Gem Manufacturers The main rams for steering gears are hydraulic cylinder
thruster, or a manual drive, as for schooner guy, vang, or is necessary to design for the pitch, roll, trim, and list of Association. No compromise for strength should be rods but, because they are invariably located below deck
accommodation ladder winches. Frequently a manually the ship. All machinery should be designed for the fol- allowed when designing the gearing, but it is considered and out of the weather, they need no surface protection
operated item may also be arranged to be driven by a lowing conditions: acceptable practice to make some adjustments in the cal- other than that provided by the hydraulic oil that
portable power unit such as an air or electric drill. Be- A pitch of deg (bow up to bow down) culations for durability (wear) because most hull ma- adheres to them as they move in and out of the cylinders.
cause of the emphasis on crew reduction and quicker turn- A permanent trim of deg by either the bow or chinery operates on an intermittent basis. The wear rat- All other cylinder rods, including those located in cargo
around for ships, manually driven hull machinery has stern ing of gearing for hull machinery can be increased because holds where dust may be present, should be plated. The
largely disappeared from the scene. A roll of 30 deg (each side) of its intermittent usage. The range of wear load service outer layef of plating should be of chromium because of
Steam-driven units are seldom installed except on some A permanent liet of 15 deg to either side factors which may be considered, that is, the factors by its fine finish. However, chromium plating frequently
tankers or in the vicinity of cargoes that are of a hazard- which the nominal gear working loads can be reduced to contains cracks, invisible to the eye, which will allow sea-
ous nature. Steam-driven units offer the advantage of However, no two of these conditions are considered to arrive at the design wear loads, are given in Table 1. water or moisture to penetrate and start corrosion. The
minimum fire hazards because they do not spark as does occur simultaneously. Additionally, it should be noted Spur, helical, and herringbone gearing should be of corrosion spreads under the@er of chqomium and sepa-
electrical equipment. Although steam-driven equipment that in the case of equipment which is not used a t sea steel, should have machine-cut teeth, and may be heat rates the plating from the steel rod. The rusted surface
is generally very rugged, simple, and easy to maintain, under storm conditions (e.g., cargo, topping, vang, and treated to increase their ratings. Worms should be made then is free to abrade the packing in the cylinder as the
the difficulties encountered in keeping steam mains accommodation ladder winches) the design conditions of steel and be integral with their shafts, and worm wheels rod moves in and out. This can be avoided by fir& pro-
properly insulated and the problems associated with listed only apply when the equipment is in the stowed should be made of bronze. When a worm wheel is large, viding a plating of nickel on the rod. The nickel plating
maintaining an adequate steam flow in cold weather tend condition. say over 8 in. in pitch diameter, it may be made with a provides a completely impervious coating but is rough
to outweigh the advantages of ruggedness and sim- Every effort should be made to mount the driving and bronze rim bolted to a steel hub. In order to obtain a and would, in itself, tend to wear out the packing and
plicity (see Subsection 2.2 d). Then, too, the reliability driven equipment on a common bedplate in order that high degree of mechanical efficiency, worm reductions
alignment may be more easily maintained. In some few cause leaks. Therefore, a layer of chromium must be
of electric motors and controls, the desire for remote con- should be of an overhauling type. There are, however, added over the layer of nickel. Each coating should be
564
566 MARINE ENGINEERING HULL MACHINERY
SUPPLY
0.0005 to 0.001 in. thick. It is advisable to provide TO OTHER
wipers on the rods to prevent dirt from being drawn into LOADS
5-POSITION VALVE
accumulation of dirt on the working portion of the rod.
If boots are installed, they should be of a clear plastic ma- ACCUMULATOR - -
- J A
I
terial so that any leakage of oil into the boot may be ob-
semed. Wherever possible, the arrangement of the rod
and cylinder should be such that the rod is withdrawn
into the cylinder when the equipment is secured so aa to
protect the rod from surface deterioration due to being I.
FILTER
CHECK
VALVE
-- 7 4 Fig. 2 ~onstant/preuurehydraulic system
as the main pump, provide actuating fluid to stroke the then while the elevator is idle, the pump can recharge the 3. All hull machinery (except the steering gear) on a 1.S Electrical Details. The characteristics of electri-
main pump and to provide makeup fluid to the closed accumulator. A further advantage may be obtained in single system. cal equipment are discussed in Chapter 17. Particular
loop, respectively. Control of the main pump is ac- the recovery of energy by allowing the exhaust fluid from In the first two cases, the pumping units would be reference is made to Section 4.3 of Chapter 17 because
complished by command and feedback signals. The a descending elevator to charge an accumulator at a located close to the driven equipment so that the mains that section reviews the electrical characteristics of mo-
command and feedback signals may be composed of a lower pressure. The pump then merely maintains the would be comparatively short. In the third case, "the tors which are an important consideration in motor selec-
combination of mechanical, electrical, or hydraulic de- Dressure differential between the two accumulators. mains would be long but the pumping units would be tion.
vices. A second purpose of an accumulator is in applications located in the engine room where they could be serviced Electrical equipment should be either watertight or
I n one type of hydraulic steering system (see Fig. 11)) where an instantaneous source of hydraulic oil must be readily. The steering gear should be left out of this sys- dripproof protected as dictdted by its location, in or out
a rudder-position command signal originates at an elec- provided in response to intermittent demands. In this tem since its average demand would be only a small per- of the weather. Motors should have natural ventilation
tric servo located in the wheelhouse while a mechanical case the alternatives are to either provide a continuously I centage of the installed capacity of the central system in most instanqe~and may have bearings that are either
feedback signal, which relates the position of the rudder running pump or to provide a pump that is normally idle and it would be uneconomical to run the large central grease lubricated or permanently lubricated and sealed;
to the helm position, is originated from the steering along with an accumulator. Central hydraulic systems system pumps continuously at sea. Furthermore, incor- the latter is becoming the more common. In the case of
gear. The input servo command signal is converted to a for hatch cover operation contain accumulators for this porating the steering gear into the central hydraulic grease-lubricated bearings, the bearing housings should
mechanical command signal at the steering gear control purpose. Since it is not desirable to drive the pumps con- system could degrade the availability of the steering gear be arranged such that the grease will not be forced into
differential. The feedback is the other input to this dif- tinuously, the accumulators are provided to store the in that an accident which ruptured a hydraulic line amid- the windings. Watertight motors should be equipped
ferential which then measures the "error" between the energy for a sudden demand such as closing the covers ships could incapacitate the steering gear. with an automatic drainage fitting. Where a brake or
helm and rudder positions. The "error" is translated quickly in the event of a shower. Hydraulic systems Great care must be taken in sizing the pumps and gear is to be mounted directly on the motor shaft, the
into the form of mechanical motion to a rotary servo or which operate valves contain accumulators for this same mains for any of these central systems in order that there shaft should be tapered and fitted with a key and lock
other appropriate device which controls the flow of pres- purpose; here the pump charges the accumulator and is be adequate capacity for the maximum simultaneous nut.
surized fluid to stroke the main pump. The response is normally idle because the accumulator contains sufficient loads. In the engine room system three or four pumps Electric brakes of the spring set, solenoid released,
one of direction as well as magnitude, so that the error is oil to make several valve operations. may be provided to handle the maximum load. These shoe type have proven to provide more satisfactory ser-
corrected in either the right or left rudder direction. The Another purpose of accumulators is to provide a source pumps could be cut in or out either manually or auto- vice than those of the disk type. Nevertheless, where disk
rate of rudder motion is dependent on the magnitude of of emergency power in the event of a power failure. For matically as the loads vary. brakes are properly designed and applied, they can pro-
the error or differential within the limit of the available example, hydraulic elevators may have accumulators Most hull machinery hydraulic systems are either ex- vide entirely satisfactory service. Brakes should be of
pump stroke. For small differentials, as when holding s, which permit a cycle to be completed in the event of a posed to the weather or are installed in unheated parts of sufficient capacity to stop and hold the load under any
course, the pump stroke is moderate and the rudder re- power failure. the ship. For these reasons, during the design stages con- condition of operation or testing. Brakes are commonly
sponse is slow. When going hard over in an emergency, I n systems which must be held under pressure in- sideration must be given to the ambient temperatures to designed to support 200 percent of the normal operating
'
the wheel will be well ahead of the rudder, the pump will definitely, accumulators may also be used to make up be encountered and the viscosity characteristics of the oil load, and tests should be performed (particularly for
be forced on maximum stroke, and the rudder rate will be small increments of possible leakage, thereby eliminating selected. If it is not possible to warm up the system prior cargo gear) to confirm this capability. Watertight
at its maximum. the need of frequent short pumping cycles. to actual operation, heating of the oil in the sump by brakes are frequently fitted with an external hand release
The same principle is advantageous in' hoisting- Central hydraulic systems are advantageous on some steam or electric heaters may be desirable. so that, in the event of a poiher failure, the load may be
machinery drives in which a motor runs continuously in ships, especially large tankers where safety regulations Hydraulic piping that will be exposed to the weather safely lowered without the necessity of removing the
one direction to drive the variable-stroke pump, and the limit the installation of electrically powered equipment should be of a corrosion-resistant material, such as stain- brake cover. A hand release also avoids the hazards asso-
hydraulic actuator (motor or ram) is started, stopped, and steam is undesirable because of the long steam and less steel, except in the largest sizes used in ship-wide ciated with the alternative of backing the springs off.
reversed, and driven at infinitely variable speeds within condensate lines involved. Hydraulic pumping stations central hydraulic systems. If steel piping is used, its Direct-current brakes are preferable to alternating-cur-
the system capacity by simply varying the pump stroke. serving two or more equipments have been used in a wall thickness should include an allowance for corro- rent brakes even though they require the addition of a
Accumulators have a variety of applications in ship- variety of applications aboard ships. Most difficulties sion. rectifier to provide the direct current. The direct-cur-
board hydraulic systems. Fundamentally, accumulators experienced with such systems have been due to defi- Hydraulic systems for steering gears, windlasses, rent units have a better response when they set, and
are storers of energy. For shipboard use, they are usu- ciencies associated with system basic engineering, system uinches, cranes, etc., should be provided with gage con- alternating-current brakes have a tendency to "chatter"
ally pneumatic; that is, the hydraulic fluid is stored in a cleanliness, or system venting. The basic engineering of nections fitted with shutoff valves so that system per- when setting.
tank containing gas under pressure. The stored energy centralized hydraulic systems is of major importance to I formance may be checked during initial testing and regu- The enclosures for watertight shoe brakes should be of
is then measured by the energy required to compress the , ensure that the system elements are compatible and are lar overhaul periods. The gages should be valved off and %in.-thick stainless steel or of x-in.-thick mild steel
gas. This is recovered by allowing the fluid to flow into capable of functioning so as to meet all requirements. should have gage snubbers in the line so that the gages that is treated both on the inside and outside with an
the hydraulic system under accumulator pressure. The Cleaning as well as venting the system also starts in the will not be damaged by system pressure pulsations. inorganic zinc coating, and the hardware should be cor-
pressure/volume characteristics are determined by the design stage. Not only must access for flushing be pro- Hydraulic sumps, or reservoirs, should generally be rosion resistant. The slight extra cost for these designs
fluid/gas volume ratio and the initial charge (i.e. pres- vided during the design stage, but also the design must be large enough to contain 110 percent of the volume of oil will ensure that the enclosure will last for the life of the
sure) of the gas. The air and fluid may be in direct con- checked to ensure that the flushing velocities will be in the system so that the system may be drained to the ship. The watertight enclosure should be fitted with an
tact in the accumulator tank or they may be separated sufficient to clean the system. Additionally, pockets sump for servicing or maintenance. Even when a system automatic drainage fitting.
by a piston, sack, or diaphragm. If the hydraulic and voids, which would tend to collect foreign matter, cannot be drained+tothe sump, because the units served Where possible, control panels should be arranged so
fluid is inflammable, the charge may be of nitrogen gas must be avoided. are below the sump, it is good practice to provide a sump that they may be serviced from the front. This will allow
rather than air in order to minimize the possibility of an Three possible arrangements of centralized hydraulic , large enough to contain all of the oil in the system; that panels to be mounted back&+back or against a bulkhead.
explosion. systems which may be considered for merchant ships are is, after .the entire system, including all variable-dis- Where the panels are to be mounted in the weather, the
In typical applications accumulators are used to mini- as follows: placement units, has been filled, the pump suction should enclosures should be of stainless steel with corrosion-
mize the pumping capacity that is required in systems 1. The bower anchor windlass and forward mooring still be flooded to the operating level. resistant hardware.
which have large oil flow demands followed by signifi- equipment on one system, and the aft mooring equipment Pumps taking suction from a sump tank should be Limit switches are a constant source of trouble, par-
cantly lower demands or idle periods. Hydraulic ele- on another system. fitted uith a suction strainer, and the pump discharge ticularly when they are exposed to the weather. Their
vators are a typical application of this type. A relatively 2. All of the cargo, topping, and vang winches be- should be through a full-flow filter. The filter should be reliability is further impaired if they am subject to being
small pump is used to charge an accumulator, and the tween a pair of hatches on a common system. Adj* equipped with an indicator that will show the cleanliness coated with paint when the equipment is painted.
elevator can be raised using the oil in the accumulator; cent hatch covers could also be served by these systems. of the filtering element. Great care should be taken in their selection to ensure
MARINE ENGINEERING HULL MACHINERY
that they are of rugged construction. Shafts in limit so that it is necessary to return the master switch to the HAND
switches should be of bronze, monel, or stainless steel. OFF position to reset the undervoltage relay. If the PUMP
Master switches for variable- or multiple-speed equip- controller overload relay is of the manual reset type at
ments should be of the cam type with vertical handles the controller, no extra undervoltage control relay need
having integral knobs. They should be permanently be provided. If the controller overload relay is of the DIFFERENTIAL
marked to indicate operating directions and, if the con- automatic reset type or if an automatic reset tempera- ASSEMBLY
trol is of the multiple-speed type, there should be detents ture-sensing element is built into the motor, under-
TRICKWHEEL
so that the operator can sense the speed points. The voltage protection should be provided by an undervoltage /
enclosures should be of either ductile iron or bronze and relay which will not reset until the master switch is re-
should be raised to a convenient working height. Many turned to the OFF position.
owners prefer that even cam-type master switches be of Heaters should be provided for all watertight motors
the "spring return to OFF" type to guard against the and brakes and, where space permits, in watertight mas-
possibility of the operator leaving his position with the ter switches; heaters should also be provided for all
equipment running. If this type of switch is provided, motor controllers. The heaters should be connected to
the detents must be very slight so that there will be no an electric circuit that is continuously energized and
chance of the handle "hanging up" on one of the running independent of the power feeders. One method of pro-
points. viding heating for alternating-current motors is to pro-
All hull machinery control equipment must incorporate vide reduced voltage in one of the three phases. All
undervoltage protection due to regulatory body require- heater circuits should be p a n g e d so that they will be
ments. If the master switch is not of the "spring return interrupted when the main power circuit for the motor is
to OFF" type, the control circuitry should be arranged energized.
Section 2
Hul Machinery Installations
2.1 Steering Gear high-torque applications. Rapson-slide steering gears
a. Introduction. Steering gear arrangements in great may be of either the single ram group type (as is common
variety have been used to control the position of ships' for low-torque applications) or the double ram graup type
rudders. The various types of steering gears which have as il]us$rated by Figs. 4 and 5. The steering gears in
been used are described in detail and illustrated thor- Figs. 4 and 5 ayp f p t h e r classified as being of a "unitized"
oughly in references [2], [3], and [4]. As may be noted construction. A uqitized construction is one in which the
from a review of the early steering gear designs, the ad- entire steering gear is assembled as a unit at the manu-
vent of the Hele-Shaw and Vickers variable-stroke pumps facturer's plant and is installed as a unit by the ship-
made possible the design of hydraulic steering gears of a builder (as opposed to constructi~lgthe ram groups and
torque capacity adequate for the largest vessels. These power plants as separate entities, each of which must be
forerunners of many commercial vumvs of similar vrin- vrovided a foundation by the shipbuilder and each of
ciple are driven co~tinuously,while in operation, in one khich must be connected togethe; by the shipbuilder). Fig. 5 Four-cylinder, unitized, Rapson-slide steering gear
direction of rotation. The pump discharge is varied in A unitized construction is not only economical in terms of
i rate and direction by controlling the stroke of the pump shipboard installation costs, but it alsq reduces oppor-
pistons (see Chapter 12 for discussion regarding variable- tunities for foreign matter to be introduced into the hy: steering gear is a twin-rudder ship that can be arranged ing gear should be designed. 8hip specifications rarely
stroke hydraulic pumps). Right and left rudder motion draulic system because the unitized gear is completely such that one link-type steering gear can serve two rud- stipulate the maximum design rudder torque; instead,
or the holding of rudder position is accomplished very assembled by the manufacturer and shipped full of oil to ders, as shown by Fig. 6. the specifications usually state that the steering gear shall
smoothly by the use of these pumps. These character- ensure preservation. Yet another type of electrohydraulic steering gear is be capablh of moving the rudder a t a prescribed rate when
istics have made the electrohydraulic steering gear, A link type of steering gear, typically illustrated by the rotary vane type which is illustrated by Figs. 7 and 8. the ship is proceeding at maximum speed. With the ship
driven by electric motors and variable-stroke pumps, the Fig. 6, also employs a ram group; hoyever, the principle Rotary vane steering gears have no rams; with these specifications written in this manner, the shipbuilder has
favored selection for installation on oceangoing vessels. of operation is considerably different, as discussed in Sec- units the rudder torque is developed by the differential the responsibility of establishing the maximum design
To simply state that a steering gear is of the electro-
hydraulic type is not definitive because there are several
tion 2.1 c. Link-type steering gears generally have a de-
creasing, rat,her than increasing, mechanical advantage
pressure that acts across the vanes which can be seen in
Fig. 8. Rotary vane steering gears are not suitable for
rudder torque. .,+- -
Some of the analytical procedures which have been
types of electrohydraulic steering gears which offer ad- at larger rudder angles; however, there are two cases for the higher torque ratings, but for rudder torque ratings
which a link type of steering gear is ideally suited. One employed to estimate the maximum design rudder torque
vantages in particular applications. A common type of of about 15,000,000 in.-lb and less they offer the advan- are discussed in detail in references [5] and [6]. It may
electrohydraulic steering gear is the Rapson-slide type. is a case where there is insufficient space around the rud- tages of low space requirements, low installation costs,
der stock to permit the installation of rams (by compar- be noted, however, that there can be a considerable dif-
This type is well suited for very high rudder torque rat- and a low weight. ference between the rudder torque values predicted by
ings in that the Rapson-slide arrangement provides an ing Figs. 4 and 6 it will be seen that the space required in b. Rudder Torque Rating. One of the more nebu- the various procedures. The situation becomes further
increasing mechanical advantage at larger rudder angles way of rudder stock is considerably different for the two lous aspects of the ship design process is the establish- clouded when attempts are made to correlate analytical
(see Section 2.1 c); however, its use is not confined to types). Another situation well suited for a link-type ment of the maximum rudder torque for which the steer- predictions with test results.
572
ELECTRIC M O T O R
MARINE ENGINEERING
HAND PUMP
(FILL AND DRUN)
HYDRAWIC PIPING
NOT SHOWN
---
HULL MACHINERY
k O F LINKS
.-1 L
-- &
- .-,
CHANGE OVER
HYDRAULIC PUMP- /VALVE CONTROL
DIFFERENTIAL CONTROL
'ILLER (RUDDER HARDOVER
generally not known, but the maximum pressure is often
-+a assumed to have occurred at the maximum rudder angle.
In view of the above, it should not be surprising that the
"maximum" rudder torques reported from sea trials of
sister ships have varied as much as 50 percent.
U 'RAM / More sophisticated test instrumentation has been used
TILLER (RUDDER AMIDSHIP) CYLINDER to continuously record the rudder angle, ram pressure,
ship's heading, etc., as a means of defining the test con-
ditions. While this procedure gives definitive rudder rate
data, problems are nevertheless encountered in estab-
lishing the "maximum" rudder torque observed due to
Fig. 6 Link type hydraulic steering gear for a twin-rudder ship the errlttic characteristics of the data. For example,
spikes in the recorded pressure data may reach extraor-
dinarily high values and be of such a short duration
that the relief valves do not lift. The maximum pressure Fig. 1 0 Rapson-slide force diagram
observed should not be taken to be the peak value, but ~ :-
advantage offered by a Rapson-slide arrangement, it may ram stroke, with the ram diameter being correspondingly Table 2 Preliminary Design Calculations stant values in many cases. As a result, equations (3)
appear that a link arrangement need not be considered; increased. for an Eledrohydraulic Steering Gear and (4) can each be reduced to a constant times Q.
however, such is not the case as discussed in the fore- The maximum design hydraulic pressures for steering Type of Linkage d. Steering Gear Power Units. Steering gear power
going. gears generally fall in the range of 1500 to 2500 p i with Rapson Link plants are required by the regulatory bodies to be in-
I Number of rams.. . . . . . . . . . 2 2 stalled in duplicate, with each power plant having the
Ordinarily, ram groups of the link type are provided naval ships in the upper end of the range and conserva-. Maximum permissible oper-
i with two links for each ram, one above and the other tively designed merchant ships occupying the lower end ating pressure, psi. . . . . . . 1700 1700 capability of moving the rudder a t the specified rate
below the ram; likewise, Rapson-slide mechanisms are of the range. hlaximum rudder angle, deg . 35 35 under all conditions of ,full-speed maneuvering. Thus, a
Rudder augle at end of tim- completely redundant power/plant is installed.
usually built with crosshead arms above and below the ~ e r c h a i tship specifications commonly require that ing cycle, deg. . . . . . . . . . .
ram. the steering gear be capable of moving the rudder from Rudder torqne at 0, in.-lb.. . Each power plant consists essentially of an electric
One or more tie rods should be provided betwecn the ~Iaximumdesign torque motor driving a"wariab1e-stroke pump. Motors for the
hard over (35 deg rudder) on one side to within 5 deg of I
ahead, in.-lb. . . . . . . . . . . .
two cylinders of each ram group. The tie rods are usu- the hard-over position (30 deg) on the opposite side within Rudder angle at Q1, deg. . . . steering gear , pumps are generally of the 440-volt,
ally shouldered at the cylinder bosses in which they are 28 sec when proceeding ahead a t the maximum rated Maximum design torqne 3-phase, 60-cycles per second, squirrel-cage induction
astern, in.-Ib.. . . . . . . . . . . type and are dripproof protected. When the steering
mounted, and set up with double nuts. Being of exact propeller rpm. The timing cycle is normally terminated Rudder an le at Q2, deg. . . .
length, they aid in aligning the cylinders both while the 5 deg before the hard-ovcr rudder position in order to am-to-rujder efficiency. . . gear is powered by continuously operated, reversible-
steering gear is in the course of fabrication and installa- avoid timing the rudder movement as the follow-up Approximate crosshead flow, variable-delivery pumps, the motor should be rated
radiu~,~ in.. . . . . .. . . . . . . . for continuous duty a t 15 percent of rated load, followed
tion and while in service. The tie rods are not necessary mechanism is reducing the pump stroke. For merchant Approximate ram diameter
for the transmittal and distribution of axial loads but ships, the rudder rate when going astern is commonly not = R1/3, in.. . . . . . . . . . . . . D' by full load for oiie hour. Since the motor is required to
Crosshead radius used, in.. . . R start while under load, a class C motor is used (see Sec-
they are convenient guides for bushings or shoes carried specified, although it has been stipulated to be one half Ram diameter used. in.. . . . . D
in extensions of, or bracketed from, the rams in order to of the value specified for ahead steering. Maximum ram pressure tion 4.3 of Chapter 17).
prevent rotation of the rams about their longitudinal The rudder rate specified for naval ships varies from aheadlbpsi.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PI As a means of reducing the motor horsepower rating
blaximum ram pressure required, horsepou7erlimiters are often provided. Horse-
axes. one ship to the next. Generally, it ranges upward from ,~ .. . .. . . . . . . .. .
a ~ t e r npsi.. pa
Bronze bushings are usually installed in the cylinders 29 deg per sec for ahead steering, with no rate specified Ram stroke during timing power limiters (secondary stroke-control devices) operate
to provide a suitable bearing surface for the ram; the for astern steering. cycleldin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S on the principle of reducing the stroke of the main hy-
Oil volume during cycle = draulic pump in the event that the hydraulic pressure
bushings are made to form the inner ends of the stuffing In order to avoid having astern considerations control a
DeZS, cu in.. . . . . . . . . . V exceeds a preset value (that pressure corresponding t o
boxes. With the link type of construction the bushings the capacity of steering gears for naval ships, it is com-
carry little load other than the weight of the ram itself; mon practice to conduct special astern steering tests for Duration of timing cycle the motor rating plus the allowable overload). Since the
ahead,*sec.. . . . . . . . . . . . . t 27 27 power required to drive a pump is proportional to the
the lateral load introduced by the link is slight, even at the purpose of establishing the maximum astern speed a t Oil flow requirements,
the maximum obliquity. However, with a Rapson-slide which the rudder can be moved without exceeding the 0.2597V!t1 gpm.. . . . . . . . . C 124 183 product of the discharge flow and pressure, the rating of
Pump effimency.. . . . . . . . . . e 0.85 0.85 the installed motor horsepower can be minimized by re-
mechanism, the ram is subjected to a considerable lateral ahead rating. A sign warning that there is a hazard of Maximum ram pressure
force, and since the forces are usually the largest at a overloading the steering gear at astern speeds greater ahead during timing cycle,f
ducing the pump flow during the_periods of peak pressure
hard-over rudder angle, when the crosshead is near one than that established is then made and installed in the psi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pa 1075 940 requirements. Horsepower liinlters are usually designed
Maximum motor horsepower such that the stroke of the hydraulic pump is decreased
cylinder or the other, one of the bushings will carry by helmsman's view. requirements =
far the greater part of the load. When a ram is made of Table 2 illustrates the considerations which enter into
I
paC/liY4e,rhp. . . . . . . . . . H 91.5 118.1 with increasing hydraulic pressures so that the motor
high-strength steel, which permits high stresses with no the preliminary design of a steering gear and gives a pro- Motor horsepower used? hp . HI 75 100 horsepower required is nominally held constant a t the
improvement in the modulus of elasticity, it is conceiv- cedure for computing the approximate characteristics of preset value. When the horsepower limiter acts to reduce
able that the deflection of the ram may be great enough a steering gear. If only an approximation of the maxi- the pump stroke, the rudder rate is also reduced; how-
to cause binding in the cylinder bushings. Consequently, mum motor horsepower requirements is desired, the fol- Nofes for Table 2
ever, if sufficiently high rudder rates can be attained dur-
the bushings for Rapson-slide mechanisms should be lowing expression may be used for a steering gear of the ing other regions of the timing cycle, where the torque is
Rapson-slide type: lower, and the overall average rate during the timing
given careful study. - .
cycle exceeds the minimum rate specified, the horsepower
Since the maximum axial load on a ram is limited by
the hydraulic pressure, which is only a small fraction of H =
&(tan 4 + tan 0) cos2 a rating of the driving motor may be reduced.
66OOEte I
QI and 4 as well as Qa p.nd cue are used in the above equations and Usually, the replenishing and servo pumps are driven
the permissive stress in the ram metal, column or even the largest value of R' is used. by the same motors that drive the main pumpa. If, how-
strut strength calculations are unnecessary. However, where 9 1 = 4Q1 cose cul/rZREDefor Rapson ever, these auxiliary pumps are separately driven, their
ram bending calculations can be important for Rapson- p1 = ~ Q I / ~ Z R E Dul~ for link
cos
& torque at maximum pressure during timing cycle,
= Cheeks should also be made to ensure that higher pressures do not motors should be rated for continuous duty. If separate
slide designs when, as is sometimes done for weight re- occur at smaller rudder torque values. motors are provided for these pumps, each should be
in.-lb
duction, the rams are bored out from both ends or when a = Ndder angle at " See note b using Qe and cua vice Q1 and ul interlocked with its main pump motor so that the main
++
d S = R (tan + tan 0) for Rapson
the gear is designed for an abnormally large rudder move- pump cannot be started without first starting the auxil-
ment (e.g,, Great Lakes ships which are commonly de- and all other terms are as defined in Table 2. S = R (sin + sin 0) for link iary pumps. Steering gear motor controllers should be
signed for a 45-deg to 45-deg rudder movement); in such The corresponding relationship for a link-type steering a Duration of the ahead timing cycle is 28 ~econdsminus one provided with under-voltage protection.
gear is second for stroking the pump. It is customary to shift o y r from onsgower unit to the
cases flexural stress may also become a critical considera-
I The maximum ram pressure during the ahead timing cycle
+
I
tion. , often occurs at the 30 deg position before reaching hard over; how-
other a t regular intervals, in order that both power units
&(sin 4 sin 0) may operate approximately equal lengths of time. Main
Carefully designed ram groups have a crosshead radius H = ever, the ram pressures at other angles should be checked, using an
(or with a Ra~son-slidemechanism, the distance from the 6600Ete cos a equation of the form given in note b, to ensure that none are larger. pump selector valves in the hydraulic piping are used to
0 A similar calciilation may be required to confirm that the effect the shift hydraulically. For manual control, these
astern horsepower requirements are not a controlling consideration. may include two common stop valves for each pump, or
proximately three times the ram diameter. It is conven- to the maximum pressure observed during the timing h The amount of motor overload permitted for merchant ships is
ient to use this ratio for preliminary design purposes bear- cycle commonly occurs at the 30 deg position before dual 4-way or &way plug or piston-type valves.
typically 25 percent during ahead steering and 50 percent during
ing in mind that arrangement considerations may neces- reaching hard over, and with the exception of Q , all other astern steering [7]; naval ships me permitted ta be averloaded 50 Transfer valves for dual power unit systems are usu-
terms in equations (3) and (4) are considered to have con- percent during both ahead and astern operations [8]. ally arranged in one of the following modes:
sitate shortening the crosshead radius, and therefore the
576 MARINE ENGINEERING
HULL MACHINERY
J ( a ) Both pumps de-energized; rams blocked. The control system may be of the "non-follow-up" type,
z8""
(b) Pump A energized and "on the line" with the "on and off" type, or the "full follow-up" type. I n the LEGEND
ram group; pump B blocked to the ram, and first, the helmsman applies left or right rudder to hold a - - --- MECHANICAL c3
HELM
o
bypassing if energized. course. As long as a wheel, lever, or pushbutton is held RUDDER ANGLE HELM ANGLE
to energize the steering gear for rudder response in one ELECTRICAL lNDlcATO~60 I
(c) Pump B energized and "on the line" with the PILOT HOUSE
ram group; pump A blocked to the ram, and direction, the rudder moves in that direction until the HYDRAULIC MAIN
bypassing if energized. steering gear is deenergized automatically in the hard- SYSTEM PRESSURE
I
I1 ( a ) Both pumps de-energized; rams blocked. over position. Of course, the rudder may be moved in
(b) One pump energized and "on the line" with small increments, left or right, by holding the control off HYDRAULIC
CON1ROL PRESSURE
the ram group; opposite pump de-energized. neutral for small intervals of time. The helmsman's ex-
(c) Both pumps energked and "on the line" with perience and judgement are important factors in minimiz-
DISCONNECT 9
the ram group, thereby driving the rudder at ing steering gear activity and oversteering. With the SWITCHES
almost double the rate specified for single- second type, the rudder returns automatically to amid-
pump operation. ships upon the helmsman's release or centering of the con-
trol. The full follow-up system, the third type of control,
Another system includes automatic transfer valves
senses any difference between helm and rudder angles and
which can be controlled in the steering gear room or from
the direction of the difference; it moves the rudder auto-
the remote steering stations. These valves are operated
matically in the proper direction to eliminate this dif-
by main pump servo pressure and are controlled by sole-
ference and holds the rudder at the angle signalled by the
noid-operated pilot valves which are connected elec-
helm until a difference is reestablished by moving the
trically in the main pump motor control circuits in such a
helm or by drifting of the rudder due to hydrodynamic
manner that the pump driven by the first motor started
forces. "Feedback" and "differential" as well as "follow-
is connected automatically into the hydraulic circuit and
up" are terms often used in describing this control since
becomes the active pump for the operation of the steering
gear. If the second pump motor is then started, this the correction is derived from "feedback" of the rudder
motion; the control senses or in some cases measures,
pump is bypassed hydraulically. By stopping the first
within limits, the difference or differential between the
motor, the second pump becomes the active pump auto-
matically. This system ensures maximum safety when a helm and rudder angles. Representative types of follow-
up control systems are described and illustrated in refer-
vessel is under way in restricted waters in that with both
ences [2], [3], and [4].
units operating, the idling bypassed pump becomes the
active pump automatically upon electrical or servo pres- Remote control systems in common use include
sure failure of the other unit. mechanical, hydraulic, and electrical types. Shafts, wire
Valves may also be included in a four-cylinder ram rope, sprockets and chain, push-pull flexible control
cables, and their combinations are used to transfer mo-
group piping system which cut out and bypass any two
oppositely acting cylinders, thereby providing for two- tion proportional to that of the helm from remote steering
cylinder "emergency" operation. stations to the local control input at the steering gear.
These mechanical means are simple and reliable for use
When a hand "fill-and-drain" pump is specified, it is Fig. 1 1 Schematic diagram
in smaller vessels.
usual to stipulate that it be possible to use this pump as a of the controls for an electro-
"rudder positioning" device. Such a pump is convenient , The hydraulic type, represented by the hydraulic hydraulic steering gear
if a ship is docked and no power is available to operate t,elemotor, came into common use as a remote control de-
the steering gear, or to provide rudder trim to aid in tow- vice with the earliest applications of power steering. I n
ing a dead ship. The fill-and-drain pump should not be older designs, the motion of the steering wheel displaced
considered as an "emergency steering" pump unless the a piston or rams to force fluid to and from a receiving unit
system has been designed to suit an emergency steering consisting of a cylinder and double-acting piston assem-
requirement such as that outlined in the Rules of the bly in the steering gear compartment [2, 3, 41.
American Bureau of Shipping [9]. Also, suitable check
valves should be included i n the fill-and-drain pump p i p
.The principal types of electrical remote controls in-
*
ing to prevent the pump from being overhauled and 1. Self-synchronous a-c "rotary transformers" with a
driven as a hydraulic motor. transmitter driven through step-up gearing by the
The hydraulic systems are protected by suitable relief steering wheel and receiver providing proportional
valves. When hydraulic braking is stipulated, a secon- input motion to the local control.
dary set of rehef valves of the cross-blow type may be in- 2. Balanced-bridge circuitry in which turning the
stalled between the selector valves and the ram cylinders. wheel moves a potentiometer to unbalance the elec-
e. Steering Gear Controls. Steering gear control trical system. Unbalancing the electrical system
systems usually provide the capability of controlling the starts an intermediate powered servo which pro-
steering gear remotely from a steering console located in vides input to the local control and moves a follow-
the pilot house and locally from the steering gear space by up potentiometer which rebalances the circuit and
means of a trickwheel. A schematic diagram of a control deenergizes the servo when the helm and relative
system typical of naval ships is shown by Fig. 11. servo angular positions coincide.
578 MARINE ENGINEERING HULL MACHINERY 579
The powered servo is usually an electrohydraulic rudder design torque values. Experience has shown that
unit which is essentially a miniature steering gear a maximum closing time of approximately 0.25 sec for
and is designed for application to any type of the blocking valve will normally assure that the speed of
steering gear as one link in a chain of servomecha- the electric motor will be limited to 150 percent of the
nisms from the steering wheel to the rudder. It is normal operating speed.
also used as an automatic pilot when the input is The detailed specifications for a vessel usually include
taken from a suitable compass. Arrangements for very complete descriptions of the steering gear and its
this purpose are proprietary and include other con- control syetems. These may follow arrangements on
trol features providing for adjustments to suit the similar ships which have given satisfactory service, or
response of the vessel, the sea state, and the course they may reflect the owners' or naval architects' prefer-
followed. ences. I t is desirable to consult steering gear manufac-
It is completely feasible to omit the power unit turers early in the design stage of a vessel in order to
as a separate servo if the balanced bridge circuit is facilitate the selection and arrangement of the steering
used to control the main steering gear directly. gear.
Using the electrohydraulic steering gear as an ex-
ample, the usual mechanical control differential is 2.2 Anchor Windlass
omitted. The power unit is used to put the main a. Introduction. The ship specifications usually re-
pump(s) on stroke, when the bridge is unbalanced, quire that a windlass be capable of hoisting the anchor
in the hydraulic flow direction for right or left rud- at an average speed of not less than 5 or 6 fathoms per
der depending on the polarization and resulting minute (30 or 36 feet per minute, respectively) from a
, flow direction of electrical current through the depth of 30, 60, or more fathoms. The required chain
bridge circuit. The balancing potentiometer is pull thus is dependent not only on the weight of the
then moved in direct proportion to the motion of anchor but also on the weight of the chain to the specified
the rudder. The rudder is held at the selected new depth, from which total the water buoyancy may be
440V
angle, as the pump stroke is returned to neutral deducted. POWER
when the circuit becomes balanced. The first Of
such arrangements is discussed in reference [lo].
Steering gear power units which are designed for naval
Even though the windlass may be constructed as a
sophisticated machine (some windlasses are fitted with
ingenious mechanisms), it must be built to perform the
I
CONTROLLER
II L
v
H A N D-
L-E I
I
one quarter of the available wildcat chain pull, at four slow. A preferred arrangement is one in which a capstan
set of main bearings in a casting or weldment which is
times the normal chain speed. I is located adjacent to the wildcat and is driven from the
bolted or welded to the deck, as typically illustrated by
The self-contained, horizontal type of windlass is the windlass gear train by a separate shaft revolving about 4
Figs. 15 and 16. The strengthening of the deck and sup-
least expensive in terms of installed cost. However, it times as fast as the wildcat; the equipment for such an
porting ship structure in way of this assembly is ubually arrangement is illustrated by Fig. 16. As a simplifica-
requires more maintenance than does the vertical type made adequate to sustain all anticipated loads due to the
because, aside from the protection provided by tar- tion, the capstan head is keyed fast and is allowed to
chain pull, independently of the main shaft extension to rotate or idle when the windlass is used to h a d chain. UNIT
paulins, etc., the windlass machinery is completely ex- the deck below. The wildcat is brought as close to the
posed to the weather and to the spray and waves which The vertical windlass affords extreme flexibility in the ' Fig. 16 Vertical electmhydraulic windlass
deck as possible in order to minimize bending moments development of anchor handling and mooring arrange-
break over the bow during storm conditions. due to the chain pull. The chain wraps approximately
With the continuing increase in the size of vessels and ments, from the simplest single unit to as many inde-
180 degrees around the wildcat. and then enters a chain I
pendent systems as there are anchors installed. Some c. Special Design Considerations. The practice
with more general adoption of wire rope mooring lines, deckpiie leading to the chain locker. recommended for the design and testing of anchor wind-
which are stowed on the drums of mooring winches, a arrangements feature one power unit driving a single
The shafts from vertical wildcats and associated cap- I lasses is outlined in refere&% [12]. There are, however,
useful combination is that of a horizontal mooring winch variable-stroke pump. The hydraulic system includes
stans are extended to one or more dkcks below where selector valves enabling the single pump to drive either some detailed design considerations which warrant special
with a clutched drum driving a chain wildcat through an they are coupled to main and intermediate shafts, respec- I
emphasis as they can have a large impact on the per-
auxiliary gear reduction and sliding pinion or jaw clutch. of two hydraulic motors serving two wildcat/capstan
tively, of transmission gearing. The gears are usually I
systems. For utmost reliability, two power plants are formance of a windlass.
A forecastle arrangement employing combination moor- completely enclosed, in American practice. The shaft
, installed and electrical, mechanical, and hydraulic cross The links of stud l i d anchor chains are almost invari-
ing winch/anchor windlass units is shown in Fig. 14. couplings are of a type allowing limited relative vertical connections or their combinations, depending on the basic ably made with an inside length equal to four times the
In the preliminary design stage of a vessel, it is good motions between the decks. I
nominal chain size (i.e., four times "the wire diameter").
features of the system, are included in order that both
practice to develop the anchor handling arrangement to The wildcat locking head may be above the weather Since 10 links will wrap around a &whelp wildcat, the
anchors p a y be recovered despite a derangement in one
the extent that the chain leads are confirmed to be satis-
factory. In the case of ships with large bulbous bows,
deck. In the simplest arrangement, a loose block key
may be used. In these cases the brake drum will be
i system; see Fig. 16. wildcat circumference in inches = 10 X 4 X the nominal
582 MARINE EClGlNEERlNG HULL MACHINERY
chain size. From this the mean pitch radius of the wild- The pelican hook is often used on naval vessels as a Table 3 Anchor Windlass Brake Calculations
cat is readily found. Detailed information regarding the riding and stowing stopper. It is best suited for use with Type of Ship
design of wildcats is given by one of the Navy Depart- a vertical windlass, i.e., with the chain close to the deck. Symbol C4 CVA 66
ment's standard plans [13]. Wildcats should be made of On a large horizontal windlass the chain may rise 5 feet Size of anchor chain, in.. . . . . . . . . . C 2jis 4%
Outside length of one link, in.. . . . . G 1498 28.5
a reasonably hard grade of cast steel. or more from the inboard bolster of the hawsepipe to the Pitch of link = G - 2C, in.. . . . . . P 9% 19.0
The fitting of wildcats and chains is important. Usu- wildcat tangent point. The pelican hooks in sizes large Number whelps on wildcat.. . . . . . a 5
ally, the final dimensions of a chain are attained as a re- Wildcat pitch diameter = 2ap/rl ip. d 31 60.48
enough for application with such a windlass are very Brake drum diameter, in.. . . . . . . . . D 48 90
sult of stretching in a proof test [9]. A new chain may Brake band width. in.. . . . . . . . . . . .
be within the minus allowance of the tolerance on length
(measured over six links in American practice) in order
heavy and difficult to manage. Their height above deck
also creates a hazard to the operator who must release
them with a maul. For a detailed discussion of anchor,
I Brake band thickneps, anchor end,
~ n .. .. . . . . . . . . . ,,. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
w
tl
10
1.0
2 X 10
1.0
Brake band thickness, slack end, in. ts 0.5 0.75
to allow for stretching and wear in service. However, mooring, and towing arrangements see reference [I11. Handwheel diameter, in.. . . . . . . . . . H 20 26
such a chain will not run properly on a wildcat made to The wildcat band brake design and the selection and Screw diameter. in.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . do 2.0 2.5
Lead of screw, in.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L 0.25 0.5
fit the nominal chain size. The "pitch diameter" of the
wildcat is a function of the depth of the pockets between
the whelps, in which alternate links lie substantially flat.
If the links must be hauled off by the chain stripper when
treatment of brake lining material are critical in wind-
lasses which must be subjected to the free drop tests re-
quired by the regulatory bodies. The Maritime Adminis-
tration stipulates a single drop from 45 to 60 fathoms,
-1-
POWER SCREW
Screw efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bell crank ratio. . . . . . . . . . C . . . .
Gear ratio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gear efficienc
Uechanical a & & k k e ' = a ~ ~ ~11,.
Fat.hom of -- chain ol;t,.
. . . . . . .. .
:'.
~
GI
e1
M
0.165
2
1
0.92
503
0.238
2.76
6
0.903
2705
hoisting anchor, or if when paying out under power the '(under control of the brake" [7]. These tests should be ~- - ...~
~ ~ - - -
> - fat,h..
- - ~. . ~ .~. - f- - . 60 60
Weight of chain, lb. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
~~ ~
19,840 80,000
links ride higher and higher on succeedingwhelps until one conducted in a clear depth of a t least 65 fathoms and Weight of anchor, lb. . . . . . . . . . . . . W Z 12,693 60,000
crashes over the top of a whelp, the pitch diameter preferably no greater. The falling anchor is permitted to Tot,d weight = WI Wa,Ib. . . . . + Wa 32,533 140,000
should be reduced by chipping the pockets deeper. With be under the control of the brake to the extent that an Hawsepipe efficiencyn.. . ... . . . . . . . 0.80 0.80
Fig. 17 Schematic of a band type of anchor windlass brake Buoyancy factor.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.87 0.87
a proper fit, but one sprocket tooth or set of whelps holds operator senses his chances of arresting the run of chain Static load at wildcat = e3bWa,lb. . W4 22,600 97,440
a t any one time. This subject is discussed in detail in and can do so by applying very little additional braking Angle of brake wrap around drum,
references [14] and [15] and a recommended procedure is effort. No mishaps have been reported from Maritime deg. . . . . . . . . . . .I . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Angle of wrap = lr61/180, red. . . . .
given for checking the wildcat and the chain with which Administration drop tests. pansion as the binder breaks down and swells with heat. Brake lining coeff. of frictionb.. . . .
it is to run. The number of links in a full circumference The specifications for naval windlasses require that the Molded linings are most effective under the conditions of Ratio factor = e w . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
the drop test if deeply scarified or if vented with lateral Assumed velocity of fall, fps. . . . . .
is twice the number of whelps (10 links for a 5-sided wild- hand brake performance be demonstrated during four Specified stopping distance, ft. . . . .
cat, for example). To check the fit of a chain on a wild- successive average drops of 15 fathoms each, stopping grooves about 3i6 in. wide by %6 in. deep, pitched about Deceleration force = e3W3V1/2h lb
cat, a length of chain containing one link less than that with 15, 30,45, and 60 fathoms of chain out, respectively 23 in. around the circumference. Force at wildcat = f i
Force at brake drum = Fsd/D, lb. .
+ W4, fb!. .
which will fit in a full circumference is lashed snugly [161. A new brake should be "run in" by operating the Slack end r l l ->/(K - 1), lb. . .
around the circumference of the wildcat (a longer length Anchor windlass brake tests must be conducted with windlass under power with the chain held clear of the Anchor en pull - F3
Handwheel effort = F4/2Lfelest lb. .
+ Fa, l b . . . ?
"7
of chain may be used if the standing part is hauled aside). the utmost respect for the magnitudes of the masses, wildcat. The band should be examined periodically and
Anchor end band stress = Fs/wtl,
The gap for the missing link is then measured. If the velocities, and forces involved. These tests can be ex- the operation continued until the area of the brake lining ps1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
length is excessive, the pockets must be chipped deeper. tremely hazardous, especially in the event of a runaway. in contact with the drum surface is at least 75 percent of Slack end band stress = F4/wts, psi.
Measured between the outside of the link ends, the gap Test observers should stand well clear of the windlass the total area of the brake lining. The drum and lining Mean band stress = (81 S2)/2, +
ps1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
should not exceed 2 chain sizes in length. Calipered in- with only those responsible for operating the brake and surfaces should be free of exudation; if need be, they Band modulus of elasticit , psi . . .
side the ends, the measured length should not exceed 4 recording data allowed to be near. 1)
should be cleaned with a solvent. Care should be taken Band stretch = ~ 3 ~ a / 2 l i n . .. .
Handwheel turns to set braked =
:
chain sizes. A satisfactory anchor windlass brake must. stop the that overheating does not occur during the run-in opera- yBG1/L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The chain deck pipe, which leads to the chain locker, anchor and chain within a period of about two secorids tion. These precautions should be accomplished at the Maximum
2Fs/wD, brake psi.. . .band . . . . .pressurea
. . . . . . .. =
..
for a horizontal windlass should be located well under the after the brake is set. Due to the short time available shipyard rather than at the windlass manufacturer's
wildcat. The vertical centerline of the deck pipe should for the brake to absorb most of the kinetic energy pos- plait. The new linings will then be in the best condition
project upward through the axis of the wildcat, or, pref- sessed by the anchor and chain, the surface of the brake possible, arid preservatives and rust preventive media
erably, slightly forward of the axis. The chain pipe lip lining usually reaches a high temperature. Elevated tem- will be eliminated as prospective reasons for a reduction Notes for Table 3
must be flared to assure that the chain will be hauled into peratures can result in a degradation of the brake lining of the band lining coefficient of friction. An optimistically high hawsepipe efficiency should be used in
the locker by gravity. This will aid in arresting the rising frictional characteristics such that the brake is no longer The design of an anchor windlass brake is heavily in- this calculation.
of chain from the locker and will minimize "jumping" of capable of arresting the continuing run of the anchor and fluenced b y t h e experience gained with previous designs, b. In general the brake lining coefficient of friction quoted by
links over the wildcat, due to kinetic energy, if the brake chain. Lf the situation should get out of control, the as may be noted from the typical anchor windlass brake manufactur6rs should not be used, as that is the value ?btained?n
calculations shown by Table 3. The brake lining co- a laboratory. Anchor windlass tests show that a coeffiaent of fr!c-
is applied suddenly when an anchor is being dropped. problems compound; that is, as the anchor continues to tion of 0.225 and 0.30 can be expected with molded and woven lm-
Chain stoppers are normally furnished by windlass and run after the brake is set, the quantity of energy that the efficient of friction used in the design calculations is ings, respectively.
chain manufacturers. The common tongue type is brake must absorb increases and more heat is generated. generally somewhat less than the value suggested by the c The braking force required at the handwheel should be ap-
favored in American merchant practice as a means of For this reason, it is essential that the brake promptly brake lining manufacturer and may a t first appear to be proximately 100 lb or less. -. ,,&+
securing the chain when riding at anchor. Pelican hooks, arrest the anchor and chain after being set. unreasonably low. However, the lining coefficient of fric- d Efforts to red~uce the ha&wheel effort by inaxeasing the
tion suggested by the manufacturer is usually based on mechanical advant.age may result in an excessive amount of elas-
modified turnbuckles or "devils' claws," and turnbuckles Anchor windlass brakes are usually of the lined band ticity in the system.
on lengths of chain passed through the anchor shackles at type. For maximum effectiveness, these brakes should ideal laboratory conditions which hardly simulate anchor
windlass brake service. The maximum pressure on the brake lining should be as recom-
the inboard ends of hawsepipes are used as stowing stop- wrap around the drum as near 360 degrees as possible. mended by the manufacturer and proven by experience.
pers. These should align as closely as possible with the The features of a typical band type of brake are shown Special instrumentation was provided during the sea f In order to prompt1 initiate braking action, a hydraulic-assist
run of chain. The wildcat brake should not be used to by Fig. 17; auxiliary power-assist mechanisms for setting trials for the aircraft carrier USS America (CVA 66) in mechanism was installeion the CVA 66. The mechanism wae de-
order to confirm that the design criteria employed in the s i r e d s~uchthat the brake was set hydraulically when the hand-
hold the anchor in the stowed position, because if the the brake have also been used to advantage on very large w eel was turned about one-half turn in the direction to set the
brake should slip, the anchor will back out and pound in windlasses. If molded linings are used, they are best design of the-anchor windlass brake were adequate. Be- brake. Turning the brake handwheel also set and secured the
a seaway. secured to the band in a manner permitting lateral ex- fore the sea trial, every reasonable precaution was taken brake mechanically as in conventional practice.
MARINE ENGINEERING HULL MACHINERY
1 d
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTIW
,/CHAIN VELOCITY
200-
160-
EN0 PULL
ANCHOR END PULL
0
0 I
W
U)
'1. 100-
0
PULL J
0
i
J
2 so-
TIME, SECONOS
TIME, .SECONDS
OF FRICTION
Z
Y P 1
b0.4-
L
L
0
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
;
L
10. 0.2,
I*
t
Y
14.
ANCHOR END PULL
SLACKENDPULL
10
TINE, SECONDS
to ensure that the brake lining material was properly A chain counter is a very useful tool that may be in-
prepared and "run in." Figure 18 shows the results ob- stalled on a windlass. A chain counter provides a TIME, SECOND8
tained during the CVA 66 tests, and the relatively low mechanical readout at the windlass of the number of feet
brake lining coefficient of friction anticipated (see Table or fathoms of chain that have been payed out, and pro- (d) 4 5 to 6 0 fathom drop
3) is seen to be confirmed. vides an electrical readout in the wheelhouse. The officer Fig. 18 (continued)
586 MARINE EN( HULL MA
on dutv then knows the amount of chain in use without protection (by relief-valve action) against shock loadings piped in a closed circuit to a fixed-stroke hydraulic motor. Table 4 Power Calculations
sending a man to thc forecastle to check the markings on in the t~.ansmissionshafting and gearing in the event that The first pinion in the gear reduction should be coupled for an Electrohydraulic Windlass
the chain. The indication of the amount oT chain out is the anchor is inadvertently housed too abruptly. to, rather than mounted on, the B-end output shaft. Symbol
also helpful (when the depth of water is known) in paying When an electric motor is directly connected to the The hydraulic circuit should include an auxiliary, posi- Type of Ship.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C4
tive-displacement, replenishing pump. The pumping Number of ar~ehorshoisted. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . n 2
out enough chain to ensure that the anchor will hold. windlass, it may be either a squirrel-cage or wound-rotor Anchor depth at beginning of hoist, fath.. . . h 30
A mechanism may also be installed to provide a means alternating-current motor or a direct-current motor. A unit bedplate is usually built as a storage tank, and it Anchor weight, lb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . W1 12,693
for releasing the anchor or anchors from the wheelhouse. d-c motor provides sufficient speed control to house the should be large enough to contain 110 percent of the oil ,
Anchor chain size, in.. . :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C
in the system so that all oil may be drained to the tank Chain weight (each anchor), lb. . . . . . . . . . . . WZ
To set the windlass up for this operation, the hand brake anchors safely. If a squirrel-cage motor is used, it Buoyancy factor.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b 0.87
on the wildcat is tightened, the wildcat clutch disen- should be of either the two- or three-speed type with the for servicing or maintenance. +
Weight per wildcat = b(W1 WZ),l b . . . . .
Hawsep~peefficiedcya . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wa 19,673
gaged, and any devices used to secure the chain at sea, slowest speed usually one quarter of the full-load speed Some windlasses are provided with a horsepower-limit- e. 0.60
ing device which is responsive to the pressure in the Pull at each wildcat = WJ/e?, lb . . . . . . . . . . PI 32,788
such as the devil's claw or tongue-type stopper, are re- and slow enough to house the anchor satisfactorily. Outside length of one cham link, in.. . . . . . . . G 14%
moved from the chain. A hydraulic cylinder, powered by Even if a multi-speed a-c motor is used, the anchor should system. The horsepower limiter should be designed so Pitch of links = G - 2C, in.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . P 9%
that when the pressure reaches a predetermined value, Number of whelps on wildcat. . . . . . . . . . . . . a 5
an accumulator, is arranged mechanically to override the be driven through a slip-type clutch coupling so as to Wildcat pitch radius = ap/?r, in.. . . . . . . . . . r 15.5
brake screw mechanism. Then. when a solenoid valve is limit inertial loadings in the event that the anchor is the pump stroke is reduced with increasing pressures so Torque at each wildcat = Plr, in.-lb. . . . . . . TI 508,200
energized from the wheelhouse, the wildcat brake is re- housed too abruptly. If variable speeds are necessary or that the electric motor horsepower remains constant. Electric motor speed, rpm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nl 1150
As the pressure in the system reduces (i.e., the anchor Hydraulic pump speed, rpm.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . NZ 1150
leased and the anchor will drop. Speed governing is desired, then either a wound-rotor a-c motor or a d-c Hydraulic motor speed, rpm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . NJ 1100
built into the hydraulic system to limit the rate of fall of motor may be used. If a wound-rotor motor is used, it chain is hauled in), the horsepower limiter will return the Gearing ratio: first reduction.. . . . . . . . . . . . Rl 7.83
the anchor. This type of arrangement has been success- pump stroke to the setting called for by the operator. second reduction. . . . . . . . . . Rz 7.40
should be separately ventilated with the ventilation air third reduction.. . . . . . . . . . . Ra 4.55
fully used between a tug and an unmanned barge. I n taken from below deck so that water will not enter the Each side of the hydraulic circuit should be provided Chain hoisting speed = 2?rrNa/l2R1RzRa,fpm S 33.9
this instance the control was accomplished by a radio air intake. The discharge air may be directed back to a with a relief valve of the "cross-blow" type, returning the Specified hoisting speed, fpm.. . . . . . . . . . . . . Sl 30
oil to the suction side of the pump. Alternatively, in Hydraulic ump and motor efficiency. . . . . . el 0.75
signal, with the small amount of electric power required protected space, or the air may be discharged directly on Gearing efkciency: first reduction. . . . . . . . . 0.97
on the barge supplied by batteries. Remote control of the open deck. In the latter case, the discharge outlet some cases the discharge from the relief valves may be second reduction. . . . . . eJ 0.97
the anchor would-be particularly advantageous in a long should be protected by a solenoid valve arranged so that led to the sump tank. third reduction.. . . . . . . e4 0.97
Direct electric-driven windlasses should be provided Efficiency of wildcat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e5 0.96
river passage where it is customary to have at least one the solenoid will open the air duct when the blower motor Torque per hydraulic motor =
man standing by at the windlass in case an emergency is energized. Interlocks must be provided so that the with an electric brake on the motor shaft. ,Hydraulic Tl/R1R&aezeae4eal in.-lb. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tz 2200
windlasses may be provided with either an electric brake Hydraulic pressure required,b psi. . . . . . . . . . . P, 735
drop is necessary. main motor cannot be energized unless both the blower Total electric motor hp requiredc = nPIS/
d. Windlass Power Units. Since the late 1960's., verv " motor and resistor fan motor are running; and additional or with a hydraulic brake which should be mounted on 33,000 ele2ese4e5,hp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HI 102.6
few steam-driven windlasses have been manufactured. interlocks should be provided to shut the entire system the B-end. Electric brakes should set upon loss of elec- Electric motor hp provided,d hp. . . . .. . . . . . HZ 100
tric power, and hydraulic brakes should set upon loss of Capstan diameter, in.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D 24
However, steam-driven windlasses were common before down in the event that the temperature of either the Capstan rope diameter, in.. . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . d 2.55
then, particularly on tankers which carried inflammable main motor discharge air or the resistor bank discharge either electric power or hydraulic pressure.
cargoes. Steam-driven windlasses are usually of the air exceeds a predetermined safe limit,. Speed and directional control for direct electricrdriven Gearing,
efficiency
B-end
= ezea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
to capstan: e6 0.94
units should be effected by a master switch located aft reduction = RlRz.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R4 57.9
horizontal type with all of the components located above If the variable speed for a motor-driven windlass is to Capstan rpm = Na/R4, rpm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . N4 19.0
deck; such a windlass would look much like the one illus- be obtained from a d-c motor, the direct current may be and at a safe distance from the windlass. The master Rope speed = r ( D +
d)N4/12, fpm. . . . . . . S, 132
switch is usually equipped with a vertical handle, as de- Permissible rope pull = 33,000 ele$lz/S,, lb. . F 17,625
trated by Fig. 13 if a steam engine were substituted for provided by the adjustable voltage output from an a-c/
the electric motor. The steam engine is commonly a d-c motor-generator set. This drive is advantageous if scribed in Section 1. Notes:
horizontal reversible type with two cylinders. Steam- the windlass is part of a combination unit, the other part Stroke control for a hydraulic windlass may be effected a The hawsepipe efficiency used should be the lowest anticipated.
driven windlasses are designed to operate with a steam of which is a constant-tension mooring winch. Windlass either manually or by servo control. The control wheel b A check must also be made to confirm that there is sufficient
stand should be raised to a convenient height above the capacity to hoist one anchor and the full scope of chain at no spec-
pressure of about 100 psig at the throttle. speeds and loads are controlled as described later under ified speed.
Steam-driven anchor windlasses are inherently rugged, Cargo Winches and Constant-Tension R'Iooring Winches. deck and should be located aft and at a,safe distance from
the windlass. If manual control is used, the shaft should In this arrangement, the electric motor has shafts on both ends,
simple, and reliable; however, these considerations are In the electrohydraulic windlass, the pump, or A-end, each of which drive a windlass through a Dension 60 hydraulic
seldom criteria for selection as other types of windlasses is usually located below deck and driven by an a-c motor; be provided with a deck stuffing box through which it is pump and motor.
can be designed to be equally dependable. The major and the hydraulic motor, or B-end, is mounted on the led to the A-end stroking mechanism. The run of control d Specifications often permit the electric motor to be overloaded
advantage associated with steam-driven windlasses is input shaft of the windlass gear reducer. When the wind- shafting should be made with great care in order to avoid 25 percent at the beginning of a hoist.
that they entail no fire hazards when used on tankers that lass is of the horizontal-shaft type, the B-end ismounted excessive friction, lost motion, and derangement that may
carry inflammable cargoes. On the other hand, the long in the weather. When the windlass is of the vertical- be caused by deck deflection. Universal joints and slip
runs of piping from the engine room pose two problems: shaft type, the B-end is mounted below deck out of the couplings should be used to assist in eliminating the
one of actually getting steam to the windlass, and the weather. Some vertical-shaft windlasses, partlicularly deleterious effects of misalignment. tents so that the operator can sense the speed position
other of maintaining insulation on the pipes when they those on naval vessels, have two completely separate The handwheel for the hydraulic stroking device is selected. Handwheels for controlling hydraulic wind-
are run above the weather deck, as is the usual arrange- power plants, one for each wildcat or wildcat and capstan usually arranged in a horizontal plane. An auxiliary lasses should be equipped with a speed indicator, marked
ment. These two problems are, obviously, closely re- combination. These are then arranged so that, in the handwheel for the stroking device should be located ''gll' ' ' ~ , '"~/4,"
' and "Full," to each side of "Stop" for
lated. In cold weather, if the windlass is steam-powered, event of a casualty to one power unit, the other unit may adjacent to the A-end to assist in servicing or warming the neutral position. atio ion of %he handwheel in a
it is usually necessary to turn the steam on well before be engaged (usually hydraulically) so as to operate both up the unit. The stroke-control mechanism should be cloc/kwise direction should start the windlass in the hoist-
the windlass will be needed so that steam and not con- vertical shafts; see Fig. 16. A more common arrange- provided with a spring detent for the neutral position of ing direction.
densate gets to the unit when it is needed for anchor ment 011 merchant ships is one with a single, double- the A-end stroking spiadle. Limit switches should be The procedure follotved in determining the powering
handling. ended, electric motor driving two pumps with each pump arranged to prevent the pump from being started if the requirements of an electrohydraulic windlass with an
The two commonly used powering systems for wind- discharging to a hydraulic motor. pump and servo control are not in the neutral position. attached capstan is shown by Table 4; the procedure for
lasses are direct-connected electric motors and electro- In each of the hydraulic arrangements described above, This is necessary to ensure that the anchor does not start a direct-electric windlass is similar. Motors for direcb
hydraulic systems. Electrohydraulic systems permit the hydraulic transmission would consist of a positive- to move when the pump is energized. connected windlasses should have a 30-minute short-
complete control over the hoisting speed and also provide displacement, reversible-flow; variable-stroke pump Electric master switches should be provided with de- time rating; whereas, for a hydraulically driven wind-
r,
4
1
II
588 MARINE ENGINEERING HULL MACHINERY
jU
SWIVEL FITTING FOR TOPPING LIFT As shown by Fig. 19, the upper vang pendants, which are
,--_ secured to the boom head, are used to swing the boom.
/ J(_SWIVEL PA0
Vang lines are required on both sides of the boom head.
Lastly, the rigging arrangement must be capable of hoist-
ing and lowering the load. The load would be secured to
the cargo hook shown in Fig. 19 and would be hoisted
and lowered by means of the cargo hauling part that goes
to the cargo (hoist) winch drum.
There are many variations of the basic rigging arrange-
ment shown by Fig. 19. Reference [17] contains a dis-
cussion of some of the rigging arrangements which have
been used and also relates the considerations which the
naval architect must entertain when desighing cargo
handling systems. Consequently, this chapter will con-
centrate on the design of the winches. Cargo winches
are discussed in this section, and topping and vang Fig. 2 0 50-hp, two-speed, d-c electric cargo winch without gypsy head
winches are the subject of the following section.
b. Mechanical. Ratings or duties of cargo winches
have become standardized over the last 30 years. Most that might have had a gypsy head mounted on it, is fitted
cargo winches are driven by 50-hp direct-current electric with a flexible coupling through which the third-reduc-
motors. Where hydraulic or steam winches have been tion pinion is driven. The auxiliary drum will thus pro-
installed, they also have approximately the same full- duce a line pull that is greater than that produced by the
load speeds as the d-c motor-driven winches, but the drum of the basic winch. Of course, the line speed on the
light-line speeds may be different, being somewhat slower auxiliary drum is reduced (see the foregoing winch rating
for the hydraulic units and somewhat faster for steam data). Two of these winches are frequently used where
units. Cargo winches have different ratings at different a pair of burtoning booms are mounted on a pair of king
line pulls; typical ratings for a 50-hp d-c motor-driven posts and a heavy-lift boom is installed on the centerline.
dlectric cargo winch are as follows: The hoist lines for the burtoning booms are led to the
high-speed drums of the winches, and the hoist and top-
Drum Line Pull, lb Drum Line Speed, fpm ping lines for the heavy-li,ft=boomare led to the two
0 500 auxiliary drums. Again, the clutches for the two drums
3720 290 must be arranged so that both can not be engaged at the
7450 220 same time.
14,500 105" Still another type of cargo winch is the so-called "two-
19,000 70' speed" winch such as shown by Fig. 20. In this winch,
" "Two-speed" winch in low gear. two pairs of second-reduction gears are provided, either
Separate auxiliary drum. of which may be clutched in to suit the load being han-
dled. The output speeds of the alternative second reduc-
Most cargo winches are provided with a double gear tions are usually in the ratio of about 2: 1. The output
OBLONG SWIVEL EYE ' reduction. The first reduction is frequently of the her- load and speed ratios may be varied to suit the rigging
SHACKLE ringbone type while the second reduction is usually of the arrangement.
spur type. In some few instances, when the winches ate The mechanical band brakes provided on cargo winches
VANG PAD to be mounted on or adjacent to living quarters and very are intended to be holding devices rather than stopping
Fig. 19 Nomenclature for cargo gear rigged for swinging or slewing
quiet winches are required, they are fitted with a single devices. In an emergency, such as that caused by a
worm-gear reduction. Moat winches are of the single- power failure with a load suspended, the mechanical band
drum type. If a gypsy head is desired on the winch, it is brakes may be used to lower the load to the deck. For
mounted on an extension of the drum shaft and the drum heavy-lift winches, the brake mechanism should be of the
lass, the motor rating should be 30 minutes at 15 percent independent of the main power feeders and arranged to is then fitted with a mechanical brake and a clutch so screw compressor type. On these brakes, a shaft with a
load followed by 30 minutes at full load. If a separate be disconnected when the main pump motor is energized. that the drum may be secured when the gypsy is used. handwheel has an acme thread which provides the force
replenishing pump is provided, it should be rated for Occasionally a double-drum winch may be installed in necessary to tighten the brake in a manner similar to the
continuous duty. The main pump motor should be inter- 2.3 Cargo Winches place of two single-drum winches, thus saving the cost of anchor windlass brake . a w n in Fig. 17. The brake
locked in such a way that it will not start until the re- a. General. The simple rigging arrangement shown the second motor and electric brake. On such a winch, bands are usually lined with a woven brake lhing similar
plenishing pump is running. A start-stop pushbutton in Fig. 19 has the capability of performing the three basic both drums must be provided with clutches that are inter- to that used for the anchor windlass brake. In addition
arrangement should be provided on or near the weather functions required of boom and winch cargo handling locked so that only one drum can be engaged at a time, but to the clutch interlocks mentioned above, it is advisable
deck control station in addition to the buttons on the gear. One of the three functions required is the ability to permitting both to be declutched at the same time. Also, to interlock the brake and the drum clutch in such a way
controller cabinet. A low-surface-temperature electric top the boom, i.e., raise the boom head to the proper each drum must be provided with a mechanical brake. that the clutch cannot be moved out of engagement until
heater may be provided in the windlass sump tank to elevation. A second function required of the rigging A variation of the double-drum winch is a single-drum the brake is set.
maintain the oil temperature at about 60 F in cold arrangement is the ability to swing (or slew) the boom so winch which drives an "auxiliary" or "derrick" drum As a substitute for the band brakes, it is frequently
weather. This heater should be supplied from a circuit as to control the transverse location of the boom head. through a third gear reduction. The shaft extension, possible to use a simple locking device such as a bar or
MARiNE ENGINEERING HULL MACHINERY
When a large amount of wire rope is to be stored on a
winch drum, i t is advisable to use a spooling device.
These devices ensure that the wire is distributed evenly
across the drum and does not pile up in one place. Such
a pileup may occur a t the center of the drum or against
either flange depending on the lead of line from the heel
block to the drum.
The most elementary form of a spooling device is a
grooved drum. The groove is a long spiral from end to
end of the druni. However, a grooved drum will only
control the storage of one layer of wire and only if the
fleet angle is very small and if the wire is kept under ten-
sion continuously.
Mechanical spooling devices may take any one of
several forms, the most popular of which consists of a
pair of rollers that are arranged with their axes a t right
angles to the line lead and parallel to the drum flanges.
The rollers are mounted on a trolley or carrier which is
moved back and forth across the width of the drum to
ensure that the wire is wound evenly across the full width.
Translation of the carrier is provided by a double-
diamond threaded shaft which is rotated by gearing that
Fig. 21 Winch showing "double-diamond" type of spooling device is powered from the drum shaft. A winch fitted with this
type of spooling arrangement is shown in Fig. 21. The
design of the gearing and the double-diamond must be
pin that can be inserted in a sleeve in the winch pedestal such that the carrier moves one wire diameter for each
and pushed through to engage a hole in the flange of the turn of the drum.
winch drum. Another mechanical device is that known as the LeBus
Drum clutches should be of the positive-engagement Fleet Angle Compensator, which relies on special drum
type; the most commonly used type is the jaw clutch. grooving and a specially mounted fair lead sheave.
If the clutch is of the dry type, the jaws should be re- There is additional information on this spooling problem
lieved a few degrees so as t o facilitate engagement. If in reference [17].
the clutch is to be lubricated, then the jaw faces should Openings should be provided under the-motors to per-
be parallel, but a few degrees of backlash should be pro- mit inspection and maintenance of the underside of the
vided to facilitate the engagement. motor and access to the studs that secure the field poles.
Brake and clutch linkages should be arranged and de- c. Electrical. There are a number of ways of obtain-
signed so that they will be extremely rigid in order that ing variable or multiple speeds when a winch is driven by
they will not be bent or otherwise deranged by being an electric motor. One alternative is a single-speed Fig. 2 2 Vertical motor-generator set for cargo winches with rotor removed
"forced." This is particularly true of clutch linkages. squirrel-cage motor driving the winch through a variable i
On many winches, there m a y b e no reason to declutch &splacement hydraulic pump. Three- and four-speed Fig. 23 Vertical motor-generator set to sene a pair of cargo winches
the drum for long periods of time. Due to disuse, it may squirrel-cage motors and wound-rotor slipring motors
then be necessary to use a large force to move the clutch are also possibilities. The most popular type of drive on
and linkage, particularly when engaging the clutch. If cargo ships is that which uses an a-c/d-c motor-generator are located in deckhouses so that they may be of a drip-
the clutch linkage does not have sufficient stiffness, the set to produce adjustable-voltage direct current t o con- proof construction. The control is usually of the solid- The lower part of the rotor in Fig. 22 is the a-c motor and
position of theclutch shifter may not show the true posi- trol the speed and direction of the winch. In the cases state type and provides infinitely variable speeds both the two d-c generators are above.
tion of the clutch jaws so that there may be only partial of the hydraulic and motor-generator set drives, the hoisting and lowering. The a-c motor should have a con- A horigontal motor-generator set is illustrated by Fig.
engagement of the clutch jaws. Insufficient stiffness in prime mover is started once during an entire cargo han- tinuous rating, but the generators and the d-c motors 24. The a-c motor in the center drives two d-c genera-
the clutch linkage has also been known to result in the dling day; whereas in all other cases the prime mover may have a 30-minute short time duty rating. The ch- tors, each of which powers one cargo winch motor.
clutch jaws working themselves completely out of en- must be started each time the winch is required to haul cuitry should provide safe lowering speeds if either a Multi-speed squirrel-cage motors with three or four
gagement with the result that the load was dropped. in or pay out rope. These frequent starts and stops will brake failure or power failure, or both, occurs. The d-c speeds have been used very successfully for cargo winch
(That is, even though the clutch handle was secured in cause voltage fluctuations in the ship's system. motors may be shunt, stabilized-shunt, or compound drives. One such three-wed motm has 4, 8; and 28
the engaged position, the clutch linkage was so flexible The most popular system of control for cargo winches wound, and of totally enclosed, nonventilated, water- poles; another uses 4, 8, and 36 poles; and% third has
that the clutch jaws separated and disengaged due t o is the modified "Ward-LeonardJ' system, which employs tight construction and should be provided with an auto- 2, 4, and 40 poles. I n each case, the high-speed (4 or 2
internal clutch forces.) All clutches should be provided an a-c/d-c motor-generator set to provide an adjustable matic drainage fitting. pole) winding can handle loads up to about 3 tons drum
with a device that will secure the clutch handle in either voltage output to vary the speed of the d-c cargo winch Vertical motor-generator sets for cargo winches are pull a t about 300 fpm, and this is also the maximum
the engaged or the disengaged position. motor. Usually a squirrel-cage a-c motor drives two d-c shown in Figs. 22 and 23. The units are force ventilated light-hook speed. The second speed (8 or 4 pole) pro-
The drums should be fitted with removable rope guards generators, each of which supplies a controlled voltage to by a fan on the rotor. Air is drawn in through the con- vides a line pull up t o about 6 tons a t about 150 fpm.
designed to prevent a slack rope from being wound over one of a pair of motors driving two winches that are troller door, passes through the base, and is discharged .An automatic step-back relay is provided so that if the
the flange and being wrapped around the drum shaft. arranged for burtoning cargo. The motor-generator sets vertically from the top of the motor-generator enclosure. line pull on the drum exceeds the nominal 3-ton rating,
592 MARINE ENGINEERING
593
I HULL MACHINERY
direct-current motor@supplied by a direct-current genera-
tor in the engine room. Both control systems are also
similar in that the resistors produce large amounts of heat
that must be~emovedfrom the winch equipment room
by a forced-ventilation system. The control circuitry for
the winch should be arranged so that the winch motor
cannot be operated unless the ventilation fan is operating
and also so that the entire winch system will shut down
if the temperature in the equipment room rises above a
safe limit.
Special consideration must be given to the control of
speed when lowering an overhauling load with a wound-
rotor motor. There are two common methods of doing
this. One is by plugging or countertorque lowering, and
the other is the unbalanced-stator method. In the
countertorque method, although the master switch is
moved in the lowering direction, relays sensitive to cur-
rent caused by an overhauling load actually supply torque
to the motor that opposes the load. Varying the amount
of this counter torque changes the speed of lowering.
When there is no load on the hook, the winch must be
driven to pay out line. Since there is no load to produce
Fig. 24 Horizontal motor-generator set current, the current-sensitive relays do not function and
the motor drives the winch to pay out l i e at the maxi-
mum motor speed.
the motor will not accelerate to the high-speed winding In the unbalanced-stator method for controlling lower-
even when the master switch is advanced to the high- ing speeds, unequal or unbalanced voltages are applied to
speed position. The low-speed windings are used to land the stator. Usually, an autotransformer is connected
loads and to take up on a slack line. Although only across one phase of the power supply. A series of taps
three speeds are available, the transitions between speeds from the transformer lead to contactors which furnish
are quite smooth, the speed changes being absorbed by voltages both above and below normal. This results in
the inertia of the winch and the inherent elasticity of the applying two rotating fields to the motor, with one field
entire rigging system. The four-speed motor offers 4, 8, rotating clockwise and the other counterclockwise. By
16, and 32-pole arrangements, with the 16-pole connec- changing the amount of unbalance, the relative strengths
tion serving principally as a cushion between the slowest of the two fields change and the speeds are varied.
running speed and the third and full-load speeds. In There are several other methods of controlling both
each case, acceleration from one speed to the next is pro- the hoisting and lowering speeds of wound-rotor motors,
vided by time delays so that the motor will attain its but these usually require elaborate circuitry and addi-
speed before moving on to the next speed. An advantage tional rotating equipment [18].
that is obtained if squirrel-cage motors are used is that d. Hydraulic. Variable-delivery hydraulic pumps
they are essentially trouble-free since there are no com- have been used to drive winches on a few cargo ships, and
mutators, slip-rings, or brushes to be maintained. are also used on tankers where they replace steam winches
The control of the hoisting speed of wound-rotor slip which have their pipe insulation problems. These hy- a clean hydraulic system. Where the pumps are located Fig. 27 Worm-geared topping or vang winch fltted with disk-type electric
ring motors is generally accomplished by inserting vary- draulic units have been furnished in two ways: with the in the deckhouse, the piping between the units must be brake
ing amounts of resistance in the rotor circuit. By insert- complete winch including electric motor, pump, and hf" fabricated and installed by the shipbuilders. Extreme
ing a large amount of resistance in the circuit, the starting draulic motor and brake on a common bedplate; or care must be used to ensure the removal of dirt and other 4
torque of the motor is increased and the inrush (or start- alternatively, with the electric motor and pump located contaminants from the system by the use of a cleaning lowering the boom to the deck for servicing. In addition,
ing) current is reduced. The smaller inrush current is in a deckhouse and connected by pipe to the hydraulic procedure such as is described in reference [I]. Special topping winches are used to hoist the boom to the highest
beneficial in that there is less disruption of the ship's motor and brake mounted on the winch bedplate. With attention must also be paid to the provision of vent fit- working position or, if the boom is to be stowed ver-
electric system each time a winch is started. As succes- the latter arrangement, the electric motor usually drives tings at the high points in the hydraulic piping system tically, to the boom rest on the king post or crosstree.
sive amounts of resistance are removed from the rotor two pumps, each of which serves one winch of a pair for the removal of entrapped air. b. Mechanical. Topping and vaag winches are usu-
circuit, the motor speed increases until, when all external assigned to a pair of burtoning booms. With this ar- ally designed so that the lubrication and the fill-and-drain
rangement, the capacity of the electric motor need only 2.4 Topping and Vang Winches
resistance is removed, the motor will, in effect, be a squir- connections will function properly whether the winches
rel-cage motor and will run at approximately synchronous be about 150 percent of the capacity of the hydraulic a. General. Topping and vang winches are used to are mounted horizontally or vertically. This allows the
speed. Although a rheostat could be used to provide the motor to drive a single winch, since it is impossible to move the cargo boom vertically or laterally, respectively, shipbuilder latitude in arranging the winches so as to
external resistance, it is more usual to remove the re- draw full load from both winches at the same time. in order to position the boom head to handle the hook provide the best possible cargo handling arrangement.
sistance in four or five steps, thus giving either five or six Thus, the total installed electric horsepower is reduced. load (see Fig. 19). They are usually of simple mechanical The winches should be capable of handling the working
motor speeds. This method of control is essentially the. Because the motors and pumps are out of the weather, and electrical arrangement, capable of positioning the and test loads without the aid of a drum ratchet and pawl
same as that used for the control of constant-potential the motors can be dripproof. boom when it is fully loaded, and are also capable of or other securing device. The drive arrangement may be
594 MARINE EN( HULL M
stick." As an example of the use of a joy stick, move- Fig. 29 Warping winch with extended shaft
ment of the lever away from the operator will cause the
topping winch to pay out wire and lower the boom; and
movement of the lever to the right will cause the boom in Fig. 28 may be of either the roller type or of the sleeve
to swing to the right. A movement of the lever in any type with bronze bushings.
direction in between these two directions will both lower For merchant ships it is commonly specified that when
the boom and swing it to the right. Providing the control the capstan is handling the specified load, the stresses Fig. 30 Electrohydraulic mooring winch
of the two winches in a single lever permits the operator should not exceed 40 per cent of the yield point of the
to position the boom quickly and land the, load with materials. The capstan head, main shaft, bearings, and
great accuracy. capstan base should be designed to withstand the break- be secured when the heads are being used. The electric
ing strength of the hawser applied tangentially a t mid- motor, brake, and gear reducer are all mounted on a com-
2.5 Capstans height of the head without exceeding 75 percent of the mon bedplate.
a. General. There are three mechanical arrange- yield point of the materials. The warping heads should be of the smooth-barrel type
ments of capstans that are in general use. In one ar- c. Electrical. Capstan motors should be reversible (without whelps) and located a t a height that will ensure
rangement the motor, electric brake, gear reducer, and and are usually of the two-speed (full and x),
constant- a suitable lead of line from the bulwark chocks. The gear
capstan head are mounted on a common bedplate on the horsepower, squirrel-cage type. They should be rated reducer is usually of the double-reduction type with spur,
weather deck. I n a second arrangement only the capstan for 30 minute short-time, full-load duty on either wind- helical, or herringbone g e a r i n ~but occasionally a single
head is mounted in the weather with the motor, electric ing. A brake should be provided on the motor shaft. worm reduction is used.
brake, and gear reducer hung from the underside of the The motor and controls should provide adequate control A stress analysis should be made for warping winches
weather deck. I n a third arrangement the capstan head of overhauling loads. Stepback protection from high to employing the limitations as described above for cap-
is on the weather deck with the motor, brake, and gear low speed should be provided so that, when retrieving a stans; in addition, if a drum is provided, the unit should
reducer on the deck below, as illustrated by Fig. 28. I n light line on the high-speed point, the motor speed will be capable of withstanding the stall torque of the motor
all three cases the master switch is located near the cap- automatically step back to low speed if the rated horse- without exceeding 75 percent of the yield point of the
stan head on the open deck, and the controller is located
in a protected location such as a deckhouse or the capstan n DECK
power is exceeded in high speed. Automatic return to
high speed should also be provided should the line pull
materials.
The electrical equipment described for the capstans
machinery space. Fig. 28 Capstan w i h machinery on deck below be reduced. Capstans are usually ,designed for line would be suitable for the warping winches.
The first arrangement mentioned has the advantage speeds of about 30 to 35 fpm in low speed since this is
that the xomplete unit can be assembled by the capstan about as fast as a man can handle the line and keep it 2.7 Constant-Tension Mooring Winches
manufacturer for bolting in place by the shipbuilder. tight around the head for friction purposes. If the motor a. General. A constant-tension mooring winch is a
However, it has two disadvantages in that the motor and and variation in the vertical distance between decks is full and quarter speed as suggested above, this will re- device used to maintain a preset tension in a mooring line
brake h u s t be of watertight construction and that the which may be caused by either temperature changes or sult in a light-line speed of from 120 to 140 fpm. after a ship has been tied up a t a pier. The mooring lines
capstan head is elevated to an inconvenient height above deck loadings. This type of capstan offers the advantage 2.6 Warping Winches. A warping winch is typically holding the ship to the pier will maintain a constant ten-
the weather deck. of having the power unit on the deck, rather than over- used to warp a ship alongside a pier or to move a ship sion even with changes in tide or ship's draft, without the
The second arrangement has the advantage of having head, so that it is more readily serviced. from one place to another, by means of hawsers, without necessity of manually adjusting the lines. When con-
the motor and brake out of the weather so that they may b. Mechanical. The capstan head is usually of the other assistance. The warping head on a warping winch stant-tension mooring winches are used, two or more are
be of dripproof construction. However, it introduces a smooth-barrel type (without whelps) and its configura- is similar to the head on a capstan, except that the warp- installed forward and two or more are installed aft. As
deck penetration which must be made watertight, and tion should approximate that given in reference [19]. ing head or heads are mounted on a horizontal shaft. I n many as ten constant-tension mooring winches may be
the capstan head must be mounted by the shipbuilder. The gear reducer generally consists of a worm-and-wheel some instances, the heads are mounted on extensions of installed on ships such as&he largest$ankers. .
Neither of these problems is particularly difficult to reduction and a spur, helical, or herringbone reduction. the main shaft so that they may be at a considerable dis- Figure 31 illustrates a pair of constant-tension mooring
handle; but the fact that the power unit is suspended It is preferred that the worm-and-wheel reduction (if tance from the power unit, as in Fig. 29; if the shafts are winches that are rigged to lead the line from each over
from the overhead makes it more difficult to inspect and used) precede the other reduction in order to take advan- extended in order to spread the heads apart, these exten- the same side of the ship through univer~alchocks.
maintain. tage of the slightly higher efficiency of the worm at the sions are provided with outboard bearing pedestals close Alternatively, the lines may be taken to the other side of
The third arrangement, which is common, entails a higher rubbing speed. All bearings in the reducer should to the heads. Occasionally a drum is installed, as in Fig. the ship.
problem of alignment between the driving and driven be of the ball or roller type because of the necessiby of 30, for handling a wire rope for a stream anchor. If a Occasionally each of two of the forward winches is com-
units and requires the installation of a flexible coupling accurate alignment of the worm gearing. drum is installed, it is provided with a clutch and a band bined with a wildcat to combine the windlassjconstant-
that can accommodate a small amount of misalignment The deck bearings for the capstan arrangement shown brake of the screw compressor type so that the drum may tension functions into a single unit. The constant-ten-
MARINE ENGINEERING HULL M
this is not possible, nonferrous or stainless steel parts
should be provided.
If a gypsy or warping head is required, it must bk ar-
ranged so that it will function with the drum declutched
and secured. If the head is to be used for warping duty,
then the head, shaft, bearings, etc., should be designed to
withstand the breaking strength of the hawser applied
tangentially at mid-length without exceeding 75 percent
of the yield point of the materials.
c. Electrical. Most constant-tension winches are
powered by an adjustable-voltage d-c drive similar to
that described under Cargo Winches. Other satisfac-
tory drives include wound-rotor slip-ring motors and
variable-delivery reversible-flow hydraulic transmis-
sions, both of which are also described under Cargo
Winches.
Fig. 31 Constant-tension mooring winches Details of motors and generators are about the same as
for cargo winches except that the motor should have a
duty rating capable of sustaining continuous cyclical
operation in a five-second total cycle. Thermal protec- Fig. 33 Bow thruster
sion winches are also arranged for manually hauling in
and paying out the wire rope while the ship is being tied tion should be provided in the motor, and the circuitry
UP. should be arranged so as to shut down the motor and
b. Mechanical. The essential mechanical difference sound an alarm if the motor temperature exceeds allow- below deck, out of the weather, provided adequate fair-
between a cargo winch and a constant-tension mooring able limits. leads are installed and a spooling device is mounted on
winch is usually the interposition of a planetary gear set One master switch should be provided for each winch the storage drum.
between the two usual gear reductions and the drum. In at each side of the ship. Generally the two or three
addition, a band clutch is provided with the clutch fric- switches required on each side at the bow or stern are 2.8 Special Thrust Devices
combined as duplex or triplex units and may be ar- Fig. 32 Ship with bow L ~ S t e r
tion surface on the outer diameter of the ring gear on a. General. S~ecialthrust devices are ~rovidedon
most constant-tension winches. When the band clutch ranged for either bulkhead or pedestal mounting. The ships primarily to ifnprove their maneuverinicapabilities
is set, the ring gear is locked and the sun gear is then able master switch to be used at any time may be selected by at zero, or substantially zero, ship speeds when the rudder
to rotate the planetary gears, thereby rotating the spider a selector switch mounted on each winch. Alternatively, necessary to handle both the mooring line from the drum is relatively ineffective. Theke are three general types of
which is directly connected to the winch drum. The band each port and starboard pair may be arranged electrically and the anchor chain at the same time. Some flexibility these special thrust devices. The most common type
clutch is not primarily intended for "free spooling," so that if one is moved away from the OFF position, the I is permitted in the arrangement of winch leads and chain consists of a propeller that is installed in an athwartship
which is a desirable capability if the mooring line has other switch is disconnected. Each master switch should leads; one arrangement is such that the wildcat which tunnel; the propellers in these units may be of either the
been secured to a bollard when there is a small amount of provide the following operating positions: fast heave, handles the starboard anchor is on the port constant- fixed pitch or reversible pitch type. Trainable thrusters,
way on the ship. Instead, most control circuits contain slow heave, automatic, off, drift, medium payout, and tension winch and vice versa. This is illustrated by Fig. a second type, are commonly designed such that they can
a "drift" position which energizes only the brake, thus fast payout. When the master switch is set at the "auto- 14. The possibility of locating the wildcats and the upper be lowered through the bottom of the ship and trained
allowing the winch to overhaul, and thereby permits matic" position, the line pull will be dictated by the set- ends of the hawsepipes almost at will permits proper through 360 degrees so that thrust can be developed in
I
"free spooling" without the necessity of making manual ting of the tension switch on the winch. chain leads while still ensuring that the lead from the any direction; however, there are other types of train-
adjustments at the winch. . d. Variations. There are three major variations or
adaptations of the constant-tension mooring winch.
drum is adequate for all mooring requirements. able thrusters. One type of trainable thruster is similar
All bearings should be of the ball or roller type to The third variation mentioned above permits the use to a large outboard motor, and the active-rudder type is
-
minimize friction so that the tension-sensing mechanism These are: (1) the winch which has a warping head and
can be used as a warping winch; (2) the winch that is
of a synthetic line as a constant-tension mooring line. designed to be incorporated into the rudder. The active-
is adequately sensitive to changes in line tension. There is considerable advantage to be gained from this rudder type consists of a small shrouded propeller that
A typical constant-tension winch has the ability to combined with a wildcat so that it can handle a bower arrangement since the line itself has much greater elas is driven by a submersible electric motor built into the
maintain, within a reasonable tolerance, a tension of from anchor and its chain; and (3) the winch that is designed ticity than a steel line and therefore can absorb most aft edge of the rudder. In a third type of thruster, a
8000 to 20,000 Ib. There are usually three or four inter- to handle a synthetic mooring line on the drum. minor adjustments by stretching or relaxing without the pump is qrranged to take suction from beneath the keel
mediate settings between these two extremes. Tension Constant-tension mooring winches are often fitted with winch being energized. A new factor is introduced, how- and discharge to either side, to develop thrust port or
is usually sensed by either a coil spring or a torsion bar. "gypsy" heads of small diameter for handling miscel- ever, in that synthetic lines under tension must not be starboard as desired.
If the tension sensed exceeds the preset tolerance, the laneous lines. These are not practical for handling moor- I
stowed on a drum unless the drum is properly reinforced. There is a considerable amount of literature that deals
motor is energized to pay out or haul in line until the ing lines of the usual 8 to 9 in., circumference. If it is In at least one known case, a synthetic line was stored with the subject of special thrust devices; however, the
original tension has been reestablished. desired that the winch be capable of warping the vessel, 1
overnight on a drum after being hauled in under "nor- most comprehensive treatpent of thesubject is contained
The band clutch is usually capable of holding from 125 using such lines, heads approximating the sizes quoted in mal" (say 20,000 lb) line pull; the result was that the in-reference [20].
to 150 percent of the maximum tension setting. For the reference [19] should be fitted. These must be operable line exerted enough compressive force on the winch drum b. Tunnel Type. The tunnel type of thruster, which
winch cited above, the band clutch would be capable of separately from the drum. A secondary shaft and gear to crush it. In order to avoid such a situation, the winch is widely known as a "bow thruster" when installed a t
resisting a pull of from 25,000 to 30,000 Ib. If a sudden reduction may also be required. drum may be arranged to act as a capstan, with only the bow of a ship, is illustrated by Figs. 32 and 33.
surge were to occur, the clutch would slip thus preventing The second variation is the constant-tension winch enough t u n s of line on the drum to ensure adequate fric- "Stern thrusters," that is, similar devices installed at the
excessive forces from being developed within the winch. that, through an additional gear reduction, drives a wild- tion. The line is then pulled off the drum and is wound stern of a ship, have been used but they are not common.
The tension-sensing mechanism and the band clutch cat that handles the bower anchor. This is an advan- on a second drum for storage purposes. This second The principal performance features of a typical series
and their linkages should be totally enclosed. Where tangeous arrangement since it is unlikely that it will be drum may be located close to the winch or may be located of bow thrusters are shown in Table 5. The performance
598 MARINE ENGINEERING HULL MACHINERY
Table 5 Performance Characteristics 20 ally of stainless steel or nickel aluminum bronze, with the
of Typical Reversible-Pitch Bow Thrusters propeller hub of bronze and the pod struts made of steel.
Horsepower Dheter RPM Thrust, Ib Thrustlhp The propeller is driven through a right-angle gear
150 3'-7" 450 4,500 30 drive (usually of the spiral-bevel type) that is contained
300 4'-3C 420 7,900 26 16 within the pod assembly. The pinion shaft or inputghaft
500 5'-5" 340 13,200 26
of the right-angle drive extends out of the pod and
800 6'-7' 290 20,400 25.5
1200 7'-11" 240 30,200 25 through the tunnel assembly. The arrangement can be
1800 9'-2" 210 44,100 24.5 0 designed such that the pinion shaft penetrates the tunnel
0
assembly at any angle desired; however, the shaft is
M, = NaL (6)
- WTER LEVEL
where
M, = fin stabilizing moment, ft-lb
N = number of fins
a = lever arm between the resultant lift force and
the ship's center of gravity, ft
( a ) CROSS SECTION OF A YON-ARTICULATE0
L = lift force per fin, lb FIN STABILIZER
(ALSO KWWN AS A SPAM TYPE
The lift force developed by each fin can be expressed in OR SINQLY ALL-MOVABLE STABILIZER)
the conventional manner as:
unit is retracted it must be aligned fore and aft. The produce heeling moments that reduce the ship's tendency
where
CL = a nondimensional lift coefficient (Typical values
. k
FIN
closure plate provides a nominally smooth hull. to roll. A compilation of the characteristics of many of CL would be approximately 1.1 for non-
One use for this type of thruster is for station keeping active fin installations is contained in reference [21]. articulated fins, and 1.4 for flapped fins. Fig-
on a survey ship when it may be necessary for the ship to Active fin stabilizers require ship forward motion in ure 37 defines the two types of fin surfaces.
remain in position over a particular spot while bottom order to develop lift, which increases as the ship speed Section 8 of reference [5] thoroughly discusses
sainples or cores are being taken. One such installation squared. In practical terms, this speed dependency the procedure for computing CL.)
has a fixed-pitch propeller driven by a constant-speed limits the application of active fin stabilizers to ship p = water mass density, lb-seca/ft4
squirrel-cage motor through an eddy-current coupling. speeds above approximately 12 knots. Below that A = area of one fin, sq ft
Varying the excitation produces a propeller speed of up speed, the fin size tends to get too large, and other de- V = water speed used-in fin design, fps (using VK as / LFLAP I
to about 95 percent of the motor speed. The difference vices (e.g., anti-roll tanks) find application, as described the ship speed in knots, V = 1.69 VK) t b ) CROSS SECTION OF A FUPPIO FIN STABILIZER
in speed between the motor and propeller shaft, or slip, in references [22] and [23]. (ALSO KNOWN AS AN hRTICULATE0
OR DOUBLY n u - MOVIBU (CT~BILIZER)
results in the creation of heat which must be removed b. Simplified Calculation of Stabilizing Moment and If the stabilizing moment computed from equation (6)
either by a ventilation system or by a seawater-cooled Number of Units. The determination of percentage of is equal to or greater than the induced rolling moment Fig. 37 Common types of fin stabilizen
heat exchanger. stabilization and the design of automatic controls require calculated from equation (5), an effective stabilization
Various interlocks are required for this type of unit so a complex analysis. However, the fin size and tilting- system is considered to be achieved. The key to this
as to ensure that the space ventilation fan, the eddy-cur- gear machinery characteristics and location can be deter- simplified method is the somewhat arbitrary selection of
rent ventilating fan or cooling water pump, etc., are mined adequately using a simplified approach. With the the seaway wave slope capacity 9 and the associated ship 9 = 5 deg
operating before the unit is lowered and the main motor simplified approach, it is assumed that a regular beam f
speed VK. Experience has shown that stabilizers should CL = 1.2
is started. An additional interlock is required to ensure seaway having a small surface wave slope and a wave be designed for wave slopes of about 4 or 5 deg. Lower a = 56 percent of B
that the unit is in exact fore-and-aft alignment before period approximately equal to the ship's natural period values are reasonable for very large ships, and higher
being housed so that the closure will fit into the hull can build up large roll angles. By designing fin stabilizers values for small ships, since small ships are more likely The values of CL can later be refined (e.g., Fig. 31 of
opening. to counteract the wave slope heeling moments, it is pos- to be subjected to roll excitation in a given seaway. reference [24] indicates that the CL for a flapped fin
d. Jet Type. In this third type of thruster, a pump sible to reduce the large roll angles. Figure 36 illustrates The lowest ship speed, VK, at which a significant roll varies between 1.6 and 1.3 from speeds of 5 to 25 knots,
with large clearances takes suction from the bottom of the concept for a ship with two symmetrical fins. reduction is desired, is usually taken to be approximately and Sectjon 8 of reference [5] gives data for nonarticu-
the ship near the centerline and discharges it to either a The rolling moment induced by the seaway is ex- 50 percent to 80 percent of full-power speed. This im- lated control surfaces as a function of aspect ratio,
port or starboard discharge pipe to develop lateral thrust. pressed as follows: #
plicitly recognizes that ships in a heavy seaway are sweep, and taper ratio.) The usual practice is to try N
The flow may be directed by a "splitter" which can pro- generally operated well below full power. = 2 and N = 4, and then make a final decision as to the
portion the flow to provide varying amounts of flow to Mo = 2240 AGM
sin 9 (5) I n order to obtain a first approximation of the fin area number of fins. Next, combinations of nonarticulated
each side. Mechanically and electrically this is the sim- R
required, the following expression may be used: versus articulated and nq;stsetractabb versus retractable
plest, but least efficient, of the three types described. where I fins are investigated in order to establish the preferred
arrangement. Some of the considerations involved are
2.9 Active Fin Stabilizers Mg = roll-induced moment, ft-lb discussed below.
a. General. Active fin stabilizers are fin-type con- A = ship displacement, tons c. Location and Type of Units. The simplest ma-
trol surfaces which are usually located just above the where B is the ship's beam in feet and all other terms are chinery and most compact arrqgement are obtained
turn of the bilge near amidships, port and starboard. In GM = metacentric height (the distance between the as previously defined. Equation (8) can be derived by with nonretractable units. On the other hand, the small-
a seaway, the angle of attack of the fins is varied continu- ship's center of gravity, G, and the ship's combining equations (5), (6), and (7) with the tentative est fin area is obtained with high-aspect-ratio fins (e.g.,
ously by automatically controlled tilting gear so as to metacenter, M), f t assumptions that fins with an outreach of at least twice the fore-and-aft
MARINE ENGINEERING HULL MACHINERY 603
tially the control system measures the instantaneous heel coypling) ; or (2) accepting only limited roll angle
residual ship roll motion, assumes a simplified equation stabilization in order to reduce high-frequency roll angu-
of roll, and orders fin angles at the proper phase relation- lar acceleration.
ship to achieve fih lift and corrective righting moments. Most automatic fin controls are not designed to correct
Robb [26] provides an introduction to the theory, Lewis steady heel from ship's loading or wind, but rather to
[27] presents more advanced theory, and Bell [28], stabilize around the mean heeled angle. This is done to
Chadwick 1221, and Conolly [25] provide specialized de- conserve the limited fin stabilizing moments for correct-
sign procedures. Thus, one set of simplified control ing the oscillatory roll variations.
equations is given in reference [22] as: Another feature in many designs is the automatic
angle or fin lift-limiter. This is a consequence of having
Ship: 4 21,-4 4 = 7' - 7
- + + fins which develop full rated lift several knots below full-
W2 W
power ship speed. At the higher ship speeds, the lift and
Control: +
a = K14 K2 - K3 -
4 + 4 (10) torque, which are proportional to the ship's speed
W u2 squared, might be excessive and not really needed. Lift
is limited to safe values by a fin angle limiter which is
Fin: 7 = K,U2a (11) either in the fin lift control circuit, if such is installed, or
in the fin angle servo circuit, using as input the ship spied
where the symbols have the following physical signifi- deduced from the main propulsion shaft rpm.
Fig. 38 Nonretractable articulated fin unit, port side, looking forward
cance :
4 roll angle of ship
=
References
natural frequency of roll
w = 1 ('Cleaning and Protecting Integral Piping for Oil
length) that are located in the ship a t positions of maxi- tail flap 12 in.). Each unit has a total weight of 19,000 Ts = a damping ratio, involving GM,appendages, Hydraulic Power Transmission Equipment ," Military
mum beam and located at angles which slope downward lb. The hydraulic tilting gear has a capacity of 226,000 and hull form Standard MIL-STD-419.
going outboard such that the fins have maximum lever- in.-lb and is powered by a 20-hp motor. 7 = effective wave slope 2 John Flodin, "Hull Machinery" in Marine Engi-
age. The solution for the least fin area practically al-
ways involves fins projecting beyond the hull block di-
d. Fin Tilting Gear. The fin shafts of virtually all
successful installations are tilted by hydraulic power,
7' = 7 +2f , = ~ disturbing moment neering, vol. 11,edited by Herbert Lee Seward, SNAME,
7 = stabilizing moment of fins, expressed in 1944.
mensions, thus requiring retractability or a compromise which is well suited to the requirements for rapid reversal. terms of equivalent wave slope 3 Frank C. Messaros, "Steering Gear and Deck
design with low-aspect-ratio fins. Additional considera- The tilting gear is generally similar to an electrohydraulic U = ship speed Machinery" in Modern Marine Engineer's Manual, vol.
tions to be entertained when developingthe arrangements steering gear, such as described earlier in this chapter. Kl9K2,K3 = constants of the particular system 11,edited by Alan Osborne, Cornell Maritime Press, New
are: (1) in the rigged-out position, the fins should be a t Both Rapson-slide and vane-type rotary actuator instal- a = fin angle of attack York, 1943. -
least a few feet below the design heeled waterlines (so as lations are used; they are actuated by variable-delivery i- 4 A. M. Nickerson, ~ r . , ' a n dV. A. Olson, "Steering
to minimize cavitation), and not immediately upstream pumps whose flow direction is ordered by the amplified Usually a computer study is made to assure the desired Gears and Their Selection," Tram. SNAME, 1952.
of important sea chests (such as for main condensers); automatic control signal. Some of the significant dif- stabilizer performance throughout the spectrum of sea 5 Philip Mandel, "Ship Maneuvering and Control"
and (2) the fin tilting gear should be in a compartment ferences from steering gear practice are: (1) There is conditions. Some coefficients can be calculated; others in Principles of Naval Architecture, edited by John P.
suitable for routine maintenance (e.g., an auxiliary ma- usually only one power unit per fin shaft, since stabiliza- are estimated based on specific model tests or specialized Comstock, SNAME, 1967.
chinery space), and preferably not adjoining prime sleep- tion is not as critical a function as steering, and even if hydrodynamic literature, such as reference [27]. 6 Karl E. Schoenherr, "A Program for the Investi-
ing quarters. Clearly these contain built-in codicts, and one unit fails there is another on the other side of the In a computer study, the gains and sensitivities can be gation of the Rudder-Torque Problem," Marine Tech-
require judgement of the naval architect and marine ship; (2) Whereas steering gears are not required to per- varied to suit the particular installation. Almost all suc- nology, SNAME, July 1965.
engineer to reconcile. . form high-speed hard-over to hard-over rudder maneu-
vers for extended periods, the tilting gear may be heavily
cessful controls use the ship roll velocity as the principal 7 "Standard Specification for Cargo Ship Construc-
I n commercial practice, the compromises generally re- input, plus some roll angle. A case can be made for roll tion," Maritime Administration.
sult in one or two retractable, articulated fins per side. loaded for many hours of continuous operation, hence acceleration input and sway input in some applications. 8 "Steering Gears, Electro-Hydraulic, Marine,"
The retractable feature permits locating the fins in the requiring appropriate motor ratings and system coolers; Many of the servo designs order fin angle, and measure Military Specification MIL-S-17803.
ship at positions of maximum beam, where there is favor- (3) Where retractable fins are used, the stowing and the actual fin angle to get the closed-loop feedback. In 9 Rules for the ClassiJication and Construction of
able leverage. The articulated (doubly all-movable) fins rigging mechanisms, interlocks, and indicators have to be some designs, e.g., reference [24], fin lift is used rather Steel Vessels, American Bureau of Shipping, New York.
require about 30 percent less planform area than non- provided; (4) Fin angular rates are about ten times than fin angle. In typical shipboard designs 4 is mea- 10 R. M. Luke and F. P. West, Jr., "An Integrated
articulated fins and are therefore easier to retract. greater than rudder rates (in Appendix 111 of reference sured by a gyro or athwartship accelerometer device, B, is Steering System," New England Section, SNAME, 1960.
On destroyer escorts, the U. S. Navy has used nonre- [25], the minimum time for "hard-over to hard-over" fin measured by a rate gyro or by differentiating the roll 11 William H. Hunley, "Anchor, Mooring and Tow-
tractable units, some with articulated and some with angles is derived as 0.22 times the natural period of roll) ; angle, and 4 is measured by angular accelerometers. ing Arrangements; Steering" in Ship Design and Con-
nonarticulated fins. In this application, the hull form (5) the rapid reversal of fin angles requires added torque Some studies have been made of feedahead devices utiliz- struction, edited by A. M. DIArcangelo,SNAME, 1969.
sections are much more rounded than cargo ship hulls, to overcome the mass inertia of the mechanism (some ing pressure taps port ancl starboard to get wave slope 12 "Guide to the Design and Testing of Anchor
and also sonar domes extend several feet below the keel. allusions to this calculation are contained in Appendix B inputs. These devices have not been practical because Windlasses for Merchant C%ips," Technical and Research
Each fin axis is thus sloped well downward going out- of reference [21] and in the author's closure of reference the real seaway is not the simple wave shown in Fig. 36. Bulletin No. 3-15, SNAME, 1964.
board, and the fins do not protrude beyond the maximum [241). Instead, the wave form is the sum of very many waves of 13 "Dimensions of Wildcats," Navy Department
beam or the sonar dome navigational draft. In this type, e. Automatic Controls for Fin Stabilizers. Unlike varying height, period, and direction, as described in Drawing 52601-860304.
illustrated by Fig. 38, the tilting gear, fin, and hull insert the situation for rudders, human control of fin angles is reference [27]. 14 Catalog, Baldt Corporation, Chester, Pa.
plate can be readily furnished as one unit with a factory- ineffective. This is because the roll response of a ship in In most cases, the automatic controls are designed sim- 15 A. M. Nickerson, Jr., and C. H. Russell, "Anchor
sealed hydraulic system. The fin unit shown is installed a seaway is at such a high frequency that the fin angles ply to reduce the roll angle. Several variations, however, Handling and the Anchor Windlass," SNAME, New
with the fin sloped 55 deg downward going outboard, and must be varied continuously and rapidly. Automatic may be considered, such as: (1) stabilizing to the ap- England Section, 1957.
it has a span of 8 ft and chord of 4 f t (main body 36 in., controls have proved to be reliable and efficient. Essen- parent vertical (for improved passenger comfort in sway- 16 "Windlasses, Anchor, Electric-Hydraulic, Verti-
MARINE ENGINEERING 1
cal and Navy Type, Naval Shipboard," Militajr Speci- 23 A. J. Giddings and R. Wermter, ('A Survey of
fication MIL-W-19623. Ship Motion Stabilization," 5th Symposium on Naval
17 D. F. MacNaught, "Cargo Handling" in Ship
Dasigrl and Construction, edited by A. M. D'Arcangelo,
SNAME, 1969.
18 P. B. Harwood, Control of Electric Motors, John
Wlley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1952.
1g "Capstans and Gypsy Heads," Navy Department
Hydrodynamics, Office of Naval Research, ACR-112,
1964.
24 J. E. Flipse, "Stabilizer Performance on the
SS Mariposa and SS Monterey," Trans. SNAME,
1957.
25 J. E. Conolly, "Rolling and Its Stabilisation by
Burr I Electric Plants
Drawing 82601-860303. Active Fins," Quarterly Trans. Institution of Naval
20 S. Hawkins, "The Use of Maneuvering Propulsion Architects, London, vol. 111, no. 1, January 1969.
Devices," Robert Taggart, lnc., Report RT-8518, pre- 26 A. M. Robb, Theory of Naval Architecture, Jlon- Section 1
pared under contract MA-3293 for the Office of Research don, 1952.
and Development, Maritime Administration, January 21, 27 E. V. Lewis, "The Motion of Ships in Waves" in Introduction
1965. Principles of Naval Architecture, edited by John P. Com- 1.1 Nature and Scope of Electric Plants. A- complete To avoid prolonged shutdown at sea, adequate spare
21 Hector T. McVey, "Anti-Roll Fin Stabilizers," stock, SNAME, 1967. shipboard electric plant is similar to the electric power parts should be stowed aboard ship to replace vital parh
Philadelphia Section, SNAME, 1959. 28 J. Bell, "Ship Stabilization Controls and Com- generating, distribution, and utilization system of a which are subject to wear and breakdown. It follows
22 J. H. Chadwick, Jr., "On the Stabilization of putation," Trans. Institution of Naval Architects, Lon- self-contained shore-based industrial installation. Elec- that adequate detail drawings and manuals containing
Roll," Trans. SNAME, 1955. don, vol. 99, 1957. tric power is required for motors driving propulsion instructions for operation, repair, and adjustment also
plant auxiliaries and deck machinery, interior and should be placed aboard ship.
exterior illumination, navigation lights, ventilation and For greater dependability at sea, electric equipment
air conditioning, stores and cargo refrigeration, electric necessary for the operation of the vessel is required to
heating, galley equipment, drinking water and sanitary have certain marine features such as dependable opera-
systems, and casualty control machinery such as fire and tion during rolling and pitching of the vessel, mechanical
bilge pumps. Power must also be supplied for interior parts resistant to shipboard vibration, and windings and
communication systems, announcing and alarm systems, hardware resistant to moisture and corrosion.
radio communication, radar, and other electronic aids to A shipboard electric plant includes: generating equip-
navigation. ment; switchgear for control of the generators and
For passenger vessels, the electric power requirements distribution of power; and distribution panels, trans-
extend to hotel and recreation loads, theater and dance formers, motor generators, and bus transfer equipment
floor lighting, restaurant and swimming pool equipment, as necessary to provide the proper type of power to
motion picture projection, public address systems, and electrical loads.
stewards call systems. For passenger and prew safety, 1.2 Rules and Regulations. Merchant marine elec-
the electric installation includes automatic fire detecting trical installations must comply with a number of laws
and alarm systems, power-operated watertight doors, and promulgated by the United States Government. The
electrically released, spring-closed fire screen doors. following is a listing of such rules and regulations.
Electric power is vital to all shipboard operations and
to the safety and comfort of the passengers and crew. 1 United States Coast Guard, Code of Federal
For this reason, shipboard electric plants must contain Regulations, Title 46-Shipping.
equipment necessary to maintain continuity'of service, 2 United States Coast Guard-Rules of the Road,
since a vessel at sea is isolated from external sources of International-Inland.
electrical energy. Therefore, standby ship service 3 United States Department of Health, Education
generating capacity, usually equal to the rating of one of and Welfare-Standards of Sanitation and Rat-
the ship service generators, is provided. In addition, one proofing for the Construction of Vessels.
or more sources of emergency power, designed to auto- 4 Federal Communication Commission Rules and
matically assume load upon loss of ship service power, Regulations.
I
are required to supply those loads that are necessary for 11
It should be noted that the requirements of the d
the of the passengers and crew; the
Intemationd Conference of Safety of Life at seaof 1960
source of power should also have additional capacity
adequate to supply those loads vital to getting the are incorporated in item above.
pmpulsion plant and generators back in law, addition to the rules and reguhtions imposed by
compliance with other rulesfG usually required by
service. Quick-starting diesel generators are usually
provided for emergency power; however, storage batteries the specifications for building particular ships. The
most generally included in ship,s specifications am
or gas turbine driven generators are satisfactory for this
as follows:
- - storage batteries combined with
service. Emergency
I
d-c/a-c motor generator sets are required on passenger 1 American Bureau of Shipping Rules for Building
vessels to provide temporary emergency power to certain and Classing Steel Vessels, Lloyd's Register of
vital loads until the emergency generator can start and Shipping Rules and Regulations for the Con-
assume the entire emergency load. struction and Classing of Steel Vessels, or similar I
11
606 MARINE ENGINEERING
ELECTRIC PLANTS
classification society rules depending 'on which Larger capacity generators a t this voltage will not
society's rules are selected as a prerequisite for generally be used because of generator design limitations.
marine insurance coverage. As the demand for electric power aboard ships increases,
2 IEEE Standard No. 45-Recommended Practice particularly for nuclear propulsion plants and vessels Generating Plants
for Electric Installations on Shipboard, pub- with unusually large cargo handling power requirements, I
lished by the Institute of Electrical and Elec- generators having a capacity larger than 2500 kw will be 2.1 Load Analysis. To determine the correct aggre- generators selected providing maximum flexibility, re-
tronics Engineers. required. To provide this increased capacity, it is gate rating for a generating plant, it is necessary to liability, and continuity of service for the electrical dis-
3 Suez Canal Authority Rules of Navigation. feasible to install prime generating plants designed for establish the probable peak loads under the various tribution system.
4 Illuminating Engineering Society-Marine Light- 2400- or 4160-volt, 3-phase output. In this type of operating conditions of the ship. This is accomplished 2.4 Location and Installation. On most vessels the
ing. installation, large motors would be powered from the by the preparation of an "Electric Load Analysis," an ship service generators are located in the main engine
5 Marine-Type Electric Lighting Fixtures UL 595 high-voltage system with normal ship service loads of I example of which is shown in Table 1. room. This reduces the number of watch standers and
published by Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. 450 volts supplied from the high-voltage system through This analysis is a detailed tabulation of the total provides the most economical piping arrangement since
1.3 Alternating-Current Electric Plants. Alternating- transformers. connected load and the operating loads at sea, during piping for generator sets and associated auxiliaries and
current plants are the standard for most marine instal- 1.4 Direct-Current Electric Plants. Direckurrent maneuvering and a t port. Operating loads are deter- for propelling machinery are comporlent parts of the
lations. Selection of a-c plants as standard over d-c plants are economically feasible on relatively small mined by applying a service factor to the expected con- same piping systems. On large vessels with two or
plants -provides many significant advantages, e.g., vessels and on those intermediate-size vessels on which a nected load for each application for each operating more engine rooms, there is usually ope ship. service
savings realized in first cost, weight, and space require- preponderance of deck machinery requiring d-c wide condition. The service factor assigned to each applica- generating plant complete with auxiliaries and switch-
ments, reduction in maintenance effort, better avail- speed range motors and controls is installed. Direct- 1: tion is a combined load factor and diversity factor repre- board in each of the engine rooms.
ability of equipment, and increased reliability. Many current generating plants may be of either of the follow- senting the percent of its own possible maximum that is In general, ship service generators and associated
,
of these advantages are realized through the use of ing types: contributed to the load on the generator plant over a switchboards are normally arranged so that the generators
squirrel cage motors in lieu of d-c motors having com-
mutators and associated brush rigging.
120 volt, 2 wire %-hour period. Ocoasional loads such as fire pumps,
anchor windlass, capstan, and boat winches are assumed
are in view of the switchboard attendant and so that the
run of electric cables from each generator to the switch-
-"
1
I
240/120 volt, 3 wire I
to have a zero factor under all operating conditions. board is as short as possible.
A frequency of 60 cps is recognized as the standard for The 120-volt, 2-wire d-c generating plant with 115-
2.2 Aggregate Generating Capacity. The aggregate Emergency generator sets must be located ~ b o v ethe i
a-c plants.
Alternating-current plants may be any one of the
following types:
volt light and power distribution is suitable for small
vessels having few motor-driven auxiliaries. The gen- generating capacity, exclusive of any, emergency and
propulsion generating equipment, will always be greater
freeboard deck, aft of the collision bulkhead, and outside
the machinery casing to satisfy regulatory body require-
I,
erators are usually rated a t 75 kw or less. I
120 volt, 3 phase, 3 wire than the peak load determined by the load analysis. ments.
230 volt, 3 phase, 3 wire
The 240/120-volt, 3-wire d-c generating plant is the
most usual arrangement used on d-c vessels. This Ship generating plants must consist of at least two ship's All generating sets should be installed with the shaft 1
450 volt, 3 phase, 3 (or 4) wire arrangement provides for 230-volt, 2-wire distribution to service generating sets so rated that, with one set not fore-and-aft so that rolling of the vessel will not cause 1
The 120-volt, 3-phase, 3-wire a-c generating plant power loads and 230/115-volt, 3-wire distribution to in operation, the remaining set or sets can carry the undue loads on the bearings due to gyroscopic effects,or I1
with 115-volt, 3-phase light and power distribution is lighting panels. The neutral of this 3-wire dual voltage ., necessary sea load under normal operating conditions cause oil to spill from the bearing bousings. 11
suitable for only small vessels having few motor-driven system should be solidly grounded. Lighting fixtures, without exceeding the normal rating. The probability 2.5 Generator Set Characteristics. The consider-
auxiliaries. appliances, bracket fans, etc., supplied from lighting of installing additional electrical loads a t some future ations governing the choice of a d-c or a-c electric plant
li
The 230-volt, 3-phase, 3-wire acc generating plant time should also be considered when determining the and the selection of a distribution system and the I,
panels are connected between positive and neutral lines 1
with 220-volt, 3-phase power distribution and 115-volt, and neutral and negative lines in as nearly as practicable aggregate generating capacity. voltage a t which it is to operate are discussed in Section
3-phase lighting distribution through transformers is equal loads. 2.3 Number and Rating. After determination of 1. These basic features having bee^ determined and the
acceptable to the regulatory agencies. As an alternative, 1.5 Drawings. The following is a listing of the the peak load, the next step is the selection of the most number and rating of generating sets determined, the
a 120/20%volt, 3-phase, 4-wire system may be used for types of electrical system drawings usually prepared by desirable number and individual rating of the generating characteristics to be specified by the ship design engineers
both power and lighting on small ships without the the shipbuilder. For a detailed listing of plans required sets. The factors to be considered are: (a) the first cost, in the request for bids from manufacturers aye discussed B
necessity of using transformers. However, these plants for a specific ship, reference may be made to the detailed (b) operating cost, (c) size and weight, and (d) desir- in the following. 1
are seldom selected since there are no advantages to be ability of using generators of a standard size. The prime mover for ship service generators may be
obtained when' compared with the standard 450-volt,
3-phase, 3-wire plant.
specifications for building a similar ship.
1 One-line diagram for power distribution system.
2 Isometric wiring diagrams for power system
Figure 1 (for turbine-driven generators) and Fig. 2
(for diesel-driven generators) show the variation of
either a steam turbine, gas turbine, diesel engine, or a
combination thereof, Emergency generators are usually I I
II
The 450-volt, 3-phase, &wire a-c generating plant with feeders and mains. factors (a), (b), and (c) plotted against generator rating. diesel driven. A discussion of the different types of
440-volt, 3-phase power distribution and 115-volt, 3 Isometric wiring diagrams for lighting system No precise mathematical evaluation of the optimum turbines and engines may be found in Chapters 5, 6, and
3-phase lighting distribution through transformers is the feeders. number and rating of generator sets is possible; there- 7. The generating set is selected after an evaluation of
fore the final selection must be based on experience, bids has been made, taking into consideration the price,
standard for most marine installations. However, the
450-volt, 3-phase, 4-wire, a c generating plant provides
advantages and should be considered for' vessels having
extensive 208- or 220-volt container refrigeration
requirements.
4 Elementary and isometric w i h g diagrams for
interior communication and electronic systems.
5 Deck arrangement plans for power, lighting,
interior communication, and electronic systems.
consideration of data delineated by Figs. 1 and 2, and
available standard generator ratings.
For peak loads up to about 2200 kw, two generators
are usually provided, each capable of carrying the total
weight, dimensions, fuel consumption, reputation of
engine and generator builders, and the quantity of similar
sets already in service. Important factors in the
selection are simplicity, rdiability, and maintainability.
1 I
ators are usually installed with the total number of and complete with turbine, speed reduction gear,
610 MARINE ENGINEERING ELECTRIC PLANTS
3 9
0
I
, 8
C
I-
23 7
a
3 2 6
I- Y
z . 5 9 2.0. 5
3 w
k.40 240 4 Fig. 1 Approximate unit cost, weight,
Fig. 2 Approximate unit cost, weight,
P - ul and deck area required and steam rate
h.30 z 3 0 5 0
3 of geared-steam turbine generator sets and deck area required and fuel con-
sumption of diesel-driven generator sets
k.20 :20 2 2 200 300 400 500
W u l
5.10
3
z3 1 0 I R A T E D KILOWATT OUTPUT
2 0- 9- 0-
", -
0 NOTE: DATA IS B A S E D ON 1800 RPM, DIRECT- CONNECTED
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
R A T E D KILOWATT OUTPUT 450 VOLT, 3 P H A S E , 60 C Y C L E A.C. GENERATORS.
S E T S A R E SELF,- C O N T A I N E D W l T H B A T T E R Y START!NG
EQUIPMENT: C U R V E S A R E FOR S E T S W l T H 2 C Y C L E ENGINES..
FOLLOWING CHARACTERISTICS: 1200 R P M , 450 VOLT, 3 P H A S E , F U E L CONSUMPTION A N D P R I C E OF 4 CYCLE E N G I N E S W l L L BE
60 C Y C L E A C G E N E R A T O R ; S T E A M CONDITIONS 850 PSIG 950 APPROXIMATELY T H E SAME BUT W E I G H T A N D DECK A R E A
D E G R E E S F. T O T A L T E M P E R A T U R E . A N D 28.5 INCHES OF M E R C U R Y
W l L L BE S L I G H T L Y HIGHER. PRICE, WEIGHT, A N D DECK A R E A
'
O F LOWER S P E E D E N G I N E S W I L L B E A P P R E C I A B L Y H I G H E R
A N D FUEL CONSUMPTION W l L L BE SLIGHTLY H I G H E R .
generator, rotating exciter (if used), condenser, con- speed governor, which upon overspeed of not over 15
denser air ejector, gage board, and a self-contained percent will relieve oil pressure from the throttle trip seawater for cooling and are provided with zinc anodes exhaust from auxiliaries when the ship is a t anchor.
lubricating oil system consisting of a cooler, reservoir, valve to shut down the turbine. on the seawater side to minimize corrosion. The cooling- Due to the trend toward automated vessels, additional
strainer, attached pump, hand-operated pump, and 7 Steam sealing manifold for pressurizing the water pressure should be maintained lower than the oil monitoring and control devices such as those devices
electric motor driven pump (when specified), all sup- turbine shaft packing to prevent entrance of air into the pressure to avoid seawater contamination of the oil in necessary for remote start-up, operation, and shutdown
ported on a common base with provision for lowering turbine, also piping and valves for drainage of steam the event of a cooler tube failure. A hand-operated of the turbine-generator set may also be incorporated in
into place as a unit. For some units the shipbuilder leakage through the packing. lubricating oil pump is provided for use during start-up the design of the set.
may prefer to procure or build the condenser separately 8 Automatic atmospheric relief valve for exhausting and maintenance. Generally, the lubricating system b. Diesel Engine Prime Movers. Diesel engine
and combine it with the set a t the building yard. The to the atmosphere in case a high exhaust back pressure also includes an electric motor driven pump which is driven ship service generators should, like turbine
set should be complete with all attached piping and occurs in the turbine casing due to a condenser mal- started automatically by a pressure switch upon failure generator sets, be designed for continuous operation for
accessories supported in place and ready for connecting function. of the turbinedriven pump; this pump may also be used long periods of time, singly or in parallel. They are
to shipboard piping. Pipe connections should be either 9 Sentinel valve for sounding an alarm before the during start-up and shutdown operations. When spec- usually located in the engine room. Because of their
flanged, brazed, or welded. The design should preclude automatic atmospheric relief valve functions. ified, the lubricating gystem contains switches for low relatively slow normal speed, diesel-generator sets are
leakage of vapor, water, and oil to the outside and 10 High exhaust back pressure trip device which will oil pressure and high oil temperature alprms. The oil appreciably larger and heavier than turbine-generator
accumulation of liquid in pockets. The turbine should relieve oil pressure from the throttle trip valve to shut level in the reservoir is measured by a dipstick and a sets. Sets--rated rqt_ 150-kw and below are available a t
be complete with the following equipment. down the turbine. visible level indicator, when specified. S J X up ~ ~tcJ800 rpm. Above 150 kw, most sets are
1 Steam governing valve assembly. 11 Manually operated rotor-turning device for use Gageboards should include, as a minimum, pressure d e s i g n e n r either 900 or 1200 rpm. Also because of
3 Oil relay type constant-speed governor or electro- during maintenance. gages for the inlet steam, gland sealing steam, bearing the low speed, the generator is coupled directly to the
hydraulic load-sensing speed governor when small speed 12 Reduction gear, generally single reduction and oil, and oil pump and thermometers for oil to and from engine. The generator may be of the two-bearing type
variations and quick response are desired. single helical, with pinion and low-speed gear shafts the cooler. with the rotor flexibly coupled to the engine crankshaft
3 Speed adjusting (synchronizing) device with local supported by two bearings. The low-speed shaft is The gageboard and control devices such as speed or may have, a front bearing only with the rear shaft end
manual adjustment and electric motor or potentiometer generally flexibly coupled to the generatq shaft. adjustment knob, throttle trip valve handwheel, hand oil coupled rigidly to, and supported by, the diesel engine
for remote adjustment from the switchboard when 13 Steam supply strainer for protecting the turbine. pump handle, gland seal steam control valve, hand crankshaft. Generator bearings may be integral with
synchronizing generators. The strainer may be integral with the combined trip and shutdown trip lever (or button), tachometer, and valve the generator end brackets or supported separately by
4 Combined trip and throttle valve held open by throttle valve. for regulating the oil-cooler water should be located so pedestals. If a rotating exciter is used, the armature
lubricating oil pressure and automatically shutting off Marine turbine-generator sets are provided with a that one man can start, operate, and secure the set. will be overhung on the gen-tor front- haft extension.
steam to the turbine upon loss of oil pressure; also for self-contained lubricating oil system. A gear-driven oil A motor-driven condensate pump and a condenser Two- and four-cycle engines are available for marine
admitting steam gradually by hand when starting up a pump supplies oil to the turbine, reduction gear, and circulating water pump are generally provided for each electric plants. Four-cycle engines tend to be heavier
set. generator bearings, and also to the constant-speed turbine exhaust condenser. These pumps are normally and costlier but more efficient than two-cycle engines.
5 Interlock switch for energizing the generator governor, trip throttle valve, high exhaust back pressure provided by the shipbuilder but may be furnished with Most marine engines above 1000 hp are of the two-cycle
circuit-breaker tripping device, to disconnect the trip device, and overspeed governor. The pump takes the turbine generator. Pipe connections may be made type. Two-cycle engines are generally equipped with
generator from the switchboard in case the throttle,trips suction from the reservoir and discharges through a so that during emergencies the generator turbine exhaust attaclyxl positive-displacement blowers to supply scav-
closed. magnetic duplex-type strainer and a tube-type cooler. can flow to the main propulsion turbine condenser. The enging air to expel gases from the cylinder a t the end of
6 Overspeed governor independent of the constant- Oil coolers are generally designed to use 85 F (maximum) generator turbine condenser may be arranged to receive the exhaust stroke. I n addition, both two- and four-
612 MARINE ENGINEERING I ELECTRIC PLANTS 61 3
cycle engines may be equipped with turbochargers d. Electrical Characteristics. Except for small loads ment on the vessel and are usually diesel driven. The
pressure-operated device is provided to prevent inadver-
(driven by gears, exhaust-gas turbine,, or a combination tent attempts to initiate cranking after the engine has supplied from batteries, all direct-current loads are requirements outlined in the preceding paragraphs for
of both) to increase the engine capacity and provide started. These devices or a solenoid-perated valve supplied by a-c/d-c motor generator sets or by rectifiers. diesel engine prime movers apply equally to emergency
improved fuel economy. Most marine engines of 2000 Rotating field type a-c generators are used for ship sets, except as noted in the following. Each engine is
are used to automatically stop cranking after the engine
hp and over are turbocharged to reduce their size and has started. Also, means are provided to prevent un- service power. The generators are rated at 450 volts, equipped with a self-contained cooling system requiring
weight. It is important that provisions be made for 3 phase, 60 cycles. Stator windings may be either a radiator and fan. Tf ventilation ducts are installed to
intended starting during maintenance of the set; for
sufficient combustion air, either by running air ducts electrically started engines, a disconnect switch is pro- delta- or wye-connected but usually are the latter; only and from the engine radiitor, the radiator fan must
from the outside directly to the engine air intake, or by vided in the starting clcuit; for hydraulically and three main terminals are required per generator. The develop enough head to force the cooling air through the
means of the room ventilation system. Additional room pneumatically started engines, a cutoff valve is provided inherent voltage regulation of a-c generators is com- ducts. Motor7:;dperatedlouvers are generally installed
ventilating air also must be provided for removing engine in the associated piping system. paratively wide due to the high synchronous reactance in supply and exhaust duct terminals which are exposed
waste heat not removed by the lubricating oil and jacket of the windings. This is an advantage inasmuch as the to the weather. The vent motors are energized from the
7 Air intake filter-silencer.
water systems. The ductwork must be checked for 8 Oil relay type constant-speed governor or electro- synchronous reactance limits short-circuit current, but generator side of the generator circuit breaker to insure
pressure drop from the outside atmosphere to the engine; hydraulic load-sensing speed governor when small speed in order t o maintain the required voltage regulation an that the louvers are open when the diesel engine is in
usually not over 6 in. of water is allowable to obtain variations and quick response are desired. automatic voltage regulator must be used with each operation. Emergency generator units should be ar-
guaranteed engine performance. For the same reason 9 Speed adjusting (synchronizing) device designed machine and the degree of regulation depends on the ranged to shut down automatically upon loss of lubricat-
the exhaust-gas pipeline from the muffler to the atmos- for local manual adjustment and an electric motor or sensitivity of the regulator. ing oil pressure, dangerous overspeeding, or release of
phere should be sized to obtain a back pressure at the Generators may be dripproof protected or totally carbon dioxide in the emergency generator room. An
potentiometer for remote adjustment from the switch-
muffler outlet not exceeding about 16 in. of water. board when synchronizing generators. enclosed. If totally enclosed, the generator will be audible alarm device should be provided that will sound
The complete marine engine includes additional 10 Overspeed trip device which upon overspeed of equipped with a double-tube air cooler using seawater as in the event of low oil pressure or a high cooling-water
attached and unattached equipment as follows: not over 15 percent will close the fuel racks or combus- a cooling medium. Silicone insulation should not be temperature.
1 Fuel control system consisting of an engine-driven tion air supply to shut down the diesel. used for totally enclosed generators unless the slip rings Engines are generally arranged to start automatically
fuel pump, duplex filter, suction strainer, and injector 11 For ship service diesel generators, an interlock are located outside the generator enclosure; this is to upon failure of ship service power. If battery-started, a
control lever for manual starting, stopping, and emer- switch for actuating the generator circuit-breaker prevent abnormal brush wear and increased slip ring voltage-sensitive relay with contacts that close when
gency speed control. tripping device to disconnect the generator from the maintenance. If the design and arrangement of the the ship service power fails is used to energize the control
2 Lubricating oil system consisting of an engine switchboard when the engine is shut down due to over- generator are such that circulating currents may be circuit of the starting motor; if hydraulically started, a
driven oil pump, full-flow filter with by-pass relief valve, speed. expected in the rotor shaft, means (such as the use of loss of ship service power will de-energize a solenoid-
strainer with relief valve, and cooler with by-pass relief 12 Gageboard including, as a minimum,. pressure insulated bearings) should be provided to prevent operated valve to initiate the starting process. In
valve. When dry-sump engines are used, the lubricat- gages for the freshwater and seawater pump discharges, circulating currents from passing between the journals either case, means must be provided for automatically
ing system includes a scavenging pump with suction fuel oil and lubricating oil flter inlets and outlets, and the bearings, as the babbitted bearing surfaces may rendering the starting devices inoperative after the engine
strainer and by-pass relief valve. lubricating oil strainer inlet and outlet, scavenging air, otherwise be destroyed. has attained firing speed. Devices for manual starting
3 Piston cooling oil pump. starting air, and also thermometers for the fresh water Ship senrice generators that weigh more than 1000 lb, control are required with each type of starting equip-
4 Freshwater systems for diesel-generator sets larger and lubricating oil from the engine. excluding the shaft, and all emergency generators should ment for test purposes.
than 350 kw consisting of an expansion tank, engine- 13 Manual engine-turning gear for turning small be provided with electric space heaters to prevent Emergency generators are not required to operate in
driven water pump (some engines may have two pumps) engines or an air-motor type turning gear, with an inter- moisture condensation during shutdown. Generators parallel with the ship service generators, except where
cooler, and automatic water temperature regulator. lock, for turning large engines. rated a t 500 kva and above should be provided with closed transition transfer with proper synchronization
Smaller sets generally have a radiator and fan for cooling 14 I n addition to the aforementioned equipment, resistance-type temperature detectors embedded in the with ship service generators is desired (to prevent power
fresh water. turbocharged engines are equipped with a scavenging stator windings, The temperature indicating instru- outage when transferring power sources). An automatic
5 Exhaust system consisting of a dry, spark-arresting turbocharger and turbocharger air intake cooler. ment should be located conveniently, .preferably on the voltage regulator should be provided with each emer-
type muffler and watercooled or insulated exhaust Tubetype coolers are used for cooling the lubricating switchboard generator control panel. gency generator. The emergency generator should have
header. For 350-kw generator sets and larger, the oil and fresh water for diesel generators larger than 350 An excitation system is procured with each a-c the same voltage rating as the ship service generators
engine is usually equipped with an exhaust temperature kw. Seawater is used as the cooling medium in the generator. Two types of rotating exciters are the d-c and should be of sufficient capacity to permit "cold"
indicating system consisting of a a t of thermocouples, freshwater cooler and fresh water is used as the cooling exciter and the a-c brushless excitkr. Both of these starting of the ship's main power plant.
a selector switch, and galvanometer. One thermocouple medium in the lubricating oil cooler. For sets rated exciters are coupled to the generator shaft and are f. Special Generator Arrangements. A variable
is installed in the exhaust of each cylinder. The selector 350 kw or less, fresh water is generally cooled by a similar in outward appearance. In place of- the com- generator frequency is obtainable by using special
switch and galvanometer may be mounted on the gage- radiator and engine-driven fan. mutator on the d-c exciter, the a-c brushless exciter has control equipment. Variable-frequency generators may
board. If diesel generator sets are orderedior paralleling with a solid-state three-phase rectifier mounted on the be desirable where speed control of several large motors
6 Starting air system consisting of a starting motor existing generators or with new sets procured from generator shaft to provide the d-c excitation for the is required. Generally, it is more economical to use d-c
(two motors may be necessary to accelerate large engines) another manufacturer, the required speed regulations generator field. The a-c brushless exciter responds motors supplied by an a-c/d-c motor generator set for
or air distributor for sequential admission of air to the and electrical characteristics must be specified. faster than the d-c exciter. A third type of exciter in most variable-speed shipboard applications. Multiple
engine cylinders, strainer, and air control valve. A c. Gas Turbine Prime Movers. Gas turbine driven general use is the static excitation system. This system unit generator sets are available, eack consisting of two
solenoid-operated valve may be provided for remote generator sets are available for ship service or emergency eliminates the necessity of rotating components and has generators driven by one steam turbine. Diesel
engine starting from the switchboard. Starting air power and a limited number have been installed. Gas a faster response than either type of rotating exciter. generator sets consisting of one generator driven by two
systems are generally designed to operate a t pressures of turbines are smaller and Lighter than comparable steam: ,Selection of the exciter and voltage regulator should be diesel engines have been installed on some vessels. In
125 to 250 psi. Starting air tanks and the air compres- turbines or diesel engines. Since gas turbines operate a t coordinated to obtain the desired recovery time. The case one engine fails, it may be declutched and the gen-
sors are normally furnished by the shipbuilder. Diesel very high speeds, they are usually noisier than steam a-c. brushless exciter and the static excitation system erator can continue to deliver approximately one half of
generators rated at 500 kw or less generally use either an turbines. The starting time for gas turbines is normally have in general replaced the rotary amplifier type of its rated output.
electric or hydraulic starting system. Capacity for a t 30 to 40 sec, but it can be reduced below 10 sec when used exciter. g. Voltage Regulation. A direct-acting type of
least ten successive starts, beginning with a cold engine, for driving emergency generators. Batteries or com- e. Emergency Generators. Emergency generators voltage regulator employing a mechanical regulator
is provided with either method. Either a centrifugal or pressed air may be used for starting. provide a power source independent of any other equip- element may be used for controlling the field of d-c
614 MARINE ENGINEERING ELECTRIC PLANTS
rotating exciters or very small auxiliary generators. The current is obtained by making use of the potential usually restricted space on shipboard requires careful current power supplies 'are often provided for cargo
regulator element may be a torque motor, solenoid, or generated in the secondary of a current transformer, the study of the switchboard assembly drawings, hull winches, and other loads requiring precise speed control.
electro-dynamometer energized by the generator voltage primary of which is in series with one of the main leads. structural drawings, and machinery arrangement plans This power source will normally consist of motor
and restrained in motion by a spring. Rheostatic Each regulator, except for some emergency generator to ensure space for installation without interference frdm -
generator sets with individual control and distribution
elements are automatically operated field rheostats of applications, ingludes a transfer switch for cutting out girders, beams, stanchions, bulkhead stiffeners, and facilities separate and apart from the main switchboards.
which there are two types. One consists of a motor- automatic operation and provides for manual control major equipment. Switchboards, both' maia and emergency, usually
operated face plate rheostat controlled by means of of the generator voltage by means of a rheostat. The space in front and rear of switchboards should be contain a 3-phase, 120-volt, 60-cps distribution section,
contacts on the regulator element and the other consists h. Generator Terminals. The preferred run of unobstructed and adequate for operation and mainte energized via transformers, having suitable kva ratings,
of a resistor with numerous steps cut in and out by cables between the generator and switchboard is down- nance; minimum clearances are 36 in. in front and 30 to from the local en-volt, Bphase, 60-cps bus.
mechanical linkage with the regulator element. Both ward, under the generator platform, and up behind the 36 in. a t the rear (see regulatory rules for specific 3.4 Types bf Switchboards. 'There are two general,
types have antihunting or damping devices to prevent switchboard. The preferred location of the terminals is requirements). types of switchboards, dead-front and live-front. The
fluttering with small changes in load and overregulation therefore at the bottom of the generator, unless the Since the space behind switchboards should not be applicable rules require that dead-front type switch-
with large sudden changes in load. generator is of such small size that connections may he accessible to unauthorized personnel, an enclosure is boards be used for all a-c applications where the voltage
Either of two types of static voltage regulators may made inside a standard terminal box mounted on the usually provided which extends from the ends of the to ground or between poles is in excess of 55 volts and for
be used depending on the type of excitation system. side of the generator frame. All generator terminals switchboard to the ship's structure with doors arranged all d-c switchboards where the voltage to ground or
When a static excitation system is used, the voltage should be protected against accidental contact and for locking. When this arrangement is not feasible, between poles is in excess of 250 volts.
regulator senses the generator output voltage which is mechanical damage. If terminals are located on the top protective enclosures are mounted on the switchboard A dead-front design provides for all energized parts
rectified and applied to the control winding of a magnetic or side of the generator frame, they should be protected rear framework. to be enclosed within the switchboard structure, whereas
amplifier. The output of the amplifiers is impressed by a watertight enclosure with removable covers Switchboards should be located as close to their a livefront design permits surfacemounted fused lever
across the control winding of three saturablecurrent furnished by the manufacturer. Where cables enter a associated generators as is practicable so as to keep the switches, circuit breakers, and instruments. A dead-
potential transformers, one per phase. The outputs of terminal enclosure on the top or side of the generator length of cables to a minimum. front design offers advantages involving personnel
the transformer secondaries are rectified and impressed frame, the enclosure should be provided with terminal Space permitting, neither steam, water, nor oil lines safety and equipment protection, and is usually a
across the generator field. If an &c brushless exciter is tubes. For terminals located on the bottom of the should be located over or dose to the switchboards. specific requirement of ship specifications for all marine
used, the exciter field current is supplied by a static generator frame, the necessary protection, usually Under all conditions, pipe joints should be located away switchboards.
voltagr: regulator which senses generator output voltage. expanded metal, is furnished by the shipbuilder. from switchboards. On dead-front switchboards, open-frame circuit
An error voltage is impressed across a reactor which Additional terminals are required for exciter and Drip shields should be provided a t the top of all breakers, rheostats, and other heavy equipment requiring
becomes saturated, conducts, and fires a silicon-controlled imbedded temperature detectors and generator space switchboards to protect against dripping from pipes and front-of-board o~eration are mounted on suitable
rectifier to provide current to the exciter field. The heaters, if used. Any such miscellaneous terminals also against falling objects. Ventilation ducts should supports fasteneb to interior angles with only the
average exciter field current is determined by the point should be located and protected in a manner similar to not discharge air directly on the suritchboard. operating handles or knobs projecting through the front
a t which the rectifier fires during each positive half-cycle. the main terminals. All generator power connections Insulating mats or gratings should be provided on the hinged panel. Distribution circuit breakers are mounted
Provisions are made in static regulators to provide should be silver-plated. deck in front and rear of switchboards to insulate on suitable support plates fastened to interior angles
sufficient excitation that will result in fault currents The number, type, and size of terminal lugs to accom- personnel from ground and to prevent slipping. These with only the operating handles projecting through the
large enough to ensure selective tripping of overcurrent modate the conductors should be specified and should be mats or gratings should extend the entire length of the front panel. Instruments, indicating lights, and control
devices during short-circuit conditions when the gener- clearly marked by the generator manufacturer for switchboard and be of sufficient width to suit the operat- switches are semi-flush mounted on hinged front panels.
ator voltage is zero. identification. Particular care should be exercised when ing space. 3.5 Lighting of Switchboards. Switchboard illumi-
The regulators described in the foregoing are suitable terminals are brought out and marked to assure that the Nonconducting handrails attached to the front of nation may be provided by the compartment lighting
for use with generators operating in parallel, each phase rotation with respect to the terminal marking will switchboards are provided; usually these handrails are system. However, a preferred arrangement is the use of
generator requiring an individual regulator. For parallel be the same on all generators, including emergency horizontal. Nonconducting guardrails are also provided lighting fixtures mounted on and under the overhang of
operation, a compensating effect to reduce wattless generators. a t the rear of switchboards. the switchboard drip shield. The lights, of which there
The switchboard and its component parts as finally may be several, are connected in part to the emergency
installed must be capable of withstanding shipboard supply so as to provide adequate illumination upon loss
vibration without damage or faulty operation and should of normal supply.
Section 3 operate successfully when inclined a t an angle of 30 3.6 Arrangement of Switchboards. The usual prac-
deg in any direction from the vertical. Special con- tice is to provide a panel for the control of each generator
Switchboards and Panels sideration should be given to adequately supportingtthe and additional panels in number as required for circuit
% bus bars. breakers and switches controlling power distribution.
3.1 General. The following does not cover in detail The first step in the preparation of switchboard If required, switchboards may be braced to a bulkhead With switchboards of small and medium size, the
the design and construction of switchboards since these descriptive specifications is a thorough study of the or the deck over. However, overhead bracing should be generator panels may be a t one end of the switchboard
details are the responsibility of the switchboard manu- ship's requirements. The ship's requirements determine flexible to allow deflection of decks without causing the and all feeder panels to the right or left. For large
facturer. The procurement of marine switchboards the number, rating, and type of generators to be con- switchboard structure to buckle. switchboards, a considerabId9avings in'cost of the main
does, however, require that the shipbuilder preparefor trolled and usually impose specific requirements regard- 3.3 Rating and Characteristics. The rating and bus may be effected by locating the generator panels in
the guidance of the switchboard manufacturer-detailed ing the switchboards. A review of the requirements of characteristics of the ship service generator switchboards the center with feeder panels of approximately equal
descriptive specifications giving complete information on all applicable rules is also advisable. and emergency generator switchboards are usually fixed working load on each side. With this arrangement no
the required type and arrangement of the switchboard, 3.2 Special Requirements. The following features by the rating, type, and arrangement of the electric plant. part of the main bus carries more than approximately
the number, rating, and wire size of feeder circuits should be considered in connection with switchboards Three-phase, 450-volt, 60-cps generation and distribu- one half of the total working load.
including bus ties, and any limits to the height, length or for installation on shipboard. Switchboards should be tion systems are standard for both passenger and non- 3.7 Switchboard Applications. Switchboards are
depth of the switchboard imposed by its location in the located in dry areas and should be accessible from the passenger vessels. The quantity and kilowatt rating of normally used in the following shipboard applications:
vessel. An elementary diagram of the electrical dis- front and rear. Also, switchboards should be located as the generators are dependent upon the total connected a. Main Generator and Distribution Switchboard.
tribution system should also be given. far inboard from the ship's sides as practicable. The loads and demands of the electrical system. Direcb The main switchboard provides for the control, protec-
ELECTR1IC PLANTS :
61 6 MARINE ENGINEERING
BUS
tion, and paralleling of the local ship service generators to any generator. This may be common to all generators.
and control and protection of the ship service power (This is required for the local generator only on the
distribution system. emergency switchboard.)
Usually only one main switchboard is required on all 9 Space and mounting for generator field and exciter
but large passenger vessels and special-purpose vessels. rheostats.
For large and special applications two or more main 10 A switch and indicator light for the generator
switchboards, connected together through bus ties, may space heater supply.
be installed depending on the number and location of 11 A double-pole field switch with discharge clips
main generators. and resistor. For generators with variable-voltage
~ e a n sof connecting the main ship service bus to exciters or rotary-amplifier exciters, each controlled by a
shore power and also to the emergency switchboard are voltage regulator unit acting on the exciter field, and for
provided through a shore-power circuit breaker and a generators equipped with static excitation and regulating
bus tie circuit breaker respectively, each located on the systems, the field switch, the discharge resistor, and the
main switchboard. generator field rheostat may be omitted.
Normally main switchboards consist of a generator 12 A voltage regulator complete with accessories.
panel for each connected ship service generator, a shore 13 A switch for cutting out the voltage regulator. i I I
t t
power and bus tie panel, and distribution panels in size 14 A white light to indicate that the generator is I TOSHORE PWR TOEMER
TERMINALS SWITCHBOARD
and number as required. Figure 3 is a typical main running.
switchboard one-line diagram. 15 Adequate means for ground detection.
Figure 4 is a typical main switchboard generator 16 The necessary current and potential transformers. LEGEND
control panel one-line diagram. Each generator control 17 Current and potential test receptacles for use with
-- GEN.
0 -NORMAL SUPPLY CIRCUIT BREAKER
panel should include, but not be restricted to, the portable instruments (only on ship service switchboards). A NO. I CIRCUIT BREAKER
GEN. NO. 2 CIRCUIT BREAKER E -0ISTRIBUTION CIRCUIT BREAKER
C - SHORE PWR CIRCUIT BREAKER
F -LOCAL 4 5 0 / 1 2 0 VOLT XFMR ClRCUlT BREAKER
following : 18 One temperature indicator and selector switch, -
FU FUSE
PT- POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER.
1 A trip-free circuit breaker with separate overcurrent when the generators are rated a t 500 kva and above. .CT. - CURRENT TRANSFORMER
~
trips for each pole except that trips are not required for 19 A reverse-power relay for each generator, when Fig. 3 Typical main switchboard one-line diagram
the neutral of dual-voltage systems. The circuit two or more generators are to operate in parallel.
breaker should be arranged to open all three poles with a b. Emergency Switchboards. The emergency
predetermined load existing on any one or combination switchboard provides for the control and protection of
of poles. When two generators are installed, each the emergency generator and the emergency power,
r 450 VOLT, 3 PH, 60 CPS
generator breaker should have inverse-time overcurrent lighting, and interior communication systems. GENERATOR BUS
trips; for three or more generators arranged for parallel Usually only one emergency switchboard is installed; 1
operation, each generator breaker should have inverse- however, for safety reasons large passenger vessels may I
SYN LTS
time and instantaneous overcurrent trips. (Inverse have two emergency sources of power, thus requiring two TO 120 VOLT
time tripping means that the opening time of overcurrent emergency switchboards. Q Q 1 T C BUS
-
devices decreases as the magnitude of the current
increases.) For large generators the circuit breaker
Emergency switchboards normally consist of a gener-
ator control panel, a bus tie and distribution panel and
should be electrically operated to provide personnel 24-volt, 120-volt, and 450-volt distribution panels in SHUNT
TRIP
protection and for quick closing during paralleling. size and number as required.
2 An unfused disconnect device which will completely Emergency generator switchboards include those
disconnect the generator and its circuit breaker from the devices noted in the foregoing for main switchboard
bus. This device is not required when the generator generator control panels plus the following:
circuit breaker is of the drawout type. 1 A white light to indicate that the normal supply is
3 An ammeter, with a selector switch to read the available.
current of each phase. 2 A green light to indicate that all devices are
4 A voltmeter, with a selector switch to read each "set up" for automatic operatio& (This indication '
phase of the generator and one phase of the bus. Also, should be extended to the ship service switchboard to
one of the generator voltmeter switches should provide alert the operator when the emergency generator controls
for reading each ~ h a s eof the shore connection. are not properly positioned for automatic startup.)
5 A sGchro&ope and synchronizing lamps with a 3 A normal supply circuit breaker, unless the auto-
selector switch to provide for paralleling ship service matic bus transfer is of the contactor type.
generators including the emergency generator when 4 A feedback switch when the automatic bus transfer -------
closed transition transfer between the main and emer- is of the contactor type.
-
eencv" switchboards is desired. Except under emergency conditions, the emergency LEGEND
6 A control for prime mover speed for paralleling switchboard serves as an extension of the ship service
VR -VOLTAGE REGULATOR
generators and frequency adjustments. (The speed power distribution system with its main bus supplied AM -AMMETER FM -FREQUENCY METER
control may be located on the engine for emergency from the ship service main switchboard through a bus WM - WATTMETER -
SYN SYNCHROSCOPE
TM - TEMPERATURE METER
PT -POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER
CT -CURRENT TRANSFORMER
switchboards.) tie and an automatic bus transfer device. This bus
VM -VOLTMETER
A -GENERATORCKTBKR B -
GENERATOR CKT BKR GOV -GOVERNOR
7 An indicating wattmeter. FU -FUSE - -.
transfer device usually consists of two circuit breakers, .
8 A frequency meter with a selector switch to connect the emergency generator breaker, and the bus tie breaker, Fig. 4 Typical main switchboard generotor control panel --line diagram
MARINE ENGINEERING ELECTRIC PLANTS 619
450 VOLT, 3 PH, 6 0 CPS
EMERGENCY BUS
450/120 VOLT
I20 VOLT, 3 P H
6 0 CPS. BUS 24 VOLT DC BUS
I ?
INTLK
?
-
TWO BREAKER
TYPE ABT
4 5 0 VOLT, 3PH, 6OCPS
/ F!NAL EMER BUS
.- T
t
4 5 0 VOLT
POWER
?
'
I
?A
4 5 0 1 120 VOLT
TRANSFORMER
AC/DC MG OR CONVERTER
CONTINUOUSLY OPERtTlNG
I T
I
120 VOLT, 3 WlRE
FINAL EMER BUS
?
FINAL
EMER
LOADS
b
T I
t AUX
TO
GEN HTR
TRANSFORMER 1 TEMP EMER BUS
I
EM GEN CKT BKR I
AUX CONTACTS I
?VITAL AC I
9-' EMER
LTG
LOADS I
I
I I
LEGEND
A - QEN CIRCUI,T BREAKER C -LTG XFMR CIRCUIT BKR F -BATT CHARGER CKT BKR
CONTACTOR
TYPE ABT
B -NORMAL SUPPLY CIRCUIT BKR
C T -CURRENT TRANSFORMER
D - 4 5 0 VOLT DISTR CKT BKR G -2 4 VOLT DC DISTR CKT BKR LEGEND
E -120 VOLT DlSTR CKT BKR PT -POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER
WM- WATTMETER
-
F U -FUSE AM- AMMETER AUX SW8 ON AM -AMMETER -
FU FUSE ABT @ - AUTOMATICALLY TRANSFERS EMERGENCY LIGHTING TO
U V UNDERVOLTAGE TRIP FM -FREQUENCY METER
-
VM- VOLTMETER MN GEN BKRS
VM -VOLTMETER A -
GENERATOR CKT BKR BATTERY UPON LOSS OF NORMAL SUPPLY
VR + VOLTAGE REGULATOR HTR HEATER SW- SWITCH
/ F M -FREQUENCY METER B -
NORMAL SUPPLY ABT @ - AUTOLATICALLY TRANSFERS VITAL AC 6 0 CPS LOADS
WM -WATTMETER C -
450/120 VOLT XFMR CKT BKR TO MG UPON LOSS OF NORMAL SUPPLY
MG -MOTOR GENERATOR D -DISTRIBUTION CKT BKRS (AS REQ'DI ABT @ -AUTOMATICALLY TRANSFERS VITAL DC LOADS TO
P T -POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER E -MOTOR GENERATOR CKT BKR , BATTERY UPON LOSS OF NORMAL SUPPLY (MG SET)
C T -CURRENT TRANSFORMER F -
BATTERY CHARGER CKT BKR
i
NORMAL SUPPLY
ABT- AUTOMATIC BUS TRANSFER
Rg. 5 Typical cargo ship or tanker emergmcy switchboard me-line diagram SKETCH "A" Rg. 6 Typical passenger vessel emergency switchboard me-line diagram
upon failure of the normal power. This provides Selectivity is obtained through the coordination of
both of which are electrically interlocked so that only one When the normal supply is not available, it is often trip devices of the various breakers in the system. The
breaker can be in the closed position at a time. The instantaneous restoration of the emergency power supply,
desirable to feed emergency power back into the ship time bands, both long and short time, of the open-frame
bus transfer device is arranged to initiate an automatic either directly from the battery or by means of d-c/&c
service system. To satisfy this condition when using a type of breakers require special attention for coordin&
start of the emergency generator set upon failure of the circuit-breaker type transfer, provision is made to defeat conversion equipment supplied from the battery, to
those loads requiring an uninterrupted power source. tion, especially when the spread between breaker trip
normal power supply. When the emergency generator the electrical interlocking feature, thus allowing both ratings is very narrow. When fused breakers are
ig up to rated voltage, the bus transfer operates so as to circuit breakers to be in the closed position a t the same See Fig. 6 for a typical emergency switchboard one-line
diagram for passenger vessels. employed, very careful attention must be given to the
transfer the emergency bus from the normal supply to time. When using contactor-type transfers, a manually coordination of fuses with the breakers, and with other
the emergency generator. Upon restoration of the c. Load-Center Switchboards. Load-center switch-
operated feedback circuit breaker is provided to complete boards are essentially remotely loc&ted sections of the breakers in, the system. Complete information with
normal power supply, the emergency loads may be a circuit between the emergency g e n e ~ t oand
r the normal regard to generator maximum and sustained fault
manually transferred to the normal supply and the main switchboard distribution section. They are sup-
supply bus tie. When so arranged, electrical inter- plied from the main switchboard via a bus feeder and in current and system impedance must be available in
emergency generator manually stopped. Retransfer to locking should be provided to prevent inadvertent paral- order to develop a properly coordinated system. For a
the normal supply, and particularly shutdown of the turn supply power to local lighting and power loads.
leling of the emergency and ship service supplies. more detailed discussion of selective systems see Sub-
emergency generator, should be done only after the Load centers are centrally located regarding the loads
For a passenger vessel the emergency switchboard has supplied for reasons of convenience and economy section 6.7. ,%-
continued operation of the normal supply is reasonably two sets of buses, one designated 'final emergency" and 3.9 Circuit Protective Devices. Protective -devices
and are normally installed on only large passenger
assured. See Figs. 5 and 6 for typical emergency one designated "temporary emergency. " The "final vessels having considerable power requirements located such as oircuit breakers, fuses, reverse-power relays, and
switchboard one-line diagrams. emergency" buses (450 and 120 volt) are normally current-sensitive relays are installed on switchboards to
throughout the vesael. (Figure 18 is a one-line diagram
On some small-capacity installations, the bus transfer energized through a bus tie from the main switchboard provide protection against faults in the electrical
device is a contactor type in lieu of a circuit-breaker of a typical load-center application.)
as described previously. The "temporary emergency" 3.8 Selectivity. Selectivity provides for maximum distribution system. These devices are applied so as to
type principally because of cost considerations. Func- buses (120-volt Bwire, 120-volt 1-phase, and 120-volt isolate any fault with the least possible portion of the
tionally the operation of a contactor type is the same as continuity of service under fault conditions through the
d-c) are normally supplied from the "final emergency" selective operation of various protective devices, that is, system being interrupted; the arrangement should be
the conventional two-breaker type transfer; however, buses through associated transfer switches and are such that the generator circuit breaker is the last to open
the isolation of a fault with the least interruption of vital
the arrangement is different as noted in Fig. 5. automatically transferred to a storage battery supply senrices. under fault conditions. Each protective device (circuit
620 MARINE ENGINEERING ELECTRIC PLANTS
breaker) must have an interrupting rating adequate to are connected to a common bus or buses; tripping the for indication of a standing fault. Suitable means or within a common enclosure usually having a sloping
safely interrupt the maximum fault current obtainable breaker feeding the bus thus disconnects all loads should be provided for indicating an "out of service" desklike top. Typical examples are wheelhouse com-
at the point of application. commonly connected. condition and for simulation of a fault for testing each mand consoles and engineers' operating station consoles
Generator and bus tie breakers and breakers feeding In lieu of the foregoing, nonvital loads may be sequen- system. provided on vessels having automated propulsion plants.
combined loads in a selective system are of the open- tially tripped via a multiple-contact timing relay. The Alarm circuits should be designed for operation from *Typicalexamples of these types of consoles are given in
frame type and have long-time and short-time trips. contacts are arranged to close serially a t predetermined a 24-volt or a 120-volt supply unless the circuits are Chapter 21.
Instantaneous trips may be used in those cases where the intervals, and the closing of each contact trips one or simple, in which case a 6- or 12-volt supply should be On vessels having centralized control for propulsion
circuit breakers have a short-time rating below the more circuit breakers serving nonvital loads until the satisfactory. plants, it is desirable that' the h i p service generator
overload is reduced to an acceptable value. With the
interrupting rating, provided they do not defeat selec-
tivity. Breakers feeding individual loads in the system overload cleared, the relay contacts open and the timing I Each alarm panel should have a control power trans-
former, power supply fuses, power-available light, and
control be adjacent to or in the vicinity of the propulsion
plant controls. Unle~sthe eritire ship service switch-
should be of the molded-case or open-frame type with the relay resets. power supply control switch. In some instances remote board can be conve+6ntly located, the generator controls
only requirement being that the continuous and inter- The circuit breakers to be tripped must have either a power supplies are provided for specific systems, and, are grouped on a control unit apart from the switchboard
rupting ratings are adequate for the application. shunt or undervoltage trip device, undervoltage being when so arranged, power-available indicating lights so as to permit a choice of location. The control unit
When three or more generators are to operate in preferred because of its fail-safe characteristic. Current should be provided for each such system. may be a vertical type of the same design as if it were
parallel, the generator circuit breakers should have transformers of the proper rating are required for each c. Test Panels. A panel arranged to provide test part of the switchboard, or it may be of the console
instantaneous trips which are set a t a .value in excess of generator or bus tie circuit to be monitored, and a voltages at all values utilized on the vessel should be type. A generator console type of control unit permits
the maximum fault current obtainable from an individual current-sensitive relay is required for each breaker or installed in a convenient work area for the purpose of grouping the generator circuit breaker control switches
generator. group of breakers to be tripped. The relay may be testing electrical appliances and components. Normally, and instrument control switches on the console sloping
Fuse selection is based on system characteristics instantaneous or timedelayed so as to not initiate
(voltage and current) and speed response (standard or
time-delay) required a t the point of application. All
tripping on momentary overloads.
3.10 Types of Panels. The panels most commonly
I the *C power supplies (440 volt and 115 volt) to the
test panel are from the ship service systems and the d-c
supply is from a rectifier of the proper voltage and rating.
top. Instruments, indicator lights, and less frequently
used control switches are mounted on the vertical area
of the console. Rheostats and voltage regulator equip-
fuses should be of the nonrenewable cartridge type and installed aboard ship for the many specialized service Complete instructions for operating all test devices ment are usually located in the bottom section of the
capable of interrupting the available fault current. requirements are of the following types: should be mounted either on or adjacent to the test panel. console. A console type of design is preferred when
Reversepower relays are provided to prevent a a. Distribution Panels. Lighting and power system d. Special Consoles. A console arrangement pro- several generators are to be controlled from one location
generator from operating as a motor when paralleled distribution panels have the same'function as do load- vides for the grouping of selected navigation, communica- or when a large number of controls are required for
with another generator. This relay trips its associated center switchboards, i.e., supply power to local lighting tion, and/or propulsion plant indicators and controls on remote devices.
generator breaker when power flows from the line to the and power loads respectively. They are supplied from
generator in lieu of from the generator to the line. either the main switchboard, emergency switchboard, or
Usually the relay is set t o initiate generator breaker a load-center switchboard.
tripping within 10 sec when reverse power is approxi- Distribution panels are normally of a dripproof
mately 5 percent of the generator rating. construction and located in dry areas central to the loads Section 4
I t is sometimes necessary to employ current-sensitive
relays for tripping circuit breakers ,at a predetermined
current. This becomes of special importance when
they supply. Distribution panels should not be acces-
sible to unauthorized persons. They are surface
mounted except in passenger, crew, and public areas in
I Power Eq~~ipment
4.1 Genered Requirements for Motors and Controls. types of enclosures and methods of ventilating motors
arranging for selectivity between the emergen:y gener- which case they are flush-mounted in way of joiner work. General recommendations for the construction and most commonly used are as follows:
ator gnd main switchboard bus tie breaker during feed- Panels are fitted with multipole switches or circuit application of motors and control apparatus for marine 1 Open, self-ventilated-used only where an adequate
back operation. Under normal conditions (with the breakers having a pole and an overcurrent protective service are contained in the IEEE Standard No. 45. enclosure is provided by the housing of the driven
emergency switchboard energized from the main switch- device for each associated circuit conductor. In general, Certain specific requirements are also contained in the machine. This type of enclosure should have ventila-
board), the bus tie breaker is coordinated with the main 440-volt a-c panels are restricted to a maximum of 12 regulations of the classification societies and in the tion openings which permit passage of external cooling
generator breaker, and has a relatively high trip value. three-phase circuits, and 115-volt lighting panels are United States Coast Guard Code of Federal Regulations air over and around the motor windings.
During feedback operation it is necessary to trip the bus restricted to a maximum of 14 threephase circuits (42 -Title 4Mhipping, Parts 1 to 149. 2 Dripproof protected, self-ventilated-used for most
tie breaker should the combined load (both main and overcurrent devices). Motor and control equipment for marine service may applications in dry, sheltered locations. This enclosure
emergency) on the emergency generator approach a Lighting papels are normally arranged for a three- be classified into several standard types relative to is so constructed that drops of liquid or solid particles
value likely to exceed the emergency generator rating. phase supply and single-phase distribution; power mechanical and electrical characteristics. The proper falling on the motor at any angle not greater than 15
This is required so as to provide for continuity of panels are normglly arranged for a three-phase supply and application of motors and controls for shipboard deg from the vertical cannot enter the motor. The
emergency supply to emergency loads. three-phase distfibution. auxiliaries involves, therefore, the selection of those ventilating opefLings are riormally protected with wire
The tripping scheme would normally consist of current b. Alarm Panels. Alarm panels are commonly standard types having mechanical and electrical charac- screen, expanded metal, or perforated covers to prevent
transformers and current-sensitive relays properly co- provided for monitoring various criticaT checkpoints teristics that are most suitable for the location and na- personnel from contacting electrical parts. These
ordinated and arranged to monitor the emergency associated with the ship service genepators, emergency . ture of the driven auxiliary. covers also keep out rats and mice that might use the
generator total current and act on a shunt trip of the generator, generator prime movers, and vital propulsion The ratings and characteristics of electrical motors and equipment as nesting places.
main-emergency bus tie breaker. The trip circuit would plant auxiliaries and systems. Checkpoints may be controls fop a typical singlbscrew cargo liner are listed 3 Totally enclosed, fawcool&-generaly used for
be electrically interlocked so as not to be effective a t any monitored a t one common panel or separate panelstmay in Table 2.
be provided for specific systems. motors in spaces where lubricating or fuel oils are present;
time other than when operating under a feedback con-
they are also used for applications subject to splashing,
dition.
To avoid interrupting vital circuits as a result of over-
Alarm panels should incorporate audible and visible
indication of a system failure or "off-normal7' condition. I 4.2 Mechanical Characteristics of Motors
spraying, or hosedown. This type of enclosure prevents
a. Enclosure and Method of Ventilation. A wide the free exchange of air between the inside and outside
load tripping the generator circuit breakers, nonvital Provisions should be made for silencing the audible alarm variety of enclosures and methods of ventilation is' of the housing but is not sufficiently enclosed to be
loads may be arranged for automatic tripping when the with the visual indicator remaining "on" to indicate a available for motors in marine service. The specific termed airtight.
total load on any generator or bus tie circuit exceeds a standing fault. Common practice is to have a "flashing" types selected depend on the particular environmental
light indication for the initial fault and a "steady" light 4 Waterproof, nonventilated-used for practically all
predetermined value. Usually, the loads to be tripped
condition to which the motor will be subjected. The motors mounted on weather decks, or where heavy
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tight and must be enclosed in a watertight housing if it is
subject to weather conditions. The cooling fan should
applications should be given a special impregnation to
make the winqiigs resistant to salt water, salt air, oil
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% be constructed of nonsparking material and be protected fumes, and fungus. Metal parts are made of corrosion-
by a guard. resisting materials or are treated to render them corrosion-
6 Submersible, self-ventilated-used for those limited resistant. For example, small hardware is usually
and special applications that may require normal zinc-plated, and the shaft inside the frame, exposed
operation in air and emergency operation when sub- laminations, and brackets are usually treated to prevent
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merged. A positive means of providing the required corrosion. Small hardware for motors exposed to the
333333 3333 capability is the use of a bell type of enclosure. The weather is normally stainless steel.
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motor and pump combination is vertically mounted and e. Ambient Temperature. Motors for machinery
fY%flf I lllf covered with a close-fitting bell that is open a t the bottom.
The bell must be of sufficient depth so that the required
spaces are designed for an ambient temperature of 50 C,
normally using Class B insulation. Motors for use in
submergence will not force water onto the motor areas other than machinery spaces are designed for an
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or B insulation. Exceptions involve unusually hot
areas, such as a t the tops of boilers or adjacent to smoke
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assemblies may be used for pumping out cargo tanks of uptakes, and certain axial-flow exhaust fan applications
liquefied methane, propane, ammonia, and other for which the motors are rated for 65 C using Class F or
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unusual cargos, the primary restriction being that air
must be excluded from the cargo tanks at all times so as to
H insulation. The trend is to use Class F insulation for
both 40 C and 50 C spaces, to reduce the overall size of
N % ss ss s s $$@ $i zs %Zg$ ZZs 9% 5 prevent the possibility of an explosive mixture existing the motors.
within the tanks. f. Space Heaters. Motors.subject to wide variations
7 Dripproof protected encapsulated, self-ventilated- of temperature or excessive moisture conditions are often
used for those applications that may be subject to provided with space heaters to prevent moisture con-
temporary submergence, splashing, spraying, or hose- densation in the motor when idle. The heaters may be
down. Witb encapsulated motors the windings around resistance units bolted to the inside of the lower frame
the end coils and in the slots are completely encased in a or a phase winding energized through a low-voltage
protective insulating coating that permits exposure to transformer. I n either case, the heating circuit is
specified liquids, and the bearing cavities are made electrically interlocked so as to remove heater power
watertight. This type of enclosure is suitable for many whenever the motor is energized.
applications that heretofore have required total enclosure. g. Shafts. For flexible and rigidly coupled drives,
b. Terminal Boxes. All motors are normally fur- National Electric Manufacturers Association (NEMA)
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nished with terminal boxes having threaded pipe taps for
ship's cable entrance terminal tubes. Motor terminal
leads and ship's cable are mated by means of cable
standard short-shaft extensions are used. However,
in some instances shafts are provided with the end
tapered, threaded, and equipped with a nut and washer
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connectors within the terminal box. The degree of
enclosure required for terminal boxes is usually the same
as that provided for the motor. The desired location of
for ease in disassembly and reassembly.
Brake mqtors or motors using shoe brakes are provided
with front-end shaft extensions as required by the brake
terminal boxes and the number and size of tapped holes application. NEMA long-shaft extensions are provided
for cable entrance are normally specified by the ship- for pulley-driven auxiliaries. Special long shafts are
builder. provided for impellers of close-coupled pumps and axial-
c. Insulation. Insulating materials for use in motors flow fans. Carbon steel sha@ are normally provided for
are divided into categories according to their ability to coupled drives and for freshwater closecoupled pumps.
withstand high temperatures for long periods of time. Shafts made of corrosion-resistant materials (e.g.,
These categories are Class A, B, F, or H. Class A stainless steel or monel) and fitted with sle$*s are
insulation has the capability of operating a t a maximum generally required for pumps handling corrosive liquids.
temperature of 105 C; Class B is rated at 130 C; Class F h. Bearings. With few exceptions a-c and d-c
a t 155 C; and Class H a t 180 C. These temperatures in motors are equipped with greasable ball bearings; axial-
each case represent the insulation syqtem material flow ventilation fan motors are usually equipped with 1
capability and are the summation of the ambient prelubricated sealed ball bearings, since they are located
temperature, motor-winding temperature rise above in ductwork and not easily accessible. Sleeve bearings,
1 626 MARINE ENGINEERING ELECTRIC PLANTS
RESISTANCE 2-4
2EROEXTERNAL
or constant-speed applications. For adjustablespeed
applications, up to 50-percent speed reduction can be
obtained by inserting different values of resistance in the
/ PER CENT SLIP
AT FULL LOAD
H, :I: a H2 I
CR
(L) LOCAL
26 L(LA (R) REMOTE DESCRIPTION OF OPERATION
80 * M (
PS UNLOADER
SOLENOID TO START THE MOTOR MANUALLY, TURN THE SELECTOR SWITCH TO THE MAN POSITION. THIS
ESTABLISHES A CIRCUIT TO THE MAIN CONTACTOR M. THE MOTOR WlLL START AND CONTINUE TO RUN AS
LONG AS THE SELECTOR SWITCH IS IN THE MAN POSITION.
TOOPERATE THE MOTOR AUTOMATICALLY UNDER THE CONTROL OF THE PRESSURE SWITCH PS. TURN
THE SELECTOR-SWI~CHTO THE AUTO POSITYON.Y ~ PR&RE
E SWITCH W ~ L LKENE ESTABLISH A-~IREUIT
TO THE MAIN CONTACTOR M. THE MOTOR WlLL START AND CONTINUE TO RUN UNTIL THE PRESSURE SWITCH
CONTACTS OPEN. THE MOTOR WlLL THEN CYCLE OFF AND ON AS THE PRESSURE SWITCH CONTACTS OPEN
AND CLOSE.
ELECTOR IN "HA ": TO START. PRESS A START BUTTON ENERGIZING SELF MAINTAINING RELAY "cR': THE "CR" AVOLTAGE FAILURE WlLL CAUSE THE MAIN CONTACTOR M TO OPEN AND DISCONNECT THE MOTOR FROM
E o N T A c T s CLosEYNEasIzING MAIN CONTACTOR "M? THE * ~ ~ ~ c o r y CONNECT
A c n THE MOTOR ACROSS THE THE LINE. WHEN VOLTAGE IS RESTORED, M WILL RECLOSE AND START THE MOTOR (LOW VOLTAGE RELEASE).
LINE AND ENERGIZE.7HE UNLOADER SOLENOID. AN OVERLOAD WILL CAUSE THE OL CONTACTS TO OPEN, DEENERGIZING M AND STOPPING THE MOTOR.
TO STOP PRESS A STOP BUTTON REMOVING OCR" "M"AND THE MOTOR FROM THE LINE. TO RESTART. PRESS THE RESET BUTTON.
SELECTOR ~k AUTO^: PLACING THE SELECTOR s w ~ i c n
IN AUTO^ INSERTS A N.B. PRESSURE SWITCH, *PS*: IN Fig. 11 Typical elementary and wiring THE MOTOR MAY B E STOPPED AT ANY TIME BY TU8NING THE SELECTOR SWITCH TO THE STOP
...- --.. ...----,..
THC r n N T D n 1 I CD
d l a g r m for a potable water pump application POSITION.
TO START PRESS A START BUTTON ENERGIZING RELAY "CR". WHEN THE "PS~CONTACTSCLOSE, MAIN
CONTACTOR "M" IS ENERGIZED CONNECTING THE MOTOR ACROSS THE LINE. WHEN THE n ~ ~ w ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ , LINES
"Ma'IS DROPPED REMOVING THE MOTOR FROM TUC I INC Ra. 10 Tvdcal e l e m ~ t aand
~
TO STOP. PRESS A STOP BUTTON R E I REAR VIEW OF DOOR FRONT VIEW OF PANEL
I N AVOLTAGE FAILURE CONDITION, A L L
PRESS A START BUTTON AFTER RESTORATwn vr r v ~ ~ r r utc~. v n
vv~la
IN AN OVERLOAD CONDITION, THE 0.L.CONTACTS OPEN REMOVING THE ITO
RESTART, PRESS A RESET AND THEN A START BUTTON. (OVERLOAD PROTECTIOIY I.
LINES
FRONT VlEW OF PANEL
REAR VlEW
OF DOOR ,1-
tactor is actuated to by-pass the starting resistance and switch (nonautomatic control) or by an automatically
connect the motor to full voltage. Manually operated operated device such as a pressure-regulating switch
"dial" or "face plate" starting rheostats may be used for (automatic control). When the main contactor closes,
starting and speed regulation of nonreversing motors. the motor is connected to the power supply through the
They are used for light-starting auxiliaries such as starting resistances. The p n t r o l ciquitry contains
limited to those applications involving a maximum of reducing the motor starting current to prevent motor ventilation fans but should be limited to ratings below current-sensitive series relays and accelerating con-
2 hp subject to the driven machinery withstanding the damage and prevent overloading the generating plant. 2 hp. tactors so that as the motor comes up to speed, individual
resulting high starting torque and the motor handling The resistor type of controllers may be either manual or Practically all d-c controllers are of the magnetic, steps of the starting resistance are by-passed until all
the high inrush current. Good practice restricts this magnetic. Most controllers of the manual d-c resistor reflistor type. Magnetic controllers may be of either steps are out of the motor circuit and the motor is
type of starting to small galley appliances, small pumps, type are similar to acros9-line controllers except for the the nonautomatic or automatic type and consist of a connected across the line. Another method of control
and ventilation fans. addition of a starting resistor and an accelerating main contactor, control relays as required, one or more starting uses definite time accelerating contactors to
Controllers of the resistor type are used for most d-c contactor. The control circuitry is designed such that accelerating contactors, an overload relay, emergency close automatically and shunt out steps of the starting
motor control apylicatibns. They provide mean8 of as the motor comes up to speed the accelerating con- run feature, and starting resistance. The main con- resistance.
tactar is controlled by a manually operated master Speed adjustment for d-c motors may be obtained by
MARINE ENGINEERING ELECTRIC PLANTS 633
REDUCED-VOLTAGE AUTO TRANSFORMER LINES ELEMENTARY DIAGRAM
I START
DESCRIPTION OF OPERATION
IM
WOUND-ROTOR
INDUCTION MOTOR
IA a Z A ARE DELAYED
IN CLOSING BY A PRESET TIME
R
ICONTACTOR SEO.
the brakes are rated to stop the load under any operating
MOTOR
LINES ELEMENTARY DIAGRAM lead-acid or alkaline type. It is advisable that all (e) emergency lighting when an emergency diesel gen-
LI L2 L3 storage batteries provided on a given vessel be of the erator is not installed; (f) fire-screen doors and water-
IDS
IDS
IDS same type, to prevent the possibility of contaminating tight doors; (g) forklift trucks; (h) general alarm system;
any battery electrolyte through the inadvertent use of a and (i) certain interior communication loads.
common hydrometer. The regulatory bodies h a w published specific detailed
MOTOR requirements regarding the construction, rating (capac-
Principal applications for storage batteries are: (a)
OL
emergency power for radios; (b) no-break power supply, ity), ventilation, installation, and arrangement of
(c) diesel-generator cranking; (d) lifeboat engine starting; storage batteries.
i
OFF
-RUN
I 2 Section 5
DESCRIPTION OF OPERATION Lighting Fixtuns and Equipment
TO START THE MOTOR POSITION THE SELECTOR SWITCH &T"RUN". THIS ENERGIZES
CONTACTOR M CONNECTING THE MOTOR ACROSS THE LINE. TO STOP THE MOTOR POSITION 5.1 General. Marine fixtures and appliances must illumination is required in severe hot or cold tempera-
THE SELECTOR SWITCH AT"OFF~.
A VOLTAGE FAILURE WILLFAUSE M TO OPEN STOPPING THE MOTOR. WHEN VOLTAGE IS be of a special design and construction to suit the tures, i.e., refrigerated spaces, weather locations, detail
,
THE MOTOR. TO RESTART, PRESS THE RESET BUTTON.
shipboard vibration. Furthermore, enclosures must be ments, such as small locker rooms and indicator lights.
compatible with the particular environment in which The high-intensity electric-discharge lamps, in general,
Fig. 14 Typical motor m t r d cirwl they are located; also, they must be of a corrosion- are compact, with high brightness sources and have an
with law-valtage please feature resisting material or have an effective corrosion-resisting even higher luminous efficacy and a longer l i e than the
LINES finish. To prevent rapid deterioration of the finish, fluorescent. %lost of these lamps have an acceptable
decorative fixtures with polished or plated surfaces must color of light-----.__
W w o r k areas, such-aScZF6 KoIds,"aeEk -'
Li L21
REAR VIEW OF DOOR VIEW OF PAWL % _
be protected from the salt atmosphere by some form of fEGIh$tTng, and engine~ooni~;but-arenot consiaered--
L3f protective coating, such as lacquer. The possibility of ~ ~ e ~ T o ~ 5 E 5 a T l J m m m - ~ ~ M
radio interference from fluorescent or high-intensity color -rendition. .Their opertttion 'and maintenance
I T" T T electric-discharge lamps also requires consideration in ecGmYS-eGen more pronounced than for the fluore* .
the selection of light sources. cent. Their long lamp -life, ranmgto 24;MlU-%r and
4
All lighting fixtures, with few exceptions, are required 45i%t,er1 makes them an ideal lamp for fixtures mounted
to meet the standards of the Underwriters Laboratories, high on masts and kingposts and other locations not
Inc., publication UL595, Marine Type Electric Lighting easily accessible. The problem of relamping is reduced
I
Fixtures. Fixtures not covered by this standard must such that the maintenance for this type of fixture is
t have U.S. Coast Guard approval for each specific practically negligible. Of the high-intensity electric-
application and vessel. discharge lamps, the mercury-vapor is most acceptable
In developing the design of the lighting system, the for shipboard use. For certain applications, supple-
"Recommended Practice for Marine Lighting, " published mentary instantaneous lighting may be necessary since,
I
by the Illuminating Engineering Society, should be used in the event of power failure, instantaneous relighting is
for determining the minimum footcandle requirements. not accomplished by electric-discharge lamps. The use
RESET BUTTON
I
5.2 Types of Fixtures. Fixtures may be classified of some of these lamps is limited due to certain hazardous
PUSH TO RESET by the types of lamps used. Fluorescent, incandescent, characteristics (lamps containing sodium may cause a
u
MOTOR
and high-intensity electric-discharge lamps are the main
types of lamps used. Of the three, the fluorescent offers
fire when broken on a wet surface). Serious corrosion
condition8 may also result if the mercury from a ruptured
the most advantages and is replacing the incandescent mercury-vapor lamp comes into contact with aluminum.
for practically all general illumination requirements. Even with these limitations, however, the mercury-vapor
The kva ratings of transformers should be based 06 is supplied with power from an emergency battery and in The color rendition of fluorescent lamps has been steadily lamp is finding its rightful place on shipboard.
the connected load plus a reasonable allowance for turn provides a-c power to selected vital emergency loads improved in recent years and is now almost the equal of Lighting fixtures may glso be identified according to
installed spares and future development. Every effort until the emergency diesel-generator can start and the incandescent lamp in this respect. Their high their application; i.e., cedi% lights (located overhead in
should be made to balance the load between phases of assume all emergency loads; and (c) Providing power for luminous &cacy makes them much better suited for use ceiled spaces), deck fixtures (located overhead in
transformer banks. automatic elevators on passenger vessels. in air-conditioned spaces due to lower heat generation; unceiled spaces), bulkhead Mures, detail lights (desk,
4.10 Motor Generators. Motor generators are pro- 4.1 1 Reetiflers. Rectifiers are provided to supply and their longer life considerably reduces maintenance. berth, mirror, etc.), floodlights, navigational lights, and
vided to supply power to loads requiring special voltages loads requiring d-c power that is not available from the miscellaneous lighting fixture4 ---
I
' The incandescent lamp provides a compact, high-
and/or frequencies that differ from the ship's primary ship's primary power. Principal applications for recti- brightness source of light which can easily be directed by '%Sa*-faclr baiic types of fixture enclosures for
power. The principal applications for motor-generator fiers are: (a) Electronic equipment requiring d-c power; a small, simple luminaire. This feature makes the shipboard use: watertight, dripproof, explosion-proof
sets are: (a) Providing d-c power for cargo handling (b) Battery charging; and (c) Fire-screen doors. Specific and nonwatertighi--Waterti@itTiiiiipment is installd
equipment; (b) Providing a-c power for the "temporary incandeacent lamp superior for spot and detail illurnin*
details regarding requirements for rectifiers are contained tion. It operates readily on either &C or d-c supplies. b r d - ~ p t t . ~ e ~ Wwould
i ~ i tbe exposed to seas, splashing,
emergency" loads on passenger vessels; in this applic* in IEEE Standard No. 45.
tion, upon loss of normal power, the motor-generator set It is less sensitive to ambient temperatures than other or severe moisture conditions, and for all installations in
4.12 Batteries. Storage batteries are usually of a i light sources and, consequently, is preferred where the weather. Dripproof equipment is installed in the
MARINE ENGINEERING
ELECTRIC PLANTS 637
overhead in other wet or damp locations. Explosion- designer is responsible for the detail $esign of fixtures, as
proof equipment is installed in all areas that are subject concentrated over the workbenches, machines or other deck above, from shifting cargo caused by heavy seas,
desired by the decorator, in accordance with sound and from rough cargo handling.
to volatile gas accumulations; this equipment is so engineering principles and for their suitability for marine areas where close visual tasks are performed. The
constructed that an explosion of a specified vapor lighting fixtures should be so located that the work area To reduce theft losses, the fixtures in cargo holds and
installation with respect to rigidity, accessibility for
within the equipment will not cause the ignition of the is not shadowed by the workman. Incandescent machine other spaces accessible to casual laborers should be
servicing, ample ventilation, and adequate intensity of
volatile atmosphere surrounding it. Nonwatertight tool lights are also provided on lathes, drills, etc. Where protected by guards requiring special keys or wrenches
illumination.
equipment is used where moisture and volatile gases are fluorescent lighting is used in workshops having rotating for removal, and receptacfe caps should be of the
For illumination of the lounges, smoking room, dining
not problems. machinery, altkrnate fixtures should be connected to hinged type.
saloon, and similar spaces, including adjacent foyers and Watertight q u b l e receptacles, usually two at each
5.3 Passenger Stateroom Lighting. General illumi- passages, established practice favors simplicity with different phases to prevent a stroboscopic effect.
nation is provided for passenger staterooms by direct dependence on murals for decoration and with totally 5.10 MachinerySpace Lighting. The general illumi- hatch, are provided for the connection of portable lights
or indirect lighting supplemented by b m l i g h t s , indirect trough or cove lighting arranged to provide nation in machinery spaces is usually supplied by multi- for use in cargo holds and on the deck in the vicinity of
mirror lights, table lamps, desk lights, bracket lamps, etc., adequate general illumination and to accentuate the lamp fluorescent deck fixtures utilizing 20- or 40-watt cargo hatches.
to s G t 3 h e =gement %fTGmiture and decorative lamps controlled at the distribution panel. The location 5.1 2 Weather Deck and Caw0 Handling Lighting*
decorative features. If direct illumination is provided,
scheme. The trend is to the use of fluorescent coves, the detail design is determined by the fixture manu- and spacing is generally dictated by interferences with Fixtures for open decks are required to be of watertight
which may be combined with curtain valance lighting facturer's specialists in interior decoration, but all fixtures pipes, vents, and other obstructions. Fixtures should c o n s t ~ ~ t i o nOn
. Passenger promenade decks, they are
and incandescent down lights. must be checked carefully by the electrical designer for be mounted as high as practicable to give good coverage, U S U ~ ~ deck
~ Y fixtures ~ n s i s t i n g of a screwed type
A berth light, either separate or incorporated in a table compliance with marine practice. but they must be accessible for cleaning and replacement holophane or a frosted globe and a cast bronze body
lamp, is provided a t the head of each berth or bed. It Special fixtures& public spaces include desk lights, of lamps. Where necessary to avoid interference or without a guard- Else\vhere, they may be standard
should provide adequate light for reading but avoid table lamps, and floor lamps which are usually provided shadows, the fixtures are stooled down from the deck. guarded, watertight deck or b u l k h e a d - t ~ ~fixtures.
e
annoyance to occupants of other berths in the room. with built-in switches. The fixture supports must be designed to avoid vibration Exterior lights visible from ahead should be shielded.
Illumination for grooming at the dresser may be pro- Illuminated signs are provided on each deck a t passen- and must be rigidly braced. The general illumination is Lights on the navigating bridge deck and in other areas
vided by bracket lamps on each side of the mirror, table ger stairways and elevators for identification of public supplemented by&--)-fi$t guarded watertight fixtures which cause interference to navigation should be con-
lamps on each end of dressers, or by a mirror light spaces, and for guidance of passengers to the debarkation located as required by the arrangement of the space. trolled by switches located in the wheelhouse.
recessed in the ceiling. These lights should be located This supplementary illumination is particularly necessary Portable floodlights, with local control, are provided
decks in event of an emergency. Illuminated signs also
or arranged for best illumination of the person seated at are provided for all public toilets. When a toilet in the bilges and for gages, oil sight-flow glasses, and PO& and starboard to illuminate the gan&cwaYs. They
the dresser. similar fittings. should be mounted on brackets that are so constructed
entrance is located in an athwartship passage, an
I n bathrooms, general illumination is provided by one additional sign is installed at each end in the main fore Switchboard illumination must be designed carefully that they may be s w n g outboard and locked in place
or more ceiling fixtures, with one or more mirror lights to provide adequate light for the reading of instruments for overside lighting.
and-aft passages. -lighting of the oa'g0,-:handling gear and the
provided for each mirror. In small baths, where the Receptacles are provided, when desired, in floors or without reflection or glare. A continuous inverted
mirror light provides the required level of general a sumunding deck, watertight floodlights, usu"~ of
baseboards for lamps and vacuum cleaners. Depending trough with a line or lines of fluorescent lamps
illumination, the ceiling lights are omitted. frosted glass cover provides ideal illumination. 309- to 500-watt rating, are permanently mounted high
on conditions, floor receptacles may be of the shallow o ~ m ~ O r - E n g p o s t sThe . lights and particularly
A receptacle is provided at each dressing table and a t type with the box for the fitting and conduit for wiring Auxiliary machinery spaces, such as compartments for
each lavatory for the convenience of the passengers. the mounting supports must be of rugged design to suit
imbedded in the plastic floor covering, or they may be of the steering gear Or generally are lighted the exposed location. The lights are ordinarily not
5.4 Officers' and Crew Quarters. Ceiling fixtures the deep type with the box extending through the deck guarded waterti%ht incandescent fixtures'
in the messrooms, lounges, recreation rooms, offices, and adjustable and be set and secured in the position
for wiring below. fluorescent fixtures are used if the spaces are heated. which directs the beam to best advantage.
staterooms of the officersand crew usually are fluorescent 5.7 Commissary Space Lighting. Careful consider- Watertight receptacles, or combination switches and
with diffusing lenses. Berth, lavatory, table lamps, and 0, boat decks, lights are provided to facilitate the
ation should be given to the illumination required for the receptacles, are provided in main and a~xiliah'mach3inery loading and lowering of lifeboats. These should be
desk lights are provided to suit furniture arrangements. preparation and inspection of food. General illumination spaces for the attachment of portable lights and tools.
Receptacles are installed at the lavatories, desks, and wide-beam 500-watt incandescent watertight floodlights
for galleys, pantries, and service areas is provided by I n the efigine room, receptacles are spaced about 40 to located on the rail or on a vertical pipe stanchion between
also for bracket fans when required. overhead flush-mounted dripproof fluorescent fixtures. 50 f t apart, and in the smaller spaces at least one double
The toilet and shower spaces are illuminated by a each pair of adjacent boats. ~h~ mounting arrange-
Incandescent lights are installed under the exhaust hoods receptacle is installed. ment should permit turning the floodlight inboard for
ceiling light and a mirror light at the toilet case. I n small for the illumination of the ranges, griddles, etc. These
spaces where the mirror lights will provide the required 5.1 1 Cargo Hold Lighting. There are two concepts deck illumination or outboard and vertically downward
fixtures must be constructed to withstand the intense for cargo hold lighting. I n one the illumination is to light the water alongside. A quick-release clamp is
illumination, the ceiling lights are omitted. heat from the range tops. Refrigerated spaces are
5.5 Passage Lighting. I n ceiled passageways, fix- provided by portable "cargo clusters' only; each cluster pmvide&to secure the light in any position.
lighted by guarded watertight deck fixtures controlled consists of a fitting accommodating from one to eight For identification purposes, the owners usually require
tures are usually fluorescent of the cornice type with by a switch located within the space near the door. A
concealed wiring. In unceiled passages, a similar type incandescent lamps, installed in a plastic or steel bowl floodlights for illumination of the smokestack insignia on
fixture with a red globe, wired in parallel with the reflector, and protected by a wiremesh guard. Recep- each side. Vessels on regular passenger runs may have
of fixture located on the bulkhead below interferences refrigerated space lights, is installed outside the door to
and angled to illuminate the center of the passage should tacles for the attachment of these portable fixtures are the name boards lighted for identification and for the
show when the lights inside the compartment are "on". installed a t each cargo hatch. The second, and more convenience of the public&- .
be used. Passage lights are spaced from 7 to 9 f t apart 5.8 Hospital Lighting. General and detail illumi-
and a light iii-IoCded'at the-interie6tlrdn+ofathwar2ship prevalent, concept is to have permanently installed The trend is to the use of electric-discharge mercury-
nation for the hospital space is installed similar to a crew fixtures for general illumination supplemented by cargo vapor floodlights for all open-deck applications except
and fore-and-aft passages. Receptacles spaced about stateroom. For vessels having an operating room, a
40 f t are provided in passages for the attachment of clusters as discussed in the first concept. for lifeboat handling.
special operating light (or lights) is provided over the Where lighting fixtures are installed on the deck over 5.13 Navigational Space Lighting. When the ship
vacuum cleaners and floor polishers. operating table; and all electrical equipment installed less
5.6 Public Space Lighting. Architects and interior for general illumination, they should be installed between is underway at night, all lights provided for general
than five feet above the deck must be explosion-proof. the deck beams or adjacent to the deep beam surround- illumination in the wheelhouse and all exposed lights in
decorators generally design the passenger spaces, includ- The Coast Guard rules should be reviewed to determine
ing the selection of furniture and fittings. They also ing the hatches, where they are more readily protected the forward part of the vessel are extinguished for better
additional requirements as may be applicable to operating from damage. By providing the fixtureg with resilient vision of the navigating officers. Any illumination that
determine the general character of the lighting instal- room installatibns.
lation and the type of fixtures to be used. The electrical mounts, they are further protected from possible would be a detriment to navigation must be properly
5.9 Workshop Lighting. Illumination should be damage due to shock from heavy cargo dropped on the controlled. J
MARINE ENGINEERING
ELECTRIC PLANTS
In the wheelhouse, only lights built into the binnacle,directly ahead to 22.5 deg abaft the beam. These
telegraphs, and other necessary instruments remain lights are fitted with inboard screens projecting at least of failure of the primary light. One of the two methods Searchlights, as such, are not required by the regula-
lighted. The character and intensity of these lights 3 f t forward from the lights so as to prevent these lights used for complying with this requirement is the use of a tory rules and are installed only when requested by the
should be such as to permit reading the instrument from being seen across the bow. bi-filament lamp in a single-compartment fixture. The owners. When requested, u+ly an l&in. incandescent
without interference with outside vision. A shaded The masthead and range lights are identical and other method is the use of a two-compartment fixture searchlight is installed on the top of the wheelhouse with
light controlled by a switch is provided over the chro- screened so as to show forward through an arc of 225 deg; with a single-filament lamp in each compartment. The manual control of train and elevation from within the
nometer box t o illuminate the faces of the chronometers latter method is considered the most dependable and is wheelhouse. ~p"on-offn switch would be located near
that is, to 22.5 deg abaft the beam on either side. These the most commonly used. The signal lights (anchor,
when reading is necessary. lights are located usually one on the forward mast and the operating point.
I n the chart room there should be provided over the one on the after mast, in a line with and over the keel not-under-command, and towing) are singlecomparb Ships traversing the Suez Canal are required by the
chart table one or two bulkhead-mounted adjustable arm ment with a single-filament lamp. Each compartment Suez Canal Authority to have mounted over the bow a
so that the forward light (masthead) is a t least 15 f t
type fluorescent desk lights fitted with a switch and a red of single and two-compartment fixtures is fitted with a searchlight with a special diffused beam to illuminate the
lower than the after light (range) and visible at a distance
filter. The arrangement should be such that the lights No. 14 AWG &conductor flexible cable having a 3- banks of the Canal. Normally, this light is rented from
of at least 2 miles. The horizontal distance between the
can be moved in a horizontal plane over the entire table point plug for attachment to its respective lighting the Canal Authority and is energised from a special
two lights must be at least three times the vertical
for intense lighting of any portion. The log desk in the supply receptacle. These plugs and receptacles should receptacle located at the bow.
distance between the lights. For an on-coming vessel be of a unique design to preclude their use for other 5.17 Bmcket Fans. Bracket fans have become
wheelhouse should have a similar light. the alignment of masthead arid range lights shows the
5.14 Navigation and Signaling Lights. All vessels purposes. obsolescent in living areas due tq the extensive use of air
course, and the color of the visible side light indicates
must be equipped with running and signal lights in Vessels equipped with a steam whistle are usually conditioning; however, they are used in spaces not air
whether itwill pass to starboard or port. If both side provided with a whistle light to illuminate the steam conditioned mch as galleys, pantries, laundries, work-
compliance with applicable International and Inland lights are visible, the vessel is coming head-on.
Rules of the Road as enacted into law by the United released when operated. shops, and the wheelhouse.
The stern light is located on the centerline at the In addition to the foregoing, tank vessels are required
States Congress. The United States Coast Guard Bracket fans are either 12 in. or 16 in. and of the oscil-
ship's stern and is screened so as to show aft through an
publication "CG-169 Rules of the Road, International- to display a red warning light during transfer of bulk lating, 3-speed marine type. Mounting on thin partition
arc of 135 deg (67.5 deg to port and starboard of the
Inland" provides detailed requirements regarding these cargo; this light should be located above the wheelhouse bulkheads, where vibration may result in objectionable
centerline); it must be visible from a distance of at least
lights. All fixtures are watertight, substantially con- so as to be visible on all sides. noise, should be avoided. Receptacles are provided for
2 miles.
structed of corrosion-resisting material, and are fitted The exact location of running and signal lights and the each fan and are located so that the portable cable
The forward anchor light is located at the bow of the
with Fresnel lenses. provision of mounting arrangements, screens, and rig- length is minimal.
vessel and at least 20 ft above the hull; the after anchor
Navigation and signal lights fitted on ocean-going ging are generally the responsibility of the hull designer. 5.1 8 Wiring Appliances. The bodies of watertight
light is located near the stern at a height not l e ~ sthan
vessels are listed in Table 3. A typical arrangement of 5.15 Navigating and Signal Light Controls. A fixtures and the special mounting boxes of other fixtures
15 f t lower than the forward anchor light. Both lights navigating and signal light panel is installed in the
navigation and signal lights for a cargo vessel is shown in
are required to be visible all around the horizon at a are used for wiring connection boxes as far as circum-
Fig. 15. wheelhouse for control of all running and signal lights. stances permit. Additional branch boxes are provided
distance of at least 3 miles. The forward light is usually
The side lights are located port and starboard on the permanently mounted on top of the jack staff and the This panel combines an automatic or semiautomatic where necessary. For exposed wiring, they should be of
navigating bridge level so that each is visible at a after light on top of the ensign staff. telltale navigating light section for audible and visual watertight or nonwatertight type as required, and
distance of at least 2 miles on its respective side from The not-under-command light installation consists of alarm and' control of the masthead, range, side, and stern surface mounted. I n ceiled spaces, they may be flush
two lights located in a vertical line, one over the other, lights and a signal light section for control of the anchor, mounted with sheet metal covers if the decorative
not less than 6 f t apart and visible all around the not-under-command, and towing lights. The navigat- character of the space permits; otherwise, they should
horizon at a distance of at least 2 miles. These lights ing light section is arranged to indicate failure of each be installed behind removable panels for accessibility.
primary lamp or filament and is provided with a switch, Switches and receptacles in public spaces, and living
Table 3 Navigation and Signal Lights on Oceangoing Ships are normally portable but may be permanently installed. either automatic or manual, for transfer to the secondary areas in general, should be of standard commercial type
The towing light installation in accordance with
International Rules consists of two lights located in a lamp or filament. The signal light section is arranged in the smallest enclosure obtainable; the depth, in partic-
vertical line with the masthead light, one over the other, only for "on-off" operation of the individual light supply ular, is limited. Switch and receptacle plates are usually
not less than 6 f t apart and screened to show forward circuit. of a standard sise but may be a special narrow type to
Starboard side 112.5 green 5.16 Signaling Lights and Searchlights. A daylight fit on joint strips and door frames. They may be of
Port aide 112.5 red through an arc of 225 deg (22.5 deg abaft the beam on
JMasthead 225 clear either side). On tugboats and other vessels expected to signaling light is required on all ocean and coastwise brass or aluminum suitably finished, or plastic material.
Range 225 clear self-propelled vessels over 150 gross tons and on tankers The mounting boxes for switches should be of adequate
ustern 135 clear operate frequently with a tow, thege lights are installed
Forward anchor 360 clear permanently; otherwise they are portable. over 150 gross tons that are engaged on international size for wiring and are provided with arrangements for
After anchor 360 clear The running lights (masthead, range, stern, and side) voyages. It may be either a portable hand-held type, a clamping the entering cables. Specially designed
Wot under command 360 red permanently fixed and wired lZinch unit mounted on boxes to suit conditions may be required. In spaces
Towing 225 dear must be constructed so as to have a backup light in event
top of the wheelhouse, or a semi-fixed 12-inch unit with requiring watertight installation, the appliances should
arrangements for quick mounting and electrical connec- be-of the standard marine h t e a i h t tGe.
tions at either wing of the navigating bridge. The Where aluminum boxes are used, particularly in the
NAVIGATION SEARCHLIGHT
-STERN LT. 1=.---RANGE LT. MASTHEAD LT. portable unit may be complete with a self-contained
battery or energized from a special low-voltage receptacle.
weather, care should be taken in their mounting to
avoid the possibility of deterioration through electrolysis.
NOT-UNDER-COMMAND LTS.
-----
S I G N A L SEARCHLIGHTS (BRIDGE WINGS)-' L ~ LTS.-
l PORTa
~ ~ STBD.
I
Fig. 15 Typical arrangement of navigation and dgnal llghh f a a cargo vessel
640 MARINE ENGINEERING ELECrRlC PLANTS
3 0 . 4 5 0 / 1 2 0 VOLT
TRANSFORMER 1
t
LOADS AS
REQ'D
I I
1
I
LOADS AS
I
REQ'D
4 I
i
I I -- I I
I I I 1 INTERLOCK
I I I
I TO CARGO H O ~ D
LTG I
I
-
PANELS AS REQ'D
II
LIGHTING
AFT CARGO
LOADHOLDS
CENTER
--- -- - !
I 120 VOLT BUS
L, icLonos As R E Q Q ~ EMERGENCY SWITCHBOARD
j I 2 0 VL
!T EMERGENCY BUS
--
EMERGENCY SWITCHBOARD
4 5 0 VOLT EMERGENCY BUS
--
I
I
I
/ - r e
I
2s _-
1 I r
CIRCUITS TO INDIVIDUAL LOADS
AS REQ D
AND DI$TRIBuTIoN PANELS
I
I
SHORE POWER I
TERMINALS I
3 0 , 4 5 0 1 1 2 0 VOLT
-+-+-
I
LOADS AS
REQ'D
+ I
TRANSFORMER
1
I
L REQID
t
o A m
4
!
I
!
90
I ! ,---A
I
II
TO CARGO HOLD LTG
PANELS AS REQ'D
I
- - --- -
--
AS REQ'D
Fig. 17 Typical generator and bus tie diagran f a a dry cargo a containership
Rg. 16 Typical generalor and bur tie diagram f a tankers I
I
AFT LQhD CENTER SWBD AFT SHIP SERVICE SWITCHBOARD FWD LOAD CENTER SWBD MIDSHIP LOAD CENTER SWBO a crew stateroom and a passenger stateroom are shown box. The shore connection box should be suitably
Fig. 18 Typical wmratw and bur tie diagram for Q large panengar v-l
in Figs. 19 and 20 respectively. located for supplying power from shore to ship when
6.3 Power Dirhibvtion. Ship servicQpower system tied up at shore facilities.
644 MARINE ENGINEERING ELECTRIC PLANTS 645
100 percent of the rated primary and secondary currents. laundry equipment, galley equipment, and special
Steering gear feeder current capacities should be based refrigerated containers. .
on the total ratings of all equipment normally connected d. Special Features. Vent fans serving spaces that
to it that operate simultaneously. are subject to carbon dioxide flooding should be arranged
b. Location of Power Panels. For mchiinery spaces, to be deenergized when carbon dioxide is released into
BERTH LTS.
30 W EACH the ship service power panels, including those for venti- the space as the carbon dioxide will otherwise be spread
lation fans, are usually located on the main operating to other regions of the ship. The means for deenergizing
FAN level, so as to be readily accessible and central to the the fan motors is a 'presstireoperated switch in the
75W auxiliaries supplied. Panels supplying cargo handling carbon dioxide piping system. When the switch is
equipment and cargo hold ventilation panels are usually actuated, by relgase of the carbon dioxide, it may de-
located in cargo handling machinery deckhouses. The energize an uidervoltage trip device on the circuit
steering gear transfer panel is located in the steering breakers supplying the fans involved, thus tripping the
- room.
gear circuit breaker and stopping the fan motors, or actuation
Ventilation panels serving living and working spaces, of the switch mav cause the fan motor control circuit to
11 LEGEND and general service panels are located as near as practical be deenergized, thus stopping the fan motor. Also, a
0 RECEPTABLE X SWITCH to the loads supplied. Where the loads served are located similar emergency means of stopping fuel-oil service
OQ DOUBLE RECEPTABLE K SWITCH, 3 WAY in a single compartment, the panel should be in the same pumps, fuel-oil transfer pumps, and forced-draft blowers
space. should be provided if the machinery space in which they
Fig. 19 Typical lighting branch circuit for a crew stateroom are located is subject to carbon dioxide flooding. Stop-
Galley panels are located within the galley space or in
a passageway and adjacent to the galley entrance. ping these motor-driven auxiliaries would avoid the
c. Power Branch Circuits. Separate branch circuits possibility of fuel oil feeding the fire from a ruptured oil
should be provided for each motor having a full-load line, and reduce the probability of the forced-draft
current of 6 amps or more, and for each air heater blower discharging the carbon dioxide from the space.
regardless of rating. With these exceptions, several Circuit breakers supplying the fuel-oil service pump,
small loads, having a total rating not exceeding 7.5 fuel-oil transfer pump, and forced-draft blower motors
amps, may be grouped and supplied by a branch circuit should be provided with a means of remote control for
through a subdistribution panel; the circuit conductors deenergising each motor in case of a fire in the machinery
should not be smaller than No. 14 AWG and should be space. This means of remote coiitrol may consist of a
protected by a circuit breaker of not more than 15-amp normally closed switch which, when operated to the
rating or fuses or not more than 10-amp rating. Also, "stopJ' position, deenergizes an undervoltage trip device
groups of loads not exceeding 15 and 20 amps respec- on the circuit breaker, thus tri$ping the circuit breaker.
tively may be supplied by branch circuits as noted in the This arrangement may be such as to trip each breaker
foregoing, provided the circuit conductors are not smaller at one common t r i switch.
~ These switches are mounted
than No. 12 and No. 10 AWG, and the overcurrent in special locked enclosures having glass fronts which
protection is rated not over 15 and 20 amps respectively. must be broken to operate them. The switches are
Receptacle outlets should not be supplied from these required to be located outside the machinery space and
branch circuits. may be located adjacent to the emergency stop switches
provided for machinery space ventilation fans.
The current-carrying capacities of motor .branch The Coast Guard rules should be reviewed to deter-
circuits should be based on at least 125 percent of the mine the specific requirements, as may be applicable to
motor full load; the carrying capacities of all other each vessel, regarding the following: watertight door
branch circuits should b e based on a t least 100 percent system, fire-screen door system, lifeboat winches,
of the connected full load. All branch circuits should steering gear, air heaters, motion picture projection
O< -SWITCH, 3 WAY be wired with not less than No. 14 AWG conductors.
@ -RECEPTACLE rooms, hospital operating room, and locations where
8 -CONNECTION BOX Each branch circuit should be protected by a circuit gasoline or motor fuel is carried in vehicles. These
breaker, with thermal or magnetic trips, or by a fuse. requirements involve: types and location of equipments,
Since there are many different requirements applicable to special codes that must be complied with, cable size and
Fig. 20 Typical lighting branch circuit for a pauemger stateroom overcurrent protection for branch circuits, the regulatory overcurrent protection restrictions, and special features
rules should be reviewed for each specific application., for control circuits.
The magnetic instantaneous setting for motor branch For a discussion regarding the automation of the
circuits .should be a t a higher value than the starting machinery space, includins bridge control of the pro-
The minimum current-cawing capacity of power windlass, and capstans, refer to regulatory rules for current of the motor; for branch circuits supplying loads pulsion plant, see Chapter 51.
system feeders to individual motors should be based on specific requirements in determining cable current- through transformers, this setting should be higher than On many vessels, an impressed current cathodic
a t least 125 percent of the motor full-load current. carrying capacities. the inrush current of the transformer. protection system is provided to prevent corrosion of the
In general, for feeders supplying a group of motors, the The current capacity of galley panel feeders should be Power branch circuit loads that require other than rudder, propeller, and the submerged hull. The
feeder current capacity should be based on 125 percent based on 100 percent of the first 50 kw of load or one normal ship service voltages are supplied either by system supplies a low positive voltage to submerged
of the largest motor rating, plus the sum of the ratings of half of the total connected load (whichever is larger), individual transformers for each load, or by a bank of anodes from which current flows through the seawater
all other motors, plus 50 percent of the rating of the plus 65 percent of the remaining connected load, plus 50 transformers in the feeder circuit just ahead of the to the hull, the purpose being to suppress the normal
spare switches on the panel supplied. For feeders percent of the ratings of the spare switches. The cur- distribution panel. Typical loads of this type include flow of small currents between areas of a submerged
supplying cargo handling equipment, workshop tools, rent capacity of transformer feeders should be based on
646 MARINE ENGINEERING ELECTRIC PLANTS 647
hull so as to prevent corrosion. System components 11 Fire-screen door holding and release system. a diesel or gas turbine driven emergency generator with 6.5 Emergency Distribution System
usually include : 12 Supply to motor generator or other conversion capacity to supply continuously the full emergency load
equipment when a temporary source of a-c power is for 36 hr and a temporary source of emergency power a. Lighting. In general, the emergency lighting
1 Hull-mounted reference electrodes, in quantity as system forms a part of the ship servicelighting system and
required, to provide the degree of protection desired. necessary for essential communication systems, emer- consisting of a storage battery of sufficient capacity to
gency, or safety requirements. supply the "tem~orary"emergency load for not less than is energized at all times when the passengers or crew are
2 Hull-mounted anodes, in quantity and location as aboard. Separate emergency lighting feeders are pro-
required, to provide the desired protection. The entire emergency load, consisting of the following, hr. Arrangements must be provided for an auto-
is required to be supplied from the final source of matic transferof the full emergency load to a battery vided for machinery spaces, crew and passenger areas,
3 Controller, usually located on the operating level and lights controlled from the wheelhouse.
in the main machinery space, to select, monitor, and emergency power : supply upon loss of the normal supply, or an automatic
1 All loads energized from the temporary source. transfer of the U t e m ~ o r a load
~'l The machinery space feeder supplies only those emer-
provide the proper signals to the power supply units for the battery s uand
~ ~ ~ , lights loc,ted in the machinery space; this rupply
lgency
the desired protection. 2 Illumination for the safe operation of the lifeboat automatic starting of the emergency generator,
and life raft launching gear and the lifeboats and life transfer of the full emergency load to the emergency is through a didribution panel usually located above the
4 Power supply units, in quantity and location as operating l e e 1 and near the main entrance to the space.
necessary, to provide the necessary regulated d-c power rafts in process of and immediately after launching. generator upon loss of the normal supply, as applicable.
3 Charging panel of temporary emergency battery Usually the crew and passenger area feeders supply
to the anodes. 2 In than Ocean and coastwise service, for distribution panels suitably located for the control and
5 Propeller shaft grounding assembly to provide a and of starting battery for the diesel engine driving the vessels of 100 gross tons and Over, the source
emergency generator. distribution of the emergency fights throughout these
path of low electrical resistance from the propeller to should be a diesel or a gas turbine driven emergency areas. For passenger vessels subdivided into mnes by
the hull. 4 One bilge pump, one fire pump, and one sprinkler generator or a storage battery of sufficient capacity
pump, if required to be supplied from the emergency firescreen bulkheads, a t least one emergency feeder is
6.4 Emergency Lighting and Power. Some form of supply ~ontinuousl~ the full emergency load for 8 hr, or provided to supply the lighting in each zone between
emergency lighting ordinarily is provided for every source. twice the time of run, whichever is the smaller. Arrange-
5 Daylight signaling lights. adjacent fire-screen bulkheads.
vessel equipped with an electric lighting system. Excep- ments must be provided automatic transfer of the
6 Smoke detector system. A separate feeder, supplying a panel in the wheelhouse,
tions include, (a) small passenger vessels that operate load to battery upon loss of is provided for emergency lights located in or controlled
only between sunrise and sunset, and (b) small passenger I n addition to the aforementioned requirements, supply, or automatic shrting ofthe emergency generator
vessels that operate not more than ore regarding the loads supplied from the final source of from the Loads supplied from this pane]
and the transfer of the emergency load to the emergency include the navigation light panel, signaling lights,
having their source of general lighti of emergency power, the United States Coast Guard rules generator upon loss of normal supply, as applicable.
recommend that the following loads, if installed, be emergency lights on open decks, lifeboat lights, and chart
the propulsion plant and located above the bulkhead 3 In other than ocean and coastwise service, for room lights. The navigation light panel is generally
deck. supplied from the normal emergency source when the
capacity and character of the emergency source permits: vessels over 15 gross tons but less than 100 gross tons, the supplied by a through feed, without protection, from the
The temporary source of emergency power required emergency source should be a diesel or a gas turbine wheelhouse emergency panel; but, as an alternative, the
on large passenger vessels is of limited capacity and is Radio installation driven emergency generator of a storage battery of navigation light panel, signaling lights, and lifeboat
rated to supply only selected emergency loads, for a Radio direction finder sufficient capacity to supply continuously the full lights may be supplied by separate feeders from the
short time, while a large-capacity final emergency source Loran emergency load for 8 hr or twice the time of run, which- emergency switchboard. I n addition, on vessels that
is being started. J X e following loads are reqhired to be ,+A Radar plan position indicator ever is smaller. Arrangements must be provided for have two "islands" (e.g., those with midship and aft
energized from the tgmporary source when available: \g Gyrocompass either automatic (as just noted in a.2) or manual transfer houses), lighting for lifeboat-associated areas located
1 Navigation lights. Depth sounder of the emergency load to the emergency source. Manual remotely from the wheelhouse "island" may be con-
2 Adequate number of lights in the machinery space 9 Electric whistle and siren control transfer requires that only a single operation of an "on- trolled from a central location within the remote "island "
to permit the performance of essential operations and off" switch will cause the emergency system to supply in lieu of from the wheelhouse.
observations under emergency conditions and to facilitate The emergency source of power is required to have
sufficient capacity to supply only those loads that are its connected load. This "on-off" switch is located in Floodlights for adjacent lifeboats should be supplied
the restoration of service. the wheelhouse or as necessary to be under the control by different branch circuits.
3 Lighting for passageways, stairways, escape trunks, required to have an emergency supply; however, non-
emergency loads may be supplied from the emergency of the chief engineer. Emergency lighting fixtures usually are of the same
passenger quarters, crew quarters, public spaces, ma- type as the ship service lighting fixtures installed in the
chinery spaces, and work spaces adequate to permit the source provided there is adequate capacity to supply all b. and Se&?opeued
of the loads that may be connected simultaneously. and Tank Ships same spaces. I n public spaces where fixtures may
passengers and crew readily to find their way to open
The location of the emergency generating set and its contain more than one lamp, only the necessary number
decks and to lifeboat embarkation and assembly points 1 In all-waters service, for vessels of 1600 gross tons
characteristics are described in Subsections 2.4 and of lamps to give the required illumination are connected
with all watertight doors and fire-screen doors closed. and over the emergency source is the same as just given
4 Illuminated signs bearing the word "exit" in red 2.5, respectively. When the emergency power source to the emergency circuit.
is a battery, its location requirements are the same as in a.3 except that the emergency load is required to be For ready identification, all lighting fixtures on the
letters installed as required so that the direction of camed for 12 hr.
escape to the open deck is apparent (passenger vessels noted for the emergency generator. Batteries used for emergency system are identified by a metal tag stamped
only). the emergency power source should have characteristics 2 I n all-waters service, for vessels of 300 gross tons with the letter E (in red) a t least % in. in height. This
5 General illumination for safe operation of power- as specified in the rules of the regulatory bodies. The and over, but less than 1600 gross tons, the emergency tag is secured to the deck or paneling immediately
operated watertight doors. arrangement of the emergency switchboard, including source may be the same type as noted in a.3 or may be adjacent to the fixture and, for fixtures having lamps on
6 One or more lights in galleys, pantries, radio room, automatic transfer equipment, is discussed in Section relay-controlled battery-operated lanterns. The emer- both the ship service and emergency circuits, an addi-
steering gear room, emergency power room, chart room, 3.7b. gency source selected must have sufficient capacity to tional tag is secured to the emergency supply cable
wheelhouse, crew's mess, and recreation rooms. The requirements for emergency supply for various supply the full emergency load for 12 hr or twice the within the fixture mounting box.
7 Lighting for boat and embarkation decks and types of vessels are included in the United States Coast time of run, whichever is smaller. When battery- b. Power. Separate &ergency power feeders are
passenger assembly points for safe embarkation into Guard rules. The Coast Guard rules are revised operated lanterns are used for the aforementioned routed from the emergency switchboard to each power
lifeboats. periodically, but are typically as follows: emergency service, they are required to have rechargeable system load individually. Only a limited number of
8 Electric communication systems essential under a. Passenger Vessels Over 65 ft in Length batteries, incorporate an automitic battery charger that power system loads are required to have an emergency
temporary emergency conditions and which do not w i l l maintain the battery in a fully charged condition, supply and they are not centrally located with respect to
have an independent storage battery source of power. 1 I n ocean and coastwise service, the emergency and not be readily portable. Also, the minimum period each other.
9 Power-operated watertight door system. source should be a storage battery of sufficient capacity to of operation of these lanterns may be less than 12 hr but c. Communication and Alarm. It is general practice
10 Emergency loudspeaker system. supply continuously the full emergency load for 36 hr, or not less than 6 hr. to supply vital machinery space indicating, monitoring,
648 , MARINE ENGINEERING ELECTRIC PLANTS
Table 4 Correction Factor for Cable Calculations The percent voltage drop in 3-conductor, 3-phase -----LOAD
92.2' TO CALCULATED
circuits 52,600 CM and smaller is CENTER . 8 9 0 % DROP-- -
CABLE
AWG
No.
fl
1.00 0.95
POWER
0.90
FACTOR
OF LOAD
0.85 9.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 Voltage drop =
173 I R L
CMV
(2)
n 120 VOLT. 3 p H FEEDER t
-
2.17 AMPS
91'-0"TO LOAD CTRSELECTED BY INSPECTION
.878Yo DROP
m m
-
2 1.00 1.01 0.99 0.96 0.92 0.84 0.76 0.68 ~~AMPERES-
1 1 .OO 1.03 1.01 0.98 0.95 0.88 0.80 0.71
For 3-conduchr, %phase circuits 661400 CM and --- 2 14'-0"- ---- +
r nn 2.1 I % ALLOWABLE DROP -- 2.17AMPS
-" -"- - .-- -- -
1- 1
.#v
larger the percent voltage drop is
n 1 0.5 1.04 1.02 0 .gg 0.93 03 5 0.77
173 I R L CF
SIZE N0.2-AWG ( 6 6 , 4 0 0 CM)
.483%DROP .178% ".104%
-1-
.077% ' .G8%
Voltage drop = (3) k---FIVE 5 0 WATT 115 VOLT LAMPS--
CM V CALCULATED VOLTAGE DROP . 8 9 0 % ' F 0 ~ LONGEST BRANCH CKT-
NOTE: 4 4 9 7 CM CABLE USED IN<,LIEUOF 4 1 10 CM (NO.14 AWG)
In the foregoing equations: SWITCHBOARD OTHER BRANCH CIRCUITS-I0 ACTIVE AND 2 SPARE WITH
120 VOLT SECTION TOTAL LOAD OF 61.83 AMPS AT 115 VOLTS INCLUDING THE
I = current, amps SPARE CIRCUITS (SPARE CKTS ARE AN AVERAGE OF ACTIVE
LOADS)
R = resistance of conductor, ohms/CM-ft (for
copper, R is nominally 12) Fig. 21 Typical lighting branch circuit for passageways and cargo holds
L = single length of circuit, f t
and alarm loads from an emergency panel that is con- CM = Area in circular mils of each conductor or total
veniently located on the machinery space operating area of conductors in parallel
level. This panel is supplied directly by a feeder from V = Circuit voltage thermoplastic insulated cable, would be adequate if complete tabulation is usually identified as the "list of
the emergency switchboard. Other communication and CF = Correction factor determined by system power current-carrying capacity instead of voltage drop lighting feeders and mains. "
alarm loads are supplied individually from the emergency factor and cable constants (see Table 4) determined the cable size. b. Power Circuits. In contrast with lighting con-
switchboard. a. Lighting Circuits. Lighting circuit wire sizes are A shorter method of calculating the voltage drop in a ductors which are usually fixed by voltage drop, the size
d. Electronics. Electronic loads are usually ener- usually fixed by voltage drop; however, wire sizes of short branch circuit is based on the assumption that the entire of power conductors is almost invariably determined by
gized from an emergency panel, centrally located to these runs of feedersand mains, in combination, for such spaces I circuit load is concentrated at the "load center" and the carrying capacity. As an example, assume that a 240-
loads, that is supplied by a feeder from the emergency as engine and boiler rooms, may be determined by current- fact that the approximate location of this point usually volt d-c, ten-circuit power panel supplies a group of seven
switchboard. Electronic loads include radio, radio carrying capacities. can be determined by inspection of the circuit as drawn motors, one of which is rated 50 hp, three at 25 hp, two
telephone, radio direction finder, loran, and depth- The IEEE rules establish the maximum values of on the deck wiring plan. In fixing the exact load center, at 10 hp, and one at 5 hp. The three spare switches are
sounding equipment. Radar equipment is usually current that may be carried by each size and type of the load on each outlet as well as its location must be rated a t 100 amp, 70 amp, and 50 amp respectively.
supplied directly from the emergency switchboard, cable. In general, the voltage drop in any lighting considered; in other words, the load center is analogous The feeder length from the switchboard to the panel is
since this equipment often requires a power supply circuit should not exceed 3 percent from the distribution to the center of gravity of a series of weights of total 400 f t and the longest branch is 150 f t and supplies a
voltage different from the remaining electronic loads. sw,itchboard lighting bus to the most remote fixture. value equal to the load on the several outlets. 25-hp motor. The total motor current, including 125
e. General. The distribution panels used for emer- In calculating the voltage drop for large lighting cables, From an inspection of Fig. 21 it is evident that the percentvofthe largest motor full-load current, is approxi-
gency system distribution are of the same type as those the correctionfactor, CF, in equation (3) may be load center is near the third outlet, 91 f t from the panel. mately 596 amps and the allowance for the spare
for the ship service distribution system. considyed as 1.00, since lighting loads consist generally Substitution of this number for L and the total circuit switches is 110 amps; therefore the feeder rating should
Emergency system cables that are not required to of incandescent lamps or high power-factor fluorescent current (2.17 amps) for I in equation (1) shows a drop be 706 amps. This is greater than the capacity of the
terminate at equipment located within machinery lamps. However, if a significant portion of the load of 0.878 percent, which is within 0.012 percent of the largest conductor usually installed; therefore each leg of
spaces, uptakes, or casings should be routed to avoid calculated value. Detailed calculations prove that the the feeder could consist of two 400,000 circular-mil cables
is low power-factor fluorescenh-hmps, a correction
penetrating the boundaries of these spaces, and should load center is actually 92.2 ft from the panel and the in parallel. The rated current of the branch serving the
factor should be used as noted for power system circuits.
be kept clear of the decks and bulkheads forming these use of this value in equation (1) gives the precise drop. 25-hp motor is approximately 115 amps (125 percent of
Figure 21 shows a typical lighting branch circuit for
boundaries. Figure 19 shows a typical crew stateroom branch the motor rating) and the branch circuit could be No. 00
a passageway or cargo hold, with no subbranches and
Voltage drops in emergency circuits are calculated in with all outlets uniformly rated. It is assumed that this circuit. The total branch circuit load is 465 watts; AWG (133,000 circular mils) twin-conductor cable.
the same manner as for ship service circuits. For branch has the greatest drop of any supplied by the convenience receptacles are not included in the total load. From equation (1) the voltage drop in the feeder is
lighting circuits the voltage drop from the emergency feeder under consideration. The percent drop indicated All conductors are 4497 CM (Navy type cable). In (200) (706)(12)(400)
switchboard lighting bus to the most remote fixture for each section was calculated using equation (I), and calculating voltage drop, the ceiling fixture loads should Voltage drop = = 3.53 percent
should not exceed 3 percent. For all other circuits the (soo,ooo)(240)
the total percent drop for the entire branch was deter- be oonsidered as being at the respective switches. The
total voltage drop should not exceed 5 percent when mined to be 0.890 percent. exact method of calculation shows the maximum drop and the voltage drop in the branch circuit is
supplied from the main bus of the ship service switch- To determine the minimum s2e of the feeder con- to be 1.65 percent at 91.8 f t from the distribution panel:
board through the bus tie to the emergency switchboard. (200)(115) (12)(150)
ductors, the branch circuit percent drop is subtracted Assuming the load center to be at the second ceiling Voltage drop = = 1.29 percent
6.6 Determination of Wire Size for Lighting and from 3.00, and the remainder is substituted in equation fixture in the stateroom, the short method gives a drop (133,000)(240)
Power Circuits. Classification society rules establish the (2). For the feeder shown in Fig. 21 the minimum CM of 1.53 percent. The method of determining the size of
maximum voltage drop limits for various electrical is determined to be therefore the total drop ffum the switchboard is 4.82
the feeder and the total drop to the switchboard would percent. Lengths as great as those assumed in the
circuits. .In order to determine that these limits are met, be as described for Fig. 21. 4
foregoing are seldom, if ever, encountered on an ordinary
cable voltage drop calculations are made for each circuit Table 5 i$ a typical tabulation listing a lighting feeder ship; hence it is obvious that, as previously stated,
sup~lying:power to electrical loads. The voltage drop, and the branches it supplies; it Also notes all circuit conductor sizes are usually determined by carrying
inpe;ce&,-for a 2-conductor circuit (d-c or single-phase characteristics including calculated percent voltage
The next larger size is No. 2 AWG, with a sectional area capacity rather than by voltage drop.
a-c) can be computed as drops and selected cable sizes. This type of tabulation
of 66,400 circular mils, and would be the proper selection. Nearly all merchant ships with an %C electric plant
200 I R L From wire tables it may be noted that No. 8 AWG with is prepared for the entire lighting system, and includes utilize 450 volts as the generated voltage. The prob-
Voltage drop = every lighting feeder and branch circuit on the ship; the ability of conductor sizes being dictated by voltage
CM V a sectional area of 16,500 circular mils, for rubber or
I
Table 6 Typical List of Power System Feeders and Mains
SIQ
~ % Vom ?BOP
L C A B7
Feeder M ~ U L
-
Totd
circuit protective devices, a fault-current analysis of (260)(1.06) TWO 1250 KW, 4 5 0 V, 6 0 CPS GENERATORS
Short-circuit current = = 18,373 amps
the entire electrical generating and distribution system
should be made. I n calculating the total magnitude of
fault currents, it is necessary to determine not only
(0.015)
The average asymmetrical motor contribution to the
9 , Q
SHORE SUPPLY
A
MAIN SWBD I) '
the contribution of short-circuit current from the fault is equal to approximately 3.5 times the motor 24.700AMPS I
generators, but also the contribution from motors current, which is (3.5) (1800) or 6300 amps. Adding the
connected to the system. The contribution from motor contribution to the generator contribution gives I
ENGINE ROOM
induction motors decays very rapidly; however, the time a total short-circuit current available a t the switchboard VITAL AUXlLlARlESl
main bus of 24,673 amps. This value is the minimum POWER PANEL\ 1 I I I
of decay usually spans the time range of circuit breaker
I I
4 UlAJ
operation and should be considered. interrupting rating for the circuit protective devices 16,000
Cr(n\
,-
r' AMPERES
The fault-current analysis should be based on the installed on the generator switchboard.
total number of generators, including spare units, that Figure 23 shows maximum fault currents at different REFRIGFRATION
may be operated in parallel, the number of motors points of the distribution system used in the previous GROUP CONTROL , AMPERES
CENTER
example.
expected to be operating, and the reactance and resist-
ance of cables and transformers in the circuit in question. The fault-current analysis should be extended to LIGHTING BUS\ 1
The currents obtained are an average of the maximum include calculations of minimum fault currents for remote EMER SWBO
1 1,000
AMPERES
points of the system to determine that a sufficient
asymmetrical rms currents of the three phases at % 17,000 AMPERES
--
6'
current is availabwa mcure the proper tripping of each
cycle after the inception of the fault; these currents
_..-_---device. Under this condition, the smallest
protective I, I,
determine the interrupting rating required for the 30,450/120 V 1 150KW 4 5 0 "
protective devices. generator which can be connected to the system, with
negligible motor contribution, is used for the calculations.
TRANSFORMER \A ~OCP~,EMER
OlESE DRIVEN
The value of fault current may be calculated from the EMERGENCY LTG
-
GENERATOR
ex~ression Using the fault-current analysis as a basis for the BUS 5 , 0 0 0 AMPERES
selection of protective devices, a sequence of circuit-
Short-circuit current = EnK
- (4) breaker tripping can be determined that will isolate any Fig. 23 Fault currents at various points of o distrib~tionaystem
2, fault in the distribution system with a minimum inter-
where ruption of power to other services. In the event of a
Fig. 22 Ratio of average rms current in three phasos at one-half cycle to rms En = rated line-to-neutral voltage of generator (260 fault, the nearest protective device on the supply side To properly determine circuit breaker selectivity, a set
value of symmetrical current
volts for a 450-volt generator) of the fault.should open to isolate the faulted circuit; of time-current curves should be prepared. These
K = Asymmetry factor dependent on ratio of total other protective devices on the supply side of the fault curves should show the tripping characteristics for the
reactance to total resistance in cii-cuit (see should remain closed. All circuit breakers and fuses in various types of circuit breakers involved, and also the
drop with this voltage is much less than that with the Fig. 22) the distribution system should have an interrupting generator decrement curves. --
previously discussed 240-volt d-c system; however, in Zen = equivalent system impedance in ohms per phase rating equal to or greater than the available short- Regulatory body rules require that the long-time
order $0 prove compliance with classification society between point of fault and source of current circuit current a t its paint of application. Breakers setting of the generator circuit breaker should not exceed
rules, all distribution circuits should be checked for equipped with selective
..___ .--trip devices should have a3hort- 115percent of the full-load current of the generator. The
voltage drop. As an example, the following calculations are for a time fatlKggequal to or greater than the short-circuit short-time setting of the generator breaker should be set
Table 6 is a typical tabulation listing of a power feeder shipboard electric plant with two 1250-kw, 450-volt, current at 'iis"point of application. n to trip a t the lowest values of current and time which
and the mains it supplies. Table 6 also no$es circuit %-phasegenerators operating in parallel, and an induction The basic selective overcurrent tripping character- will coordinate with the trip settings of the distribution
characteristics including calculated percent voltage motor load of 1800 amps a t the time of a fault. A istics used on marine circuit breakers are long delay, system feeder breakers. Where three or more generators
drops, selected cable sizes, and the size and type of three-phase fault is assumed to occur on the generator ' short delay, and instantaneous. The long-delay element are arranged for parallel operation, each generator circuit
circuit breaker and element for each main and the feeder. switchboard main bus. System characteristics are: provides overload protection and operates in seconds or breaker should be provided with an instantaneous trip
This type of tabulation is prepared for each power gene~atorsubtransient reactance = 0.0285 ohms minutes a t low multiples of its coil rating; a breaker set a t a value in excess of the maximum asymmetrical
system circuit on the ship; the complete tabulation is generator armature resistance = 0.0087 ohms
having this type of overload protection should not be short-circuit current available from its associated
usually identified as the "power system ligt of feeders and generator cable reactance = 0.0002 ohms
applied above its continuous current rating to avoid generator. Using the curve of the generator breaker as a
mains. " generator cable resistance = 0.0003 ohms
exceeding its thermal capacity. The short-delay element base, curves of the other breakers are added to ensure that
6.7 Short-Circuit Analysis, and Selectivity and operates in a few cycles and provides protection against there is no overlapping of tripping characteristics, thus
Coordination of Circuit Protective Devices. The steady By combining the foregoing -values, the total resistance high values of fault curreht; this type of delay also establishing proper selectivity between circuit breakers.
growth in the use of electric power on merchant vessels, and total reactance of one generator and its cable to the allows the circuit breakers connected in series to operate. Selective circuit-breaker operation should be provided
** The instantaneous trip element introduces no intentional
with the resulting increase in the capacity of the generat- switchboard main bus are: between the generator, bus tie, bus feeder, and feeder
ing plant, has resulted in a considerable increase in the time delay and may be used to provide short-circuit protective devices. For vital services, selective tripping
resistance = 0.0090 ohms/phase protection to load circuits. should be extended to include feeder and branch circuits.
mag'njtude of possible short-circuit currents throughout reactance = 0.0287 ohms/phase
the electrical distribution system. To maintain con-
tinuity of electrical gervice, with the least possible For two generators operating in parallel, and including
interruption from fault currents, it is necessary to generator cables, the impedance is
provide adequately rated circuit protective devices-
properly coordinated with each other-throughout the +
Zen = d(0.0045)~ (0.0143)2 = 0.015 ohms
distribution system. These protective devices are The ratio of reactance to resistance is 3.18, and K, in
usually circuit breakers; however, fuses may be used for equation (4), as read from Fig. 22, is 1.06. Substituting
many applications. the values for K and Z,, in equation (4), gives the total
To determine the proper selection and application of generator contribution to the fault:
654 MARINE ENGINEERING ELECTRIC PLANTS 655
provide alarms when the engine room throttle valve is On most vessels, two independent electrical steering Section 8
operated in the wrong direction from the transmitted control systems are provided. These systems usually
order. consist of a common (dual) steering stand, located in the Electronic Navigation and Radio Communication
The power-failure alarm panel should be arranged to pilothouse, and two control units, one for each main
aut~matically sound an audible alarm and indicate steering unit, located in the steering gear room. Each 8.1 General. Electronic navigation and radio com- with the necessary components that are required for
visually when the ~ystempower source fails; also, a control system is arranged to transmit an electrical rudder munication systems are primarily used to ensure the complete operation and supervision of the radio com-
switch should be provided to silence the audible alarm. order signal from the steering stand to its associated safety of the ship and the ship's personnel. The exact plex, may be combined into a communication console
The transfer relay panel is arranged electrically, so control unit. The control units, operated by hydraulic suite of equipment installed is determined by legal designed for yse by one operator. This console is
that only one engine order transmitter instrument servo power, stroke their respective main hydraulic requirements and the design function of the vessel. The located in the<radioroom and is fitted with special means
may be connected electrically to the engine room steering unit which moves the rudder to the ordered posi- physical placement of the units and the installation of the of main andkmergency lighting separate from the radio
indicator instrument a t any one time. The reply tion. When the rudder reaches the ordered position the associated antennas are unique to each type of equip- room lighting. Normal lighting supply is from the
pointer of all transmitter instruments should operate electric order signal is nullified, through potentiometers ment, and must be designed to comply with the opera- normal power feeder to the console, and the emergency
in synchronism a t all times. or synchros located in the steering stand and the control tional requirements of each device. lighting supply is from the emergency radio battery.
Passenger vessels of 20,000 gross tons or over that are units, and the rudder is stopped at that position. The rules and regulations controlling the services, type The power supply for the main console is from the
equipped with an electric engine order telegraph system Three modes of electric steering control operation are of equipment, and installation requirements for the emergency switchboard to the power supply conversion
are required to have a standby engine order telegraph normally provided; automatic, hand-electric follow-up, minimum acceptable suite of navigation and radio equipment located within the console. The emergency
system, either electrical or mechanical. and non follow-up. Selection of the steering control communications equipments are issued by the U.S. power supply for the emergency transmitter, receiver,
The entire engine order telegraph system including all mode is made at the steering stand by means of a Coast Guard and the Federal Communications Com- and automatic keyer is from a storage battery located
component equipments is required to be watertight and selector switch. mission and, in the case of vessels engaged in inter- in a battery locker that should be adjacent to the radio
is subject .to compliance with U.S. Coast Guard re- In the automatic mode of operation, steering is con- national voyages, they must conform to the Inter- room; means should be provided to maintain this
quirements. trolled by the master compass, which senses any devia- national Safety of Life a t Sea (SOLAS) Convention. battery in a fully charged condition a t all times.
b. Whistle Operator System (Circuit W). The tion from the ordered course and feeds a course error Installation layouts must be approved by the U.S. Coast The automatic alarm receiver for monitoring the
whistle operator system may be used in the "at will" or signal into the system to move the rudder and bring the Guard for navigational equipment. The Federal Com- international distress frequency, 500 kHz, item 4 of the
"automatic" mode of operation and from various conning ship back to the ordered course. The ordered course is munications Commission also requires the use of foregoing, is provided to supplement manual monitoring
stations. Moving a control switch to the "at will" set up by turning the steering wheel to the desired course approved radio equipment and some navigational equip- when a radio operator is not on duty. This feature is
position closes the circuit to a solenoid which opens the position; no further adjustments are required until the ment. provided to satisfy the SOLAS and FCC requirements
whistle valve or closes a contactor. Moving a switch ordered course is changed. 8.2 Radio Communication. Radio communication that all ships a t sea must monitor continuously the
oq the whistle timer control panel located in the pilot- In the hand-electric follow-up mode of operation, the installations consist of receivers, transmitters, and internationally assigned distress frequency.
house to the "automatic" position energizes a coding steering wheel is turned manually to the desired rudder transceivers together with their associated terminals and The automatic alarm keyer, item 5, is primarily an
timer motor driving a mechanical cam that intermittently position. The rudder will stop a t that ordered position antenna systems; these equipments are selected on the emergency device that can be set up to key either the
closes the whistle solenoid circuit. The coding timer and remain so until the steering wheel is turned to basis of the requirements of the individual ship and in main or emergency transmitter with a redetermined
can be set for 1, I%, or 2 min periods as required by another desired rudder position. accordance with the requirements established by the automatic alarm signal sequence.
international navigational rules. Mechanical whistle In the non follow-up mode, the rudder is moved by Federal Communication Commission and the U.S. Some vessels are provided with facsimile recording
pulls are installed a t the navigating stations for emer- port or starboard manual operation of a non follow-up Coast Guard as a minimum. SOLAS Safety Radio- equipment, including antenna, for the purpose of
-
eencv- < use.
-
controller lever. This system is arranged so that the
rudder will stop moving when the lever ys released.
telegraphy or Safety Radiotelephony certificates attest-
ing to compliance with SOLAS requirements are required
reproducing weather maps and charts transmitted from
shore stations. This recording equipment is usually
c. Automated A number of IC circuits are The steering stand for dual control systems is provided located in the radio room.
on vessels engaged in international voyages.
included in the ship's automated control system; with a selector s ~ t c hfor selecting either the port or Communications are normally maintained by voice or The radiotelephone installation, item 3, provides
however, they will not be reviewed here as they are starboard control system; this switch should also be radiotelegraph; the more advanced communication medium-range voice communication service between
discussed in Chapter 21. arranged to start the main steering pump motor associ- ships and between ship and shore stations by using the
systems may include radioteletype and digital data
d. Steering Control System (LP). The U.S. Coast ated with the selected control svstem. Widelv se~arated facilities. 2-%MHz maritime service bands; it may also be used
-T.m"----
Guard rules require that a means be provided for con- control cable runs should be &stalled from ;he ;teering The radio installation for a typical vessel consists of to monlt5r international distress frequencies. This
trolling the main steering gear from the pilothouse and stand to the steering gear room; these port and starboard the following: installation usually consists of a transmitter-receiver
from an alternative steering station; this means of control control cables are connected to their associated hvdraulic
< - -
1 A main transmitter, receiver, antenna, and power unit complete with a local hand microphone and a
may be either mechanical, hydraulic, or electrical. The power control unit located in the steering gear room. supply. channel fielector switch for selecting pretuned operating
alternative steering station is required to be located on Each steering control system ira, supplied 115-volt, 2 An emergency transmitter, receiver, antenna, and frequency circuits, a power supply unit, a selective
the after weather deck unless duplicate pilothouse single-phase, a-c power from either its associated steering power supply, all of which must be separate from those ringer, and a remote telephone handset. Most equip-
controls are provided, in which case an alternative motor controller, or through a transformer fed from the required in item 1. ments are designed to transmit and receive alternately
steering station on the after weather deck is not required, steering gear power panel. Usually, when fed from the 3 A radiotelephone transmitter, receiver with selec- on a push-to-talk basis., ,The transmitter-receiver unit
and the steering gear room may be considered as the steering gear power panel, provisions are made for tive ringer, antenna, and power supply. and its power supply unit are sometimes mounted within
alternative steering station. transfer to either steering power feeder. 4 An automatic alarm receiver to monitor the 500- the main radio console or may be separately mounted,
kHz international radiotelegraph distress frequency. either in the chart room or in the radio room. The
5 An automatic alarm keying device to key the main selective ringer has a built-in signal bell and is arranged
and emergency transmitters with the international electrically to sound when another station is trying to
automatic alarm signal in case of an emergency. contact the vessel; this ringer is normally located in the
6 A complete and portable transceiver for use in a radio room or on the bridge. Where greater range is
lifeboat. required, radiotelephone equipment covering the 2-24
On most vessels, the aforementioned radiotelegraph MHz marine bands and employing the single sideband
equipment, excluding the antennas and item 6, along mode of transmission and reception may be fitted. This
660 MARINE ENGINEERING
ELECTRIC PLANTS 66 1
equipment provides- reliable radiotelephone communica- rotating a movable coil, within the receiver, with re-
tion over manv thousands of miles under normal atmos- spect to the fixed-loop antenna until a null position is
pheric conditions. realized in the signal received from the transmitting
For reliable short-range communication up to 50 station. This null position indicates the bearing a t
miles, VHF (very high frequency) transceivers are which the system is in electronic alignment with the
becoming increasingly popular. The units operate in transmitted wave front of the radio frequency trans-
the 156 MHz marine bands and employ the frequency mission from the transmitting statioh. The indicated
modulation mode of transmission and reception. Selec- bearing from the ship to two or more fixed stations is
tion ringing equipment is also available for this service. noted and the reciprocal lines are plotted on an appro-
A bridge-to-bridge channel (channel 13-156.56 MHz) is priate chart. The position of the vessel is indicated by
incorporated in the VHF transceiver and is used for the intersection of these lines.
s bridge-to-bridge communication between vessels for The sense antenna provides a means of preventing the
navigational purposes only. Channel 16 (156.8 MHz) is 180-deg ambiguity that could result in bearing readout
the allocated channel for distress, safety, and calling. if the received signal is not properly oriented.
Radio communication antennas may be of the vertical- The main radio transmitting antenna should be
standing whip type, or a wire type, depending on the grounded (inoperative) when the radio direction finding
system requirements and the shipboard configuration. system is in operation to prevent distorted signals from
Each antenna design and installation for compulsorily causing maloperation and to reduce error in the direction
fitted equipment is subject to Federal Communication finding system; this grounding is usually accomplished
Commission and U.S. Coast Guard approval. at the main radio console through a switching unit that
A portable radio unit, complete 4 t h hand-cranked disables the main antenna and also provides power to the Fig. 24 Typical liner of position
generator, is provided on each vessel for emergency use radio direction finding system. Also, special~onsider- from two pairs of Loran stations
in lifeboats. The entire unit is required to be packaged ations regarding guywires, stays, handrails, etc., must be
so that it is buoyant and of a minimum weight; it is taken into account and compensated for by proper
normallv stowed in the radio room in a s~ecialrack design during installation of the radio direction finder
designei for easy and quick removal. system.
8.3 Navigation. The navigational systems installed The accuracy of radio direction finder observations is
on a ship are determined by the ship's mission. The affected by fluctuations in the ionosphere and con-
capabilities of available systems range from position sequently vary in accordance with the time of day and
location, with an adcuracy of feet, to general position time of year. Daily distortion of the sky wave com-
information, accurate to plus or minus 5 miles. Ranges ponent of the radio transmission known as "night
of effectiveness vary from line-of-sight for certain effect" can cause considerable error in the plotted
station-keeping systems to a system that will allow a position.
properly equipped vessel to determine its position with The shipboard power supply for the radio direction
an accuracy of f mile anywhere on the surface of the finder is usually 115 volts, single phase, 60 cps, a-c and
earth. Ultraprecise and short-ranged systems are is taken from the main radio console power supply
normally used by dredges, well-drilling ships, survey through the switching unit noted in the foregoing.
ships, and are temporarily installed on large ships during 8.5 Radar. Radar systems aboard a ship normally
sea trials and performance tests. operate at wavelengths of 3.2 and 10 centimeters. They
The systems may use the principle of determining the consist of a transmitter-modulator, receiver, a rotatable
bearing angle of the navigating station to known points, directional antenna (scanner), required power supplies,
determining the distance of the navigating station to a master indicator, and remote indicators (when
known points, or a combination of both methods. Radar desired). The radar video presentation may take many
is also commonly used for navigating purposes when it forms. The most popular method is by the Plan
is necessary to know the location of the ship in-relation Position Indicator (PPI) which displays a map presenta-
to surrounding shorelines, buoys, and other ships. tion of an area 360 deg around t h e ~ h i p . The radius of quantities. Circuitry can be provided to give a true between two stations a t known geographic locations can
8.4 Radio Direction Finding. A radio direction find- this presentation can be varied by the operator from measure the difference in time of arrival of a radio
motion presentation on the P P I tube; that is, echoes of
ing system aboard a ship provides a means of establishing close ranges to the maximum capability of the radar. stationary objects remain stationary and echoes of frequency transmission from the two stations if their
the ship's position based on the location of two or more The maximum range capabilities of a radar system is a moving objects move. Normally, without this circuitry, transmissions are synchronized. A line connecting all
fixed transmitting stations. Radio direction finders are function of frequency and transmitter power, but is all objects on the PPI tube appear to move because of the the positions between 'khe two transmitting' stations
used for both navigation and for the safety of life a t sea primarily controlled by the line-of-sight characteristics ship's motion. where the same time difference, or delay, would be
involving search and rescue of ships or lifeboats in of microwave frequencies. Many large ships use two radar systems, one operating measured will describe a hyperbola, having the trans-
distress. A typical shipboard system could consist of a Radar is quite important to safety at sea. The video at 3.2 centimeters and the other at 10 centimeters mitters as focal points. A similar measurement between
radio receiver-indicator located on the ship's navigating presentation displays other ships, buoys, islands, and wavelength. one of the first two transmitting stations and a third
bridge or in the chart room, a fixed cross-loop antenna, other navigational hazards and shows their relationship '8.6 Hyperbolic Systems. A popular method' of station will describe a second hyperbolic line that will
and a sense antenna. to the navigating station. navigational positioning measures the difference in intersect the first hyperbolic line at the navigating station
The receiver-indicator is tuned to receive the specific Introducing compass information into the radar distance between the navigating station and two or more position, as shown in 1'ig:24. This method allows the
frequency signal of the selected transmitting station. system display will permit the observed bearings to be known fixed stations. A navigating station positioned installation of a network of stations and the preparation
The relative intensity of this received signal is reduced by measured as true north, magnetic- north, or relative
662 MARINE ENGINEERING
ELECTRIC PLANTS 663
of navigational charts with the hyperbolic calculations The Omega navigational system is a long-range
identified. The navigating station takes two or more llyperbolic navigation system that uses synchronized sound energy into electrical oscillations during the station. The resulting quantity, which is the rate of
measurements and projects its position from the appro- signals from two or more radio transmitters that may be receive cycle. The control unit contains the circuitry change of slant range, is used to compute position. By
priate intersections on the chart. spaced several thousand miles apart. Omega stations that produces, times, and controls the various signals taking several observations from successive satellites,
Loran A was one of the first operational hyperbolic transmit on low radio frequencies from 10 to 14 kHz; necessary for system operation; this unit is usuaIly accuracies to a few hundred yards are possible.
systems and operates in the 1.5 to 2 MHz radio frequency use of these low frequencies results in transmission of located in the chartroom. The indicator visually A shipboard installation for the Transit system con-
spectrum. The transmitting stations are operated in signals that are very stable, accurate, and predictable. displays the depth of the water, and is usually located in sists of an omnidirectional dual-frequency antenna, a
pairs with one the master station and the other the slave Precalculated line-of-position (hyperbolic) charts are the wheelhouse. The recorder produces a permanent receiver/computer console, and a precise frequency
station. The master statioii transmits a pulse 6f R1' used to plot the navigating station position, based on record of the sea depth on a calibrated chart and should standard. Concepts for navigational satellites suitable
energy; the slave station receives this signal and after a measuring the particular signals received from pairs of be located in the chart room above the chart table. for commercia.1,. use are being developed: these are
programmed time delay transmits a pulse of Rl? energy. stations, somewhat similar to the Loran system, except Some vessels are equipped with an alarm device, directed toward reducing the complexity of the ship-
The navigating station measures the lapse of time that all stations are synchronized from a common time located in the chart room, that sounds \\-hen a p r e board installation by removing the requirement for
between receiving tlle master station signal and the slave source and share transmitting time with the other determined shallo\v depth occurs. passive navigational stations. Using interrogating trans-
station signal; the navigating station then measures the stations. Each station transmits for a specific duration Echo sounding systems are also used for measurement missions from the navigating station and a shore-based
lapse of time bettveen receiving signals from a different of time (approximately one second) and all stations of ground track by using t~vo,four, or more directional computing station, several methods are being considered
pair (master and slave) of Loran stations. Each transmit successively and always in the same order. sonar beams transmitting impulses at an angle. The to establish position information.
measured lapse of time is used to determi~iethe navigat- Ultimately the Omega navigating system will consist doppler effect on each beam is measured, indicating a 8.9 Portable Systems. Dredges, sea drilling ships,
ing station's proper line of position (with respect to each of only eight stations strategically located so as to rate of change of slant range in that particular direction. cable laying ships, and similar special-purpose vessels
pair of transmitting stations) on a Loran (hyperbolic) provide worldwide coverage; it is expected that the The ground track navigation systems are used by large require medium to short-range navigational systems of
chart. Where the two measured lines of position cross Omega system will result in accuracies approaching vessels navigating in shallo~v coastal waters, survey high accuracy but do not require permanent shore
establishes the navigating station position; see position nautical mile in daytime and one mile at night. The vessels, and ships required to maintain station over a stations for reference. Several systems are available
"V" on Fig. 24. current installation consists of four stations, located in given point. Ground tracli information is also required using portable shipboard and shore station units.
Each of Loran stations is usually located several Korway, Trinidad, Hawaii, and New York. by ships using a doppler shift method of satellite navi- Raydist is typical of this category.
hundred miles apart. One station is often made common A shipboard Omega installation would consist of a gation, such as the Transit System. A typical ground Raydist DR-S (dual range, single sideband) systems
to two pairs. As noted in l'ig. 24, M is a common or comparatively short ship antenna and a receiver. tracli installation could consist of a receiver/driver, four consist of small portable shore stations with an antenna
double-pulsed station (master); S1 and 52 are single- The Decca navigation system is a highly stable transducers mounted in the ship's bottom (which may installation selected by range requirements, and the
pulsed stations (slaves). A double-pulsed station is continuous-wave radio position-fixing hyperbolic-type be combined in arrays), a dead-reclioning tracer, and a shipboard terminal consisting of a CW transmitter, a
co~lsideredto be two separate stations at the same loca- system operating in the 70-130 kHz band. Each system digital readout device displaying forward, aft, and navigator, and a strip chart recorder. The shore
tion, since this type of station sends out two entirely or "chain" comprises a central master station and three athwartships velocities. stations can be placed as required by range coverage
distinct sets of pulses; each set of pulses is paired with slave stations disposed in a three-pointed star configura- 8.8 Special Systems. Extremely accurate position because no tra~lsmissiorls occur between the shore
the pulse from adjacent stations. tion about the master station. Slave stations are 70-120 information can be computed using navigational satel- stations. Two shore statioris-are required. The system
A typical shipboard Loran A installation includes an miles distant from the master station. There are up- lites in polar orbit. The first operational development measures the distance from the navigating station to
antenna arid a receiver-indicator; the receiver-indicator ward of 35 such chains throughout the world, most of was the U.S. Navy Transit system; military require each of the shore stations by phase measurement. The
should be installed in the chart room, above the chart which are in the eastern hemisphere. The performance ments dictated that this be a passive system. Satellites use of single-sideband transmission techniques reduces
table, and should provide direct in-line time-delay range is up to 250-300 miles by day and positions in polar orbit are monitored by ground tracking stations. the radio frequency spectrum occupancy required by the
readings. correct to within &50 yd can be obtained at a range of Some of the tracking stations have the capability of system. The system requires active participation by
Loran A transmissions are effective at ranges of about 50 miles. Unlike Loran and Omega, which are operated updating the information stored in the satellite-borne the navigating station in that CW transmissions to the
700 nautical miles in the daytime and up to 1400 miles by the U.S. Government, Decca is a privately owned computers. Every tw-o minutes a satellite transmits a shore stations occur. Ho~vever,in the case of multi-
at night with accuracies between f1 mile and f,5 miles system. The Decca receiver and indicators (Decom- message containing the time of transmission and orbital ship operations, three or more navigating stations can
depending upon location of the navigating station in the eters) are generally installed in the chart room. track information. The transmission occurs on two receive position information by proper range organiza-
hyperbolic grid, time of year, and time of day. Navigation charts for areas served by the Decca chains frequencies, in the UHF spectrum, separated by approxi- tion. For operating areas where the use of land-based
Loran C uses the same principles as Loran A except for are readily obtainable. mately 300 MHz, to compensate for distortions in reference stations is not feasible, battery-operated
the frequency of transmission (100 kHz), which affords In general, receivers for the foregoing hyperbolic propagation encountered in ionospheric and atmospheric reference stations encased in buoys are used. The
better and more stable area coverage. Each master navigation systems are located in the vessel's chart room. penetration. The navigating station receives the trans- Raydist DR-S can furnish position information up to
station has at least two and sometimes three associated 8.7 Echo Depth Sounding Sonar. An echo depth missions with a receiver/computer complex that measures 250 miles and accuracies of from 1 to 3 yd. It is widely
slave stations; using these multiple slave stations pro- sounding system provides a means of measuring the sea the doppler effect on the transmissions caused by the used to record the speed of ships during standardization
vides for a more accurate identification of lineof- depth beneath the vessel by computing the time interval satellites movement with respect to the navigating and maneuvering tests.
pbsition hyperbolic grid lines. required for sound waves to trave1,"at a known velocity,
The use of the lower frequency, as compared with from the ship's bottom to a reflecting surface and return.
Loran A, allows for greater range on the reliable ground The measured depth may be visually indicated and
wave and separation of the master and slave stations by
as much as 800 nautical miles.
permanently recorded. This system usually consists of
a transducer, an electronic control unit, an indicator, and
Sectio~~ 9 -
A typical Loran C shipboard installation will vary
according to the requirements of the particular vessel.
a recording unit. Wiring Application and Methods
The transducer is permanently mounted in and flush
It may range from a suite of equipment similar to Loran ,kith the ship's hull a t approximately one fourth the 9.1 General. I n general, shipboard electric cables specificationsMIL-C-915,MIL-C-2194, or MII~-C-23206.
A to elaborate computer-controlled devices with auto- distance from the bow to the stern, and a h e a r the ship's are specified to be constructed and tested in accordance The use of cable in accordance with military specifications
matic updating and readout capabilities. The trend centerline as is practicable; this transducer converts with the specific requirements of IEEE Standard KO.45. is allo~vedprincipally because of its reduced material
on merchant ships is to provide a combination receiver- electrical oscillations, from the control unit, into sound However, as an exception to this requirement, most cost and ready availability. The only limitation usually
indicator that is suitable for use with both Loran A and C. energy during the transmit cycle and converts the echo owners permit the substitution, for the equivalent IEEE placed on the use of Navy cable is that the maximum
cable, of cable constructed in accordance with military current for any conductor should not exceed the current-
664 MARINE ENGINEERING ELECTRIC PLANTS 665
carrying capacities specified in the publication "Cablc SJ, SJO, or SJ'l' should bc used for portablc lights, tools, Cables should not be bent to a radius of less than six paneling, and supportcd as shown in Fig. %(a) nrld (b).
Comparison Guide, " NAVSHIPS 250-660-23. and appliances. diameters to. avoid damage to the insulation. I n some instances, when vertical cable runs arc not near
The regulatory body rules contain specific require- 9.3 Interior Communication and Electronic Wiring. Cables should be grouped and routed in main wireways a stcel bulkhead, a ladder type of frame, from dcclc to
ments regarding cable application and installation. The IEEE rulcs list the various types of merchant as much as economical distribution permits and should deck, is provided to support thc cablc, and is corlccalcd
These rules also contain tables of allo~vablecurrent- marine electric cable designed for use in interior com- be supported as shown in Fig. 25(a), (b), or (c). Small by paneling.
carrying capacities, dimensions, weights, and physical municatio~lsystcms, telephone systems, and electronics groups of cables should be supported as shown in Fig. Switches, call buttons, and rcccptacles locatcd in
and electrical properties of mercbax~t marine cables; systems. However, as noted previously, the trend is to 5 , ( ) (i), or (1. Figure 25(j) shows typical methods paneled spaces are usually recessed into hollow H-section
NAVSHIPS 250-660-23 contains this same type of the use of Navy-type cable, in lieu of the merchant type, of supporting a maximum of four small cables located joints. All cables to these'outlets should be run over-
information for cables for naval ships. for most shipboard applications. The general practice behind joiner bulkheads and ceilings. Where cables head and then down in the H-section to their termination;
9.2 Light and Power Wiring. Except for flexible followed in the selection of IC and electronic wiring is as are run on thin nonwatertight bulkheads, they may be each cable should be secured at the top of the H-section
service applications, all light and power cables should f 0110\\-$: secured by through screws and nuts as shown in Fig. and a t the outjet. Wiring to light switches a t entrance
have a basket-weave armor of steel, aluminum, or bronze; a. IC Systems. Navy-type SGA cable is used in 25(i). Single cables should be supported as shown in doors is run in the hollow door frames on which the
bronze armor is normally used for those cables installed the 4000 and 9000 circular mil sizes; for larger sizes Fig. 25(g) and (h). switches are mounted.
in the weather, and in damp areas. Except for lighting IEEE merchant marine types, as used for power and Cables may be secured in wireways by fitted straps, Where concealment of cable runs in finished areas is not
and power branch circuits installed in dry spaces, such lighting systems, are usually employed. Navy type such as shown in Fig. 25(a), or by banding straps, as practicable, special troughs or channels are sometimes
as crew and passenger areas, all light and power cables MSCA is used for all multicorlductor applications with shown in Fig. 25(e); these straps are usually 5.8 to % in. used to conceal individual runs of cables to surface-
should have a moisture-resisting jacket under the the exception of tempqrature-indicating systems, in which wide. Cable supports are usually spaced not more than mounted outlets; otherwise, exposed wiring should be
armor; this jacket may be lead, thermoplastic, or case Navy types PBJX and PBTX are used. 18 in. apart on vertical runs and 14 in. apart on hori- installed to be as inconspicuous as possible.
thermosetting compound. Because of the excessive b. Telephone Systems. Navy cable types SGA and zontal runs. Cable straps should secure the cable 9.5 Stufflng Tubes. Stuffing tubes are either of the
material and installation costs involved, lead jackets are hlSCA are used the same as for I C systems; Kavy type without damage to the armor or insulation. Cables terminal type or bulkhead type as illustrated by Fig. 27.
seldom used. TTHlCWA is used for all twisted-pair applications. should be strapped in position a t every hanger in Terminal-type tubes are used to provide a watertight
Rubber- or thermoplastic-insulated cable may be c. Electronic Systems. Navy cable types SGA and vertical runs, and at not less than every fourth hanger on cable entrance into electrical equipment enclosures;
used in spaces where the ambient temperature does not MSCA are used the same as for IC systems; Kavy types horizontal runs; at turns of horizontal runs the cables they are made of either brass or nylon. I n general,
exceed 50 C. Varnished-cloth, asbestos-varnished-cloth, TTRSA and RG coaxial are used for shielded applica- should be strapped a t every hanger. Cable hanger terminal tubes consist of a body, gland rings, packing,
or silicone-insulated cables should be used where the tions. As recommended by the equipment manu- material, not exposed to the weather, should be steel; and a gland nut or cap. A watertight penetration is
ambient temperature exceeds 50 C; additionally, these facturer, special cable and conductor types are used for galvanized material is normally used in refrigerated obtained by tightening the gland nut or cap to squeeze
types of insulated cable may also be used for other electronic circuits and antenna connections. spaces and galleys. Exterior cable hanger material the packing against the cable. For enclosures Y I G in.
applications. Where varnished cloth insulation is used, Basket-weave armor and moisture-resisting jackets should be corrosion-resisting material or steel with a thick or thicker, tapped holes are provided to accept the
the wire size should not be smaller than No. 12 AWG; are provided on the foregoing cable types, the same as corrosion-resisting coating with CRES, brass, or bronze tube male pipe threaded end. For enclosures less than
this type of insulated tape on wire of smaller size will not
described for the light and power wiring in the previous nuts, bolts, and washers. a/,, in. thick, clearance holes*are provided; in this type
withstand bending. section. A variety of the alternative methods of passing cables of installation, brass tube' bodies are brazed to the
Asbestos-varnished-cloth insulated, jacketed, and through decks and bulkheads is illustrated by Fig. 26. enclosure, whereas nylon tube bodies are fastened and
9.4 Cable Installation. All cables should be con-
armored cable is generally used throughout merchant Cable penetrations of nontight declcs and platforms are made tight by a locknut and O-ring assembly.
tinuous between terminations and, insofar as practicable, Bulkhead type tubes are used to provide watertight
ships for lighting and power circuits. There are, usually through clear openings of adequate size for the
be routed to avoid areas where excessive heat, moisture, cables involved. Steel collars, extending approximately and airtight cable penetrations through bulkheads and
however, the following exceptions to this generalization: or oil may be encountered. Cables should not be run 3 in. above the deck, should be provided all around the decks. Bulkhead tubes are usually steel, and are
1 For local lighting branch circuits that are installed through oil tanks or pump rooms unless they are en- edge of the opening. similar to brass terminal tubes, except that the tube end
in spaces having ambient temperatures not exceeding closed within watertight trunks; also, cables should not Where single cables pass through nontight bulkheads 'opposite the gland nut has standard IPS female threads
50 C, rubber-insulated and armored cable is,used in dry be run behind, or embedded in, heat insulation. Where or beams, and the bearing surface for the cable is less to accept threaded pipes. For passing cables through
spaces; in damp spaces, rubber-insulated, jacketed, and it is necessary to pass cable through insulation, the cable than % in., a bushing should be provided as shown in bulkheads, a pipe nipple of adequate length is threaded
armored cable is used. should be run in a continuous pipe.
Fig. 26(c). Where the bearing surface is % in. or into the tube body; the assembly is jnserted into a
In lieu of the IEEE type of cable, Navy cable (type Cables routed through cargo spaces should be pro-
greater, a clearance hole with rounded edges is acceptable. clearance hole in the bulkhead, with the tube body
SGA in sizes 4000 and 9000 circular mils and type tected against mechanical damage incidental to the
Figure 26(h) shows a method of passing a group of cables butting the bulkhead; the tube body is then welded to the
MSCA) is used. handling of cargo; advantage should be taken of the
through beams with insulation. bulkhea'd. For passing cables through decks, kickpipes
protection afforded by beams, girders, and stiffeners.
Three-conductor cable should be used for all a-c Cable penetrations of watertight and airtight bulk- are welded into the deck with a bulkhead-type tube
Routing of cables within a radius of 15 ft from any
I 3-phase circuits to neutralize the inductive effect that magnetic compass should be limitzd to the necessary heads are through stuffing tubes, as shown typically by threaded,on the upper end. The height of the kickpipe
may cause heating of adjacent equipment or structure. binnacle and local lighting circuits. Fig. 26. Cable penetrations of watertight decks are assembly should be a t least 9 in. to the top of the tube,
, The largest Bconductor cable normally installed is through kickpipes with stuffing tubes, except that water- with the pipe extended below the deck, or sheathing, as
Cables should be installed in compliance with the
400,000 circular mils. For circuits requiring greater United States Public Health Rules so as to avoid tight riser boxes with stuffing tubes are sometimes used applicable, leaving approximately % in. of the pipe
than 400,000 circular mils, two or more 3-conductor harborage for rats. for groups of cables not in the weather; these are also exposed.
cables of the same size are connected in parallel; one shown typically by Fig. 26. The following subsection An additional method &-passing cables through tight
Tanker vessel cable runs between "islands" and to the
conductor for each phase of the circuit should be con- forepeak are routed either: (a) on the underside of the contains a description of stuffing tubes and their bulkheads is by means of a "multicable transit," shown
tained in each paralleled cable. application. by Fig. 26(i). This method utilizes a special assembly,
fore-and-aft walkway, and protected by steel channels
All portable cords should have a minimum size of No. or enclosed in cable trunks or pipes; (b) attached to a Insofar as practicable, cable runs in finished crew and welded in a clearance hole in the bulkhead, through
16 AWG, and should be in accordance with the specific steel plate supported from the walkway handrail passenger areas should be concealed. When paneling is which several cables may be pulled. After the cables
requirements of the Underwriters Laboratories Standard stanchions; or (c) in a wireway-type structure on the fitted overhead or on bulkheads, through wiring is run. are pulled, they are positioned and maintained in place
for Flexible Cords and Fixture Wire. Types S, SO, or weather deck, protected by steel channels and cover, and behind the paneling and secured to the steel deck or using a system of split insert blocks; the complete cable
ST should be used for hard service applications; types located well inboard to afford protection from seas. bulkhead. Where heat insulation is applied to the deck grouping is made tight by applying compression through ,
or bulkhead, the wiring is run between the insulation and special bolting and plates. Cable transits may be used
I
I
MARINE ENGINEERING ELECTRIC PLANTS
ROUND
NON - WATER TIGHT INSIDE EDGES
STEEL BULKHEAD - -- -
ROUIYD EDGES
ONLY WHERE STEEL
FERRU L~~~
PARTIAL LINER
BEHIND RAT PROOF STEELSTRAP WHERE CABLES ARE FEW SULATWN
i5" MAX. ALLOWABLE- ( i ) SINGLE ROW MOUNTED ON BULKHEAD SECTION A-A A J \ (h) FOR NON-TIGHT BEAMS WITH INSULATION
SPAN FOR CABLE TOO THIN TO WELD.
(g) FOR BEAMS WlTH LIGHTENING HOLES
CHANNEL
WELDED COLLAR
THE SUPPORT OF MULTIPLE ROWS OF CABLE ON STEEL
BULKHEADSISACCOMPLISHEDTHE SAME EXCEPTTHAT
EACH TIERSHOULDBESTRAPPEDANDNOSPANOF
CONTIGUOUS CABLES SHOULD EXCEED 9': WHERE SPANS
UP TO 15" MAX. ARE REQUIRED, A HOLD-DOWN BOLT
SHOULD SECURE THE RETAINING STRAP AT ITS CENTER.
ASSEMBLIES SHOULD NOT BE SPACED MORE THAN 14"
RE FILLER BLOCKS
APART. CENTER TO CENTER. EPROOF ELASTOME
FOR FUTURE CABLE
( c ) MULTIPLE ROWS OF CABLE SUPPORTED TRANSIT FRAME
FROM INSULATED OR NON- INSULATED DECK.
CABLE STRAP
-CABLE STRAP- JOINER BHD
OR CEILING7 INSERT BLOCK
FIREPROOF
ELASTOMER
JOINER BHD
OR CEILING- (i) CABLE RUN OF FOUR SMALL CABLES ON STEEL DECK THRU DECK APPLICATION
OR BULKHEAD WlTH AND WITHOUT INSULATION
( d l TWO SMALL CABLES 3/4"DlA. MAX (BEHIND JOINER BULKHEAD OR CEILING) (i) MULTI-CABLE TRANSIT TYPE BULKHEAD
(LOCATED BEHIND JOINER BULKHEAD OR CEILING) PENETRATION ASSY (WATERTIGHT BHD)
Fig. 25 Methods of supporting cable Fig. 26 Methods of pauing cables through deck and bulkheads
668 MARINE ENGINEERING ELECTRIC PLANTS
10 ft for each vertical run between decks. 9.8 Grounding. Except for final branches which may
EXPLOSION PROOF '
5 f t for each vertical run from overhead to bulkhead- be grounded ut the supply end only, the metallic sheath
mounted equipment. on all armored cable should be groutded a t each cnd.
10 f t for each connection to a switchboard. Where armT%TZg;tile eiltGrs n box or wiring device, the
I n addition to the foregoing allowances, 10 percent' armor should bc coritinucd into the box and secured by a
should be added to feeders and branches to cover waste, clamp or corinector to assure good contact with the box.
losses incidental to making up cable ends, and for If this is impracticable, thc armor should b ~ ~ o u n d to
ed
unforeseen bends. the steel structure a t the ngrest cable strap. For each
9.7 Connections and Terminals. Connection of ground the armor and strap shouldJe we11 cleaged,at the
wires to terminals should ensure a good electrical contact point of contaot.
without damaging the conductor. Since no splicing of Radio, radar, and miscellaneous communication
wires is permissible, all terminations should be made by equipmenta have various requirements regarding ground-
screw connections or approved cable connectors located ing which are specified by the equipment vendor. To
within equipment enclosures or wiring appliances. I n ensure proper operation, the shipboard installation
general, all ship cable connections should be made by should comply- - with the vendor's recommendations.
RUBBERSEAL solderless lugs of an approved clamp or compression Stays, shrouds, and other standing rigging should also
(b) SECTION THRU MALE TERMINAL type; exceptions include twist-on pressuretype con- be permanently grounded to prevent the accumulation
STUFFING TUBE
nectors with a securing device which are sometimes used of static electricity. Rigging and railing in way of the
SHEET META
for making connections in lighting outlets and connection radio direction finder loop and sense antenna need not be
boxes. Also, interior communication and electronic grounded but should have insulators inserted every few
system wiring connectors may be of the soldered type or feet to prevent a shielding effect caused by nearby
(c) SECTION THRU BRAZED TERMINAL
STUFFING TUBE may have the wire end formed into an eye and be induced radio frequency currents.
(a) SECTION THRU CABLE SEAL UP TO 3/16 solder-dipped. Cable ends of vital circuits should be
FITTING FOR EXPLOSION
PROOF EQUIPMENT sealed against the admission of moisture. Enclosures and frames of electrical equipment generally
Usual practice is to select connectors of the proper have inherent grounding by support from the ship's
size, but in special cases, where the wire size has been structure. When they are not attached directly to
increased to reduce the voltage drop, strands may be steelwork, special grounding should be provided.
removed to permit the use of smaller connectors. I n no All portable equipment should 'be grounded by a
case should the remaining cross-sectional area be less separate conductor in the flexible supply cable and a
than that required to carry the maximum current. grounding device in the receptacle and plug.
WASHERS
NlPPL
ENCLOSURE WALL
-W
(dl SECTION THRU NYLON TERMINAL
STUFFINGTUBEFOR ENCLOSURES
OVER 3/16 II LBUSHING
I L O C K NUT
for passing groups of cables through decks, provided a tion, f ~ o mthe point of entering the seal fitting to its end;
riser box is utilized; in this application, the cable transit fill the seal fitting with a sealing compound through the
would be installed in the top of the riser box, Fig. 26(j'). filling plug hole. When the compound hardens and the
Cable entrance into explosion-proof equipment located filling plug is in place, the cable entrance is explosion-
in explosion-hazardous areas must be accomplished proof.
through an approved seal fitting, similar to that shown 9.6 Determination of Cable Lengths. The length of
in Fig. 27(a). Proper installation would be as follows: each run of cable may be determined from wiring deck
nipple the seal fitting to the explosion-proof enclosure plans, or isometrics, using a standard map measure. I n
by a pipe not more than 18 in. long; remove all of the addition to the lengths measured from plans, the
cable covering, except the individual conductor insula- following allowances should be made:
*
PIPING SYSTEMS 67 1
CHAPTER XVlll
e ERmGE DECK
E. E. stephenson
I Piping Systems
Sectio~~1
Machinery Space Arrangement
I
1.1 Introduction. The development of a machinery tions are possible, particularly for ships with special
space arrangement and the development of piping applications, there are usually two choices with the more
systems within a machinery space are closely related commonplace merchant ships; namely, the machinery
processes. I n fact, they are inseparable; the location of may be located either in the aftermost region of the ship MAIN D E C I
the majority of machinery components is predicated on or in the region of the ship somewhat aft of amidship.
the basis of piping system considerations. The machinery spaces of oil tankers, as an example, are
The considerations which must be entertained when without exception confined to the stern of the ship;
developing a machinery space arrangement were outlined this arrangement generally simplifies the design of the
in Chapter 1. As is the case with the development of ship, especially in that explosion hazards are minimized.
designs for many types of complex systems, the develop- Two factors permit such an arrangement: one is that the
ment of a machinery space arrangement is an iterative hull lines in way of tanker sterns are full so that there is
process. Such an iterative process is illustrated by the sufficient hull width to accommodate the machinery.
preliminary design spiral shown by Fig. 3 of Chapter 1. Another is that the ability of tankers to take on ballast
For most types of ships, such as passenger liners, oil enables the ship operator to adjust the operating drafts
tankers, and containerships, there is no uniquely within rather broad limits; therefore, the heavy weight
optimum machinery space arrangement that is clearly inherent with the main machinery presents no trim
discernible. In the usual case, a number of arrange- problems even when confined to the stern of the ship
ments would be considered satisfactory; of course, some because seawater ballast can be taken on in the forward
would be preferable to others. It is the responsibility of region of the ship so as to maintain a reasonably even
the marine engineer to assess the various alternative draft.
courses of action and select the one which affords the Many types of dry cargo ships, on the other hand, do
best compromises. In order to arrive a t a reasonably not have the ability to arbitrarily adjust their operating
optimum machinery space arrangement, the marine drafts; consequently, the weight inherent with the main
engineer must possess a broad base of knowledge cover- propulsion machinery would present a severe trim 1
ing the operation and maintenance of propulsion plants, problem when the ship is lightly loaded. Furthermore,
piping systems, ventilation systems, and electrical the hull lines aft on most dry cargo ships are so fine that
systems. the propulsion machinery will not fit within the confines
Concurrent with the preparation of the specifications of the hull in the aftermost region of the ship. For these '
for a ship, sketches of the machinery space must be reasons, the machinery space for fine dry cargo ships is
developed. One of the foremost considerations when located considerably further forward.
developing a preliminary machinery space arrangement When developing a machinery space arrangement, the
is to recognize that the arrangement is based on many designer must visualize the piping, valves, and other
components which are onlyftentative selections and that equipment associated with each component. Also, the
their dimensions are only approximate. Insofar as functional requirements and interrelationships of the Fig. 1 Machiney arrangement-ale~ationat c looking to p a t
practicable, a reasonable allowance should be made for various components must be borne in mind both from a
variations in dimensions and unanticipated develop- mechanical and the operator's standpoint. Maintenance i
ments. and overhaul play important roles in the arrangement of
Since payload is not carried in the machinery space, many components, particularly those containing tubes through 4 (which are a typical dry cargo ship arrange- considerations as boiler tube renewal, soot blower tube
the marine engineer is under constant pressure to decrease which occasionally require replacement. ment). The latter arrangement permits a shorter removal, economizer tube removal, burner removal, and
the size (particularly the length) of the machinery space. There is often a range of flexibility in the arrangement machinery space, but the raised center of gravity of the desuperheater removal (if appropriate to the boiler
Sufficient space must, however, be provided for proper of a machinery space. Assuming for discussion purposes relatively heavy boilers is disadvantageous as compared selected). The uptake location between the boiler and
operation and maintenance of the machinery and that overall considerations of the type outlined in with the former arrangement, which permits the boilers boiler hatch, as well as the forced-draft blower duct work,
supporting equipment. Chapter 1 have led to the selection of a steam turbine to be located low in the ship. are investigated and normally shown on preliminary
1.2 Development of Machinery Space. One of the type of propulsion plant, the boilers may be positioned In selecting the boiler location, the space between, design sketches. Forced-draft blowers are usually
first decisions to be made regarding the design of a forward of the main engines or they may be located aft forward, and aft of the boiler must be studied from the located advantageously to draw the hottest air either
machinery space is its location. Although many varia- and above the main engines as illustrated by Figs. 1- viewpoint of operation as well as such maintenance from air casing surrounding the uptakes or from the top
PIPING SYSTEMS .
MARINE ENGINEERING
MARINE ENGINEERING PIPING SYSTEMS 675
of the machinery space casing if uptake casings are not shown bv kcin. 2. The seawater coolant for the main
required. Machinery space casings are hecked to lubricatiig oz coolers is usually supplied by the main
2
determine that their size is adequate to ccommodate
the boiler uptalres and the ventilation air intakes with
circulating pump.
The lubricating oil pumps take suction from the oil
access around the uptalres. sump under the main reduction gear and should be
Trade-offs between the components selected and the located to provide the shortest suction piping practical.
space available are sometimes required as the equipment Where a gravity system is employed, the lubricating oil
tentatively selected may not lend itself to an acceptable pump discharges through a'strainer and cooler to a
arrangement. For example, in the choice between gravity tank that is located well up in the machinery
horizontal and vertical pumps, horizontal pumps require space casing. The gravity tank must be of sufficient
more space but are easier to support Bnd are more height to supply 'oil under the flow of gravity a t a pressure
readily overhauled. I n the case of heat-transfer of about 10 psi a t the turbine and gear bearings. The oil
equipment, the choice between vertical and horizontal completes the cycle by collecting in the oil sump beneath
types can also be made to favor the space available. the slow-speed gear.
Once the general location of the main engines has been Due to damage control considerations, naval ships are
tentatively established, the vertical position of the main not provided with a gravity lubricating oil system;
engines is investigated. As discussed in u a p t e r 11, the instead, the pressure in naval lubricating oil systems is
location of the propeller is fixed by hydrodynamic maintained by pumps. Due to arrangement consider-
considerations, but, by raking the shaft, a degree of ations, some merchant ships also employ a pump-
freedom in locating the main engines is provided. As pressurized lubricating oil system.
can be seen from Fig. 1, in the usual case there is scarcely Other systems such as the auxiliary condensate system
adequate space beneath the main reduction gear for the and feed system are treated similarly. As illustrated
lube oil sump, and the main condenser is so lo\\- that it is by Pig. 2, components such as fire pumps, bilge and
difficult to provide sufficient submergence for the main ballast pumps, fuel oil transfer pumps, sanitary pumps,
condensate pump without recessing the innerbottom. freshwater pumps, general service pumps, and air
As a result, the main shafting is invariably raked upward compressors, which are not directly related to the
going forward so as to alleviate these problem areas. propulsion system, are studied and located to advantage.
Moderate amounts of shaft rake are not objectionable At this point, with a satisfactory arrangement tenta-
(see Chapter 11). tively established on the lower level, the main operating
If the main eneines are located in the aft end of the
c2
level can be established. When fixing the operating
machinery sgace, a check must be made to ensure that level height, due consideration-must be given to the
there is adequate space around the reduction gears for space required beneath the level for piping, wireways,
passage and that sufficient access to the gear and pinion ventilation ducts, lighting, and the necessary headroom
bearings is provided. Foundation girders for the reduc- on the lower walking level. The operating level located
tion gears and the main thrust bearing are sketched in to outboard on each side of the main propulsion unit serves
confirm that sufficient rigidity can be provided. as a foundation for the turbogenerators, switchboards,
At this time the large machinery components should distilling plants, contaminated evaporators, and other
be studied to ascertain that they can be either unshipped equipment as shown in Fig. 3. It is desirable from an
through the hatch or removed through a hole cut in the operational standpoint for the operating level to be a t
hull. Frequently, unshipping considerations necessitate the same elevation a t all points; however, a lower level
adjustments in the location of the machinery components. may be required between the turbines and over the main
Several aspects of the main condensate system require reduction gear for access to bearings and to permit
special study during the early design stages. The main observation of lubricating oil thermometers and sight
condensate pumps must be able to handle water under flow indicators.
vacuum a t its saturation temperature. Flashing will The size and location of structure, including pillars,
occur a t the pump impeller entrance unless adequate within the .machinery space may be determined to suit
head between the minimum operating water level of the estimated component weights.
condenser hot well and the pump suction is available. A Smaller equipment such as air ejectors, pump indicator
short and direct lead slopingc-from the hot well to the panel, telephone booth, and log desk are located on the
pump is essential. Locating the pumps near the basis of o ~ t i m u mo~erationalconsiderations.
condenser fore-and-aft centerline will reduce erratic The space provided for.#perating -areas and access
suction conditions in the event that the vessel rolls or should be confirmed as adequate. I n determining access
assumes a ~ermanentlist. and operating areas, the following should be considered
The main condenser seawater piping, due to its size, minimum. The headroom in all working areas should
should be shown on the preliminary plans and analyzed be 6 ft-3 in. The clear operating space in front of the
with.the condenser overhaul space. The main circulat- main throttle and control stations and the width of the
ing water pumps should be arranged to provide short sea boiler firing aisle should be 5 ft. The width of main
suctions via high and low suction sea chests. The pump access passages should be 24 in. ; however, the width of
discharges to the main condenser and then overboard as secondary or infrequently used passages q a y be 18 in.
676 MARINE ENGINEERING PIPING SYSTEMS 677
The width of main access ladders should be 24 in. and 1.3 Summary. Despite the amount of work that Lead or other heat-sensitive materials should riot be All of the foregoing requiremcrits arc desirable without
the angle of sloping main access ladders should be 60 deg has gone into the design of the machinery space thus far, used in piping systems which perletrate watertight exception; lio~vcvcr,it is riot uriusual that some must be
from the horizontal. The slope of infrequently used the arrangement developed is only tentative. Much of subdivision bulkheads, where deterioration of such forcgo~icand compromises must bc made a t the expelise
ladders may, however, be greater; the width of vertical the arrangement is based on approximate data; further- systems in the event of fire would impair the ~vatertiglit of the less importarit arcas.
ladders to infrequently used intermediate levels may be more, sketches of several alternate arrangements may integrity of the bulkheads. Illsofar as practicable, Thc importaricc of a thorough working knowledge of
18 in. with 12 in. as a minimum. have been developed for some areas. There now remains piping with operating temperatures exceeding 125 1' arid the applicable rcgulatioris of tlic U.S. Coast Guard [I],'
At this point an overall evaluation must be made. I s the task of evaluating the various alternatives and select- vacuum piping should not be located in the bilge area. l'ublic Hcalth Scrvicc [2], and classificatiori societies
there adequate space for access, operation, and mainte- ing those offering the best compromise from the stand- Pressure',gages, thermometers, level gages, and other (e.g., referericc [3]) cannot tfc ovcrempliasized. Defini-
nance? If not, there may be a necessity to increase the points of cost, performance, operation, accessibility and instruments should be located so tliat they are visible tive requiremcrits regarding marly aspects of pipirig
length of the machinery space. It is most unlikely to overhaul. If all of the foregoing is carefully executed, from equipment operating areas. systcms are cyitained in thesc regulations. It is
find that the space available is in excess of that required; very little rearranging will be required during the develop- Every effort should be made to locate valve hand- important that these requirements be reflected in a piping
but in the event of such fortunate circumstances, the ment of the final working drdwings which are prepared \\-heels such that they can be conveniently operated. system design during the prelimiliary stages as con-
excessive space should be assigned to the cargo. for ship construction. Where this is impracticable, remote operatirig gear formarice to the requirements a t a.later point call be
should be provided for convenient operation, or the costly and necessitate undesired compromises.
valves should have attached gears or extension shafts for 2.2 Materials. In order for a material to perform
this purpose. Valves in horizontal piping below eye characteristics:in service, it must possess the follo\ving
satisfactorily
level should be arranged with their stems pointing above
the horizontal wherever practicable. Suficielit strength or load-carrying ability a t the
Section 2 Globe and angle cutout valves may be arranged \\-it11 operating temperature to resist the imposed stresses.
P i p i ~ ~Desig~~
g Details the pressure either above or belon- the disk, whichever is Retention of suitable ductility arid impact properties
more advantageous for operation, protection, and repair a t all operating temperatures.
2.1 Piping Arrangements. Piping should be ar- proper operation of the system and its connected equip- of machinery and equipment served by the system. Satisfactorv corrosion and erosion resistance to the
ranged in a neat, orderly manner and should not ment. Examples of typical valves which should have the medium which it contacts.
obstruct or interfere with operation of doors, hatches, or The amount of piping led through messing and livingt pressure under the disk are boiler stop valves, root Resistance to galling with mating materials in
scuttles. Piping should permit free passage in walking spaces should be minimized. Piping in such spaces valves, throttle valves, sea valves, and tank valves moving contact.
areas and performance of work in designated working should be symmetrically and neatly arranged and subject to tank pressure. Where a valve is subject to Many materials may be suitable for the same service.
areas. The operation and control of machinery should installed in the most inconspicuous location practicable, vacuum in the closed position, the vacuum should also be Factors which could influence the decision to select a
not be impeded, and the interference of piping with the consistent with efficient operation and maintenance of under the disk. particular material include the service, availability,
maintenance of equipment and ship structure should be the piping system. Manifolds may be used wherever globe or angle valves cost, castability, forgeability, weldability, and lead time
minimized. Wherever practicable, piping should be Except as necessary to serve the space, insofar as are satisfactory, provided their use results in a simplified required in production. Metals cannot be classed
kept clear of removable plates provided in the ship practicable, piping should not be run through medical piping arrangement or affords an advantageous opera- simply as castable, forgeable, or weldable as such
structure for shipping and unshipping machinery or and dental spaces, chain lockers, freshwater tanks, tional feature. Insofar as practicable, manifolds should properties are a matter of degree. What might be
equipment. The access to a compartment, boiler drums, gasoline tanks and service areas and voids surrounding be installed with their body just above the floor plates. considered as a satisfactory application for one category
or other components should not be limited by the piping. them, refrigerated spaces, and wiring trunks and I Inlet piping to safety and relief valves should be short of service could be unsatisfactory in another application.
Piping should be portable in way of machinery and enclosures. and direct. Where relief is to the atmosphere, open Past successful practice plays an important role in the
equipment that require dismantling for periodic overhaul, Steam and liquid piping should not be located where ends of discharge pip$g should be such as not to damage selection of materials.
and wherever necessary for access to other piping drips or sprays from leaks, condensation, or splashing machinery or equipment, or endanger personnel. Relief Pressure and tem~eraturelimits for the more common .
1
systems or electrical systems. Cutout valves should be from funnels could damage electric equipment. Where of flammable liquids should be to a suitable lower- piping materials are giver1 in Table 1. Limits for
judiciohsly located to isolate sections of piping intended this is not practicable, adequate shielding of the equip pressure part of the system. Relief of toxic or explosive recommended working stresses for piping materials a t
for removal during maintenance and overhaul of ment should be provided. I n addition, flange or union gases from containers or systems shbuld be to the various operating temperatures are given in reference [4].
machinery and equipment, so that interference with joints should not be installed in the vicinity of such atmosphere above the weather deck. A discussion of such metallurgical subjects as the
continued operation of the remainder of the system is equipment. Air escapes from flammable fluid tanks and atmos- affinity of materials to gall and galvanic corrosion of
minimized. Where bilge or ballast piping is led through deep pheric reliefs from toxic and ,inert gas systems should materials in seawater is covered in Chapter 22 and will
Piping should be located where it ~vouldnot normally tanks, means should be provided to prevent the flooding not terminate where their discharge can be picked up not be repeated here. Regarding galvanic corrosion,
be subjected to mechanical damage. When situations of the compartmerits being served in the event of pipe by ventilation or forced-draft air intakes, or where their however, the following factors may be considered when
malie this impracticable, a means to protect the piping leakage within the tanks. Such means may consist of discharge would otherwise damage machinery or equip- designing 9 system to minimize its effects.
should be provided. an oiltight or watertight pipe tunnel, xJr the lines may be ment or endanger personnel. Reduce potential differences between metals by
Ample provisions should be made to accommodate the of schedule-SO pipe thickness, fitted with expansion Tailpipes should terminate a t the lowest point in selecting materials close together in the galvanic series
thermal expansion of pipes and movemerits due to hull bends, and all joints within the tanlcs welded. I
tanks and should be installed in such a manner as to or metal combinations where one member polarizes
deflections. This is often accomplished by means o f . Where a pipe tunnel is installed, the watertight preclude their coming into hard contact with the bo4tom easily.
exparisiori bends or offsetsin thc pipirig (see Scctiori 2.!5), integrity of the bullheads should be maintained, and if of the tank should the bottom of the tank deflect up- Avoid bimetallic couples where possible, by insula-
where such can bc provided without causing uridcsirable the tunnel is riot of sufficient size to afford easy access, ward. The end of each suction tailpipe should be en- tion or by proper choice of materials.
poclccts; alternatively, in some cascs cxpansior~joints valves or fittings should riot be located within it. Bilge larged to provide an area not less than 1.5 times the Where bimetallic couples cannot be avoided, keep
may bc used. lines led through deep tanks without a pipe tunnel inside area of the tailpipe. The height above the bottom cathodic (noble) metal area small in relation to the
l'ipirig arrangemerits which causc exccssivc turbulence should be fitted with norireturn valves a t the bilge should be one half the tailpipe diameter and the tailpipe anodic metal. Important members such as fasteners,
det/rimental to tlic system or coritairi unlicccssary high suctions. location with respect to adjacent plating or other
or lo~vpoints should bc avoided. Wlicrc high and low Where pipes are carried through watertight or oil- components should provide a free suction area around
points in piping or equipmerit are u1invoidable, vents, tight bulklieads, declcs, or tank tops, the watertight the open end periphery of not less than 1.5 times the -
drains, or othcr mcans diould bc iristallcd to erisurc iritcgrity of thc structure should be maintained. inaide area of the tailpipe. Numbers in brackets designate References at end of chapter.
i
MARINE ENGINEERING PIPING SYSTEMS 679
Table 1 Material Pressure and Temperature Limits difference between specified points along a pipe in terms roughness. Empirical values, such as those of Moody Table 2 Fluid Design Velocities
of flow rate, pipe dimensions and roughness, and proper- [5], are commonly used for the friction factor. FLUIDVBT~OCITY,
fps
DESIGNLIMIT
ASTM h y r e , Temp., ties of the fluid. The tools of analysis are derived from Most practical piping systems contain valves and SEUVICE Nominal. Limit
MATERIAL Smc. deg F the momentum relation (an expression of Newton's fittings whose resistance to flow is significantly greater Condensate primp suction dd 3
Steel Pi e second law), continuity (an expression of conservation of than that corresponding to their actual length. Their Condensate pump discharge 3& 8
8 e a m k carbon A53-A, B ... resistance contribution is usually assessed by assigrliilg Condensate drains 0.3Cd 1
A106-A, B, C ... mass), a friction factor, the general energy equation, and Hobwater suctions & 3
Seamless alloy A335-P1 ... 875 the equation of state. The f i s t three of these may be them a nondimensional equivalent length, this being the Hobwater discharge
A335P2 ... combined to form the following differential. equation length of straight pipe (measured in diameters) of the / 3& 8
A335-Pll ... which describes the condition of fluid in motion: same nominal size required for a n equal pressure drop.
Feedwater suction
Feedwater discharge
1.3&
4dd
4
10
P12, P21, P22
Electric-resistance
A312TP321. ~ ~ i 4 7. . . 1200 For piping runs containing n valves and fittings each Cold freshwater suction
Cold freshwater diskharge
3 4
5dd
15
20
having an equivalent length (L/d)i, the term L/d in
welded A53-A, B Lube-oil service $ump suction dd 4
A135-A, B equation (4) 11-ould be replaced by Lnbe-oil discharge 2& 6
Butt welded A63 Fnel-oil service suction & 4
Wrought Iron Pipe where Fuel-oil service discharge 1.5& 6
Lap welded A72 Fuel-oil transfer suction da 6
Butt welded A72 p = fluid pressure, psf Fuel-oil transfer discharge 2& 15
Plates r = fluid density, lb/cu ft Values of equivalent lengths for common valves and Diesel-oil suction 2dd 7
Carbon steel A201-A, B V = fluid velocity, fps fittings can be found in handbooks such as reference [6]. Diesel-oil discharge 5dd 12
Iron Castings g = acceleration of gravity, ft/sec2 Piping is generally sized on the basis of pressure drop Hydraulic-oil suction 1.5& 8
Malleable iron A47-32510, 35018 Hydraulic-oil discharge 20
A197-(Cupola) z = elevation of fluid, ft and flow requirements except where other criteria or 8&
Cast iron A126A, B, C operating conditions specified for a particular system Seawater suctions 343 156
T = fluid frictional shear stress, psf
A278 Seawater discharge 5dd 15b
R = mean hydraulic radius of flow channel, ft impose additional considerations. Steam, high pressure 50& 200
Copper and Copper Alloy where a main serves two or more units of machinery
Pi e and Tubing L = pipe length, ft Steam exhaust, 215 psig 75& 250
Eeamless copper B42 or equipment through parallel piping circuits, the design Steam exhaust, high vacuum 75& 330
B75
-. - If the fluid flow is nearly horizontal or is a ga& the and arrangement of the piping should ensure adequate
BSS third term can be dropped. Additionally, if the fluid
Copper alloy B43 (Red brass) flow to each during all operating conditions. a d is the pipe internal diaketer in inches.
B111 (Adm. Metal) can be considered as incompressible and there are no Where necessary and practicable, throttle valves, b 9 fps for galvanized steel pipe.
B l l l (Al-brass) significant changes in flow area, the second term can be orifices, or similar devices may be used to regulate flo~v.
B l l l iAl-bronze)
- ---
B l l l ( ~ e brass)
d dropped and the remaining terms can be integrated to However, since these components tend to create turbulent
B l l l 70-30 Cu-Ni) obtain the following expression for the pressure loss over flow, they should be installed only where similar results
. B l l l [8&20 Cu-Ni a length of pipe. cannot be obtained by a more optimum piping system sufficient flexibility to prevent thermal expansion or
B l l l (90-10 Cu-Nil contraction from causing excessive stresses in the piping
Brazed copper ... 75 320 design. Piping design and component selection should
material, excessive bending moments a t the joints, or
Co per Alloy Castings be such that it is not necessary to install restrictions in
ironze B61 (Steam bronze) 300 450 the flow to a major component to assure adequate flow excessive forces or moments a t points of connection to
B62 (Ounce metal) 150 366 The fluid frictional shear stress is defined as equipment and a t anchors and guide points.
B14.3 (Tin bronze) 300 450 to an auxiliary component.
Table 2 contains a tabulation of suggested fluid Piping flexibility calculations should be made when the
Plastic Piping ~ 1 7 8 (PVC)
5 . 150 140
velocities which may be used as a guide in selecting pipe system design temperature exceeds SO0 F and reasonable
sizes. The upper velocity limits listed f r ~Table 2 should doubt exists as to adequate flexibility of a system.
where f is a dimensionless friction factor. R is defined not be exceeded even for the larger sizes because of Reasonable doubt of flexibility for a two-anchor system
as one fourth the pipe diameter, dl for a circular pipe; erosion, water hammer, or the possibility of noise. of ferrous piping of uniform size may be considered to
valve seats, and critical components should be the exist when:
cathode in a bimetallic system. therefore, the head loss, hL, over a length of pipe car1 be The velocities suggested in Table 2 should be dis-
Paint or coat large cathodic areas. determined from equation (2) as regarded if the corresponding pipe sizes are so small as
Remove mill scale from steel surfaces. to incur head losses exceeding the pump suction or
When using stainless steel, avoid crevices and discharge head ratings.
Particular care must be taken to analyze the h-- -- ~ n-. d where
regions which will contain standing water. Do not
rivet stainless steel or use lap joints for underwater The use of equation (4) is not confined to incompres- loss on the suction side of pumps. The suction piping pipe nominal diameter, in.
=
service. sible fluids (i.e., liquids) ; it can also be used in connection should be checked on the basis of design details for each resultant of movements to be absorbed by pipe,
y =
Waterproof all faying surfaces involving stainless with compressible fluids (i.e., gases) when the pressure specific case. For oil systems the suction losses due to in.
steel with other bimetallic connections. difference along the pipe is so small that the fluid density high viscosity plus static lift can easily exceed the rated L = developed length of pipe, ft
Structures under cathodic protection ahould be is nearly constant between the points of interest. I n the suction lift of the pump and should be analyzed i n detail. U = straight-line distance betl\-een anchors, ft
electrically bonded together to provide low-resistance design of main steam piping, for example, equation (4) 2.4 Pipe Wall Thickness. Definitive requirements
connections. can bc used because there is a negligible change in fluid which control the minimum permissible thickness of pipe Flexibility should be -Iacorporated into a piping
Provide proper drainage to prevent accumulation density between tlic supcrheatcr outlet arid the turbine walls are promulgated by the U.S. Coast Guard [I] and system by the use of piping bends, loops, or offsets or the
of standing water. throttle. On thc other hand, boiler escape piping offers the classification societies (e.g., reference [3]). Pipe use of flexible joints.
Choose appropriate metals for specific environments an example of a system for wl~iicl~ cquation (4) is inac- wall thickness requirements are continually updated The use of expansion bends is simple and reliable.
to prevent stress-corrosion cracking. curate because of thc largc prcssurc drop, and hcncc and revised; therefore, details of the current require- The most simple form of an expansion bend is U-shaped
2.3 Determination of Pipe Sizes. A fluid flowing steam dcrisity change, in thc piping. ments are not repeated here. as illustrated by Fig. 5. The departure from the
through a pipe must be supplied with a pressure gradient Thc friction factor is, in gc~lcral,a function of I<cynolds 2.5 Flexibility. Flexibility is a major consideration shortest run of piping between the two anchor points is
to overcome the frictioilal resistance of the pipe walls. number (and hence of thc fluid velocity, density, l~rld in the design of high-temperature piping systems. High- obvious. The points shown as anchored must be
Tllc typical engineering problem is to find the pressure viscosity, and the pipe dinmctcr) and of thc pipe wall temperature piping systems must be designed to have considered to be anchored not only in position but also
680 MARINE ENGINEERING PIPING SYSTEMS
BOILER N 0 . 2
LEGEND OF SYMBOLS
AHEADTHROTTLE NOTES
A L L GAGES ARE TO BE F I T T E D WlTH A VALVE AT T H E MAlN AND ONE AT THE
GAGE EXCEPT WHERE GAGE I S LOCATED ON MAIN. THEN ONE VALVE WILL BE USED.
T
O
-+
-, STM. FLOW TRANSMITTER A L L PlPE SIZES SPECIFIED ARE NOMINAL, WlTH 1.P.S OUTSIDE DIAMETERS.
A L L PIPING. VALVES AND FITTINGS TO MEET THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE U S C G
Cc TELL-TALE ANDABS.
4. PlPlNG TO BE BENT T O A RADIUS OF 5 DIAMETERS.
5. PROVISION FOR EXPANSION TO BE MADE IN A L L PIPES WITHOUT THE USE OF
' SLIP JOINTS OR CREASED OR CORREGATED PlPE BENDS.
CONTROL AND INSTRUMENT PlPlNG L E D FROM SUPERHEATED STEAM LINES
SHALL BE SOARRANGED AS TO PRECLUDE CONDENSATE FROM ENTERING THE
SUPERHEATED STEAM L I N E S IN ORDER TO GUARD AGAINST THE POSSIBILITY
OF CRACKING DUE TO THERMAL SHOCK.
FLANGES FOR MAlN STEAM TO BE USED ONLY AS REOUIREO AND WHERE
ATTACHEO TO TURBINES AND EOUIPMENT. LINE JOINTS TO BE WELDED USING
BACKING RINGS.
OPERATING CONDITIONS AT THE BOILER SUPERHEATER OUTLET ARE 8 7 5
P S l G AT 930.F TOTAL TEMPERATURE. I FLOWS AND VELOCITIES NOTES
ALL PIPE LINES A R E TO BE PROVIDED WITH DRAINS WHERE NECESSARY.
ATMOS 10. LOCATE O N M A I N CONSOLE. m MEET
ALL PIPING. VALVES AND FITTINGS
I I. FOR EMERGENCY OPERATION ON H.P. TURBINE ONLY, TEMPORARY PlPlNG I S REDUIREMENTS OF THE USCG ANDABS.
INSTALLED AS SHOWN BY DOTTED LINES. FOR OPERATION WlTH THE L.P. PlPlNG ARRANGEMENTS SHALL B E DESIGNED WITH
TURBINE ONLY, THE BELLOWS I S REMOVED FROM THE CROSSOVER PlPlNG AND DUE REGARD FOR THERMAL EXPaNSION AND
ALLOWABLE LOADS ON PUMPS AND OTHER
DESUPERHEATED STEAM IS INTRODUCED TO THE L.P.TURBlNE BY THE
TEMPORARY PIPING. EOLI~PMENT..
FLANGES FOR AUXILIARY STEAM ARE TO BE USED
ONLY WERE ATTACHEO TO VALVES FITTINGS OR
Fig. 8 Diagram of main steam for a 24,000-shp ship EQUIPMENT.
BACKING LINE JOINTS ARE T O ~ WELDEDUSINO
RINGS. E
PlPlNG f0BE-~ENTTO A RADIUSOF 5DIAMETERS.
A L L PlPE LINES ARE TO BE PROVIDED WITH DRAINS
WERE NECESSARY.
machines, the pipe size must be determined as required pressure lines to protect both p$ing and machinery
for efficient service and the design details must be selected which are not designed for the higher pressure. A
to suit the pressure involved. pressure gage is also provided to indicate the reduced
Some of the auxiliaries are usually designed for full steam pressure.
boiler pressure while for others a reduced pressure is 3.4 Turbine Bleed Steam. As discussed in Chapter 2,
required. Where this is the case, a reducing valve is the heat available from the steam is progressively
fitted in the branch line and is set to deliver steam a t the reduced as it passes through the main turbines, and only
required pressure. A stop valve is installed on each side a limited portion of the steam's available energy can be
of the reducing valve and a bypass is provided so that converted to useful work by the turbine. Ultimately,
steam may be supplied and regulated by hand in the after the steam leaves the LP turbine, a large fraction
event that the automatic valve should require over- of the heat in the steam is exhausted into the main
hauling. A relief valve must be fitted in the low- condenser. By extracting steam from the turbine, Fig. 9 Diagram of auxiliary and high-pressure bleed steam
wetern heat exchanger via a regulating valve. High-
pressure bleed s t a m is the least economical of the bleed
atesm dbmatives since it contains a considerable
amount of heat available to the turbine; nevertheless,
u&g it is an economic preference to the use of live
a*m.
2. I n t e r m e h t e bleed connection. There may be
mveral intermediate bleed connections as indicated by
Fig. 10. S h r n from this connection can be used to
supplement the auxiliary exhaust for boiler air heaters,
f d w a t e r heating, and to provide for ship services such
as qusl4ers heating, hobwater heating, galley and other
hotel services. The boiler &r heaters are served directly
f r ~ m&is bleed connection. On the other hand, the
skmn pressure to the other services is not allowed to
iu&uate; et pressure regulating valve is provided to
admiti demperheated steam into the system as required
tb maintain the pressure at a set level. Intermediate
ateern can be used at about one half the cost of live steam.
3. Low-pressure bleed connection. The use of low-
pressurn bleed atearn is an effective means of improving
the t h d efficiency of a cycle. At this point very
little of the h a t remaining in the steam is available to
the turbine and &&ti remaining would be largely
exbauded ik~hthe condenser. However, the use of
sham at &is ~ Q R pressure
- is limited; its major applica-
tbm w e to wrvice the low-pressure feedwater heater
md the distilling plant.
Pn ge.nera1, the design of the turbine bleed system
&auld be: sueh that the heat available in the steam is
utilimd t~ he& advantage f o m the time it leaves the
bailer until it, is returned to the boiler as feedwater.
Eat bftlanees, web as: described in Chapter 2, in ~ h i c h
the: h a t req~rementsd the various shipboard services
me andyzea, w e the design t o d s used to establish the
mast+appropriate turbine bleed steam system.
b5. AwdTmry Exhaust System. The auxiliary ex-
bus%rsystem wlbcts the steam exhausted by the
vwiaus au~nirt~g machinery wmponents and deIivers
the &earn ta EL number of services. The design concepts
w d ta establish the optimum auxiliary exhaust system
amatgemen&ape much akin to t h e used in the design
af the t~rhinebleed system. Services typically supplied
b y the auxiliary exhaplat system include the ship's space
besting system, hotr~vaterheaters, galby, and other
hotd equipme~t. The U.S. Coast Guard rules [ll xe-
quire that the seam pressure far space heating not
exmd 45 psig; mptsequently, by utifiaing steam from the
t$ux&ry exhaust iyrstern, this service is provided in the
most emnomieal manner powible.
Qmd the primmy objectives of the suxilirtry exhaust
sy&em is to m p p I ~stmm to the dmerating feed tank.
In the b e r a t h g f e d tank, the exhaust steam comes
in& direct csnbeti wikh the candensate which is sprayed
(we Chapter 14). ahia mixing of the steam and The exhaust system may d e o t s h m fmm a number vessels9 B a t pctg sysknas, zilaehiy,
wadensate b t a ekre fedwater to its saturation tempera- of a&ry turbines in &B m a a d o&er ieg em & q e due to i e x ~ v e
tare, thus causing the BXimldSir md gases (particuhrly pttrticular design &own in
ctqge~ which
~ is highly cmsive) to be nIessed from the exhaust steam is the fed ee% att a p e s w e not exceeding that fap uhich the
Pdmkr. 3.6 M y Vdve a d
or ~ R t valves
y must be js &signed The reg&tssy bodies require h i
relief v o r 1 m b e ~ h p 8 . e n S ~ h ~
688 MARINE ENGINEERING PIPING SYSTEMS '
pressure of more than 3 percent above the set pressure of terminate in the machinery space, should be led below
the valve for steam, 10 percent for gases or vapors, and the floor plates or to a remote position to minimize
10 to 25 percent for liquids. personnel hazards.
A safety valve is broadly defined as a valve designed 3.7 Main Feed System. The purpose of the main
to open automatically to relieve excess pressure in the feed system is to provide a continuous supply of heated
pressure vessel or element to which it is attached. and deaerated water to the boilers. The pump in the
Safety valves can, however, be further defined according main feed system takes suction from the deaerating feed
to their specific type. The more common types of tank. Boiler feedwater comprises condensate from the
safety valves are defined briefly as follows: main and auxiliary systems, condensed heating steam,
Spring-loaded safety value: A valve fitted with a spring and miscellaneous freshwater drains. These sources of
which normally holds the valve disk in a closed position feedwater are collected in the deaerating feed tank.
and allows it to open and close a t predetermined As discussed in connection with the auxiliary exhaust
pressures. system, auxiliary exhaust steam is used to heat the
Pressure-loaded pilot-actuated safety valve: One which feedwater in the deaeratisg feed tank. The air and
is held in the closed position by steam pressure and dissolved gases in the feedwater are thereby released
controlled in operation by a pilot-actuator valve. and are either vented to the machinery space or piped to
Spriny-loaded pilotactuated safety valve: One in which the gland exhaust condenser. The heated and deaerated
a spring is used in the conventional way to hold the disk feedwater collects in the bottom portion of the deaerating
against the seat; however, it has a piston attached to.the feed tank where it is a source of feedwater for the main
spindle and enclosed within a cylinder which, when feed svstem.
subjected to a limiting or set pressure, unbalances the The main feed pumps take suction from the deaerating
spring load, thereby opening the valve. feed tank and discharge the feedwater to the boilers. I n
Spriny-loaded pilot valve: A conventional safety valve the system illustrated by Fig. 12 at least two feed pumps
designed to actuate another spring-loaded safety valve must be provided in compliance with the regulatory
through a pressure transmitting line led from the body body requirements. The regulatory body requirements
of the pilot valve. further specify that the only function these pumps are
Lever safety valve: A valve having the disk held on its permitted to perform is to supply feedwater into the
seat by the action of a weight hung on a lever which is boilers. The feed discharge piping must be designed
pivoted on a fulcrum. for the pump relief valve setting or the pump shutoff
Relief valve: Valves having the same general design head if a relief valve is not provided.
characteristics as safety valves, provided to relieve To comply with the regulatory body requirements,
excess pressure. A relief valve may, however, be used two feed lines must be used to serve the boilers. In the
for a service where an approved safety valve is not particular design shown, feedwatgr can be delivered j - - j D!ti5 RUB BE^ HOSE
CHEMICAL FEE0 TK
required by the regulatory body requirements. through the main feed line or through the auxiliary feed L .J
~ E S CABINET
T
BILGE. 15 GAL.)
Sentinel valve: A small valve that is used to warn the line. Each pump discharge is fitted with a stop-check
operator of a malfunction and serves as a telltale. The valve in the main feed line and in the auxiliary feed
set pressure is usually above the normal working pressure line. The main feed line is provided with a feedwater NOTES
but lower than the pressure the system can withstand. regulator, a feed stop valve, and a feed stop-check valve. 1. ALL PIPING. VALVES AN0 FITTINGSARE TOMEET T H E
REOUIREMENTSOFTHEUSCG AND A B S
A relief valve, or similar feature, is installed in the The auxiliary feed line is provided with a feed stop valve z. nlaucTcmc
ALL PIPE SIZES SPECIFIED ARE NOMINAL
WITH IPS OUTSIDE
outlet piping from each pressure reducing station. The and a feed stop-check valve.
relief valve is located downstream of both the reducing Each boiler in the design illustrated by Fig. 12 is
valve and the bypass valve and is sized on the assump- fitted with an economizer; therefore, the feed is circulated 5. VALVES REFERRING TO THIS NOTE SHALL BE LOCATEOONOR
tion that the reducing valve could stick wide open. through the economizer before being discharged into the OPERATEOFROM THE MACHINERY FLAT.
6. THE MOTOR OPERATED VALVE AT THE MAIN FEED PUMP
Relief valves for steam or air service are provided with boiler drum. If the design had included more than two SUCTION I S CONTROLLED FROM THE MAIN CONSOLE
7. STOP
THE VACUUM
VALVES UNDER
SUBJECT
THE
TOVALVE S H A L L BE
SEAT
VACUUM INSTALLED
WITH
a substantial lifting device so that the disk can be lifted stages of feedwater heating, the subsequent heating 8. EACH DECK FILLING CONNECTION S W ~BEL FITTED WlTH HOSE
CONNECTIONS AND PROVIDED WITH.LOCK CAP AND CHAIN. EACH
from its seat when the pressure below the seat is 75 stages would also have been in the feed pump discharge CONNECTION SHALL BE MARKED WlTH AN ENGRAVED LABEL
PLATE INDICATING THE SERVICE
percent of that a t which the valve is set to blow. line. % 9. VENT PIPE THERMINAUS SHALL b E FITTED WlTH DOUBLE
SCREENS WHICH SHALL BE REMOVABLE FOR CLEANING. M E
If the design of a relief valve is such that liquid can Under normal operating conditions, the level of the INNER SCREEN SHALL HAVE I I I Z " S O U A R E OPENINGS T H E
OUTER SCREEN SHALL BE FITTED IIP~~FROMTHE INN& SCREEN
collect on the discharge side of the disk, the valve water in the boiler drums is automatically maintained, A N 0 SHALL BE OFSTAINLESS STEEL WIRE WlTH II~~SOUARE
-. -...,.
nDmmr.c "".
should be equipped with a drain a t the lowest point usually a t mid-level of the boiler drum, by the feedwater 10. CONTROL VALVE SENSING LINES SHALL BE A S S H o R b A S
POSSIBLE.
I I. LOCATE O N MAINCONSOLE
where liauid can collect. regulator. Since the auxiliary feed line does not contain 12. LOCATE GAGE TO BE READ ~TCOMBUSTION CONTROL CONS&.
~ s c a piping
~ e from the boiler drum and superheater a feedwater regulator, the level in the boiler drum must ' <e -
safety valves should be designed to have an area of not be manually regulated by throttling the feed stop-check
less than that of the combined areas of the outlets of all valve when the boiler is being supplied via the auxiliary
valves discharging into the escape piping and should be feed line. The auxiliary feed stop valve should not be
led as near vertical as practicable to the atmosphere. used for this pdrpose; i t is essential that wear on this
The piping should be adequately supported and installed valve be k e ~ tot a minimum so that i t can serve as a
so that little stress is transmitted to the safety valve body. tight stop ialye in the event positiGe isolation of the Y ~CUNNEL
Safety or relief valve discharges, when permitted to boiler is required. Fig. 12 Diagram-feed, condensate boiler blow, and boiler water sampling
PIPING SYSTEMS
Even when 6;Re flaw of @~hf& fe$Twa6er is h w ar h m h d sufE&ently hi& ailhove Bhe M x a t e r r$dn d-
QQ-~~QVZexkb for s h o ~h t tmah4wohr muse oakQhu8 hantiag tank &at it em drain hy gr&vity to this h k .
ts b9, &rodate& t h ~ u g bOPre w i n fwd pump in ~pdw A is m a E y desimMa ta amid a pwphg amgement,
~EB cod the p m p Fw thiw puqmse?wdwlating as ea, pump and motar end tihe required p i e g and eon-
have h e n pr~vkled. Them lines fishre flaw bmm the W s em eEmh~kd,md the initial e ~ s d t the system is
pump" dheharge m d rwira$a&e the fiow back to the F & W ~ as are maintenance snd space requirements.
detaamting f cedi tank. A rYypiml wmngement, for a 60ndensate sys.tem is
High md bw lexgls am mainhined in 8he deaemtbg ilkusbated by Kg. 12. En &e sys4enr &own there is Qne
feedvaa$~Beatm 6 a the d e - b spill an4 the m k t main emdenser semd by Cw~amain condensate pump;
up f e d & e ~ * mpeeiTFely, each of f i c h ere mta- the re&at~ry bedies q u i r e &at two means be prayid&
mpItim& mntded by BigB4e;vd md law-led mnW far dl6&twging the condensatefmm Ohe maah wndewem.
pilob. The high-level spill d y e bps the &emate Mker being pumped fmm the main cmdem~). the caw
in the h e feeding a h fimbsfaga fedwater B&ex BQ the EEmmte st.tcceely passe8 tbmugh the main stir ejector
&tilled water tank; #e ~QW-level mrtKeup f e d valve m a d e a ~ r s %the $and Eed'c-off condenser, and the first-
dumps W&&F fmm the disblled water tank to &e m& stage feed heater enroute ta the deaemting feed tank.
eormdenser; see Fi.12. 3-9 S a w d e ~Sysams. The pwpse of smwatex
As indicated in Fig. 12, water r x t m can ~ ~ be $&en q & e m e m ~arn-dfiuenship is tm pmvide seawater
fram the W e r water wa.110, deaexating feed b k , and d m t , ta the main and d i a r y mn4ensers and the
c~lhtamin~txd skwn pnemhr amd the mm$es a n he vmiaus heat exchangers (e-g., the main Eubriating-aiE
cooled aind tmted in cmvelrient access &aa sink. matera, lubricating-02 d e r s for the turbine-dkea
TOf&ciE&aQe the rnaintenaaw of W e r water &emis- aw5Eari.e~~ turbcrgeneretor 8ir and Iwtb~ioaGng-ailw'ters,
try, a & e m i d mixing tank and a chemical feed tank m a i ~feed pump IubPicating wler, and ship service
are a h provided w shown in Fig. 12. and eargQmfG@:e&im~~PEdensem].In most instances,
During perids of shiplay-up, €hebailew &remzmtimee independenti mawater systems are pmvidd ta supply
filled with watep, Wdez far t h k purpose can be drown the: emfanant im e a q ~and shig service refrigerating
&am distilled wabr tank. A apecid esnxamthn mndemem and ot:h~rmiscellanmus semiem tm %wt~ate$
feam &e distilled w a t e ~tmk ta Me f e d pump s,uetiaaz by Fig. 13.
lines Erm been p d e d far this puqms~. (Tbm are The regdatwy bodies mquiPe that a mala drculating
dm same bailer Iray-wp t e ~ h ofn the ~ *dry"
~ type in pump and rn emergenoy meam d eireulathg water
which the wahepsitde G*comp1eteBy &abed and t3k&ceanb t h u & the main condenser be, provided. When dud
me i n t m d u d ;see Chapter 3 for additional ~ m d m -in eireulakjngMmps are ins+dE& (with b t k required
wx t h i ~mhj&-) for Pull-power design conditians), the emergency requim
8.8. eZPPbtb a d CrndemseCe Systems. The p q o w of men& is m n & d to he satisfied; QP the emergency
the drain and mndenmte sysfmn~fiis ta milmt the d ' ] : s j ! ~ provbiwbns,may e m i s &~f a cannection fmm an iElcIepe*
md txwxkmat4 fmm th& vtwhu~sset~mes~ deliver deab, power pump &at is fitted hetween the m&
%hemta the deztera&g feed tank. clreulating pump an& the m~denser. Dud main I
are cHm&m&iw af drnim: hq+mm ejircdrrting pump8 and various cxms wmeetiona fzr NOTES
nd hw-pressurn dmba IEigh-pmessu~edrains nomd and emergency semiee b $hevaio\rs system are I. REOUIREMENTS
ALL, PIPNVG. VALVES
OF THEUSCG
AM FITTINGS ARE w ,WT T*
+WOABS
i&& &me fmm the main ateam fin% ba:ie~preswure mmetimw provided M iindiesbed i~ Fig-13. 2. ADJACENT
A~~ MOTORTOUN~T
OPERATED THE
ALSO AT.RE
ANOVALVES ID ;*=
EN= m-
OPERATING CONSOLE
auxih~ a t a m lines, m d other high-pressure pockets. With some ships, a smap system forces &he seawater 3. CONDENSER HEAD V E ~ T SSHAU SLOPE
CHEST VENT.
w TOT=-
These Mils me piped b m high-pm~e.cfrtah main bhugb the aondemr [82. The ppewure bead that @a 4. THE SEA CHEST VENT SHALLTE~WA~E ~ ~ r ~ n m ,
whi& diwhqps $ i t b%~z the dew~3imgf d tan&
The law-pscssme (or:freshwat,er) &&in mi& OQ$~@& not feasible
Yre deveEaped:by o snoop ia limited sueh &a,& 10is generally
use samps with t m p a ~candenst3~8.
~
I OECX,
5. SWING CHECK VALVES SHALL
AN0 AFT OIRECTION.
BE ISTAL~OIN
6. STRAINERS ARE TO HAVE PERFWTKINS~IA~R~W
N WE
En addlthn b the law-p~essurechin mak8there are paes cmdenms (e.g., paersenger &ipsz carga ship* msnd
m v e d ather dxains which dimbarge into khe f d w & k r acc&o~d tankers),
drain &mting W k . Dmbs fpm pockets in &e At very Iw forwad speeds and when manewex+ a
audimy exhaust main, h w - p m w e steam, and bleed m o p does not prgduce a sufEciently large pressure head
&earn piping dm &charge Into the freshwater: drain ta maintain am &equate seawater AQW. Therefo~e,
mllfecting tank. when, a scoop i~xjee~an sy&m is install&, it is also
The low-prwure feed heatex drains can be either n e c v ba pELPOvide a w i n ckdat;lng gpmp far IQW
pumped itktD the eondensate .system, wwaumdsagged. to spe& md ahen msneuvering.
the condenser, ar the law-presswe. feed heater mqy be Normally, addltktn %i tbesa. mean5 of p r ~ v i h g
692 MARINE ENGINEERING PIPING SYSTEMS
seawater to the main condenser, yet another supply of located beneath the reduction gear. The sump should
seawater is usually provided by arranging the piping have a total capacity sufficient to contain the oil in the
such that either the auxiliary condenser seawater pump gravity tank, the service piping, and the normal operating
or the general service pump, if such is provided, can capacity without overflowing through the main gear
discharge through the main condensers. bearings. The main lubricating-oil pumps pump the
Circulating water is taken from the sea by way of oil back to the gravity tank.
either of two suctions. One suction, usually located In order to provide a satisfactory lubricating-oil drain
near the turn of the bilge, is called the high suction and piping design, exacting attention must be paid to design
the other, located very low in the ship, is referred to as details. To minimize foaming within the sump tank, all
the low suction. With this arrangement clean water return lines to the sump tank should discharge below
can be taken in even when operating in shallow water the normal working level. Since this arrangement
with a muddy or silty bottom. precludes a flow of air through the piping, it is essential
Seawater piping should be designed such that air that the drain piping be designed so as to avoid trapping
pockets will not form, and the design should be such that pockets of air in the piping and thereby restricting the
entrained air remains entrained as it passes through the flow of lube oil. This is accomplished by (a) liberally
piping, condenser or heat exchanger, and overboard. sizing drain piping and (b) sloping all drain piping but
Condenser heads should be vented, and the vent piping ensuring that the slope does not exceed about 60 deg
should be sloped upward. It is generally advantageous from the horizontal (in spme cases this may. require the
to combine the piping vents with the sea chest vents and piping to follow a spiral path). Additionally, all branch
route them within the vessel well above the load water- lines should connect from the side of the main drain
line. lines. For additional discussion regarding the design of
Protective strainers should be provided to protect the lubricating-oil tanks, see Chapter 20.
tubes of heat exchangers provided with a seawater Two (one a standby) lubricating-oil service pumps
coolant. The mesh or perforations of the strainer each take suction from the oil sump through a strainer.
baskets should be equal to or smaller than the heat Each pump discharge is fitted with a relief valve relieving
exchanger tubes which they serve. Duplex strainers to the sump tank. A stop-check valve may be installed
are shown for the seawater piping to the turbogenerator in each pump discharge to prevent backflowjhrough
oil and air coolers in Fig. 13. Simplex strainers may be the idle pump; or, alternatively, a check valve may be
used when services are supplied by multiple pumps, as located on the suction side of the pump. Check valves
is the case with the seawater service pump suction piping on the suction side offer the advantage of preventing air
in Pig. 13. from entering the system through the pump seals. The
3.10 Lubricating-Oil System. The propulsion plant pumps are preferably located lower than the operating
lubricating-oil system provides the means to lubricate level of the oil in the sump in order to ensure that the
and cool bearings and working parts within the main standby pump suction is always flooded with oil.
propulsion turbines, main reduction gears, and main The pumps discharge through a duplex magnetic
thrust bearing. A detailed discussion of lubrication strainer via the lubricating-oil cooler to the gravity tank.
theory and lubricating systems is contained in Chapter The temperature of the lubricating oil leaving the coolers
20 and therefore will not be repeated here. Instead, the is regulated by a thermal element which senses the oil
following discussion is primarily directed towards the temperature, and the oil temperature may be controlled
piping of lubricating systems. in either of two ways: (a) a bypass valve may route the
The lubricating-oil piping must be independent of lubricating oil around the cooler when the aooler dis-
other piping systems. The lubricating-oil system should charge is excessively cold (a control valve bypasses oil
be designed to operate satisfactorily when the vessel is so as to maintain the temperature of the oil in the range
permanently inclined to an angle of 15 deg athwartship for proper lubrication), or (b) the quantity of cooling
and 5 deg fore and aft, and when rolling up to 30 deg or water to the cooler may be varied to maintain the oil
pitching 10 deg. While this requirement also applies to discharge temperature in the proper range.
other piping systems, it is of particular importance in The gravity tank is provided wit6 an overflow line to
connection with the lubricating-oil system (e.g., the slope the sump tank with an illuminated sight flow indicator
of drain piping must be checked at all inclined positions, located on the main operating level. The capacity of
and the oil free surface in sumps must be investigated each lubricating-oil pump is in excess of the turbine and
to ensure that the oil will be properly contained). gear requirements, thus providing a continuous flow of
The main turbines and reduction gears are usually oil in the overflow line. The overflow line is equipped
lubricated by a gravity-pressure system in which oil is with an air separator to free the oil of entrained air
supplied to the main propulsion unit from a gravity tank before being returned to the sump. The gravity tank
located on the upper level of the machinery space; such is also provided with a low-level alarm switch set to
a machinery arrangement is illustrated by Fig. 1, and a sound when the tank level drops below a predetermined
diagram of a typical lubricating-oil system is shown in level. A low-oil-pressure indication and alarm is
Fig. 14. provided at the main gageboard. Usually, about six
The oil drains from the propulsion unit to a sump minutes supply of oil is contained in the gravity tank.
MARINE ENGINEERING
I
s The capacity of the settling tank is usually sufficiently regarding lubricating systems for oil-lubricated stern
large to hold one complete change of oil. tube bearings, see Chapter 11.
The lubricating-oil service pump motors are fitted 3.11 Fuel-Oil Filling, Transfer, and Oily Ballast
with a control system arranged to automatically start Syrkm. There are two fuel-oil piping systems aboard
the standby pump in case the operating pump fails. An ship which are closely related but are clearly distinct.
alarm sounds when the pressure developed by These are the fuel-oil service system, and the fuel-oil
the operating pump drops below a set value. The transfer, filling, and oily ballast system. The fuel-oil
redundancy provided by the standby pump results in a service system includes the piping necessary to convey
highly reliable pumping capability. Nevertheless, the oil from the settling or day service tanks to the fuel-
steam-turbine-driven propulsion machinery depending oil burners. The transfer and filling system includes the
on forced lubrication must be designed to shut down low-pressure piping required for fining the tanks and for
automaticaUy upon complete failure of the lubricating the transfer of oil from one storage tank to the settling
SKETCH "A"
system. To accomplish this, the pump discharge main tanks for immediate use or another storage tank when
TYPICAL SECTION THROUGH
is often arranged to supply oil for the operating cylinders necessary for trimming the ship. FUEL OIL TRANSFER AND
BALLAST MANIFOLD.
of the main turbine ahead and astern throttle valves. In order to increase the draft of the ship and improve
Filling of the lubricating-oil system is accomplished its seakindliness, i t is often desirable to fill empty fuel-oil
F ~ . O V B O . BF.O.TRANS.
from the deck to the storage tank. Makeup oil to the tanks with seawater ballast. The piping system used PUMP DISCHARGE
main sump may be taken from the storage tank via a to take on and discharge seawater ballast from fuel-oil O"F.O.OVERFLOW STAN
locked-valve line to the gravity tank overflow. Makeup and ballast tanks is known as the oily ballast system. I n 0.8. TKS. NO. I F.O. OR sW.
oil to the turbogenerator sump may also be taken from addition to providing the ability to fill and transfer fuel
the storage tank. Oil may be drawn from the settling oil, the same distribution piping to the fuel-oil tanks may
the ship below deck. Filling lines run from the main ENDOF TAILPIPE
For batch purification the contents of the entire down to the tanks. The overflows are provided with LOCATE0 ABOUT 3 "
ABOVE TANK TOP P 8 s
system are purified. This is accomplished by draining adequate height to prevent overflow under normal
the gravity tank to the sump tank. Then the oil in the conditions when filling.
sump tank is transferred from the sump to the settling The fuel-oil transfer system is served by a fuel-oil
tank with the main lubricating-oil pump. Next the oil transfer pump and, in an emergency, it may also be SECTION- OVERFLOW PIPI
in the settling tank is heated and allowed to settle. The served by a general service pump. Fuel oil carried in
purifier suction pump then takes suction from the the storage tanks (innerbottom or double bottom and
settling tank and discharges through the lubricating-oil deep tanks) is transferred to the fuel-oil service tank by
heater to the purifier, and the purifier discharge pump the fuel-oil transfer pump. The stored fuel oil usually NOTES .
delivers the oil to the gravity tank and fills the sump must be heated before it can be pumped. I.
loTAL
DATA BASED ON FUEL OIL V l s c O ~ l ~3y0 0 0 ssU
FLOW OF 2 2 0 0 BBLS/HR TO ALL TANKS ~ N C ~ ~
tank by overflowing the gravity tank. 3.12 Fuel-Oil Service System. I'uel-oil service OF 3 6 0 BBLSfHR TO NO I DOUBLE BOTTOM T A ~ ~
Iror ships which have oil-lubricated stern tube bearings pumps take suction from the service tanks and deliver 3. SPEED
THE F PUMP
U OIL
~WHICH DEVELOPS
TRANSFER
~ TO
PUMPA IS A TY A
E R~HEAD LT ~ O -
T ~ C AOF
1 0 0 PSI AT 3 0 0 GPM.
(as opposed to water-lubricated rubber or wood bearings), the fuel oil to the burners a t the desired temperature
a separate lubricating-oil system is provided for the and pressure to suit the type of oitburned. A diagram
stern tube bearings. The system incorporates a gravity of a fuel-oil service system is shown in Fig. 16.
tank which maintains a pressure in the stern tube Suction lines are provided a t two positions in the '9. l5 of fuel-oil filling, transfer, oily bollast, and overflowsinmachinery
slightly in excess of the seawater pressure. The tank service tanks. Normal operation from the low suction
is provided with a fill connection, gravity pressure line is changed to the high suction in the event of excessive
to the stern tube bearing, sight level indicator, vent, and water in the bottom of the service tank. When water
high-low level alarm. The system a t the stern tube or sludge is found in the tank, the fuel-oil transfer pump discharge strainem, meter1 mntrol valves) and the fuel- spilling onto Piping plates draining to the
may be connected to the low suction and discharge to a burner header. Bypass valves are provided around bilge.
itself has been designed with many variations. It may the meter and the control valves.
consist of a pump taking suction from a drain tank and slop tank. The regulatory bodies require that at least tm-0 fuel-
The fuel-oil suction main is provided with a duplex Strainers in the System suction and discharge should
discharging through a filter or coalescer to the aftermost be of the oil sewice pumps be provided and that each have
stern tube seal. A thermometer is located in the return strainer to prevent sediment from the fuel-oil tanks type Or of a type of being sufficient capacity to supply the boilers a t their
entering the service pumps. Oil from the service pump deaned without intempting the fuelmoilsupply. C0am- rating. Two motor-driven rotary-type fuel-oil service
line from the stern tube and a pressure gage is provided
at the pump discharge. For a more detailed discussion passes through a stop-check valve to the fuel-oil heaters, in@) drip pans, etc., should be fitted under the strainers pumps are usually and are valved and inter-
and and wherever necessary to Prevent oil from mnnected such that either pump can take suction from
I
696 MARINE El PIPING SYSTEMS
either service tank. Each pump is installed such that it is tory authorities, particularly for the pumping of bilges.
capable of being overhauled while the other is in service. All manned vessels must be provided with a satis-
A relief valve is located in the discharge of each pump
and is arranged to discharge into the pump suction. An
automatic pressure-regulating valve is usually installed
factory bilge pumping system which is capable of pump-
ing from and draining any watertight compartment
except for ballast, oil, and water tanks which have an
RECIRC LINE
-F 1
between the service pump discharge and the burner acceptable means for fillingland emptying independent
header. This valve maintains a constant pressure at the of the bilge system.
inlet side of the burner headers by recirculating oil back The capacity and number of pumps or their equivalents
to the pump suction. to be used in the bilge system depends upon the size,
Fuel-oil service pumps must be equipped with means type, and service of the ship. Specific requirements
of emergency shutdown from a position outside of the regarding the number of bilge pumps and their capacities
machinery space which will be accessible in the event of are delineated in references [I, 31.
a fire in the compartment in which the pumps are The bilge pumping system must be capable of de-
located. watering the ship under all practicable conditions
Two fuel-oil heaters, each capable of supplying the after a casualty including extreme conditions of list and
total oil requirements of the boilers and arranged such trim. For this purpose, wing suctions are generally
that one can be overhauled with the other in service, are fitted except in compartments that are narrow in the
usually provided. The steam to the heater is supplied fore-and-aft direction and at the ends of the vessel,
through a thermostatically controlled pressure regulator where one suction is sufficient. In compartments of PLAN VlEW
which is capable of maintaining the temperature of the unusual form, additional suctions may be provided. A SEE NOTE 7 NOTE NOTE 7
I
oil leaving the heater at the value necessary for proper nonreturn valve should be fitted to the end of the bilge
atomization of the oil being burned. A relief valve is pipe in the compartment which it serves.
T
BRIDGE DECK
located on the oil side of the heater to prevent excessive All bilge suctions must be fitted with suitable strainers. .L
,,1
! \BAFFLE F r---1
pressure within the heater. In the machinery spaces these should be placed so that
The fuel-oil flow to the boiler is controlled by the they are easily accessible from the floor plates and
combustion control system. should be of a type that can be easily cleaned. At the
A recirculating line is provided for each boiler to return end of the bilge lines in other compartments, ordinary
the oil to the pump suction when recircu.lating to heat box strainers or their equivalent are satisfactory provided
the oil during a cold start-up or during a condition in they have an open area not less than three times the area
which all fires in a boiler are temporarily secured. of the suction pipe. In addition to the suction strainer,
The discharge piping from the fuel-oil service pumps easily cleaned strainers should be fitted in the line
to the boilers must be of steel, seamless, and of schedule- between the manifold and pumps and so arranged that SEE NOTE 8 1
-, I \SEE NOTE B
SECTION VlEW
80 thickness. Nonferrous material cannot be used in the pumps will be protected against any debris that may '
SHOWING BURNER FUEL OIL AND
this system except for the short lengths of tubing from have passed through the individual strainers. DIESEL OIL COLD BOILER START PIPING
the burner header to the individual burners. The piping design must be such that miscellaneous
Piping between service pumps and burners should be water in the compartments will drain to the bilge suction
located so as to be readily observable. pipes. The bilge suctions are arranged so that water
The relief valve located at the pump discharge may from all tank tops, watertight flats, insulated holds,
discharge back to the suction side of the pump. The peak tanks, chain lockers, and decks over peak tanks can
relief valve provided for the fuel-oil heaters should be drained. Where drainage from particular compart-
discharge to a service tank. The return line from the ments is considered undesirable, the provisions for such
burners should be so arranged that the pump suction drainage may be omitted, provided the safety of the
piping cannot be subjected to discharge pressure. vessel is not impaired.
If screwed-bonnet valves are used, the valves should The pump discharge from the bilge system is always
PUMP TABLE
be of the union-bonnet type capable of being packed led overboard,-and when the same pump is used for
under pressure. other purposes, as for ballast water, fire main, etc.,
Unions are not used in pipe sizes of one-inch nominal other discharge connections are pwvided. Each pump COLD BOlLER S1ART ROTaRI
size and above. Bushings and street ells should not be may have a separate discharge through the ship's side, NOTES
used in fuel-oil discharge piping. but it is desirable that the shell penetrations be as few I. ALL PIPING, VALVES AN0 FITTINGS ARE TO MEET THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE
U.S.COASTGUP.ROAN0 ABS.
3.13 Bilge and Ballast Systems. The bilge and as practicable; therefore, two or more discharge lines are 2. ALL PIPE SIZES SPECIFIEOARE NOMINAL WITH I P S OUTSIDE DIAMETERS.
3. COAMINGS. ORlP PANS. ETC SHP.LL BE FlTTEOUNOERNELOILSERVlCE
4, ~ ~ ~ ~ j ~ $ ~ f : L ' " p ~ ~ ~ C T ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ S ~AytALGE.. ~ E ~ ~ ~ , " ~ M ~ T ~ L ~ ; ~ J & ~ ~ ~ ~
ballast systems, while having two distinct functions to usually combined in one outlet, each line being fitted TEMPERATURE STEAM LINES.
perform in the ship, are usually so interconnected that with a valve to permit isolating the line from the others. 5. FUELOIL SERVICE PUMPS SHALL BE CONTROLLEOFROM THE AUXILIARY BOARO.
ALSO THE PUMPS SHALL HAVE PROVISIONSOUTSIOE THE MKHINERY SPACE
it is found advantageous to cover the two systems on the Bilge and ballast pumping systems are arranged so as FOR EMERGENCY SHUT OOWN.
6 . THE MAIN SOLENOIO V4LVE IS TOCLOSE IN EVENT OF LOSSOF POWER TO THE
FORCEOORAFT BLOWER. LOW WATEROR TOTALFLAME FAILURE WITHIN THE
same arrangement plan. The same pumps are commonly to prevent oil or water (from the sea or ballast spaces) BOILER A MANUALTRIP SHALL BE PROVIOEOONTHE VALVE
7. HIGH SUCTIONPIPE SHALL TERMINATE IB'ABOVE TANK BOTTOM LOW SUCTION
connected to serve both systems, and the piping with its from passing into cargo or machinery spaces or from PIPES SHALL TERMINATE BELOW THE LEVELOF THE BOTTOM o ~ T H E T A N K I N A
ORAlN WELL.
8. FUEL O h RECIRCJLAT hG L NL IS TOENTER NEAR TOPOF FUEL OIL SETTLING
valves and fittings must be so arranged that each system passing from one compartment to another. The bilge TAN* AN0 TERMINATE NEAR THE WTTOM OF TANK IN A"U"BENO.
9. THE BLlNER SOLENOIO VALVE IS TO CLOSE N EVENT OF BURNER FLAME
can function without interference with the other. For and ballast mains are fitted with separate suction valves fAILJRE. A MANUAL1R.P S ~ A L LLIE PROVIOEOONTHE VALVE.
this purpose the systems should be provided with more at the pumps.
Fig. 16 Diagram of fuel-oil service system
than one pumping capability, as required by the regula- The number, location, and size of the bilge suctions in
1
MARINE ENGINEERING PIPING SYSTEMS. 699
i
the boiler and the machinery compartments must be For this purpose ovedows are provided. In order to
determined when the piping plans are submitted for avoid the necessity of comparatively large overflow
approval by the regulatory bodies and must be based pipes from each tank leading up through other com- DRAIN FROM BOILERS
upon the size of the compartments and the drainage partments, where they interfere with the arrangement of VACUUM SWITCH
osEN
Lv.*lL,-- TANK
arrangements. these spaces, it is common practice to provide a stand-
A bilge and ballast system for a typical dry-cargo ship pipe on the main discharge from the pumps to the tanks.
is illustrated by Fig. 17. For the purpose of determining This pipe should be the full size of the discharge main
the required number of bilge pumps, this ship is classed and should have its outlet at a level not exceeding the
as an oceangoing dry-cargo vessel over 180 f t long. allowable test head on the tanks. The pump discharge
Since centrifugal pumps have been provided in the must be so arranged that when the tanks are being filled
system illustrated by Fig. 17 (as is the usual case with it will also have an unobstructed discharge overboard. .
bilge and ballast systems), a central priming system The standpipe outlet must be separate from the regular
has been installed. An alternative would have been overboard discharge.
to provide centrifugal pumps with their own priming In the arrangement illustrated by Fig, 17 the forepeak
system; or, where positive-displacement pumps are tank and the afterpeak tank axe connected to the clean
used, a priming system is not required. ballast system. As required for trimming the ship, these
The chain locker sump and the bilge pockets, such as tanks are filled from the sea or emptied by the fire and
those around the bow thruster, are often drained by an clean ballast pump. The centrifugal motor-driven fire
eductor. Actuating water for the eductor is furnished and clean ballast pump may have to be primed before
by the fire main. emptying the peak tanks (when the head corresponding
As stated previously, the ballast system is usually. to the level of the water in the tank is not sufficient to
connected with the bilge system. It is usually served, prime the pump) ; for this reason, it is connected to the
in part, by the same pumps, but the piping between the central priming system.
pumps and the ballast tanks has no connections with 3.14 Freshwater Systems. As discussed in Chapter
the bilge system. In some cases a tank requires con- 1, a fundamental decision to be made in the design of the
nections to both systems, as when the tank is used freshwater system is the choice between providing
alternately for ballast or dry cargo. Under these sufficient tankage aboard ship so that fresh water can be
conditions the bilge system and the ballast system must purchased at the various ports of call and stored until
be arranged to serve the tank but so arranged that, when used, and the alternative of producing fresh water aboard
one is needed, the other is blanked off. ship by distilling seawater in low-pressure evaporators.
The arrangement of the piping to the various ballast The most advantageous choice or compromise between
tanks is in general similar to that for the bilge system, the two depends upon particular circumstances;however,
the main difference being that, with the exception of the low-pressure evaporators are the common choice.
discharge overboard, the bilge piping is arranged for An additional decision to be made deals with the
suction only, while the ballast. piping aonsists of-both number of grades of freshwater systems carried aboard
suction from'and discharge to each ballast tank. ship. Here there is the choice between designing a
Separate main lipes for suction and discharge should be system containing two grades of fresh water (potable MACHINERY SPACE I
provided to simplify operation; in any event the two and wash water) or only a single grade (potable). The
SUCTION B DISCHARGE
should be so arranged that water may be drawn from appreximate quantity of the two grades of water can be TO AFT PEAK TANK
I
any tank or from the sea and discharged into another computed from the data given in Table 3. Carrying a
tank or overboard as may be found necessary to maintain single grade of water greatly simplifies storage and
a proper trim of the vessel. handling facilities, and the trend has been toward fresh-
The sea suctions are usually so arranged that water water systems of a single grade.
can be run into the tanks by gravity if the pumps should The freshwater system must provide a continuous
be otherwise employed, and valves must be provided supply from the storage tanks to the hot potable water DETAIL 'B"
*
wherever necessary for the proper control of the system. system, the cold potable water outlets throughout the TYPICAL SECTION THROUGH
BALLAST MANIFOLD
I n general the size of the ballast pipes is made large ship, and other freshwater services. Itmust be arranged
enough to maintain the suction lift rating of the pump to receive potable water from shore or from a n ~ t h e ship
r
NOTES
down to one half the full level of the tank. and from the distilling plants to fill the storage tanks.
I. ALL PIPING, VALVES AND FITTINGS ARE MEET THE REQUIREMENTS
A pump serving both bilge and ballast systems should Hot potable water must be supplied to all showers, OF USCG ANDABS.
2. ALL PIPE SIZES SPECIFIED ARE N O ~ W A LWITH IPS OLS~SIDE
DIAMETERS:
have at least three valves in the suction manifold: one lavatories, sinks, and other services. The arrangement 3. VACUUM SWITCH STARTS ONE PUMP WHEN'THE VACUUM DROPS TO 1 5 " ~ g .
stop-check valve for connection to the bilge main, one should contain separate mains with branches or indepen- STARTSA SECONDPUMP WHEN I T REACHES 12" Hg, AND STOPS THE PUMPS
WHEN THE VACUUM REACHES 2 0 " ~ THE~ . SWITCH CONTAINSA MANUAL
stop valve for the ballast, and one stop-check valve for dent loops, each serving a washroom or a group of OPERATING FEATURE.
4. SPECTACLE FLANGE TO BE POSITIONED m ALLOW ONLY THE BILGE
suction from the sea. I n the discharge manifolds, there plumbing fixtures. SUCTION TO BE USED WHEN CARRYING DRY CARGO IN THE DEEP TANKS
should be a valve for ballast and a valve for the over- The steam supply for water heaters should be con-
board discharge. trolled by thermostatically operated valves set to limit Wg. 17 Diagram of bilge, clean ballast, and priming syatem in machinery apace
When tanks are being filled by pump pressure, pro- the water temperature. Steam valves should close
vision must be made to protect the tanks against a automatically upon failure of the thermostatic element.
pressure greater than that for which they are designed. Each heater should have a relief valve; the discharge
700 MARINE ENGINEERING PIPING SYSTEMS 70 1
Table 3 A ~ ~ r o x i m aMinimum
te Rates of Water Consumption All risers exposed to the weather should have means filling rate to which the tank may be subjected. In Table 4 Suggested Minimum Vent Sizes for Tanks Containing
for draining to prevent freezing. general, sizes may be as follows: Combustible Fluids
WATERCONBUYPIION,
gallons/personday Gage glasses should have guards, or be otherwise Air escapes from tanks, other than fuel oil, having
Potable Wash protected against accidental breakage. suction and pressure filing connections should be one VENT SIZE,in. ips
Water Water Test Head Test Head
U8E Hose valves and piping for receiving water or tenth the area of the suction or filling connections, -but
Drinking water 5 psi 10 psi
Crew, passengers supplying water overboard should be installed in a not less than 1.5-in. ips for freshwater tanks and 2 in.
0.75 0.5
Cooking water horizontal position about two feet above the deck and for water ballast tanks. 1 0.75
Cook~ngand food washing in a protected location. Each hose connection should Air escapes from fuel-oil tanks should be sized to
Dishwashing 1.25 1
be provided with a cap and chain. A label plate should limit the air velocity through the air escape to 25 fps when 1.5 1.25
Washing
Baths be installed to indicate the service. the tank is being filled a t its maximum designed rate, but 2 1.5
Lavatory Locked, verminproof lockers or other suitable not less than 2.5-in. ips. 2.5 2
Laundry ... 1.0
storage should be provided for the stowage of potable If two or more air escapes are joined together or to a 3 2.5
Cleaning in galley and dining area -
1.5 -... water hoses; a label plate inscribed "POTABLE WATER header, the size of the common air escape or header
8.0 22.0 HOSE STOWAGE ONLY" should be installed on the should be not less than the total area of the air escapes
lockers. connected thereto and serving a group of tanks which provided for fuel-oil and ballast tanlts and settling tanks,
If a hose connection is used to supply potable water will be filled or drained simultaneously. and should be led to the weather deck. If the check
from the relief valve should be to a deck drain knd should to a facility or other system, a warning label plate should In addition to the foregoing requirements, all non- valves in overflow piping are outside the tanks served,
terminate so as not to endanger personnel. be provided in a conspicuous location, and inscribed structural tanks containing combustible fluids must have * air escapes may be connected to overflow piping on the
Cross-connections between potable and seawater Z E F - S H A L L BE DISCONNECTED WHEN NOT a total venting area not less than that in Table 4, tank side of the check valves, provided the overflow is
systems, or connections to other systems that could IN US&.'' unless equivalent venting is otherwise provided to pre- connected to the highest point on the tank top.
contaminate the potable water system, are not permitted. Fittings for hose connections .should consist of a vent excessive pressure when the tank is exposed to an Air escapes from fuel-oil tanlts should terminate in
Valves and blind flanges are not considered a dependable stop-check valve and a vacuum breaker, installed in that external fire. return bends, the open ends of which should be enlarged
means of separating potable water from the other order, upstream to downstream. Air escapes should be run with the maximum attainable to 1.5 times the diameter of the air escapes and fitted
systems. Potable water should not be delivered to Additional requirements regarding freshwater systems rising pitch from the tank to the terminal end to facilitate with double screens which should be removable for
other systems, tanks, or facilities that could contain are contained in the regulations of the Public Health drainage back to the tanks served. cleaning. The inner screen should have a clear area
water of inferior quality unless an air gap of a t least two Service 121; a thorough understanding of the Public Additional air escapes should be installed for tanks or through the screen equal to that of the escape pipe.
supply pipe diameters is provided between the supply Health Service regulations should be obtained before compartments when their shape prevents complete The outer screen should be fitted about 0.5 in. from the
and receiving connections. Examples of facilities which undertaking the design of a freshwater system. venting by one air escape. If more than one air escape inner screen and should have 0.5-in.-square openings.
must have an air gap are the supply to galley and pantry 3.15 Air Escapes,Z Overflows, and Sounding is required, they may be combined and led to an air The screens should be bronze, brass, or nickel-copper
sinks, dishwashers and other scullery equipment, Arrangements. While air escapes, vents, overflows, escape main or to the weather deck. Each branch alloy. Screens should be installed so that they cannot
vegetable peelers, steam kettles, laundry machines, and sounding arrangements do not constitute what may should be full size. be easily painted over or dainaged.
sterilizers, and plumbing fixtures of all types. Presh be considered a piping system, they are nevertheless of All air escapes should terminate in return bends (i.e., Plumbing System Vents. The protection of plumbing
water should be supplied to steam kettles, dough mixer, great importance for the proper operation of the pumping gooseneck bends). system trap seals from siphonage or back pressure
steam tables, and mixing machines via a swing faucet. systems and are subject to special requirements by the Air escapes should terminate in the weather, except should be accomplished by the appropriate use of vents
The location of faucets above the rims of lavatories, regulatory authorities. those from water tanks, which may terminate within from the plumbing drains. The vents should be sized
Air Escapes. An air escape must be provided for all structure open to the atmosphere, and lubrication-oil and installed to permit the admission or emission of air
sinks, and other open receiving vessels constitutes an
adequate air gap. It may be necessary to provide a compartments fitted with filling, suction, flooding, tank vents which may terminate in the same space in so that under normal use the seal of any fixture trap is
funnel in the air gap receiving connection. sluicing arrangements, or interconnected by cross which the tank is located. In order to prevent water not subjected to a pressure differential of more than
floding ducts unless the compartment is otherwise from entering an air escape that terminates on deck, a one inch of water. The vents should be installed as
Distilling plant discharges to both the cold potable
ball check valve may be installed a t the terminus of the
water tanlts and the distilled water tanks must do so via open to atmospheric pressure. Additionally, air escapes continuations of the vertical stack with individual
an interlocked manifold so that flow from the distilling must be installed for all bottled gas stowage compart- air escape. Permanently mounted means should be fixture drain connections forming branches therefrom.
ments. provided for closing the openings of all vents (see the Where a horizontal drain line connects to a vertical line,
plant can be directed to only one system a t a time. requirements in reference [I] on this subject).
Design details to be considered when developing a An air escape or overflow should be provided for the vent should be a continuation of the vertical line.
.
freshwater system are as follows: voids or other-unvented spaces which contain pressure
Bolted connections should not be made through the piping. In general, a 1.5-in. line is considered adequate,
shell of potable water tanks. based on the probability of slow leakage and not com-
Air escapes from tanks or compartments carrying
flammable or toxic volatiles should terminate outside
of the ship a t least three-feet clear of air ports, ventilation
intakes, or other openings into the ship.
All vent and branch vent pipes should be sloped and
connected so as to drip back to the soil or waste pipe by
gravity.
Pumps, manifolds (filling, transfer, and suction), plete failure of the pressure piping. The vhnt pipe opening from a soil or waste pipe,
Compartments having carbon dioxide flooding systems Air escapes from reserve feed or potable water tanks except for water closets and similar fixtures which flush
and gages should be grouped. should not terminate in unventilated spaces- or spaces
Potable water services should be grouped to keep or in which high-pressure air or inert gas are located, t assigned primarily for electric equipment. Those from by siphoning of the trap, should not be below the trap
the number of branches from the main to a minimum. and which may be closed tightly under any condition, weir.
must also have a vent independent of ventilation ducts, potable water tanks should be fitted with insect screens All plumbing system vgnts should terminate. in the
Service branch sizes should be based on the number of and should not terminate in toilet or hospital spaces.
fixtures installed. unless the test head of the space is in excess of the weather. Those from fixtures above the watertightness
To prevent compartment flooding under a damage
Potable water piping should not be run through pressure that can be built up by the discharge of the level should terminate just below the deck next above
.
l.21
ullgaa.
All branch oonnections to the main freshwater
system should be provided with stop valves.
flasks when the compartment is secured.
Air escapes shouldbe sized in relation to the maximum
condition, air escapes should terminate a t a height not
less than the tightness head of adjacent main transverse
bulkheads.
Air escapes from tanks carrying different liquids
that on which the fixture is located. The vents should
be welded directly to the structure where they penetrate
the shell or deck houseside.
A check valve should be installed in the supply to Vents terminating above the watertightness level
up in should not be combined. from soil drains should not terminate near hatches,
water heatem, to prevent hot water from a The terns air escape and vent are used synonymously with
the cold water piping. regard to tanks or cbmpartments. Fuel-Oil Tank Air Escapes. Air escapes should be doors, air ports, ventilation intake openings, or galleys.
702 MARINE ENGINEERING PIPING SYSTEMS 703
"T" outlets of the same diameter as the vent should be height of liquid in tanks, sounding rods, which directly steam p i p or e1eMe equipment when the tube ia of the pump being contaminated with oil. This is the
fitted at the outlet ends of the vents. mearmre the depth of the liquid, are generally provided. opened and the tank b being fiBerE. pump, as required by the rules, which always should be
Overflows. Tanks generally are not designed to If the shape of a tank which requires sounding does not a.16 Fire Pretectlott, A number of meass m y be readily available for fire-fighting purposes.
withstand the shutoff head of the system pumps; permit dropping a sounding rod in a straight line from used for fighting s h i p b r d h.The alternatives The fire, bilge, and clean ballast pump is used to
therefore, the tanks must be protected by overflows the deck, platform, or flat above to the deepest point of include ma,qa&er,w&z fag, carbon dioxide, and foam draw clean seawater or clean ballast and discharge to
which will prevent the tank pressure from exceeding the the tank, a sounding tube must be provided. systems. Eah dtesnative hm limitations (e-g., sea- the clean ballast tanks or to the sea. When serving the
design value. An alternative means of protection (by Some tanks or compartments which require sounding water and mtm fog are h d o u s when 4 in the clean ballast system,, there .is no danger of the pump
installing a standpipe at the pump discharge) is described may be so located that the sounding tube would seriously vicinity of electrical equipment, them is danger d being eontaminated with dl. Since there are several
under the ballmt system. Overflow pipes discharging jsopardize the watertight integrity of the ship or would personnel asphyxi~dion should c m b n dioxide be other bilge pumps (oily bilge and ballast and the general
through the ship's side should be located as high as be unsatisfactory in other respects. In such casei indvertentlg dimhwged into l i h g qwkrs, and foam service pump) yhich normally are used for bilge service,
practicable and should be provided with nonreturn static-head gages or gages of other suitable types may be systems detariomte when subjected ka hihigh tempem- the fire, bilge,' and clean ballast pump is seldom used
valves at the shell; where the pipe does not extend above used. turn). E ~ m l ~ due er~ t o i b availability and generally exoept for loading and discharging clean ballast. In
the freeboard deck, there must be provided, in addition, Factors to be considered in the design of sounding satisfactary r e d @ seawater has continued to be the remote instances when this pump must be used to draw
an effective accessible means for preventing water from arrangements are as follows: primary rneaeana of fighkhg shipbard fires. from the bilges, it normally will pump non-oily bilge.
passing inboard. Sounding tubes should not have reverse bends. The U.& CQ& Guad as well as the elmifieation Therefore, this pump is entirely suitable for fire-fighting
Reserve feed tanks or other tanks may be fitted with The minimum radius of curvature for sounding tubes societies have apee3c quirementa r e p d h g fire- purposes.
relief valves in the filling system or on the tank itself to should be 10 ft. extinguishing equipment on ~ h i p b m d d; e t d s of these Since both d the fire pumps are motor-driven and the
protect against pump pressures. Sounding tubes, should be located at or as close as requirementis m oontained in their published d e s and source of power is the turbogenerators, another power
Overflow piping should be designed so that the practicable to the deepest point of the tank. This is regarE&&m [I, 31. The h-fighting aystem deait with source other than stkam must be provided for one of
combined static and dynamic head in the overflow line particularly true in connection with fuel-oil tanks so here is eonfined ta that employing seawater as $he the pumps to satisfy the rules. As a remlt, one of the
during the most critical overflow condition will not that soundings can be taken at the deepest point of the medium; ifhwin be noted that this system has a number of fire pumps is connected to the emergency diesel generator
exceed the test head of the tank. tank. interfaces 6th @tihershipboard piping ayatems. 0 t h ~as the second source of power. The fire pumps are
The following factors should be considered when Sounding tubes for all tanks fitted with suction appmtxls mob as portable extinguishers a d special located in different compartments as required by the
designing overflows : piping should be located as close as practicable to the eqaipmend required fa^ different type8 d mrviee md d m . (The basis of the rule is to ensure that a fire in a
Intertank or tank-to-compartment flooding by any terminal of the suction tailpipe. machinery instaI:Iatb~are defined under the generd single:space will not incapacitate all of the fire pumps.)
combination of damage to piping and tank boundaries Combining sounding tubes and air escapes from hwdbg of 6re gmfmtion in the W.S.Gaast G u d mlm. As required by the rules, each fire pump discharge is
should be minimized. @
compartments subject to high filling rates, such as fuel- (a) Fhe MirXain System. In order to review the fitted with a pressure gage.
Liquids should not be lost when rolling up to 30 deg. oil tanks, should be avoided. The sounding tubes from dmijp d B fire main sya&m%c ~ m i d wtihe ~ystern The fire main aystem must be designed for a t least the
Piping runs should be in protected locations, and out these tanks should be provided with a cap so designed illustrated by Rg. 18. The fire main system shown in shutoff head of the fire pumps. If the piping itself is
of machinery spaces where possible. that the accumulated air pressure in the tube will be Fig. 18 ia f ~ an r oeem going dry-carm ship and iEl not so designed, the pump discharge must be fitted with
Piping should be sectionaliaed to minimize fire slowly released and equalized before or as the cap is themfore required to be equippad with at Iemt f i w ~fire a relief valve and the system' must be designed for the
hazards. unscrewed. pump%. Eaeh of the fire pump muet have a r&*urn relief valve setting.
A minimum number of shell or oiltight structure eapnity oaf two thirds of the required minimum capacity There must be provided at least one international
Protective plates, extra-heavy tees, or similar
penetrations should be required. protection should be fitted at the bottom of sounding of an itrdqendent Bilge pump. Each fire pump muat shore connection to the fire main available to each side
The overflow overboard discharge should terminate tubes to prevent damage to plating and to prevent the t
a b be cd ~ui%ient eapaclty to deliver water simul- of the vessel and it must be located in an accessible
a t least one deck height above the full-load waterline. tmmdy hhmagh the two highmt and most remete location. Suitable cut out valves and check valves
sounding device from leaving the tube.
The size of the overflow from any tank should not be 2% -is. hydrants connected w%h W ft of h w . Each should be provided. Suitable adapters should also be
less than the size of the filling ~ i p i n gto the tank and not Sounding tubes for potable water tanks should h e mzde af in. d i m mu& have a t least 60 psi a t provided to ensure that the vessel's shore connection8
less than that required to prevent the test head of the terminate with caps. Each tube should have its own the ~ d e .(The, capacity mquhd far 50 psi 3 will mate with those on the shore fin lines.
tank from being exceeded. sounding rod permanently stowed in the tube.
inlet af tm %-in. nozkles i~ generally 1e6s than the AU paste of the fire main located on exposed decks
A reverse bend should be installed just upstream of The upper ends of sounding fittings and tubes that reqi~emenf,d h m %hi& of the ezapacity of one bilge &ou1d either be protected against freezing or be fitted
the check valve and the valve installed adjacent to the are located below the full-load waterline should terminate
in gate valves. ~ump.1 cut oqG valves and drain valves so that the entire
shell. When the fire main i~ use& for washing down the e-d parts of this piping may be shut off and drained
All check valves in overflow lines should have their Where the sounding fitting would otherwise be mdor &@in, &shing the & a h Eaekar and sirniflar in freeaing weather. Except when closed to prevent
flap hinge axes athwartship and should not be spring- located in a locked space, a sounding tube extending to an d i c e , tihe fim grrmp eclpeitiy mmt be i n m d t o take fmeakg, these valves should be sealed open.
loaded. accessible location on the deck above should be provided. oage d this w~~ on the laasia that &he flushing;s e d e ~
The sounding tube should terminate in passage- ESre Byrkants and Hose. Fire hydrants should
No closure fitting or gagging device should be in any mdd 14e in WE &nIrltmnwu~lpwhen water k required be of ~uffioientnumber and so located that any part of
part of the overflow system. ways where practicable. If a soun$mg tube terminates for fire exfhqpishing~ U ~ ~ Q S Mowwer,
~ E A the fire pumpa living qumfiers, storerooms, working spaces, and weather
All overflows should be installed to ensure gravity in a compartment, sounding fittings should be readily an be connected to the deck wash q~ternwithauk
drainage of the piping back to the tank or to the overflow accessible and should be located so as not to interfere de&e acsessible to the crew while a t sea may be reached
i n e d n g the mquhd pump m@ty. with twa effective spray patterns of water. At least one
tank if one is provided. with the function of the compartment. As sbawn ie. Fig. 1% the two fire pump ma also usad
Overflows should not discharge inside the ship Oil tank sounding tubes should terminate one deck in other s@ema m their name& imply. One is called spray pttem should b e ' h m a siligle 50-ft length of
except to an overflow tank provided with an independent height above the tank top if practicable. the fire md eaiEtk c J d n g p m p md &B ~ t h m is referred how. In main maehhery spaces, dl portions of such
overboard discharge. Sounding tubes for double-bottom oil tanks and a~ the frre, bilge* and clean b d a t pump. Neither spaces ~houldbe capable of being reached by a t lemt
Tanks filled through a funnel need not be fitted with water tanks should extend to a convenient height above pump k pemi8ted ta have meotiom ta lie^ or tmks tm effeaive apmy patterns of water, each of which
overflow pipes. the floor plates and in all cases above the highest point m~t4ningoil. should be fram a single S f t length of hose from separate
Overflows and air escapes may be combined where of the tank. The &e. and amk d e e n g pump ia us& to wmh down outlet%
practicabIe. Upper ends of oil tank sounding tbbes should be @heear@ t d w . Qelhn swamter is heah&far bmk Ebb fire station h y d t a ~&ouId
t be provided with at
Sounding Arrangements. In order to determine the located so that oil cannot discharge onto high-pressure w e purposes; mnsequentkl~k,there, b na h Ie& one len& of hose with a noade atkached. A hose
MARINE ENGlNEERlNG PIPING SYSTEMS
INTERCEPTOR
SKETCH "A"~
TYPICAL DIAGRAMMATIC ARR OF STRIPPING
SYSTEM FOR CARGO OIL PUMPS
BILGE B STRIPP
VERTICAL DUPLEX
PUMP
Since the operation of large pumps with steam conditions suction piping. The mains are generally sized larger
as low as 500 F would not be economical, the turbines than the branches to permit simultaneous pumping from
are confined to the engine room. either one large tank or two small tanks without restrict-
Figure 19 illustrates the cargo-oil piping on deck. ing the oil flow. For the purpose of flexibility in han-
The discharge from each cargo pump is led to the upper dling the cargo oil in the tanks, the mains are usually
deck through individual lines to the discharge station capable of being cross-connected in such a manner that
amidships. Each discharge line is fitted with twin hose any pump can be connected to any tank in any group.
connections on the port and starboard sides of the ship One of the more difficult aspects of the design of a
for discharging to shore facilities. cargo-oil system is the stripping (removal of the last
The loading of cargo oil is generally accomplished remnants of oil) of the tanks. When the oil level in a
through filling drop lines connecting to the lines within tank is pumped down, air's enter the suction piping if
the tanks; however, filling may be accomplished by the pipe suctions are not completely covered with oil;
cross connections between the deck piping and suction however, it is not necessary for the suction pipe inlet to
piping in the pump room. The filling drop lines and become uncovered in order for gaa to enter the suction
their connections are shown in Figs. 19 and 20. piping. A major source of gaa in the suction piping is
The piping main (the fore-and-aft piping extending oil vapor produced by the lighter ends of the cargo-oil
from the pump room forward) is sized for a low velocity gasing-off. When the level of the cargo oil in the tank is
(8-9 fps) so as to avoid excessive pressure drops in the low, but still covers the suction inlet by several feet,
MARINE EN PIPING SYSTEMS 709
gasing-off of the cargo oil in the suction pipe can be a deep-well type of cargoail pump. This eliminates, in 4 "Power Piping," USA Standard Code for Pressure
i serious problem. When the air or oil vapors sub-
sequently pass through the suction piping and enter the
some cases, the cargo-oil pump room and the engine
room space for the prime movers. Deep-well pumps
The control of the cargo-oil valves within the tanks
and in the pump room can be accomplished by various Piping, USAS B31.1, published by ASME.
means. Cargo-oil valves on the older ships were man- 5 L. F. Moody, "Friction Factors for Pipe Flow,"
eye of the pump impeller, the cargo-oil pump will lose (pumps with the impeller located down in the cargo ually operated from deck stands with reach rods to the Trans. ASME, 1944.
suction, operate erratically, and possibly be damaged
due to excessive speed surges.
tank and driven through a long shaft by a prime mover
located on deck in an enclosure; see Chapter 12) were
'
valves. The trend is to fit hydraulic operators to the 6 "Flow of Fluids Through Valves, Fittings, and
valves and to control the valves from either a location Pipe," Engineering Research Division, Crane Co.,
The high viscosity of the oil is one factor which primarily developed for small special cargo tanks but on deck or from a central control room. Section 2.6 of
impedes the uniform flow of the oil into the pipe suction. Chicago. b
their use has been expanded. The use of deep-well Chapter 21 contains additional discussion regarding the
Additionally, the flow restrictions presented by the neces- pumps can reduce the need for the long runs of piping 7 "Wrought Steel Buttwelding Fittings," USA
I automation of cargo-oil piping systems. Standard Code USAS B16.9, published by ASME, 1964.
~ sary strength members in the bottom of the cargo-oil
tanks further complicate the stripping of the oil tanks.
An important feature not shown in detail in Fig. 20
required with the pump rooms located aft. More
significant than the reduction of piping is the elimination
of the associated suction pressure losses, particularly
i References
- - - - -- - - - - - - 8 E. F. ~ e & n sand J. R. Reilly, "Condenser Scoop
Design," Trads. SNAME, vol. 48, 1940.
1 Code of Federal Regulations, Title 46-Shipping,
is the design of the suction fittings at the end of the tail- with the larger units. An important aspect of deep-well published by the Office of the Federal Register. 9 A. W. Feck and J. 0. Sommerhalder, "Cargo
pipes in each tank. To be effective in emptying the pumps is their self-priming feature; when the pump 2 "Handbook on Sanitation of Vessel Construction, " Pumping in Modern Tankers and Bulk Carriers, "
tank completely, the suction fitting must be located discharge pressure drops (due to gases passing through U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Marine T e c h ~ h Ivol- , 4, no- 3, July 1967.
within to in. of the bottom plating and have a flow the impellers), the liquid discharged from the impellers Public Health Service. 10 W. M. Morrison, "Control of Cargo Oil Han-
area of approximately 1.5 times the cross-sectional area is recycled back to the pump suction. There are, how- 3 Rules for Building and Classing Steel Vessels, dling," Automation in Merchant Ships, published by
of the attached tailpipe. The different types of suction ever, practical limits in the application of deep-well American Bureau of Shipping. Fishing News (Books) Ltd., London, England.
fittings are described in detail in reference [9]. pumps. Although size is theoretically not a limit, due
Several different schemes have been used for stripping to the size of the vertical driveshaft and the prime mover
oil tanks. One entails the operation of a main cargo-oil with the higher ratings and the thrust developed,
pump at a reduced power level such that the gas will not deep-well pump installations are usually limited to about
be as damaging when it passes through the pumps. An 1000 hp. See references [9, 101 for additional discussion
alternative arrangement is one in which stripping is regarding deep-well pumps.
accomplished by independent reciprocating pumps. All cargo-oil tanks must be cleaned periodically to
Yet a different stripping scheme involves the use of remove the residue that accumulates on the tanks. The
vacuum pumps to remove the air and oil vapor from the medium used to clean the tanks is seawater that is
main cargo-oil pump suction piping. This scheme is pressurized to about 200 psig and is either used cold or
described in references [9, 101; it essentially consists of heated to a temperature of 180 to 200 F (see Section 3.4
a separate tank (from which gas is removed by means of Chapter 14 for a discussion of the heat exchangers
of a vacuum pump) that is installed in the suction piping employed). Either fixed or portable tank cleaning
just upstream of the main cargoail pump. A diagram- (Butterworth) systems may be used. With a portable
matic sketch of a typical arrangement for removing the system the spray nozzles are lowered into the tanks a t
air from the suction piping of cargo-oil pumps is shown intervals of about 5 f t by means of their attached hose.
in Fig. 21. The nozzle mechanisms are constructed such that the
A diagram of the piping arrangement in the pump nozzles slowly revolve around the central gears, thus
room is also shown in Fig. 21 and it may be noted that a directing a stream of hot seawater over all parts of the
steam reciprocating pump is provided for bilge and tank. With a fixed tank cleaning system the nozzle
stripping duty. A reciprocating pump is preferred for mechanisms are permanently mounted in the tanks, with
bilge service due to the fact that maintenance of a the valves which control the flow of water located on
suction head is not essential; contrary to the case with deck. Neither the portable nor fixed system cleans the
centrifugal pumps, reciprocating pumps can pump gas- tanks thoroughly; in order to remove the oil residue
liquid mixtures without difficulty. Additionally, the from the regions that are not properly covered by the
reciprocating pump is well-suited for stripping the cargo spray patterns, cleaning with a manual nozzle is required.
oil left in the tanks and stripping the oil from the main During the tank cleaning operation, the stripping
cargo pump and piping. Strippin pumps are sometimes pumps take suction from the tanks and discharge to a
/
arranged to prime the main argo-oil pumps. slop tank or to shore. This oily mixture is handled in a
A relief valve should be installed in the discharge of manner similar to the oily ballast dishssed earlier.
each pump and piped back to the suction (except that, All cargo-oil tanks must be vented, and for this purpose
when the pumps are designed such that it is impossible each tank should be fitted with a pressure and vacuum
to build up a pressure above that for which the system as relief valve. Alternatively a vent pipe may be led from
a whole is constructed, relief valves are not necessary). each tank into a common header, which should be carried
It is highly desirable to maintain the system pressure to ten or more feet above deck and be fitted with a flame
below 225 psig (Class 2 piping systems as defined by arrester or a vacuum relief valve a t the outlet to the
references [I] and [3]; otherwise, the system must con- atmosphere. Where vessels are intended only for the
form to the more rigorous requirements of Class 1 piping carrying of oil having a flash point above 80 F, a venting
systems). system consisting of individual return-bend vents fitted
As an alternative to the cargo-oil system shown in with wire gauze and a positive means of closing is
Figs. 19, 20, and 21, some installations make use of the satisfactory.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
++ QJdz
Ha = (Ql/dl)Hl (Qn/da)Hz the room slope frequently are arbitrarily selected for
Q1/d1 systems with high sensible heat factors. This is done
where in order to utilize larger terminal temperature differen-
tials [At, equation (3)]; thus, less air is required, which in
Q = air quantity, cfm turn results in smaller systems.
d = air density, cu f t per pound of dry air Where a system serves several spaces, it may be
H = enthalpy, Btu per pound of dry air neither possible nor practical to provide conditioned air
Subscripts apply to the various points. A much simpler to satisfy the lowest individual room slope. I n such
way of obtaining the conditions of the mixture at point 3 cases an arbitrary or average off-coil condition is selected
is commonly used, except where unusual accuracy is for the system. Spaces having a lower sensible heat
required. This is represented by the equation: factor, theoretically, will be overcooled if the air quantity
is selected to meet the latent heat load. Therefore, the
Distance 1-3 = -
Qs supply air to such spaces may require reheating to com-
Distance 2-3 Q1
(1) pensate for the excess removal of sensible heat.
In order to obtain an optimum design and avoid exces-
When the dry bulb temperatures are known, this may be sive air quantities, some marine specifications allow a
expressed, and ts obtained, as follows: degree of latitude in the room design conditions of spaces
with high latent loads. By slightly reducing the room
design dry bulb temperature and increasing the wet bulb
temperature (and relative humidity), the sensible heat
The total heat, HT, removed by a cooling coil consists of occupants is increased and the latent heat is reduced
of the sum of the sensible heat load, Hs, and the latent (see Table 8); thus the sensible heat factor is increased
heat load, HL. The sensible heat load is the transfer of and the necessity of reheating may be avoided on
heat which results in a change of temperature as read by occasions.
an ordinary dry bulb thermometer. The latent heat load 1.5 The Refrigeration Process. The compression
is the heat necessary to cause a chaqge of state, e.g., cycle of refrigeration, Fig. 2, is the most common one
steam to water. These quantities may be computed used today. In this type of cycle, a refrigerant vapor is
as follows: compressed and, in the compression process, gains
Hs = 1.08 QAt (3) energy corresponding to the work of compression. The
HL = 0.68 QAG (4) hot compressed vapor next is cooled by any convenient,
where inexpensive, plentiful medium, such as water or atmos-
pheric air. This cooling process condenses the hot
Q = air volume entering coil vapor to # a liquid. The high pressure liquid next is
At = dry bulb temperature reduction, deg F expanded to a lower pressure and becomes a cold mixture
AG = moisture removal, grain moisture/pound dry air of liquid and vapor. This refrigerant mixture is fed into
a heat exchanger (evaporator) where it absorbs heat and
H T can also be expressed as: changes back to a vapor, the same state as the beginning
HT = 4.45 QAH (5) of compression cycle. '4-
WATER REGULATING
T VALVE
'
RECEIVER [Allied Chemical]
-
LlNE
L
m
-lEXPANSION
VALVE
M EVAPORATOR
-- - - - - - - - s - + - s - J
S
A Y I
tions. However, thermoelectric cooling is normally not the lower freezing point of a calcium chloride solution
OlAGRAnWATlC REFRIGERATION CYCLE
competitive with other forms of cooling and is used only makes its use advantageous. The presence of mag-
REFRIGERANT STATE A N 0 ENERGY CYCLE KEY for special applications; e.g., temperature control of nesium salts in either brine is undesirable, as they tend
- L -+- LlOUlD LlNE electronic components and scientific instruments. to form sludge. Neutral brines are comparatively non-
KEY - S -b - SUCTLON LlNE 1.6 Refrigerants and Brines. A refrigerant is com- corrosive. However, they are subject to contamination
- LOW PRESSURE LlOUlD - HG -b - HOT GAS LlNE monly defined as a substance which produces a refrigerat- from various sources which influence the brine's corrosive
- LOW PRESSURE VAPbR - W +- CONDENSER WATER LlNE ing effect by its absorption of heat while expanding or effects. Since air (oxygen) and carbon dioxide are
- HlGH PRESSURE VAPOR (HOT GAS) - C --r) - CAPILLARY TUBE vaporizing. Additionally, a secondary refrigerant is
defined as the volatile refrigerant used in a secondary
among such contaminants, excessive aeration of brine is
avoided and closed systems are used whenever possible.
- HlGH PRESSURE LlOUlO - R -b - REGULATING VALVE TUBE system, or a nonvolatile liquid refrigerant such as brine. Ethylene glycol and propylene glycol brines, inhibited
A brine is defined as any liquid cooled by the refrigerant for corrosion control, have been widely used. Ethylene
Fig. 2 Graphic presentation of a mechanical refrigeration cycle
and used for transmission of heat without a change in and propylene glycol are colorless, practically odorless
its stage, having no flash point or a flash point above liquids, and completely miscible with water. Inhibited
150 F. From the foregoing it is evident that water may ethylene glycol solutions are normally preferred over
(removes both heat of compression and refrigeration In addition to the single-stage compression cycle just be clmified as either a brine or a secondary refrigerant. propylene glycol solutions because of their more desirable
load) and condenses the hot refrigerant vapor to its described, there are many more efficient-but also more Refrigerant characteristics have a bearing on system physical properties, especially at lower temperatures.
original liquid state. complicated-ones [2]. Such systems usually are justi- design, application, and operation. Theoretically, a However, in applications involving direct contact with
The refrigerant properties of importance in refrigera- fied in marine work only for very-low-temperature appli- refrigerant should be selected for a specific application food or beverages, toxicity considerations may require
tion thermodynamics are temperature, pressure, volume, cations, such as liquefied gas transport and fish process- so as to match the system performance requirements. the use of propylene glycol. On an equivalent percent-
enthalpy, and entropy. Reference [I] presents these ing, where single-stage compression would involve However, safety, standardization, availability, and other by-weight basis, propylene glycol solutions generally
properties in both tabular and graphic form. Pressure- excessive compression ratios. Another reason for using nontechnical factors enter into this selection. have slightly higher values of specific heat than ethylene
enthalpy diagrams are one form of presentation and compound compression, though not particularly applica- The selection of refrigerants for various shipboard glycol, though solutions of either are not as efficient as
comprise three zones as may be seen from Fig. 3. Zone ble in shipboard applications, is to increase thermal applications has become more or less standardized; all water alone for heat-transfer applications. Information
1, on the left, represents subcooled liquid; Zone 2, the efficiency. Cascade systems have been installed on a are halogen compounds. Refrigerant 41 is used with with regard to glycols may be obtained from reference [5].
middle zone, represents a liquid-vapor mixture; and few ships. With this arrangement, two completely centrifugal systems for air conditioning and large high- 1.I Thermal Insulation. Thermal insulation is pro-
Zone 3, on the right, represents superheated vapor. independent refrigeration cycles are used; the refrigerant temperature cargo refrigeration installations. Refriger- vided on a ship's structure and equipment to limit heat
Figure 3 also shows how the actual cycle departs from of the high-stage cycle is the condenser cooling medium ant 12 is used with reciprocating systems and large transfer (gain or loss) and to prevent condensation.
the theoretically ideal Carnot cycle of Refrigerant 12 of the low-stage cycle. By uaing a refrigerant in each centrifugal systems for medium and low-temperature Condensation is generally undesirable in that it can dam-
in several respects. Due to these departures, published cycle which is most suitable to its operating range, very refrigerated cargo installations. Refrigerant 22 is used age the insulation itself as well as other materials it
performance data (refrigeration capacity, refrigerant .efficient performance is obtained. Reference [3] con- with small reciprocating factory assembled units for air contacts. In addition, condensation can cause damage
flow rates, horsepower requirements, condensing medium tains an excellent discussion of this subject and a com- conditioning, liquid chilling, and refrigeration; this in- indirectly by creating high-humidity ambients which in
requirements, and efficiencies) are derived from actual parison of reciprocating versus centrifugal compressors cludes water coolers, ice cubers, pantry refrigerators, and turn can cause deterioration of structures and materials.
code tests and empirical data. for cargo refrigeration applications. freezers. In Europe R-22 is used for certain cargo Effective and efficient insulation treatment is par-
Superheating has certain thermodynamic advantages Absorption refrigeration systems have been used a t refrigeration applications. Future developments in this ticularly important to economical ship design for the
and disadvantages as may be seen from Fig. 3. In sea only for certain special applications. The only country will undoubtedly include the gradual replace- following reasons :
general it improves compressor and system performance fundamental difference between an absorption cycle and ment of R-12 by R-22 for high-temperature.systems and 1 Most materials use$-in ship construction have
and is desirable. Some subcooling, about 5 deg F, of a compression cycle is the substitution of the absorber- R-502 for low-temperature systems. very high thermal conductivity.
the liquid refrigerant occurs in the condenser which in- generator compressor (operated by heat energy) for the Water solutions of calcium and sodium chloride are 2 Structural conformations cause discontinuity of
creases its refrigeration effect; i.e., it reduces the quan- mechanical compressor (operated by work energy). (See common refrigeration brines; properties of these brines insulation applications.
tity of refrigerant circulated. Where cooling is provided reference [I] for a complete discussion of absorption are presented in references [I, 41. Ordinary salt (sodium 3 The "fin effect" of beams and other stiffening
by a liquid-suction heat interchanger (Pigs. 18 and 19)) cycles.) chloride) is used where contact with calcium chloride membem appreciably increases heat transfer through
the associated superheating of refrigerant vapor also Thermoelectric cooling has many advantages which could not be tolerated, as for example the brine fog structures.
serves a useful purpose. are particularly significant with regard to marine applica- method of freezing fish and other foods. Nevertheless, 4 There are many heat-producing (hot) spat- which
MARINE ENGINEERING ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
A 717
must be thermally isolated from cooler surrounding a = thermal conductance of air space, Btu/hr-sq
ft-deg F SURFACE TO AIn
-
of insulation theory, the resulting dead-air spaces have
an insulating effect.Another significant difference is irregular sections, such as are common akoard ship, the ==
-OR( 11 =
MARINATE SHEATHING OR LINING
SHEET METAL SHEATHING OR LINING
.
that on merchant &ips, metal sheathing is fitted to resistance of the section, 1/C, is substituted for
= WOOD DECK 12.5 INCHES THICK)
protect insulation which is not concealed by linings and XXXXX = ANTI-SWEAT COHPOUNO
ceilings (joiner work). The high conductivity of this
sheathing appreciably reduces the effectiveness of the UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED, INSULATION THICK-
insulation treatment unleis adequate means are pro- in the foregoing equations to obtain: NESS I S 2 ~ ~ C ~ ON
I E PLATES
S AND I INCH ON BEAMS
AND STIFFENERS.
vided to thermally isolate it from the supporting ship
Heat transfer occurs whenever there is a difference in THERMAL BREAKS OF NON-METALLIC FURRING
AND BLOCKS ARE CONSIDERED TO BE PROVIDED
temperature between two adjacent bodies. It may be Values for f,, fo, and C are obtained from tests of typical TO PREVENT METAL-TO-METAL CONTACT BETWEEN METAL
accomplished by any one, or a combination of, three constructions using the "guarded hot box" method. fi SHEATHING AND SUPPORTING STRUCTURE.
modes: conduction, convection, and radiation. The and j o vary with surface temperature and direction of
heat, H, transmitted through a flat structure, such as a heat flow (up, horizontal, or down); also, fi varies with
deck or bulkhead, can be expressed as follows: the frame-spacing dimension. Conductance values, C, INSTRUCTIONS
for a particular material vary according to the mean of 1. USE "SURFACE TO A;IR"FACTORS FOR CALCULATING
H = UAAt ('I) the surface temperatures, (ti f to)/2. For estimating
SOLAR LOADS AND TRANSMISSION FROMSURFACES
purposes, an outside film coefficient, fo, of 7.0 is commonly D P O S E D TO LIQUIDS ON ONE SIDE. USE "AIR
= overall of heat transmission, Btu/hr- used in deriving air-to-air U factors; the l/f component 2.
TO AIR" FACTORS FOR ALL OTHER SURFACES.
TREAT PROMENADES AND SIMILAR SPACES, WITH OR
is omitted for sides exposed to the sun or liquids, i.e.,
WITHOUT WINDOWS, THE SAME AS WEATHER AREAS.
3- FOR CARPETED SURFACES, REDUCE THE u FACTORS
BY 20 PERCENT; NEGLECT THE EFFECT OF DECK
other highly conductive material extending wholly or SUCH AS, TILE, MAGNESITE, LINOLEUM,
partly through insulation should, if possible, be deter- AND TERRAZZO.
Of the three variables having a n effect on heat trans- mined by test; but approximations can be made as 4. FOR HEAT ABSORBING AND DOUBLE GLASS, REFER
mission, only the overall coefficient of heat transmission described in references [I, 61. TO MANUFACTURER'S CATALOGS FOR SUITABLE u
FACTORS
applied, expansion and contraction in time' open joints where quiet operation is of primary importance. Main air connections and OUTSIDE
AIR
shuluff eocb are not
and thus reduce the effectivenessof the installation. It 4 Secure foundations for equipment on rigid struc- shown.
is a matter of record that most applications of insulation tural members, such as deck beams; i.e., do not support
If the mhimum ouhlde air
to refrigerated spaces deteriorate with time because of equipment on flexible plating. bv~ossis omitted. a s b ~ .
water vapor absorption. Accordingly, it is traditional 5 Mount equipment on resilient mounts and provide aiiustable for balancinb; CHILLED'
is provided on the ouhide WATER
to design such applications conservatively (81. flexible pipe or duct connections to isolate vibration.
alr damper ta prevent full
1.9 -Sound Conditioning. The noise and vibration On merchant ships, acoustical and vibration control closure and ta permit the
passage of minimum out-
generated by refrigeration, ventilation, and other air- serve mainly as a means for comfort and to prevent side air when in the closed
conditioning equipment are only part of that generated damage to equipment. On naval and oceanographic (minimum open) position. LEGEND
within the ship. Obviously for efficient and consistent ships, however, vibration and noise must be controlled 3. TWO-position valver the HUMIDISTAT ROOM THERMOSTAT
treatment, all such disturbances must be considered
simultaneously ; otherwise overcorrection of one source
of annoyance will only serve to emphasize others. As a
for additional and more vital reasons. These include
elimination of interference with detecting and measuring
devices, prevention of detection by enemy, prevention
valve is closed below the
change-wer temperature. 4 FAN DUAL DUCT AIR MIXING UNIT
result of this necessity for coordinated analysis, noise
and vibration problems are best handled by an acoustic
of deafness, and elimination of interference with aural
communications.
4 FILTER PNEUMATIC DAMPER & MOTOR
Section 2
Fig. 5 Clan A air-conditioning system
with humidity control
0
P PREHEATER (STEAM)
by a common system depend upon the usage of the system typical for air conditioning large (public) spaces. DIVERTING RELAY
spaces, periods of occupancy, occupancy density, and The outside and return (recirculated) air mixture is N.O. NORMALLY OPEN (VALVE OR DAMPER)
odor potential; also, in naval construction, damage con- filtered and conditioned (preheated, cooled, dehumidi- N.C. NORMALLY CLOSED (VALVE OR DAMPER) B.P. n l N l n u n OUTSIDE AIR BYPASS,
SEE NOTE 2.
trol classification is a prime consideration. System fied, and reheated as required) by the central station
capacities from 5000 to 8000 cfm are common, with equipment.
extremes being approximately 1000 cfm and 10,000 cfm. Air is recirculated in air conditioning systems for the
Naval ships are air conditioned by central station sake of economy. Automatic dampers (outside air,
reheat systems which are referred to as "recirculation recirculation, and exhaust) in Fig. 5 modulate the supply Conditioned air is supplied to each space to accommodate the central station equipment conditions onljr the pri-
systems." The requirements for reheat zoning is the of outside air commensurate with the refrigeration sys- maximum design cooling load requirements. A mixture mary air. This primary air is distributed to induction
only basic variable. I n general, where the net heating tem capacity; 100-percent outside air is supplied unless of outside and return air is filtered, conditioned (pre- units located in the various air-conditioned spaces which
load is negative, such as an internal space with a year- room conditions cannot be maintained with the cooling heated or dehumidified and cooled as required) centrally, induce ropm (secondary) air to flow through a water
round cooling load, reheating is not provided. An coil valve fully open. Note that cooling is controlled by and distributed to individual reheaters at the spaces coil, an integral pad of the induction unit. The induced
exception to this is where one or more of the spaces both a humidistat and room thermostat. The room served. This system is used for passenger staterooms air is either heated or cooled by this coil. No r e t h
served by a system require control of the relative hu- thermostat controls both cooling (water) and reheater on most ships now in service, as well as for crews' (recirculated) air facilities are required. The plimary
midity. Since the humidity controller can override the (steam) valves, which are sequenced to maintain a set quarters of many vessels. Note that automatic dampers air is sufficient for ventilation purposes and to balance
room thermostat, reheat is required to compensate for room temperature. When the humidity exceeds the (two-position) are controlled by two sensors (ductstats) exhaust air requirements;-$ is conditiohed to take care
overcooliig. Generally, spaces are zoned according to humidistat set point, it overrides the room thermostat in the air intake; one for the heating cycle and the other of the entire ,latent load (outside air plus room). Pri-
heating requirements. Large spaces, such as mess rooms and opens the cooling coil valve for additional dehumidi- for the cooling cycle. The preheater thermostat is set mary air is reheated, as necessary, to provide all heating
and "critical" spaces, may have individual reheaters or a fication. Should this cause overcooling, the room ther- several degrees below the design chilled air (off-coil) for spaces when the temperature is above the change-
separate recirculation system. mostat opens the reheater valve to maintain the set temperature to prevent simultaneous operation of the over point (described in the following) with chilled
Air-conditioning systems installed on merchant ships temperature. When a single Class A system serves preheater and cooling coil. (secondary) water being simultaneously distributed to
are classified as: (a) those serving small spaces (passenger several spaces, each has its own reheater controlled by The Class E system, Fig. 7, is another system provided the induction units. Below the change-over point, the
staterooms, crew's quarters, offices, shops, etc.); and only a room thermostat. for small spaces requiring high-quality treatment. It water-chilling plant is inoperative; hot water is supplied
(b) those serving large spaces (dining rooms, lounges, A Class D (terminal reheat) system is shown in Fig. 6. is a primary air-secondary cooling and heating system; to the induction units and primary air is preheated
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
MARINE ENGINEERING
COJD HOT
RECIRCULATION -EXHAUST
FROM
RECIRCULATION-EXHAUST PASSAGE
FROM PASSAGE -TO ROOM
L
TO ROOM
- EXHAUST
S E E FIGS. 5 8 6
FOR CONTROLS
STEAM
u
OUTSIDE
AIR
. ..
\--WINTER /CHILLED
WATER SEE FIG. 5 FOR LEGEND
W S E E FIG. 6 SEE FIG. 5 FOR LEGEND
HOT WATER SYSTEM AND NOTES AND NOTES
MASTER THERMOSTAT FOR CONTROLS
ISEE FIG. 14)
Fig. 8 Clau G air-conditioning system
Fig. 6 Class D air-conditioning system
(TYPICAL EACH ROOM1 type since it is necessary to change the action from I n general, it is most practical to use mechanical supply
TINDUCTION UNIT
normally open when the water is hot to normally closed ventilation systems also for heating. Those spaces not
when the water is cool. served by air-conditioning or supply ventilation systems
Figure 8 illustrates a varine dual duct or Class G are heated by direct radiation. This also applies to
TO OTHER UNITS system; it has gained considerable popularity in recent those spaces served by supply systems which may be
years. The high-pressure fan of a central station unit shut down during cold weather.
distributes conditioned air through two parallel systems References [9, 101 contain typical ventilating and heat-
of ducts (pipes) a t high velocity (approaching 5000 fpm). ing requirements for merchant construction; similar
One duct system carries cold air and the other hot air. requirements for naval construction are contained in
The air mixing units automatically proportion the hot reference [ll].
and cold air to satisfy room loads. The series arrange- Galleys, bakeries, and sculleries are ventilated pri-
ment of the cooling coil and reheater shown gives excel- marily by mechanical exhaust, mainly through hoods
lent performance; it provides maximum dehumidification located over major heat-producing equipment. Me-
which in turn produces low room dew points. Accord- chanical supply, equal to about 50 to 90 percent of the
OUTSIDE + ingly, the possibility of condensation on cold ducts and exhaust, spot-cools working stations. Some supply is
AIR equipment and the necessity for perfect vapor sealing of drawn (via accesses, grilles, or jumper ducts) from
the insulation are minimized. Parallel arrangement of adjacent compartments or passageways to confine heat
the cooling coil and reheater, which is common'ashore, and odors.
I I
SEE FIG.5 FOR LEGEND
has proven unsatisfactory. Large laundries have a mechanical supply and mechan-
SEE FIG. 6 1
FOR CONTROLS
AND NOTES 2.2 Ventilation and Heating Systems. The cen- ical exhaust. Exhaust terminals are so located that
tral station air-conditioning systems discussed in the equipment heat is not drawn across working stations.
Fig. 7 Clau E air-conditioning system foregoing also are suitable for ventilation and heating, Some supply is natural to confine heat and moisture.
with cooling and recirculation facilities omitted. Fans In small deck laundries, the mechanical supply is omitted
amprovided with two-speed motors (100-percent and 50
or 67-percent speeds) with the low speed being used when a natural supply is from air-conditioned areas; the
(tempered). The primary air is distributed a t high side air falls below the design off-coil temperature it can during the heating cycle to reduce the ventilation air exhaust is located to prevent short-circuiting. Wherever
velocity and pressure and thus requires relatively little accomplish all of the necessary cooling, and the refrigera- heating load and air movement. possible, the exhaust from dryers is discharged directly
duct space. However, this space saving is offset to some tion equipment may be secured. Thus, the design off- Systems serving galleys, pantries, shops, laundries, to the weather with suitable lint-extracting facilities
degree by the space required for additional piping, coil temperature is also the change-over temperature. and similar work spaces are provided with preheaters being provided.
secondary water pumps, and induction units. The change-over temperature of the Class E system, (50 to 60 F leaving temperature); they are referred to as Mechanical supply ventilation is provided for aux-
The change-over temperature may be defined as the however, must be somewhat below the primary air off-coil "tempered air" systems. I n merchant practice some iliary machinery rooms based on a Zmin rate of change
outside temperature which exists when the internal room dry bulb temperature (approximately 50 F) because it systems, such as those serving steering gear rooms, are or a 15 deg F temperature rise, whichever is greater.
sensible load equals the transmission loss plus the cooling (primary air) provides only part of the sensible cooling shut down during the heating cycle, i.e., when not re- The mechanical exhaust should be between 110 and 1'20
effect of the tempered primary air. I n central station load, i.e., about >5. Change-over temperatures usually quired to limit temperature rise; this permits the omis- percent of supply, where indraft is essential to prevent
cooling systems, e.g., Classes A and D, outside air is fall between 30 and 40 F, 35 F being the most common. sion of preheaters. the dissipation af hot air to cooler adjacent spaces.
available up to the full system capacity. Once the out- Note that room thermostats are of the dual pressure
MARINE ENGINEERING ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL 723
Natural exhaust, via other heat-producing spaces, is tration retard heat dissipation to working and watch effect. Cargo and ship sweat can cause various forms Table 1 Refrigerated Stores Requirements for Passenger
common. areas. Most of the supply air is distributed directly to of damage which can jeopardize both the s h i ~and its Shi~s
Pump rooms handling inflammable cargo have me- watch areas, so that personnel benefit from spot cooling; cargo. ~ o n s e ~ u e n -t many
l~, ships have special de- (Net Volume cu ft per 100 ~ a e s e n ~ eper r s Day)
chanical exhaust systems with a 2- or 3-min rate of air there is a relatively small air temperature rise in the humidification and ventilation facilities to prevent sweat 1st 2nd 3rd
change; high and low terminals are provided, the latter blast area. and to accelerate temperature equalization. Dry cargo Product Class5 Clad Classe
exhaust from bilges and other low pockets. Exhaust Exhaust ventilation may be natural, mechanical, or a spaces generally are ventilated by mechanical supply Fresh fruits.. . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . 5.10 3.37 2.55
fans are direct-connected, centrifugal type with noil- combination of both. Theoretically, the exhaust equals and natural exhaust, the latter directly to the atmosphere Fresh vegetables. . . . . . . .. . . . . 7.60 5.02 3.80
sparking wheels and watertight fan shaft stuffingboxes. 110 to 120 percent of the supply. The excess exhaust from each compartment. For many years a 30-min rate Meat.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,. . . . . 17.65 11.65 8.83
Fish. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 2.80 1.85 1.40
The fan preferably is mounted on the pump room side accomplishes two things: (a) it compensates for the of change (2 air changes per hour) based on grain cubic, Poultry.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 7.20 4.75 3.60
and the motor on the machinery space side of a water- thermal expansion of supply air, and (b) it creates an in- was considered adequate; however, in recent years a 20- Butter.. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 0,77 0.51 0.39
Cheese.. . . . . . . . .,::. . . . . . . . . . 0.18 0.12 0.09
tight bulkhead; fans are driven by steam turbines draft to confine heat. Exhaust requirements generally min rate of change has become more or less standard. Eggs.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.80
I?
1.19 0.90
where this arrangement is not practicable. Natural are determined without considering combustion air. The Where fruits and vegetables are regularly carried in L d . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . 0.23 0.15 . 0.12
Milk.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'.. . . 2.15
.I:.
supply ventilation helps confine explosive vapors; the combustion air extraction, however, must not impede appreciable quantities, special ventilation is provided to 1.42 1.08
Ice cream-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.60 1.72 1.30
t g n k s extend down close to the operating level where the normal thermal flow of hot exhaust air up machinery suit the s~ecificreauirements. For further information
necessary to avoid interference with the natural rise of space casings. Otherwise, the temperature within the on cargo 601d ventiation and dehumidification systems, Includes officers.
air heated by the pumping equipment. Transfer pump casings will increase, which in turn will increase the heat Includes junior officers cadets, etc.
see reference [9]. Includes members of the crew.
rooms generally are exhausted by steam-ejector vent&* transmitted to surrounding spaces. The introduction 2.3 Refrigerated Stores. Changes in food proc-
lators located on the weather deck. of gas turbines has served to reemphasize the importance essing, the introduction of new construction materials
Battery rooms and lockers are ventilated to remove of this ~roblem. The annular mace between the outer and techniques, and economic pressures make the design
the hydrogen gas released when charging. Require- staclc and uptake (smokepipe) provides an ideal passage of refrigerated spaces one of the most interesting aspects required less frequently; and (iii) temperature fluctua-
ments with regard to battery room ventilation are for natural exhaust. Natural exhaust produces satis- of shipbuilding. Frozen foods, frozen concentrates, pre- tions within compartments are negligible and thus the
contained in reference [12]. Acid-resisting paint protects factory results where air paths are short and there is cut and boned meats and similar innovations have products are maintained in best condition.
ducts and centrifugal exhaust fans; the latter are located ample space to utilize low duct and terminal velocities materially reduced space requirements; however, im- On many older ships, refrigeration equipment is lo-
outside of the ventilated space. (1000 fpm or less) ;where both of these conditions do not proved palatability has increased the demand. Many cated in the passageway serving the refrigerated com-
Winch resistor and motor-generator rooms require a exist, mechanical exhaust is essential. operators now carry food in frozen form rather than that partments; the Liberty and Victory ships of World War
mechanical exhaust to remove and confine heat produced Shaft alleys on merchant ships are usually ventilated formally suitable for dry stores stowage. Individual I1 are examples. However, present merchant practice,
by the equipment. Heating, required to keep the equip- by natural supply from the machinery space at the for- preferences, as well as specific requirements of various fortified by automation, requires that the machinery be
ment dry, is accomplished by resistors furnished with the ward end of the shaft alley, and by natural exhaust via trades (class of service, length of voyage, replenishment located in the main machinery space, along with that for
equipment. Propeller fans usually are most practical the escape trunk at the after end. This arrangement facilities away from home port, seasonal variation, etc.) the cargo and air conditioning, where most easily at-
for these applications. acts as an equalizer when the combustion air consump- are important considerations in planning refrigerated tended. This practice increases costs and requires a
Emergency diesel generator rooms may have either tion varies. stores spaces. Generally, the owner outlines the segre- more careful design of refrigeration piping. Usually
mechanical or natural exhaust (with natural or mechani- The ventilation of cargo is by no means simple, as may gation of commodities, holding temperatures, capacities two identical condensing units (compressor, condenser,
cal supply). Mechanical supply has the advantages of be noted from reference [13], which was the first major (including reserve margins) and other essential design receivers, and controls) are provided on cargo ships and
being available for heating and minimizing infiltration. treatise on the subject, and references [l4, 151. Different criteria. tankers; see Fig. 18. Both systems operate during
Supplementary direct radiation is recommended, even cargos present different ventilation problems. Products The bulk of refrigerated stores are stowed in insulated pulldown, but only one is required for normal operation
with tempered mechanical supply, because of the copious such as grain, vegetables, and fruits are ventilated to "walk-in" compartments [Fig. lS(a)] which form an (reference [lo] requires each compressor to be adequate
infiltration through engine cooling facilities. When the cool the cargo and remove liberated gases, moisture, integral part of the ship. Each compartment is fitted to handle the load during a 72-hr pulldown period).
engine is operating, space ventilation is accomplished heat, and odors. Since cooling also reduces the moisture out to suit the particular produce to be stowed; for All compartments, large or small, have individual tem-
by the engine radiator cooling fan. This fan draws released from hygroscopic materials (wood, grain, paper, instance, unpaclcaged meats require hooks overhead, perature control and are entirely automatic in operation.
outside air (coolant) into the space, through the radiator, etc.), water damage as well as rot and mold growth is while those for frozen foods have shelves. Portable On large passenger liners there usually are several
and finally discharges it directly to weather. Automatic reduced. It must be noted that dunnage, battens, I stanchions are provided to prevent shifting of com- groups of medium-size "short-hold" refrigerators remote
dampers, at the weather supply and exhaust terminals, packaging, and bilge liquids also are si&ficant moisture modities. Any general formula for estimating compart- from the main stores refrigerated spaces; separate direct-
are interlocked with engine starting and are open only sources. Regarding metal products, the ventilation ment sizes provides only a rough approximation to be expansion systems are provided to serve the walk-in or
when the engine is operating. serves only to equalize temperature and thus prevent used when exact criteria are not available. One method reach-in refrigerators in each group. Where the indi-
Machinery space ventilation provides a tolerable at- condensation on the product, both on board and when allows 10 pounds per person per day, with gross volume vidual short-hold groups are widely separated, a re-
mosphere for operating personnel and maintains satis- unloaded. based on a stowage factor of 70 cu f t per ton. This does frigerated brine circulating system may be used. Brine
factory ambient conditions for machinery. Judgment, On a typical winter voyage from a cold to warm not include space for the thaw room, ice storage, or systems 4also may serve all of the ship's refrigerated
based on previous experience rather than heat liberation climate, the cargo warms up slo+ly and moisture in frozen foods. Maritime Administration requirements stores compartments.
calculations, generally dictates air requirements. Knowl- ventilation air will condense on the cold cargo. This is regarding refrigerated stores are listed in reference [8]; Small miscellaneous (reach-in) refrigerators are pro-
edge of successful treatment of spaces having similar referred to as "cargo sweat." Also under such circum- Table 1 shows the requirements for passenger ships. vided for pantries, bars, and similar service spaces.
char teristics and equipment is particularly valuable. stances, hygroscopic cargos cool slowly and, therefore, A thaw room (Fig. 18) serves several functions: (i) it These usually are cooled by integral condensing units or
%
On me hant ships with turbines or high-speed diesel continue to liberate moisture untii their temperatures improves sanitary conditions, as meat must otherwise be separate units located iri;r-or adjacent to, the compart-
propulsion equipment, mechanical supply rlystems usu- have fallen appreciably. Daily temperature changes thawed in passageways outside the refrigerated spaces ments served.
ally provide one air change per minute. A rate of change due to sun variations can cause a cargo to heat unevenly; where the dripping and other refuse make good house- Chilled drinking water may be provided by a scuttle-
of 1.5 or 2 minutes is common for spaces with slow-speed unless removed, the moisture released may condense on- keeping difEcult: (ii) it is a work space, including a butt or water cooler connected to the ship's stores.
diesel or reciprocating engine rooms which are relatively the colder surfaces of both cargo and ship's structure. butcher shop where so fitted; and (iii) it is used for over- However, Maritime Administration specifications re-
spacious. The supply air quantity falls in the range of The latter is referred to as "ship's sweat." Variations flow stowage. Tangible advantages of a thaw room quire, and many owners prefer, self-contained water
6 to 10 cfm per shaft horsepower. in temperature of seawater, such as encountered by a reflected directly in the refrigeration plant performance coolers. In Navy prrtctice,,45 F chilled water from the
Exhaust terminals over sources of high heat concen- vessel sailing through the Gulf Stream, have a similar are: (i) it reduces infiltration loads; (ii) defrosting is air-conditioning plant is sometimes used to cool potable
724 MARINE Eb ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL 725
I
water, with small heat exchangers located near each temperature (32 to 35 F) for an extended length of time stack gases and many commercial containers are not three
electric.
categories; namely, pneumatic, self-contained, and
fountain. Where a large quantity of chilled drinking (11 to 17 days) varying inversely with temperature. tight. These, plus unusual structural requirements for
water is required, it is considered good practice to install The handling of refrigerated cargos must be rapid to handling and stowage (stacking six high on some ships), Pneumatic control systems are the most common type
an independent refrigeration system for this service minimize temperature variations. Also, it must be care- necessitate that containers for shipboard service be spe- used on merchant construction (see Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, and
only, with the water being constantly recirculated. fully coordinated with operations ashore, including cially constructed. Handling and securing attachments 14). Generally, where pneumatic controls are used for
Cube and flake ice are made by automatic, self- transfer to and from the ship. Compartments normally must be flush or removable. any other control service, i.e., boiler combustion and
contained units, which are designed especially for marine are precooled before loading to remove heat from struc- The minimizing of insulation to increase payload hold dehumidification, it is easy to extend the com-
use and to comply with U. S. Public Health Service ture, insulation, and fittings. This accelerates pulldown, necessitates the elimination of metal attachments, and pressed air system arid utilize this type of control for air
regulations [16]. Ice cube makers may be fitted with and prevents damage or staining of precooled or frozen the associated high heat transfer, between the container's conditioning and heating. Air from ship service systems
attachments for crushing the ice and are arranged to cargos due to contact with warmer surfaces. Since interior, and exterior. Tight external construction is is not suitable,.for this purpose because of its oil and
discharge the ice into storage bins. By locating these sweat forms on cold surfaces and the temperature rises essential to prevent air infiltration due to high wind moisture content; this is particularly troublesome on
machines a t the main points of consumption, throughout when compartments are opened, every effort is made to velocities and vapor migration. Tests have indicated tankers and bulk carriers where there are long runs of
the ship, very efficient service is possible. Smorgasbord, load and unload an entire compartment at one time. astonishing amounts of leakage; as a result, specifications weather-exposed piping. The best practice, particularly
salad pans, and similar food services are refrigerated; Where this is not possible, curtains or other means are include pressure and smoke tests to control this factor. for passenger ships of appreciable size, is to provide one
embossed plate type evaporators are used in most cases. used to minimize these adverse effects. Odors can contaminate cargo; therefore, materials are or more independent compressed air systems, cross-
2.4 Refrigerated Cargo. Almost all modern cargo The procedure for handling unfrozen (chilled) beef is specified to be odor-free, or nearly so [21]. connected to the control or ship service system only for
and passenger ships have part of the cargo space fitted unusually painstaking [18, 191; special air circulation Full-scale road tests have shown appreciable variations emergency operation.
out for carrying refrigerated products. This space often facilities are required to minimize temperature varia- in the performance of trailers. Also, theoretical calcula- Primary compressed air (usually between 80 and
comprises 20,000 to 40,000 cu ft, divided into 2 to 6 tions, i.e., 1 deg 1? and less. Fairly high humidity and tions of loads are unreliable and often a 25-percent 100 psig) is reduced in two stages, after drying and
compartments, each of 4000 to 14,000 cu ft. The size exceptional sanitation are essential. allowance is added as a margin of safety. The U. S. cleaning, to the 15 to 19 psig required. Heating-cooling
of compartments varies with the trade; much depends Bananas are one of the largest cargos requiring re- Department of Agriculture and interested private organ- thermostats (Fig. 7) require dual-pressure compressed
on the variety of cargos carried and their compatibility frigeration. Several recent innovations effect the stow- izations have developed standards for rating refrigerated air; the lower pressure is for heating and the higher one
with respect to odors, method of packaging, suscepti- age of this product. Polyethylene bags, provided to containers to assure reliable performance. Tests show is for cooling. Switching of pressures is accomplished
bility to damage, etc. Some ships are designed pri- protect stemmed bananas, also reduce the deleterious (a) infiltration can equal the heat transmission load; automatically or manually.
marily to carry a single product, e.g., bananas, in a effect of excessive air motion. Humidification facilities, (b) the solar load is appreciably reduced when the Self-;contained controls are only used on merchant
specific trade; all, or almost all, of the cargo space then is provided in shore-based banana ripening and fruit stor- vehicle is moving and, under this condition, infiltration construction where there are few controls or where suit-
designed to carry refrigerated products. age rooms, have not proven practical aboard ship to date. may be the major component of refrigeration load. able compressed air is not readily available. On naval
Since the "artJJdeveloped over a long period of years, High humidity is instead achieved by careful design of Reference [2] discusses the design considerationsinvolved vessels, they are used for controlling steam coils; e.g.,
often by trial and error, the reasons for certain refrigem the evaporators (air cooling facilities). By minimizing and lists the pertinent references regarding container ~reheaters.reheaters. and combination heaters. Self-
tion practices may not be self-evident. The industry differences between refrigerant and air temperature, design. contained controls are limited as to sensitivity, adjust-
continually experiments on ways to improve pi-oduct moisture removal also is minimized; thus, the necessary Because of problems associated with operating air- ability, and throttling range. They are not suitable
preservations; such achievement can completely revolu- high humidity is maintained. cooled cond&nsingunits in confined spaces, such con- where the available pressure drop is small, i.e., single-
tionize an industry or create new ones. The United Heating facilities are required to prevent freezing of tainers are carried only on deck. Containers stowed pipe heating systems,-or for systems requiring sequenced
States Department of Agriculture, similar organizations fruits and other "high-temperature" products. These below decks are provided with water-cooled condensers, operation. The "metering" poppets of self-contained
in the United Kingdom and other foreign countries, as facilities also are used to warm canned and other non- preferably utilizing fresh water. control valves are designed especially to modulate small
well as various fruit growing and transportation com- refrigerated metal products prior to unloading; this pre- Several nonmechanical methods may be employed for steam capacities at relatively high pressures (30 to
panies, all are vitally concerned and sponsor pertinent vents condensation on such cargos when unloaded in refrigerating containers. Liquid carbon dioxide (COz) 35 psig). An integral strainer is provided.
research in this area. humid climates. may be exclusively used to refrigerate containers or to Electric controls are not used extensively in merchant
The introduction of frozen foods has substantially Ventilation may be either intermittent or continuous; I achieve a quick chill of the load in containers fitted with construction. They are used primarily for simple appli-
reduced the design holding temperature for "universal" the lBtter is preferred since temperature variations are mechanical refrigeration. This system is not to be cations where (a) compressed air is not available under
(general purpose) refrigerated compartments. Zero F minimized. Details of ventilation requirements are cov- a 4 confused with the solid carbon dioxide or "drv iceJJ all circumstances, and (b) suitable self-contained devices
to minus 10 F now are most common. Precooling of ered in Section 3. method. Liquid nitrogen functions practically th;! same are unavailable. A typical example is the control of
cargo appreciably reduces the plant refrigeration require- 2.5 Refrigerated Cargo Containers. I n the design as liquid carbon dioxide; however, it is said to offer dampers at weather terminals serving emergency diesel
ments. However, shipboard cooling of "hot" produce of refrigerated cargo containers for transportation by greater possibilities for future use. Like carbon dioxide generator radiator cooling. On naval construction, spe-
still is required in certain trades. ship, corrosion, ship's motion, stowage stresses, weather systems, liquid nitrogen systems have no working parts. cial dual-temperature thermostats are used to control
Shippers frequently specify the pulldown, reduction, tightness, and exceptionally high reliability must be The liquid nitrogen is carried in a specially insulated chilled water coils and reheaters (steam and electric).
and holding temperatures for each product, as well as cryogenic cylinder which is really a large thermos bottle. Sensing elements for water coils, either temperature or
considered, as well as the over-the-rad goals of minimum
There are several disadvantages associated with the use humidity actuated, control on-off switches. Humidity
the maximum allowable variation during holding. One weight, maximum cubic capacity, and refrigeration of these methods; one is that operating costs of nitrogen
or two degrees F is commonly specified for the latter. control is ~rovidedonlv for "critical" maces.
facilities which can withstand severe vibration and shock and C02 systems are higher than those of mechanical The folGwing recomkendations are offered with regard
To check temperature, locked recorders may be placed [20,21,22, 231. Since both frozen and chilled cargo are systems. , Another disadvantage is that a replacement to the design of automatic control systems:
within the cargo block. Recent developments in auto- carried, shipboard containers are "universalJJrefrigerated supply of refrigerant may not be readily available. Nev-
mation, and more stringent regulations requiring high- cargo carriers. As such, their capacity must be adequate ertheless, acceptance by the transportation industry is 1 The selection of components (size, types, etc.)
quality cargo out-turn, have greatly increased the use of to pull down "hotJJproduce. progressing rapidly. should be the sole responsibility of the manufacturer.
automatic control, indicating, and recording equipment. A number of different types of refrigerated containers 2.6 Air-Conditioning System Controls. Automatic He should design, furnish, and calibrate the system and
Special recording instruments are required for "cold have been used [20]. The regular land type is not suit- controls are the brains of air-conditioning, refrigerating, guarantee its satisfactory operation. He should either
treatment," which is required to destroy certain insects able since refrigeration equipment is an appendage and and heating systems. It is essential they be carefully install or, as a minimum, supervise the installation.
in fruit [17]. For example, the insects imported with thus does not permit economical stowage. Additionally, designed, installed and properly serviced; preventive 2 Equipment should have a special marine type
Vinifera grapes die when exposed to a su5ciently low the materials are readily corroded by salt air, spray, and maintenance is essential. Automatic controls fall into corrosion-resistant finish.
L,, ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL 727
726 MARINE ENGINEERING
I
3 Except for duct bulbs of controllers and thermom- lighted, accessible panels in equipment (fan) rooms. Table 2 Outqide Design Conditions for Environmental Control Systems, deg F
eters, equipment should not be located in outside air Panels should also accommodate system label plates,
intakes or in the direct path of outside air. diagrams of systems, and operating instructions (includ-
4 Damper motors and linkages should be mounted ing air and water temperature schedules). Cycle
Wet
Bulb
Sear
rater B";% Wet
Bulb
Sea-
water
outside ducts, to minimize corrosion and dirt clogging 8 Panel-mounted air gages should be provided for Maximum cooling.. ........... 90 81 85 90-95" 78-82b 85-90c
problems. Outside air dampers should preferably be checking the performance (branch-line pressures) of con- Intermediate cooling. . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ... 75 75 80
Heating ..................... 10 ... 28 0 ... 30
made of stainless steel; return air and exhaust air damp- trollers located in equipment rooms. Elsewhere, tees or Ventilating ................... 90 ... 85 90 ... 85
ers may be stainless steel or mild steel, hot-dip galvanized other means should be provided to facilitate testing and ,'
after fabrication. troubleshooting. " Maritime Administration standard is 95.
Worth Atlantic service only 78; semitropical service 80; tropical service 82; Maritime Administration standard
5 Damper construction should be integrally airtight 9 The instruction manual should include (i) sche- -- 82.
in
matic diagrams of each type of system with normal valve
I
Maritime Administration standard is 88. ,
without the use of nonmetallic seals. They should have
simple, accessible position indicators. - positions, spring ranges, control pressures, temperature
6 Sufficient thermometers should be provided to settings, sequences of operation, and master-submaster
check the performance of all automatic controls. Dials schedules; (ii) air piping diagram of installation showing
should be mounted on the control panel. The range isolation valves, compressed air source, and pressure Table 3 Inside Design Conditions for Environmental Control Systems, deg F
should be suitable for the temperatures measured with reducing stations to facilitate trouble-shooting; (iii) in- ,
graduations of 1 deg F preferred, but not more than stallation, operating, and maintenance instructions for Wet
2 deg F. each piece of equipment; (iv) spare parts list; (v) in- Cycle ET gg Bulb ET g% Wet
Bulb
RH
%
7 Control and indicating equipment, with identifica- structions for ordering parts; and (vi) information on Maximum cooling.. ........... 74 80" 68" 71-78 75-85" 66-69" 60-50
tion label plates, should be mounted on simple, well- manufacturer's service facilities. Intermediate cooling. . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ... 71 75-77 66-63 60-45
Heating. ....................... 6SP.d ... 70-7B-d ... ...
Ventilating. .................. 7 deg F 7 dig F
risec nse~
" This temperature is only approximate since any combination of dry bulb and wet bulb falling on the 74 ET line is
acce table. 80 F dry bulb is used for load calculations.
Section 3 b & other than hotel spacesl the tem erature may vary from 40 to 60 Fl the lower value being uaed where heating
is provided only to prevent freezing of lquids or to facilitate operation. 60 F generally is suitable for workshops and
other spaces where physical activity permits a reduced temperature.
Design Criteria and load Con~prrnents c Temperature rise is the maximum allowable difference in dry bulb temperature between air entering and leaving
3.1 Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Ventilation boundaries exposed to the sun, the maximum simul- a space. It is the equivalent to At in equation (3). In heat-producing spaces the temperature rise (average) may
ap roach 80 deg F.
Design Criteria. The itinerary, type of ship, and class taneous heat gain may occur a t a time of day other than P75 F in hospital a aces and toilet apacsa of paasenger ships; 80 F in operating moms. The Maritime Administra-
of service are considered when selecting the outside when the instantaneous load is maximum on either the I tion standard is 70 8 On naval construction, 75 F for shower and toilet qaces.
a Maritime Administration standard is 80 F dry bulb and 66 F wet bulb.
design conditions for air-conditioning, ventilating, and horizontal or vertical surfaces. Additionally, the ship's I " -"
heating facilities. Temperatures given in Table 2 may orientation with the sun changes frequently, often a t
be used for merchant construction unless specific service short time intervals, which further complicates an ac-
experience indicates otherwise. curate analysis of the solar heat gain.
The inside design conditions listed in Table 3 are for Naval practice is simple and empirical. Surface tem- obtained by the use of appropriate At values in equa- loads on merchant ships often are so high that use factors
"hotel" spaces. Exceptions occur in naval practice peratures of weather boundaries exposed to solar radi% tion (7). similar to those in Table 6 are applied. If actual watt-
{,
where special equipment requires better control of tion are considered to be as follows: !I ~r&smission heat gain through surfaces other than ages are not known, the data in Table 7 may be used as
temperature and hu&dity conditions. The higher qual- those exposed to solar radiation is calculated the same an approximation.
Wood decks.. ................... .I20 F for both naval and merchant practice, with one possible
ity treatment indicated in Table 3, in general, applies to Equipment heat loads usually are electrical, except in
Steel decks.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I40 F exception. In naval practice, credit is allowed for the
passenger accommodations. Hotel spaces on many Vertical steel boundaries. . . . . . . . . . .I20 F commissary and hospital spaces where steam or water
cargo ships are designed for an effective temperature cooling effect of adjacent spaces designed for a lower heated equipment also is used. Use factors are applied
(ET) of 72 F; values above 74 lc are uncommon in new The total heat transfer (solar plus transmission heat gain) temperature; this usually is not done in merchant prac- to allow for intermittent operation of equipment [I].
construction. An E T of 73 1' is recommended with a resulting from these surface temperatures is considered tice. Equation (7) is used for calculating transmission Hoods and strategically located return and exhaust ter-
relative humidity between 40 and 60 percent and an only for that weather boundary having the greatest heat gains. minals can effectively minimize the heat dissipated by
average air motion of 20 fpm. In applying Table 3, all gain. The solar effect of other sun-exposed boundaries The temperature of ventilated spaces equals the out- equipment. Naval practice with' regard to equipment
combinations of dry bulb, wet pulb, and relative hu- is neglected. side design (cooling) temperature plus the allowable heat loads is described in reference [ll].
midity used must fall in the E T range shown. Merchant practice varies. In some cases naval prac- temperature rise. An assumed temperature must be The sensible heat and latent heat dissipated by per-
Ventilating and heating requirements for typical mer- tice is followed; but in others the s8ar load is considered assigned to nonventilated spaces and those whose ventila- sonnel are shown in Table 8. The total personnel heat
chant ships are enumerated in references [9, 101; similar to be the total of the individual maximum heat transfer tion is not based on temperature rise. When assigning load of a space is obtained by multiplying the number of
information for naval construction may be obtained from through all sun-exposed surfaces, with the calculations such temperatures, consideration is given 'to the tem- persons in each activity classification by the correspond-
reference [ll.]. being based on the surface temperatures shown for naval perature of surrounding spaces, heat sources within the ing sensible and latent heat allowances.
3.2 Air-Conditioning Internal Cooling Loads. The practice. A more suitable approach is reflected in Fig. 4 space, insulation treatment, and the space's function. 3.3 Cooling Coil k d . The fotal system cooling
internal cooling load of an air-conditioned space is com- and Table 4. Table 4 contains temperature equivalents, Assumed temperatures in Table 5 are applicable to mer- coil (refrigeration) loads are:
posed of the following elements: solar (sun), transmis- F, of the solar heat gain for spaces with single and multi- chant construction; similar data for naval construction
sion, lights, equipment (sensible and latent), and person- ple solar exposures. The total heat gain includes the are included in reference [ll].
nel (sensible and latent). The instantaneous solar load normal transmission, which is calculated separately. If the wattage of lights is known, the lighting load Room internal sensible Room internal latent
heat gain equals the total wattage X 3.41; that for fluo- Outside air sensible
depends upon the sun's azimuth and altitude, cleanliness Note that Table 4 allows for the reflection effect of bulk- Fan heat Outside air latent
of the atmosphere, color of impinging structure, and head (or shell) surface color. Except for the heat gain resaent lights must include ballast, which can be approxi- Duct loss (supply) and
other variables. Where a space has several weather through glass, the solar heat gain through a structure is mated as 25 percent of the light wattage. Lighting gain (return)
'I[
5 4 728 MARINE ENGINEERING ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL 729
Table 4 Equivalent Temperatures for Solar Heat Gain Table 5 Assumed Inside Temperatures of Spaces mission from warmer .adjacent space boundaries, and Table 6 Use Factors for Electrical Lights, Percentage of
EQUIVAI,ENT ABBUMED TEMPERATURE, heat gain from lights and equipment; only sensible heat Watts Installed
TEMPERATURE
DIFFERENCE,deg F
Bulkhead
Space
deg F
Cooling Heating,
is included. Heat from personnel is neglected.
The heat gain through each boundary may be calculated
Total Watts
Installed
- 4 or less
NUMBER
5 and 6
-
OF FIXTUREB
7 and over
Machinery and boiler spaces, deck. ..... 130 70 from equation (7). The solar load is based on the differ- Up to 200
Solar Exposures Deck or Shell
Machinery and boiler spaces, bulkhead. . 120 70 100 ... 0 . .
Wood deck only.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Machinery and boiler casings, deck. .... 140 70 ence between the surface temperature (95 F plus solar 201-300 301-400 100 90 80
Steel deck only.. ..................... 50 Machinery and boiler casings, bulkhead. 130 70 equivalent temperature from Table 4) and either the 401-600 90 80 75
Bulkhead or shell only--dark color. .... 35 Motor generator and resistor, deck. . . . . 130 30 ... 75 70
Bulkhead or shell only-light color. .... 20 Motor generator and resistor, bulkhead. . 120 30 design space temperature (outside air design temperature 601 and over ... / 70 60
Wood deck and bulkhead (or shell)- Toilet space in air conditioning area. ... b 70 plus design temperature rise) or an assumed space
dark .............................. 25 25 Miscellaneous stowage and lockers in air temperature (Table 5).
Wood deck and bulkhead (or shell)- conditioning area.. ................. L 4
light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 15 Passages and stairwells.. .............. b 70 Loads due to lights and eaui~mentheat dissi~ationare
Steel deck and bulkhead (or shell -dark 35 25 Galley and pantry hood areas. ......... 140 70 discussed in sections 3.2 and 3.3. table 7 Assumed Lighting Loads
Steel deck and bulkhead (or ahell{-light 35 15 Miscellaneous stowage and stores spaces The quantity of ventilation air required for a given
Single glass, deck over space exposed". . 110 Btu/hr-sq ft outside air conditioning areas. ....... 105 50 (Watts/sq ft Deck Area)
Single glass, deck over space not exposedb 80 Btu/hr-sq ft Settling tanks.. ...................... 120 70 cooling load is calculated from equation (3). Note that
Fuel oil tanks. ....................... Space Incandescent Fluorescent4
120 40 a temperature rise equivalent to supply fan heat, t j in
a Equivalent temperature for solar heat gain only; transmission Cargo oil tanks. ..................... 2
, 40 Passenger
equation (12)) must be deducted from the allowable Officers staterooms. .............. staterooms and offices. ... 4 3
gain is not included; Voids above waterline. ............... 120 40 3 2
bThe shading effect of curtains and blinds is included. See Voids below waterline.. ............... 100 40 temperature rise to obtain the net rise used in equation Crew staterooms. ................ 3 2
reference [I] for double and special glass. For additional informa-
tion, see Fig. 4.
Fresh water tanks. ...................
Cargo spaces above waterline. .........
120
110
30
20
(3). This consideration may establish whether mechan- Messrooms ...................... 5 4
Cargo spaces below waterline. ......... 100 40 ical or natural supply ventilation is selected for certain a Includes heat of ballast.
Seawater............................ 85 30 spaces, such as those for refrigerated cargo.
Shaft alley. ......................... 105 40 3.5 Air-Conditioning Load Calculations. A form
a Depends on ventilation treatment and number of unheated similar td that shown in Fig. 9 is normally used when
When both the fan (or other driven equipment) and exposures. The following are recommended: performing air-conditioning load calculations for the sun-exposed surface are calculated separately to simplify
motor are in the airstream, or treated space, the heat
gain is: Exposures
-
Heated Tempered
-
SOURCE SUPPLY
OF
Weather
various ship spaces. Instructions for completing the partial load determinations such as those required a t
Fig. 9 form are as follows: change-over. The solar load is constant irrespective of
Motor brake horsepower X 2545 0 70 60 50
the outside dry bulb temperature. As an example, if
Htnf = (9) 1 65 50 40 1 The appropriate "key" is entered in the "key" To is 35 17, the transmission loss is a negative cooling
Motor efficiency column to identify the load component computed. load; however, the solar gain is still positive and, being
2 55 40 30
The efficiency of electric motors may be taken from over 2 40 30 20 Standard key designations are: the same as previously used to determine maximum
Table 9. The heat gain when only the fan is in the air- bAir-conditioning design inside dry bulb temperature plus 5 deg F. cooling load, need not be recalculated.
stream, i.e., a centrifugal fan or a belt-driven axial-flow "Use cargo pumping temperature, t,, except where it may cool LOAD KEY
during a voyage, in which case use t, - 20, but not less than 110 F. Deck Gver. .......................... 1
2 "T" is the design insideadrybulb temperature and
fan, is: is entered for keys 1 through 6 inclusive. It may be
Deck under. ......................... 2
H j = Motor brake horsepower .X 2545 (10) Outboard bulkhead or shell. . . . . . . . . . . . 3 taken from Table 3 or as specified.
Forward bulkhead. ................... 4 3 "To" refers to .the temperature outside of the
For merchant construction, the fan heat can be estimated space being calculated; it is used, with equation (7)) to
as follows: After bulkhead. ...................... 5
culations, the heat gain in the return air path (passage- Inboard bulkhead. .................... 6 compute the transmission loads corresponding to keys 1
H j = FSPQ (11) through 6. When To is not specified, use 95 F for
ways, stairwells, fans, and ducts) may be assumed Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
where to be 5 deg F. Equipment ........................... 8 weather boundaries. When the adjacent space is ven-
The outside (replenishment) air sensible and latent Personnel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 tilated, use 90 F plus the specified temperature rise or an
H = fan heat, Btu/hr assumed inside temperature taken from Table 5.
F = factor: 0.65 for centrifugal fan (outside space) loads are obtained. from psychrometric data as outlined Infiltration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1. ...... 10
in Section 1. 4 Data regarding insulation treatment, dimensions,
0.85 for axial and propeller fans The same key legend is used in both cooling and heating and areas are obtained from the ship's drawings.
3.4 Heating and Ventilation Loads. The space
SP = fan static pressure, in. of water load calculations; however, key 10 is not applicable to 5 The "U key" column is provided to identify the
Q = fan capacity, cfm heating load is composed of the heat lost through cold
boundaries to the weather and colder adjacent spaces cooling calculations and keys 7, 8, and 9 are not applica- insulation treatment of the boundary in question. U
When better information is lacking, the fan air temper* and heat required to raise the outside (replenishment) or ble to heating calculations. Note that keys 1,3,4, and 5 keys for various construction configurations are obtained
ture rise, tj, in deg F may be approximated as follows: infiltration air to the space temperature. No allowance are entered twice for each surface exposed to the sun; from Fig. 4. The appropriate overall heat transmission
is made for solar heat gain. In merchant practice, no . i.e., once for the transmission and once for the solar gain, coefficie~t(U factor) is also obtained from Fig. 4 and is
credit is taken for heat gain from warmer spaces; e.g., Table 4. The transmission and solar heat gain of each entered in the "U" column.
The heat gain in the supply ducts of an avergge system uptakes, machinery spaces, and similar hot spaces.
with 1-in. board insulation may be assumed to equal a Also, the heat gain from personnel, lights, and equipment
2 deg F rise, except where the longest run of duct after the is disregarded. See reference [Ill for information re-
cooling coil is such that the rise is greater based on a garding naval construction. Table 8 Personnel Sensible and Latent Heat Dissipation, ~t$hr a
1.5 deg F rise/100 ft. Spaces which obtain their supply from an adjacent Activity ROOM
DRYBULBTEMPERATURE,
Deg F
The heat gain in the recirculation air path (passage- space will have an irrfiltration load if the supply is colder Classification S 75 L 76 78 80
ways, stairwells, and hotter surrounding spaces) may be than the heated space. Where a space, such as the S L s L s L
calculated; however, a rise of about 3 deg F is frequently wheelhouse, is adjacent to weather, the heating load Waiters .................. 350 510 320 540 290 570 260 600
assumed. Where return ducts are less than 25 f t long, includes an infiltration allowance for cold air entering Persons Eating4.. ........ 280 240 260 260 250 270 240 280
the heat gain may be neglected; where longer, the rise when a weather door is opened. All Others.. ............. 270 230 250 250 230 270 200 300
may be estimated as 0.5 deg F/100 ft. To simplify cal- A space's ventilation load consists of solar load, trans- a 30 Btu/hr is allowed for both the sensible and latent heat of food.
MARINE ENGINEERING ENVIRONMENTAL. CON'TROL 73 1
I I/I/1 Table 9 Electric Motor Efficiencies The total heating load is simply the sum of the Hw individual requirements of the service, and owner's Table 10 Assumed Boundary Temperatures for Merchant
Motor Size, hp Motor Efficiency column. preference generally preclude the necessity for exacting Ship Refrigerated Compartments
3.6 Refrigerated Compartment Design Criteria,'
Less than gz.. .......... 0.45
Refrigerated compartments are assumed to have bound-
calculations. This "phiosophy" is further strengthened TEMPERATURE,
deg F
342 to %... ............. 0.50 by the fact that refrigeration equipment is selected on SURFACEBOUNDARY Cooling Heating
% t o 3);. ............... 0.60 ary temperatures as enumerated in Table 10 for mer-
% t o g ................. 0.65 the basis of 18 hr operation per day during the holding Sunexposed weather deck, wood. . . . 120 ...
% to I . . . ............... 0.75 chant construction. ~eriod. Sun-ex~osedweather deck. steel.. ... 1 4--0 0
- ...
I t 0 5 ...................
5 and larger. ............
0.80
0.85
The optimum storage conditions vary with the product
to be preserved [2]. Stores which are compatible with
The components comprising refrigerated compartment tg ~
: ~
~ ~ $ ~ ~ ;~ &
...
...
$ ~
loads are basically the same as those forming air-condi- Adjacent refrigerated spaces. ....... Design
respect to storage temperature, humidity, odor genera- tioning cooling loads. The load components are classi- temp.b 10
tion, and contamination sensitivity may be stowed in fied as follows: Surface exposed to seawater. ....... 85
the same compartment. common refrigerated stores Adjacent to h a ~ sauares..
h ........ 100 in
--
30
Other interior apace;. .............. 106 C
compartment designations and design storage (holding) 1 Transmission (includes allowances for solar heat)
6 "TD" denotes the temperature difference across a temperatures for merchant stores are dven in 2 Product Maritime Administration standard is 120 F.
boundary and is Ta-T for cooling transmission loads, ,laulc:
_,,_ ,, 11. 3 Container b Consider onl if adjacent space maximum design temperature
is higher than t L t of space being calculated; base heat gain on
equivalent temperature differentials (Table 4) when The optimum storage conditions (temperature, hu- 4 Product respiration heat maximum design (refrigeration) temperature except use 100 F for
computing solar heat gains, and T-To for heating loads. midity, and air motion) for a perishable cargo are not 5 Ventilation or infiltration refrigerated cargo spaces (for cases when the spaces are un-
7 The transmission and solar heat gains through 6 Fan, motor, and pump heat refrigerated).
static, but depend upon many factors [2, 241. Refriger- Neglect unless adjoining space may be unheated, then use 35 F.
boundaries, HEin cooling calculations and Hw in heating
ated cargo is classified according to its condition when
calculations, are determined from equation (7), i.e., The respiration (for live products) is comparable to the
loaded; i.e., frozen, precooled, or hot. As will be seen in
area X U X TD. Section 3.7, a product's loading condition appreciably personnel load. Personnel and lighting loads, however,
8 The lighting sensible cooling load is computed as affects refrigeration capacity requirements. The re- are disregarded since they are negligible and intermittent. Table '1 1 Refrigerated Ship's Stores Temperatures for
3.41 times the lighting wattage load. The data presented frigeration facilities of most general cargo ships are of the An analysis of loads always should be made to determine Merchant Ships
in Tables 6 and 7 may be used for guidance. which component (product load, ventilation, etc.) is
"universal" or "all-purpose" design and are suitable for PRODUCT
OR SPACE
DEBI~NATIONTEMPERATURE,
. deg
-F
9 Equipment cooling loads are usually sensible and controlling; possibly a slight relaxation of this item may
are computed from equation (9) and Table 9; however,
most perishable products. Such installations are de- Meat0 ................................ minus 10 t o 0
signed for both frozen cargo and chilled produce; the permit a much more economical and efficient installation. Fish. ................................. minus 10 to 0
latent loads may also be incurred, particularly in com-
former commonly range from minus 10 to 0 17 and the Considerable study is required to obtain the optimum Frozen foods and ice cream.. ............
missary and hospital spaces. plant design. The procedure for calculating loads and Fruits and vegetables. .................. 35
latter as high as 55 1'. Maritime Administration Stan- Dairy ................................. 35
10 The latent and sensible heat dissipated from dard specifications require three design (holding) tem- selecting refrigeration equipment for naval construction Thaw rooms and vestibules. .............
persomel is computed from the data given in Table 8. is fully described in reference [25]. Scuttlebutt. ...........................
perature conditions; namely, -10, 4-35> and +50 F. Potatoes. ...................; .........
11 The infiltration heating load is determined from The - 10 F holding temperature is particularly costly Commonly assumed design temperatures for adjacent Flowers. ...............................
equation (3), heating TD, and the specified infiltra- spaces are contained in Table 10. Suggested overall Smoked meat. ..........................
and, therefore, should only be applied where the vessel's Mineral waters, champagne, wkes and
tion rate. transmission coefficients are given in Table 12; these
trade demands it: this also a ~ ~ l i to e dshiDJsstores.
include a margin of safety to cover moisture absorption liquors. .............................
After the various individual load components are com- 3.7 ~ e f r i ~ e r a t e~do m ~ a r i k e cooling
nt Loads, The Beer ..................................
puted for the space in question, the sensible, HE, and refrigeration system's capacity must be adequate for . and the higher conductivity of materials used for furring
and supports. Equation (7) is used to calculate the
Bonvoyage ............................
Butcheshop ...............a.e*.......
--
60
latent, HL, heat columns are totaled. The space load, both "pulldown" (cooling the product from the loading Morgue ............................... 0
temperature down to the holding temperature) and transmission load. Ice storage. ............................ 15
HT, is then determined by summing the sensible and The product load which occurs only during pulldown
latent heats and the sensible heat factor is computed for "holding" (normal) operation. Shelving and other stow- a Some cargo ship operators stow both meat and fish in the same
each space by using equation (6). age facilities, the great variety of products handled, other is calculated as follows: compartment.
H, = WSAt/T (13)
where
Table 12 Overall Transmission Coefficients for Merchant
H, = product heat load, Btu/hr Ship Refrigerated Spaces
W = weight of product stowed, lb
S = specific heat of product, ~tu/lb-degF INSULATION U FACTOR
CONBTRUCTION THICKNEBB,
Btu/q ft-hr-deg F
At = cooling range (difference between loading and IN.0
holding temperature), deg F
T = time allowed for pulldown, hr (48 for stores and
72 for cargo)
Bulkhead with stiffeners on side
opposite insulation
Bulkhead and deck with stiffen-
{a 0.06
0.04
0.10
era penetrating insulation 0.07
. -
Deck-underfoot; cellular glass 0.09
A typical refrigerated compartment is shown in Fig. 10. insulation to ped with 2 to 3 0.07
The gross volume of a compartment is the volume in- in. minforcecl'concrete mastic 0.05
cluded between the finished deck underfoot, inside
surface of the insulation sheathing overhead, and inside
insulation sheathing bulkhead to bulkhead (or air cooler
space of cargo compartments). The gross volume ex-
Deck underfoot, cellular gWw
(1 in.) and polyurethane in-
sulation topped with 2 to 3 in.
reinforced concrete mastic
Nonmetallic dividing bulkhead
k 0.09'
0.06
0.08
cludes the volume of the air cooler (cold diffuser) space, (no steel framing) 0.06
Figs. 37 and 38. The net volume equals the gross volume a Minimum insulation thickness over stiiTeners, beams, and other
less deductions for space not available f ~ product
r stor- structural members is 2 in. for compartments 35 F and higher, and
for those below 35 F.
Fig. 9 Air-conditioning load calculations age; i.e., that required for access, air circulation, package 4 in.
b Total thickness of cellular glaaa plus polyurethane.
MARINE ENGINEERING
spacingJ ducts, evaporators (cold diffusers, air cooler~J Table 13 Stowage Densities of Common Refrigerated Table 15 Product Load Data for Cargo
and wall coils), gratings, battens, and temperature re Products
,NruunoN Specific heat, Btu/lb-deg F . ..... Chilled
Frozen 0.90
0.45
cording and controlling devices. The relationship b e DENSITY,
tween the net and gross volumes of typical refrigerated PRODUCT ft/long tono Stowage density, p d . . .......... 25
Apples (in boxes). ...........................
Bacon(inboxes) ............................
106 - Product temperature when loaded, Frozen
deg F . . ..................... Precooled
25
65
64 Hot 85
--- B-s ................................... 120 Common holding design tempera- frozen
Beef frozen and packed). .................... 51 ture, deg F . ................ d . Chilled -10
30 tot o350 (0
[I/
Beef ~ h m gin quarters). ..................... 125 Chilled at055 3
Beef (boned and compressed). ................ 67 Pulldown time, hr.. ............ 72
Butter (in kegs or cases). .................... 67
Cheese (in boxes). ........................... 68 NOTE:Figures in parentheses indicate ventilation air changes per
Fish in boxes) ............................... 70 hour based on &OEM volume. Maritime Administration reqmre-
~ i . 6[frozen). ............................... 80 ment for 35 a n t l a F (chilled) cargo is 2 air changm/hr.
Lemons ....................................
Lamb or mutton. ............... ,...........
Oranges. ...................................
Potatoes in bags). ..........................
potatoe. [in b a d ) . ........................
Long ton equals 2240 lb.
60
3;
g
83
I0
I-F
do'
I3 LJ
4
I3 0
-5@
262
ggg
=x-'
2gY2
J
-Irw
Eg
a c m
MARINE ENGINEERING ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
Co's
%a
Lg
P
a
* U)
y2
I-F
ui+
gz
-5 @
8 ,-z
0 K 3
3;
ax-',
n
ZiE
acm
4 ",
=-0 a
g;k" 52
2'
ow, zg
"2 ot
v t
p* =L
2: so
2~ aH
r w
Es SE
73 8 MARINE ENGINEERING
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
TYPICAL ZONE CIRCUIT cannot be overstressed. Automatic float-type vents
FLOW FI r t l u E with waste connections usually are applied only at high
points in mains and those heating units at high points of
systems. Systems with open expansion tanks are gen-
erally considered to be easier to vent than those with
EaulPnENT compression (closed expansion) tanks.
The following equation shows the relationship between
the heating (or cooling) capacity, water temperature
drop, and flow rate:
. .....
OTHER
ZONES (4SINOLE PIPE SYSTEM
where
TYPICAL ZONE CIRCUIT H = heating (cooling) capacity, Btu/hr
/- 7 TD = temperature drop (rise), deg F
TO OTHER
ZONES &
----) L
---- G = flow rate, gprn
t I
BURSTING DISC
TO COMPARTMENTS
55 F AND ABOVE
Y
I I
COMPRESSOR
TO MOTOR CONTROLLER
-
/
HOT GAS DEFROSTING
f-
(b) Interconnecting piping
--. .-. J
NOTES
1. Refrigerant liquid lines ond copillory tubing for dial (remotareading)
thennometen and solenoid valve control switches ore run to re-
frigeront control panels located by the shipyard.
2. Meat ond flsh room i s similor except thot two independently con-
trolled refrigerant circuits are provided.
3. Fruit and vegetable room is similar except thot the cold diffuser
hastwo independentlyconholledrefrigerant circuits.
5. All suction line branches are looped into the top of the suction main POWER
to prevent oil accumulation in lines not in sewice. TO SHIP'S -- '
FROZEN FOOD B ICE CREAM RM. INOTE 21 DAIRY (55r1 AND THAW ROOM [&OF1
6. Hanger and aupports are instolled w cis to pennit free expamion
0 F NOTE 5
and contraction between anchorages and to minim'ue vibration.
7. Refrigerant auction lines between the compreuor and refrberated (dl Typical pipe coil hook-up (a) Typical cold diffuser hook-up
space are insulated with brine thickness insulation. Liquid liner be-
tween the heat interchanger and refrigerated space are insulated
with ice water thickness.
Fig. 18 (cd'd)
Fig. 18 Ship's stores refrigcwation system diagram [Carricwl
c
I ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL 745
MARINE ENGINEERING i
and naval construction requirements for installation, prevent entrance of moisture, which can form ice and
materials, tests, safety devices, and spare parts. The crush the pipe.
last item, spare parts, is particularly important since the 4.6 Brine (Secondary) Cooling Systems. Brine (sec-
availability of the equipment may depend upon them. ondary) cooling systems are preferred over direct expan-
COLD DIFFUSER Condenser water regulating valves, Fig. 18(c), may be sion cooling by many operators because of improved
readjusted, periodically, to provide a condensing pressure reliability, simplicity of operation, greater flexibility,
which is just high enough to balance the operating load. better temperature control, ?nd superior cargo turnout.
Thus, the most economical operation will be obtained, The small amount of primary refrigerant piping re-
and compressor repairs will be minimized. This is of quired with brine systems significantly minimizes re-
particular significance for dual and low-temperature frigerant leakaee, oil return problems, and facilities for
cargo systems which employ compression ratios a t the the return of oil.
upper limit of the compressor rating. The initial cost of brine cooling is greater than that for
A dryer is provided in the liquid line near the receiver a direct expansion system. The additional heat ex-
outlet, Fig. 18(c), or the condenser of systems without changer, required to produce the necessary secondary
receivers. Some dryers include filters, and thus perform cooling, tends to increase power requirements; however,
a dual function. The type of filter included eliminates this disadvantage may be overcome by more efficient
much smaller particles than mesh strainerv. With the operation. Generally, brine cooling may be used most
arrangement in Fig. 18(c), the dryer only is used when advantageously where (a) there are a large number crf
(i) charging the system with refrigerant, (ii) adding re- refrigerated compartments, (b) compartments served are
frigerant to compensate for the loss through leaks, or remote from the refrigeration machinery space, (c) the
(iii) when the presence of moisture in the system is de- diversity of simultaneous, individual compartment tem-
tected by "freeze-up" a t the expansion valve. On naval peratures is large, and (d) maximum humidity is required
construction, however, full-flow filter-dryers are pro- to minimize moisture removal from products. A strong
vided. Since excessive moisture can cause breakdovn conviction of the owner is a t least one, if not the, deciding
of motor insulation, possibly burnout, and ultimately factor. Note that the brine may also be used for air-
contaminate the entire refrigeration system, full-flow conditioning purposes.
filter-dryers are provided for hermetic systems. The Two-temperature closed brine systems are preferred
relief valve in the equalizing line between the condenser because they provide optimum control of the supply
10) INTERCONNECTING PIPING and receiver, Fig. 18(c), prevents excessive pressure brine temperature and minimize air leakage which causes
build-up in the receiver during shutdown when the valves air binding and accelerates corrasion [2]. On some ships
are closed. The condenser relief valve and rupture disk a primary circulating system provides low-temperature
protect the system in case of fire; note that these do not brine to a number of secondary circulating systems, and
vent to the machinery space. each secondary system serves one compartment. The
All lines should be plumb and straight, except hori- primary brine supply to the secondary system is modu-
zontal suction lines, discharge lines, and those between lated by a space thermostat.
condensers and receivers which should pitch in the direc- Closed systems are preferred to the open type because
tion of flow. Valves in vapor lines are installed with the cost of pumping facilities is less, and the corrosive
effect of aerated brine is greatly reduced. Also, glycols
stems horizontal to avoid pockets. Unions and flanged are organic and with open systems some inhibiter is lost
joints should be minimized, i.e., provided only where to the atmosphere, thus necessitating periodic replace-
necessary for disconnecting equipment, controls, etc. ment. References [4,27] contain discussions of the
Insulated stuffing tubes are fitted a t penetrations of properties of brines and methods of calculating system
watertight structures to thermally isolate the cold lines. pumping requirements.
Where watertightness is not essential, oversize sleeves All materials in the system, including piping, flange
(properly caulked and ratproofed) are provided, and the gaskets, valve seats and packing,.pump seals, and other
insulation and vapor seal are continuous. Sleeves in specialitieg must be compatible with the particular brine
decks are of ample height to act as coamings; extra care handled to avoid corrosion. Potential problems in this
is taken to seal the joint between the pipe and sleeve to regard require careful analysis.
'Section 5 ,
LOCATE BULB I N
RETURN AIR STREAM Air Ha~~dling
System Design
5.1 Flow and Fan Pressures. The basic relation- where
L- - -2 & ship between airflow and the pressure (head) required to
TO SHIPS POWER h = velocity pressure, in. of water
cause the flow (with standard air density of 0.075 lb/ = velocity of air, fpm
cu ft) can be expressed as:
IblTYPICAL CARGO COLD DIFFUSER HOOK-UP There are three interdependent pressures common to
h = (V/4005)= (20) air handling systems; static, velocity, and total. Static
Fig. 19 Cargo compartment refrigarcrtion system diagram [Carrier]
MARINEENGINEERING ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
OPERATING POINT
FAN P-V CURVE
VOLUME
~ g27
. Loues in elbow dischorgiw to ahnosphere
1 .I -2 .S .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
.I0
I I I I I LOSS COEFFICIENT,K, IBRANCH AN0 MAIN1
0 0.1 0.2 0.S 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
4 ~ g 25
. Round in-run duct elbow ImeS IBvffalom e ] Fig. 29 L o w s in divided-flow exhaust fltting~
CURYE RATIO (CRI
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
MARINE ENGINEERING
LOSS COEFFICIENT,K2. I VELOCITY PRESSURE @ AP
754 MARINE ENGINEERING
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
Table 18 Terminal losses Table 1 9 Terminal and Equipment Air Velocities
.-Loss Com~rcmm,aK- ITEM VELOC~TY RANGE(fpm)
Clear 0.5 in. Wire' Insectb Louvers. ...................... 1000 to 1500 (free area)
Mesh Screen Mrnhrooms.................... 800 t o 1200 (throat area)
Double gooseneck, entrance Goosenecks. ................... 1000 to 1500 ( b t area)
Fig.35(e)] discharge Heaters (steam). ............... 800 to 1200 (face area)
Heatera (hot water). ........... 4d0 to 600 (face area)
C?o!ing coils.. ................. 350 to 500 (face area)
Single gooseneck, entrance Dmdioml terminals. .......... 2000 to 3000 (throat area)
Fig. 35(f)] discharge Grilles and regidera. ........... 800 to 1000 (free area)
Bu ly registers (ventilation). ... 760 to 1000 (free area)
Mushroom, entrance ~ g 8 e r a......................
. 500 to 900 (neck area)
Ratproof Screens
[Fig. 35(c)] discharge (x X 35 in. mesh). ..........
Insect screen (60 percent
500 t o 800 (gross area)
clew area). ..................
- 3.5 4.0
300 t o 500 (gross area)
Weather louverc-d
Door louvern
Losses for the more common terminals and fittings are
given in Figs. 32 and 33 and Table 18. Again it is pre-
supposed that there is ample straight duct at entrances
to obtain reexpansion of the vena-contracts. Catalogs
I
for exhaust registers and grilles usually show only the
static pressure loss; therefore, additional data are re-
quired to determine the total pmsure loss and avoid
Hole in bulkhead misapplication. Catalog losses for registers, diffusers,
and other purchased supply terminals usually represent
only the pressure imposed by applying the terminal to
an open-ended duct; to approximate the total pressure
Short duct in bulkhead loss, add one h, (based on the connecting duct size) to
(re-entrant) the loss given in the catalog. Terminals for merchant
construction are usually sized on a velocity basis (see
Table 19).
Weather terminals are sized for low velocities where
possible, because weatherproof features entail high pres-
Open end duct sure losses. The data given in Table 18 for 0.5-in. wire
dAA entrance 0.90 1.4 2.0 mesh and insect screen allow for dirt, lint, and painting,
-7 discharge 1.10 1.6 2.1 which appreciably reduce the effective area. Pressure
losses through equipment (registers, diffusers, flexible
Duct terminating in plate ducts, cooling coils, and heaters) are preferably obtained
s t entrance
discharge
0.50
1.10
' -
-
-
-
from the manufacturers%ertified data.
5.6 Connections to Equipment. The performance
3 . of equipment, including pressure drop, is based on tests
Conver&ng taper
performed with a uniform inlet (face) velocity. Incor-
rectly designed connecting ducts can invalidate such
performance data. The equipment's resistance cannot
be depended upon to equaliie the inlet velocity. Un-
fortunately, axial-flow fan literature seldom emphasizes
Bellmouth this point. On shipboaxd, a plgnum with a bellmouth
!.zs$ # entrance 0.5 -
(in lieu of an elbow) is frequently fitted at the fan's inlet.
- Where elbows are fitted, they are of the small-radius vane
type, and connected to the fan by concentric, gradual
NOTES transformers. Integral fixed inlet vanes and bellmouths
a Losses are based on the aree a t "A" or "D". reduce the effect of poor approach conditions; this is a
b Screen losses are baaed on the gross area velocity head, Lo' feature of certain high-quality centrifugal fans 1341.
The loss for 0.5in. wire mesh (75% c!ear area) is 0.50 A,; the At least one diameter of straight duct is recommended
loss for insect screen (609' clear area) is 1.1 L ;and the loss for
both 0.5-in. wire mesh an8 insect screen is 2.0 Lo. at fan discharges before any elbow, split, offset, or transi-
Includes one velocity head A) for discharge to plenum. deduct tion. Where divided-flow volumes at a fan's outlet vary
6
0.5 h when the terminal is .irectly connected to a straight duct. during operation, an expanding duct may be used at the
Typically, the totd flow area, A, is 60% 6f the gross area, B. fan outlet which discharges at low velocity (1000 fpm
@ Typically, the total flow area, A, is 50% of the grow area, B. or leas) into a plenum (see Fig. 37). A similar plenum
MARINE ENGINEERING ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
3000 centrifugal fans usually are of the single-inlet, single- where:
width type, rather than double-inlet, double-width type.
Drive arrangements with bearings outside the airstream CFM = air volume flow rate at inlet, cfm
are specified, except where fans are very large. B H P = power output of drive, hp
Axial-flow fans, sometimes called vane-axial fans, have SP = fan static pressure, in. of water
the advantage of compactness, but this is not always T P = fan total pressure, in. of water
significant in the smaller sizes. Also, since motors must Comparisons of performance should be based on me-
be watertight and construction tolerances are smaller, chanical efficiency. '
r FILTER 1.31 axial-flow fans sometimes cost more than equivalent
/
or less than estimated, the mator selected for a specific fan speed vice adding resistance iwthe system. Because ME, expressed as: Air filters should be so installed that they are protected
fan speed will not overload. Forward-curve fans have a of the foregoing, belt drives are usually specified for fans
of air-conditioning systems and !ens of ventilation (sup- ME = CFM T P from the weather and are easily accessible to encourage
rising bhp characteristic as the capacity approaches free 6356 BHP proper servicing by operating personnel. Filter cleaning
delivery; thus, a motor selected for maximum fan-set ply and exhaust) systems which either must be in balance tind the other is the static efficiency, SE, expressed as: stations are provided to facilitate the maintenance of
efficiency can be overloaded if the actual system opera& with air conditioning or serve other areas requiring quiet panel air filters. Adequate operating and clqaning in-
ing pressure is less than estimated. It is common prac- operation. MESP
SE=-= CFM SP structions, and diagrams showing the location bf filters
tice to oversize motors driving forward-curve fans; often Except for those in factory-fabricated units (Fig. 37)) TP 6356 B H P (27) (posted a t proper locations), are, an essential part of a
MARINE ENGINEERING
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL 759
good installation. No definite interval of time can be objectionable both from the viewpoint of the damage it
recommended for servicing filters, because the necessity
for cleaning or renewing the media depends on numerous
can cause directly and the deleterious effect it has on .
the insulation treatment. For these reasons insulation
individual factors; e.g., port conditions and types of must be properly installed and sealed to prevent moisture
cargo handled. Filters should always be examined after penetration. While metal foils are inherently imper-
dusty bulk cargos have been handled. Pressure gages, meable, their fragility, as well as the difficulties en-
or indicators, are provided to determine the necessity for countered sealing joints, leave their practicability as a
cleaning or media replacement. On most passenger vapor (moisture) barrier open to question. Many 4- TRUNK
6.3 Ducts and Trunks. On most ships main ducts fie-retardant compounds, reinforced with lagging, have
are located in passageways and branches are run to each proven most practical.
space. Thorough coordination with piping, wireways, Because of the condensation factor, air-conditioning
and other hotel services is essential to produce an efficient ducts present a much more difficult insulation problem
design and still maintain satisfactory headroom and ac- than those for heating. There are a number of cellular 101 HOOD f-- COAMJNG
cessibility. Ducts are usually constructed independent insulation materials which do not absorb an appreciable
of the surrounding structure. However, where advan- quantity of moisture; however, those which have the ~ b )COWL
tageous and where the size is large enough to permit most desirable characteristics from this viewpoint are
access to the interior for inspection and maintenance, not incombustible. Insulation material selections are
ducts may be "built-inn as trunks using existing bulk- restricted to fibrous glass and mineral wool, which re-
heads, decks, beams, or girders to form one or more sides quire separate lagging and sealing to prevent vapor
of the air passage. Built-in (trunk) construction is not penetration. Flanges and all equipment are completely
advocated for air conditioning and other ducts requiring insulated and vapor-sealed. Also, supports and struc-
insulation and/or thermal isolation. Kingposts some- tural penetrations are thermally isolated from the ducts.
times are utilized for ventilating purposes; this has dis- Any leakage of moisture into the insulation will reduce its
advantages, however, because condensation occurring in- effectiveness;even a small defect is serious, because its
side the kingposts can corrode the structure and also deleteriouseffect willbecomeprogressively larger. Thus,
damage the cargo. exceptionally high-quality workmanship is wsential.
Every effort is made to keep ducts from penetrating 6.5 Conditioned-Air Distribution. Shipboard con-
('1 MUSHROOM
watertight and firescreen bulkheads, and the regulatory ditioned-air distribution practice is based primarily on
bodies prohibit their penetration except in very special experience and tests in mock-ups of state rooms and
* cases [26, 37, 381. There is seldom a necessity for pene- other critical spaces. Architectural considerations, im-
trating such barriers on merchant ships. Fire dampers portant for one reason or another, must not be permitted
(dl ROBERTSON EXHAUSTER
are also required at penetrations of fire-protected struc- to overrule functional air-distribution requirements.
turw and at certain other locations. Acceptable air motion is difficult to define; accordingly, DECK
Ordinary sheet metal ducts are referred to as "non- specifications regarding air motion should also stipulate 4
tight" ducts; this differentiation is necessary to avoid the type of measuring instrument to be used. Most
confusion with watertight and gastight structures, which merchant ship specifications limit the air velocity at the
are subject to pressure tests. On merchant construc- head end of berths to 35 fpm and elsewhere in the zone HOUSE
SIDE- A MINIMUM
tion, most "nontight" ducts are constructed of sheet steel. of occupancy to 50 fpm, with measurements being made
In order to withstand abuse, ducts in cargo spaces are using an Anemotherm. Since the lack of air motion can
made of steel plate. Watertight ducts are constructed cause both a sensation of discomfort and stratification (el DOUBLE GOOSENECK INVERTED
of the same material as the associated structure; they (uneven temperatures), a maximum ambient tempera-
are made strong enough to withstand the applicable test ture differential of 2 deg F is also stipulated. High
head requirements [26]. (See references [9, 101 for addi- entering air temperature differentials (25 to 35 deg F)
tional information regarding ducts and trunks.) can cause sweat to form on terminals and their mounting
The cost of air-handling systems can be materially surfaces, particularly during qulldown. Accordingly,
reduced by using factory-fabricated ducts and fittings. most specifications for air-conditioning supply terminals
These are ordered the same as piping system components; require mock-up tests which demonstrate that sweating
i.e., pipe (duct), couplings, tees, elbows, reducers, etc. will not occur, in addition to demonstrating satisfactory
The ducts are either smooth tubing or spiral-wound, air motion performance. One criterion that has been
grooved-seam conduit [4]. The latter is somewhat used is that visible condensation is not permitted to
lighter since the spiral seam affords stiffening; however, form on the terminals when air is supplied a t the actual
the tubing is heavier and confines noise better. design temperature and the room ambient dew point is
If1SINGLE GOOSENECK
6.4 Duct Insulation. Heat transmission to and at least 10 deg F above that corresponding to the inside
from ducts is significant in the design of environmental design conditions.
control systems. Additionally, condensation forms on Diffusers provide satisfactory performance for practi- DECK
the surfaces of ducts having a temperature below the cally all merchant ship air-conditioning applications. f 181 AIRLIFT
ambient air dew point. Condensation can be highly Experience shows, however, that the data provided in
Fig. 35 Typical weather terminals
MARlNE ENGINEERING
+
t ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL 76 1
returns are located away from sitting areas to prevent
-
drafts on the feet and legs of occupants. An additional
advantage of locating returns away from sitting areas is
that system noise will not be as noticeable.
6.6 Ventilation Terminals and Dampers. Ship-
board ventilation terminals are of either the "weather" or
"interior" types, both of which must meet the ratproofing
regulations [16]. With the exception of cowl ventilators
[a) ADJUSTABLE BLAST
and natural-exhaust ventilators, weather terminals,
I ~ADJUSTABLE
I BLAST
Fig. 35, are designed and installed to minimize the effect
(DRUM TYPE1 (TYPE E l
of wind and ship's movement. Weather-excluding fea-
tures invariably increase the pressure drop of terminals
and, therefore, a compromise may be required. Where VERTICAL SUITS I
possible, terminals are located such that they are shielded
from the weather by bulkheads, overhanging structures, l
and similar barriers. Supply and exhaust terminals are I
kept well separated in order to prevent contamination I
of the supply air. The air-lift type of weather terminal
is generally preferred. CARGO SPACE
Interior terminals, Fig. 36, are selected to suit their
particular application. While controlled drafts are de-
ICI DIFFUSER sirable for summer ventilation (evaporative cooling),
[FIXED PATTERNI they are undesirable during heating operations. There-
fore, supply, terminals in ventilated spaces are selected
I ~ REGISTER
I and so located that the occupants may control both the VERT. SLOTS HERE
!DOUBLE DEFLECTION TYPE) ONLY IF w IS OVER 10'
direction and flow of air. Also, bracket fans are pro-
Fig. 36 Typical interior terminals vided in living spaces and certain working spaces.
"Spot cooling" of personnel is essential in work areas
and watch stations of machinery spaces, galleys, laun-
dries, and other spaces containing large heat sources
(including radiant heat). A continuous curtain of supply
catalogs are generally not applicable to staterooms. air, discharged vertically downward from a slotted duct,
Ceiling berths, soffits, lights, and deck-to-deck furnish- is sometimes employed in front of switchboards and
ings complicate air distribution such that mock-up tests adjacent to turbogeneraton. This arrangement pre-
are required to establish a satisfactory arrangement. vents water from entering through the ventilation system
Directional pattern ceiling diffusers, Fig. 16, are advan- and being directed toward electrical equipment; this is a
tageous, because airflow invariably must be restricted in mandatory requirement for all shipboard terminals.
one or more directions.
.!inWIRE MESH
HORIZONTAL SLOT
IDAHPER CLOSED I
SECTION B-B
I
1
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL 763
762 MARINE ENGINEERING
corrosion-resistant steel, and other parts are hot-dip ing air is distributed over the top of the cargo block.
galvanized after fabrication. Liberally sized portable Generally, when frozen cargo is carried, the dampers are
plates are provided for inspection and renewing fusible set to provide more horizontal blow, since the colder air
links. will fall through the cargo block; the vertical flow is the
6.7 Refrigerated Space Air-Distribution Equipment. minimum required for the transmission load through
Air distribution is a vital part of the refrigeration process. the vertical boundaries and deck underfoot.
The design of a cooling system entails a compromise be- Figure 38 shows an air distribution system suitable for
tween air volume and temperature split (room tempera- fruits and, particularly, cafgos of stemmed bananas. It
ture minus supply air temperature), which are related as was developed prior to the introduction of modern meth-
may be noted from equation (3). There are numerous ods for proteqting and packaging the latter. This ar-
schools of thought regarding the best method of air dis- rangement js' called a "duct bulkheadJJ or "air-duct
tribution for a particular produce, and many patents bulkhead" system; many variations of this method of air
have been issued relative to this subject. References distribution are patented. While in transit, the duct
[2, 18, 22,391 are particularly instructive in this regard. bulkhead passages also provide access to the slide damp-
Figure 37 typifies the cooling facilities provided on e n (for adjustment), permit inspection of cargo, and
cargo ships carrying "universal" refrigerated cargo. provide access to side ports and portable bulkhead
Heating facilities and permanent hot-water defrosting sections (for removal). Systems on many foreign ships
are included. The fan motor is two speed to permit low also include facilities for periodically reversing the flow
air motion and reduce fan heat load during holding (nor- of air so as to achieve a uniform temperature during
mal) operations. The drain pan section confines and downpull.
disposes of residue from the defrosting process; sectional- Battens and grating facilitate the distribution of air
ized hinge coven allow ready access to the drain pan. through and around the cargo. Battens also provide
The air distribution shown blankets the "hot" surfaces protection for sheathing. Battens are omitted in spaces
with cold air and intercepts all transmitted heat; also, carrying stemmed bananas, since only underdeck air
minimum and uniform air motion is obtained. Adjust- distribution is traditionally used; also, the battens may
mcnt of the air distribution in the compartment is accom- damage the product. Gratings are usually made of
plished by means of sliding dampen. The aidow can wood in cargo spaces and aluminum extrusions in ship's
be modified to suit the requirements of any particular stores. They are made portable to facilitate removal
cargo being carried. The "normalJ' setting of the damp- for cleaning and, in cargo spaces, to allow the use of
an, which is established by the shipbuilder, directs about palletized loadings. It may be noted that the pallets
00 percent of the air vertically downward. The remain- used with forklift trucks function also as gratings.
SecEio~~7
Heating and Cooling Equipment
7.1 General. The advantages of hot-water heat- seldom level, return bends may trap condensate, causing
ing systems were discussed in Section 4; most of these water hammer and, of greater importance for preheaters,
dvantages apply equally to electric heating. Electric freezing. Accordingly, steam coils are preferably of the
heating may be used whenever adequate generator ca- header type; i.e., a header is a t each end of straight tubes
pacity is available. I n general, the power assigned to with no return bends.
air-conditioning refrigeration may be used for heating. Heating elements of electric heaten are usually of the
Electric heating is particularly advantageous for elec- tubular type and are monel sheathed. Fins, where re-
tronic and other equipment spaces where leakage from quired, itre monel or corrosion-resistant aluminum alloy
wot systems cannot be tolerated. Cost comparisons cast integral with the sheathing. Elements are replace-
botween electric and wet heating are so complex that the able without removing the heaters from the ducts.
nubject cannot be generalized. Since modulation of the Sometimes corrosion-resistant materials are used for cas-
kouting effect is a significant cost factor, the quality of ings and flanges of smal1,keaters. -
porformance must be considered in a true comparison of Coil selections may be made from catalog data; how-
the various forms of heating. Prior to the introduction ever, the coil construction (fin material, fin thickness, and
of ~olid-statecontrols, it was prohibitively expensive to other heat-transfer element details) must be carefully
provide a true modulating control of electric heating checked and compared with that specified. Also, final
except for special applications. Without modulation, selections must be certified by the manufacturer.
ellpacity variation must be accomplished by step control Most preheaters of air-conditioning systems have very
of multiple-circuit heating elements. light, or even no, loads at design conditions. However,
7.2 Heating and Cooling Coils. Since a ship is some specifications require a 35 F leaving temperature
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL 765
MARINE ENGINEERING
with 100-percent outside air in order to protect the sys- on the basis of laboratory testa rather than vendor's cat-
tem. The air pressure drop is between 0.10 and 0.20 in. alogs. A great variety of fin-pipe elements is available.
of water. Some specifications limit the combined air Convectors and fin-pipe elements are installed on
pressure drop of preheaters and reheaters in series to weather-exposed surfaces as near the deck as possi-
0.50 in. of water. ble, Fig. 13. Elevating convectors decreases their ca-
On merchant ships, steam heaters are installed with the pacity (the inlet temperature increases), and results in
tubes vertical if possible so as to minimize the possibility stratification due t p insufficient air movement. The
of the condensate freezing. Also, heaters are installed "wall-hung" type, Fig. lg, facilitates cleaning and in-
inside deckhouses; this permits better piping arrange- stallation of piping. Heating elements of steam radia-
ments, protects the equipments from freezing, and facili- tion equipmqat are pitched to facilitate drainage;
tates maintenance and repair. allowances pre made for camber and sheer as well as for
Hot-water coils are of the serpentine type except where the list and trim of the ship at various conditions
pressure limitations necessitate a header type of con- of loading.
struction. The lower tube velocity associated with a Unit heaters are most commonly used in steering gear
header type is disadvantageous in that it adversely rooms; large shop areas, and machinery spaces of diesel
affects the transfer of heat. ships (to prevent freezing when the main machinery is
Cooling coils are selected with an even number of rows, shut down in port). The capacities listed in catalogs for
usually 6 to 10, so that both piping connections can be unit heaters depend on the inlet steam pressure and the
made from the same end of the coil. Catalog selections entering air temperature; the latter is assumed to be the
should include a liberal margin; some specifications same as that of the heated space. Where a number of
require at least 6 rows and 25-percent more rows than unit heaters are required, they should be directed to
catalog data indicate. This protects against capacity circulate the air in the space; i.e., they should not oppose
reduction due to fouling the coil fins. Air pressure drops each other. Unit heaters should blow parallel to the
vary from 0.5 to 1.0 in. of water. shell and bulkheads; they should not blow heated air
7.3 Direct Radiation and Unit Heaters. Since the directly on cold surfaces because the transmission loss
capacity of steam heating equipment varies directly with will be increased. They are installed about six feet
pressure, the high-pressure steam available aboard ship above the deck or working platform. In machinery
offersthe opportunity of appreciable reductions in space, spaces of diesel ships, unit heaters are preferably located
weight, and cost of the heating equipment. However, at each end of the space, in diagonally opposite corners;
small quantities of medium-pressure steam are difficult in large engine rooms four heaters may be used, with one
to modulate (control). Steam working pressures up to in each corner. Small engine rooms, e.g., tugboats, can
35 psig have been found to perform satisfactorily on mer- be heated with a single unit. In working spaces, one
chant ships. unit heater usually handles up to about 40,000 Btu/hr.
Convectors of standardized designs are used for both 7.4 Factory-Assembled Units. Factory-assembled
merchant and naval construction. Fin-pipe elements air-conditioning units are commonly used. The unit
are made of copper or steel with the latter being hot-dip in Fig. 39 is a special marine high-pressure, high-
galvanized after assembly. Fin-pipe elements have the velocity type for a Class G system as shown by Fig. 8;
advantages of being low and of diffusing the heating integral sound treatment attenuates noise from both the
effect to achieve exceptional temperature equalization. fan inlet and discharge. It is the first factory-assembled
Hot-water radiators used on many foreign ships are unit with an integral roll-type filter. In order to pre-
fabricated of embossed steel plates. They have a su- vent injury to personnel and to minimize leakage, it is
perior radiant heating ability combined with compact-
ness, light weight, and simplicity of construction.
-
im~ortantthat the swine of doors on such units be
arranged to open against pressure; i.e., close with
Convectors and fin-pipe elements are usually selected pressure.
Section 8
Refrigeration Equipment
8.1 General. Marine refrigeration systems and their effects. Condensers, cooTers, drip pans, troughs, tanks,
individual components are designed to operate with the etc., have their long dimension fore and aft where pos-
angles of pitch, roll, list, and trim normally encountered sible. Swash plates or similar flow retarders are used to
by a ship. Design angles are 10-deg pitch, a momentary minimize the adverse effect of vessel movement. Also,
roll of 30 deg for merchant construction and 45 for naval, drain connections at both ends of equipment provide
15-deg permanent list, and 5 deg permanent trim fore free draining regardless of trim. Plans must clearly
and aft. All rotating equipment is normally installed define the minimum space required for renewal of tubes
with the shafts fore and aft so as to minimize gyroscopic in shell and tube equipment. Construction and installa-
766 MARINE ENGINEERING ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL 767
tion requirements for equipment are contained in refer- is sometimes 0.0010. Catalogs include specific heat rejec- Brine coolers, including water chillers used with re- Table 21 Materials Used for Brine Coolers
ences [lo, 29, 301 for merchant construction and refer- tion data for packaged units; general data may be ob- ciprocating systems, are of the direct-expansion type;
ence [31] for naval construction. tained from reference [2]. (Refer to Chapter XIV for a i.e., the refrigerant is expanded in tubes surrounded by Calcium Ethylene
Each component'must be selected to properly interface detailed discussion regarding heat exchangers.) brine. Such coolers may have several, independently Cooler Part Water Brine Brine
with all others and to deliver the required performance Marine receivers are made of steel, and have sweated controlled, refrigerant circuits. Coolers for centrifugal Shell. ... . .. . . . Bray or Welded steel Welded steel
in the same operating time periods during pulldown and or flanged connections. They may be vertical or hori- refrigeration plants are of the flooded type; i.e., the re- welded steel
holding. In the past, the procedure was to separately zontal; the vertical type, Fig. 18(c), is preferred because frigerant surrounds tubes through which brine (water) Tubes ..... .. . . Copper Steel Copper
purchase individual components of condensing and liquid there is greater assurance that the outlet will always be circulates. The materials used for coolers depend on Tube Sheets. . . Admiralty , Steel Naval brass
metal -
chilling cycles and assemble them into a system aboard sealed with liquid. Horizontal types are level with a the corrosion characteristics of the brine refrigerant in- Tube Supports. Brass Steel Steel
ship; however, the trend is to purchase these cycles as bottom connection near each end, or pitched (5 deg when volved as indicated by Table 21. .
Heads. . . . . . . ,.Steel Cast iron Steel
"packages," including the base, drives, and all controls. fore and aft and 15 deg when athwartship) with a Unit coolers serve as evaporators primarily in ship's i
Generally this reduces costs and provides improved per- bottom outlet near the low end. Receivers are fitted stores spaces of merchant ships where the holding tem-
formance. Since "packages" afford less flexibility of with several sight glasses, or a magnetic-actuated me- peratures exceed 35 l?,Fig. 18(a). Principally because
arrangement, space and servicing requirements must be chanical indicator, for determining the liquid level. of automation, unit coolers with time-actuated, electric
resolved early in the design stage. Mechanical indicators, being subject to wear and mal- defrosting have gained acceptance for applications below are similar. Reference [42] contains an excellent discus-
8.2 ReciprocatingCompressors. Reciprocating com- function, should be easily replaceable. The receiver freezing (in lieu of gravity coils). Except for large ships sion of, and comparison between, reciprocating and
pressors used in marine work are of the multicylinder, must store the full refrigerant charge when the system having brine systems for stores spaces, unit coolers are of centrifugal system characteristics.
single-acting, air-cooled type. Also, they usually are of is pumped down. The capacity should be a t least 120 the direct-expansion type. When selecting unit coolers, Centrifugal systems are factory assembled and tested.
the open type and are belt- or direct-driven except for percent of refrigerant charge to allow for expansion. care is required to prevent arbitrary criteria from dictat- Except for the larger sizes, they are shipped as single
those small ones used in water coolers, ice cube makers, 8.4 Evaporators. Marine evaporators may be clas- ing excessively large sizes, which waste storage space; for "package" units, which greatly facilitates installation
self-contained air-conditioning units, and reach-in re- sified as being of the direct or indirect types. The direct the same reason, unit coolers should be carefully located. and minimizes the possibility of refrigeration contamina-
frigerabrs. These exceptions are of the welded her- type cools the treated space directly; whereas the indirect Coolers should be arranged to blow toward the door so tion and other construction hazards. "Package" type
metic type. Large size "semi-hermetic" (accessible) type cools air or brine, which in turn cools the treated as to minimize infiltration. units are furnished complete, including all interconnect-
units are not common aboard ship, although greater ac- space or another substance. Cold diffusers fair coolers) may be factory-fabricated ing piping and controls, and are fully automatic.
ceptance may be anticipated for those up to about Bare and fin-pipe gravity coils generally are used in units, Fig. 37, or shipyard assemblies. Yard assemblies Refrigerant 11is the most common primary refrigerant,
20 hp. Small open compressors, 5 tons and less, are of merchant ship's stores spaces having temperatures below are mandatory for large systems, to obtain optimum being suitable for the high-volume, low-head character-
the vertical type; larger ones have V/W cylinder 35 k', because of frost considerations (see Fig. 18). Em- space utilization and because of limited head room. istics of centrifugal compressors. Because the volume of
arrangements. bossed and plate coils have been used to a limited extent Permanent compressed-air connections facilitate the gas is relatively large and the system pressure is below
Specifications usually require built-in capacity control for cold tables and in refrigerated stores spaces where drainage of heating and defrosting facilities; otherwise atmospheric, centrifugal systems have integral purge
(cylinder unloading), positive (forced-feed) lubrication, they also serve as shelving. They have many advan- trapped water may freeze and cause damage. recovery units. Intercoolers (economizers) are provided
and crankcase oil heaters (energized whenever the com- tages, including versatility and ease of cleaning, which 8.5 Defrosting Facilities. Moisture forms frost on to increase the efficiency "bf multistage - compressor
pressor stops). Compressors for merchant cbnstruction should make their use much more common in the future. evaporator surfaces below the freezing temperature; this systems.
are selected from manufacturer's data based on standard Overhead gravity coils are not recommended for refriger- is most prevalent during pulldown. The accumulation Centrifugal systems are used for air-conditioning and
code rating methods [40,41] or tests specified for naval ation applications; however, they are used in ammunition of frost must be removed periodically. "Hot gas" de- high-temperature refrigerated cargo installations of the
construction [31]. Refrigeration compressors are se- spaces requiring a small cooling capacity. Drain pans frosting, which uses the heat of compression to melt the larger sizes. Until recently, approximately 250 tons of
lected for a suction temperature, under holding (normal) sometimes are fitted beneath gravity coils to collect and frost, works well for small evaporators, i.e., in ship's refrigeration was considered the dividing point below
operation, between 15 and 20 deg 17 below the lowest drain melted frost; electric strip heaters are installed in stores (see Fig. 18). In this process the compressor dis- which it was more economical to use reciprocating
refrigerated compartment temperature. Since suction these pans and around the drain pipes to prevent charge gas is fed directly to bare or finned pipe coils, systems. However, the introduction of single-stage
temperatures below -20 F involve sub-atmospheric refreezing. where it releases latent heat and condenses; after this it is machines and increased production have reduced costs
pressures, they are not advocated except during the pull- Bare pipe coils are made of steel or copper pipe; those re-evaporated in another evaporator. Hot-gas defrost- such that centrifugal systems as small as 100 tons of
down of - 10 F compartments. Suction temperatures of steel are hot-dip galvanized after fabrication and those ing has not proven successful for large evaporators (cold refrigeration are common.
for air conditioning usually are between 15 and 20 deg F of copper are tin-coated, Gravity fin-pipe coils are used diffusers), i.e., those serving cargo compartments. Centrifugal compressors may be driven by direct-
below the leaving air dry bulb temperature. Those for exclusively for ship's stores of naval construction; they Defrosting is very simple for cargo compartments connected steam turbines or by motors and speed in-
liquid chillers are 7 to 12 deg F below the leaving liquid are of a standardized design. The steel fin-pipe coils, cooled by brine systems [2]. Hot-gas and hot-brine creasers; the availability of electrical power often is the
temperature. Also, a minimum suction temperature primarily used in merchant construction, consist of 1.25- methods have an advantage in that the beating medium deciding factor. A turbine drive has the advantage of
of 35 F usually is specified for water chillers to avoid in-OD, 0.083-in-thick seamless tubing on 1.25-in. centers; is confined to the interior of the evaporator tube; i.e., greater flexibility to meet partial-load operation without
freeze-ups. the fins are 0.025 in. thick and the tube sheets are 0.074 minimum heat escapes into the refrigerated compartment. expensit'e controls. Motors are usually single speed and
8.3 Condensers and Receivers. Refrigeration con- in. thick. Cooling coils for refnieration applications The method most commonly used to defrost large are generally of the open type although some are of the
densers are of the seawater-cooled type except for very require heavier fins (0.015 in. thick) than those for air direct-expansion cold diffusers consists of spraying hot hermetic type.
small capacities (usually 1 hp and less), which are air- conditioning; also all copper surfaces are tin-coated to water (sweet or uncontaminated salt) over the evaporator Since capacity reduction cannot be achieved by merely
cooled. Seawater-cooled condensers for merchant con- avoid contamination [16]. Additionally, fin spacing is coils (see Fig. 37). Water is kept below 90 F and the reducing the speed of @e prime - mover, multispeed
struction may have cast iron or fabricated (copper nickel) limited to 3 per in. when the compartment temperature flow is manually controlled; ample drainage facilities are motors are not used. One method of capacity rbduction
heads and water boxes, welded steel shells, serrated (low) is below 35 F, and 4 per in. for higher temperatures; the essential to quick defrosting. Automatic electric de- employs a butterfly damper built into the compressor
fin or plain tubes (copper nickel or aluminum bronze), wide fin spacing minimizes the pressure drop (frosted frosting has been used for cargo air coolers to a limited suction inlet. Another method utilizes automatic pre-
copper nickel or Muntz metal tube sheets, and steel or coil) and facilitates defrosting. An advantage of fewer, extent. rotational vanes in the suction inlet. Suction gas
Muntz metal tube support plates. Zinc rods, replaceable or even no, fins often overlooked is that it necessitates 8.6 Centrifugal Liquid Chilling Systems. Centrif- throttling is inefficient; thus, prerotational vane control
without removing the heads, minimize tube corrosion. more prime surface; this in turn ~ e r m i t sa higher evapo- ugal liquid chilling systems operate on the same basic is preferred. Hot-gas by-pass facilities, manually con-
Condensers are usually sized for a 105 F condensing tem- rator temperature, higher (better) space humidity, and refrigeration cycle as those with reciprocating compres- trolled, are provided for loads below the range of the
perature and a fouling factor of 0.0005, although the latter less frosting. sors. Also materials comprising the various components integral compressor capacity controls.
MARINE ENGINEERING
ENVIR~NMENTALCONTROL 769
8.7 Steam-Jet and Absorption Liquid Chilling Conditioning,Ventilating, and Heating, )'NavShips 0938- i
Systems. Steam-jet, or steam vacuum refrigeration, 018-0010, Department of the Navy, February 1967. board," MILR-16743 (SHIPS), Department of the 38 "Rules and Regulations for Cargo and Miscel-
systems have been used to a rather limited extent aboard 12 "Electrical Engineering Regulations, Subchapter Navy. laneous Vessels," Subchapter I, CG257, U. S. Coast
ship. Considering the simplicity of the cycle and in- J," CG-259, U. S. Coast Guard. 32 "Test Code for Air Moving Devices," AMCA Guard.
stallation, as well as familiarity of operating personnel 13 0. D. Colvin, W. H. E. Hahne, and M. R. Colby, Standard 210-67 Air Moving and Conditioning Associa- 39 "Protection of Rail Shipments of Fruits and
Watt V. Smith
1. M. Gruber I Bearings and Lubrication , hm
h, b 0.001'
>
Section 1
I
Review of Fundamentals a U
1.I Fluid-Film Lubrication. Fluid-film lubrication lubricant viscosity adjusted to the local pressure. The 0
P
L "m
provides the basis for operation of bearings of all types. process is then repeated until an acceptably small error 0
hydrostatic bearings is generated externally and is piped film thickness, and the lubricant properties remain
I Fig. 1 Lubrication wedges JOURNAL BEARINO
to pockets or recesses in the loaded zone of the bearing. un&anged a t the pressures involved. Blok, in reference
h m b P ~ ~ ~ ~ - e m
Hydrodynamic (self-acting) bearings generate pressure [3], shows that the pressure profile attains a relatively
by the relative motion between the surfaces which draws constant value over the surface in contrast to the other
the fluid lubricant into a wedge-shaped space, thus lubrication regimes. Water-lubricated main propulsion
compressing its volume, more rapidly than the pressure shafting bearings are examples of bearings operating
can be relieved by leakage. Since virtually all bearings with inverse hydrodynamic lubrication.
used aboard ship are hydrodynamic, attention is focused I n thermal wedge bearings, the thermal wedges result ROLLINO CONTACT BEARINO
on this class. However, a comprehensive treatment of 'from differential heating or heat conduction through the
hydrostatic bearing$ is given in references [l-51.' bearing wall. Thermal wedges and unintentional me- hm b I O O X 10 -''
1.1 Film Pressure Formation. The concept of the chanical wedges resulting from finishing operations
wedge, or more generally lubricant compression, is probably provide much more of the load support than
--
basic to lubrication theory. Figure 1depicts a variety of would usually be imagined. Flabland thrust washers
bearings and the fluid film shapes usually associated with are examples of bearings which operate with this type of
hm
their lubrication. I n Fig. 1, W indicates the bearing lubrication. s
RUBBER BEARINO
load, N the speed of rotation, U the relative velocity of The pressure generated between the bearing surfaces
the bearing surfaces, p the pressure in the film, and is directly proportional to the relative velocities between ! b,,,bdOxIO
-6 u
h, the minimum film thickness. The first three bearings the surfaces and to the viscosity of the fluid. The
(tapered-land thrust bearing, tilting-pad thrusf bearing, pressure is also inversely prowrtional to a power of the a
and the journal bearing) are treated analytically as film thickness and is a function of the shape of the ?Y Y:
hydrodynamic. The surfaces are considered to be film. Figure 1 illustrates some of the pressure profiles
smooth, rigid, and perfectly aligned. The fluid is associated with the wedge shapes shown. The maximum
FB hn
usually considered to be a totally incompressible liquid unit pressures in a hydrodynamic bearing are from 3 to 5 FLAT-LAND THRUST WASHER
and in most solutions its viscosity is considered constant times the average unit load. Singe the average unit
even though all the heat is carried off in the lubricant. loads for oil-lubricated bearings are less than 600 psi in
The fourth bearing, a rolling-contact bearing, is most cases, the maximum pressures in the film are less
treated as being elastohydrodynamic. In elastohydro- than 3000 psi.
dynamic analysis, the deformation of the surfaces and
the effect of changes in lubricant viscosity due to pressure
are included in the analysis by solving first the elastic
equations for an approximate pressure distribution, then
The maximum pressures in elastohydrodynamic bear-
ings are less than the Hertzian contact pressures.
Since the Hertzian pressure in a rolling-contact bearing
may be as much as 300,000 psi in heavily loaded bearings,
1.3 Viscous EfFects. The oil leakage out of the
lubricant film may be determined from an equation of the
form
hZ d p
*p = viscosity, lb-secLsq in.
dz
.
-
its accompanying high damage can be appreciated by
f = bearing coefficient of friction based on a large mass of experimental data and thus it consideiing that, during any interruption of motion, the
P = bearing unit load (i.e., bearing load divided by offers the advantage of a verified analysis. Michell's
machine surfaces operate in the boundary regime. The
LD), psi work [ll] is good on the design of large marine and water boundary regime is never quite free of some material
wheel thrust bearings. quite different depending on the circumstances surround-
transfer and thus the damage is proportional to the ing the event. The least damaging dirt passage occurs
The oil flow requirements hnd power loss of cylindrical 1.4 Boundary and Mixed-Film Lubrication. Bound- amount of time spent operating in this regime.
ary lubrication processes are difficult to define with when the dirt is smaller in size than the thickness of the
sleeve bearings may be estimated by the following Just as surface roughness can penetrate oil films down film. The thinnest part of the film through which the
simplified and approximate equations [6] : precision since the mechanisms to be included are not well to and through the boundary layer, so too can dirt
defined. Generallyyhen the film thickness becomes so particle passes determines the damage. If the particle
particles that circulate with the oil stream. The effects is too small to contact both solid surfaces, then the force
small that the nature of the surface and the chemistry of produced by the passage of dirt through a film can be
the lubricant-surface combination become more impor- necessary for damage is not available and the dirt passes
774
particle size exceeds the film thickness, the least damage physical characteristics of an oil. Several additives are of a safe film thickness can be determined. The lubri- 0 100 PO0
occurs when a ploughed track in the soft bearing material usually blended into a single package suitable for con- cant properties of primary concern, the test methods, and 100
is the only result. Damage of this type can raise local verting a specific base oil into the desired product. The the significance of the results are briefly discussed in the 1) 0 80Q
80
temperatures, but the bearing damage is quickly commonly used types of additives include: following paragraphs. 400
smeared back to the level of the surrounding surface in a. Lubricant Viscosity and Viscosity Index. In 40
oxidation inhibitors-to reduce the onset and rate
most cases.
The entry of dirt into the bearing has a more serious of oil oxidation i 1745, Newton measured the torque required to rotate
concentric cylinders in a liquid. He determined that
PO0
result when the dirt particle fails to transit the film but, corrosion inhibitoreto reduce or prevent oil attack
on alloy bearings and internal rusting of machines the force required on the rim of the cylinders was directly
instead, embeds in the bearing surface. Embedment proportional to the speed of rotation and the area of 100
may be complete, in which case the damage is restricted antiwear improvers, oiliness agents, and extreme a0
pressure (EP) additives-to improve sliding in the surface in the liquid and inversely proportional to the 10
to that done to the journal in the embedment process. distance between moving surfaces. The relationship 1) 80
When the embedment is incomplete, the consequences boundary lubrication regime
detergents-to improve the cleanliness of surfaces from these results is F = p(AV/h), where p is the pro- 8 40
may vary from the cutting of a small groove in the shaft, portionality constant. This constant is the absolute
all the way to a catastrophic machining-type failure. In dispersants-to keep carbon and other insolubles 4
dispersed and circulating with the oil; this prevents viscosity. When A is the surface area in inches squared,
machining (or "steel wool") type failures, the steel V is the surface speed in inches per second, h is the oil PO
surface is continuously cut by particles from the steel malfunctions such as piston ring sticking
alkaline agents-to neutralize acid from oil oxidation film thickness in inches, and F is the force in pounds, the P
journal surface which are embedded in the bearing units of p are lb-sec/sq in. This is a reyn. The corre-
material and those that weld together to form massive pour depressants-to lower the pour point 10
antifoam additives-to reduce the persistence of sponding unit of absolute viscosity in the metric system 1)
scabs. The articles are hardened bv friction heating I
is a poise. The units of a poise are dynes-sec/sq cm. 0.1) 8
and oil quidching. The probability"of a machinin& foam The metric unit of absolute viscosity most commonly
type failure occurring increases with: tackiness agents-to reduce dripping tendencies 0.8 4
thickener additive-to convert oil to a solid or used is a centipoise, which is 1/100th of a poise.
semisolid lubricant (grease) For oils, viscosity is usually measured as the time for a 0.4
dirt size, quantity, and hardness fixed volume to be discharged from a standard container P
residual hardenability (difference in journal o r . through a fixed orifice at a specified temperature. The
thrust surface hardness and the maximum hardness Greases are very important in the lubrication of 02
bearings and gears, where speeds are low and loads are viscosity of most oils is nearly independent of the rate of
attainable with the material) shear and the oils are termed Newtonian fluids. Modern I
oil film temperature (which is primarily related to high, and in rolling-contact bearings where oil can bleed 0.1
rapidly enough from the grease to provide the necessary multigrade engine oils are non-Newtonian. At high
surface speed) o 100 goo a00 400
amounts of lubricant. Grease properties differ greatly shear rates, multigrade oils show a decrease in viscosity
amount of chlorine in the oil (usually an extreme- with increasing rate of shear until the viscosity of the
TEMPERATURE, DLORLLS FAHRENHEIT
pressure additive) from the base oil. The amount and type of thickener
base oil is approached. Fig. 4 Lubricating-oil viscosity-temperature chart
composition of rotor materials; carbide-forming additive and the rate of shear of the @pplicationboth Grease is strongly non-Newtonian. The apparent
elements (high-chrome steels can be especially affect the grease properties. Nine softness grades are
recognized in the NLGI (National Lubricating Grease viscosity is measured by pumping the grease through
troublesome) each of a set of eight capillary tubes using two pumping
Institute) system ranging from 000 to 6 in order of
rates. From the observed pressures, the dimensions of L = viscosity at 100 F of an oil of 0 VI having the
When designing bearings, consideration must be given increasing stiffness. &eases are formed as a gel of the same viscosity at 210 F as the oil whose VI is
base oil and from 4 to 25 percent of a soap of (in decreas- the capillary tubes, and the pumping rate, the viscosity
to the demands for stable, fully hydrodynamic operation and shear stress are computed and viscosity in poises is to be calculated
in the upper operating range, the ability of the material ing order of quantity manufactured) calcium, lithium, plotted against rate of shear in reciprocal seconds on H = viscosity at 100 F of an oil of 100 VI having the
sodium, aluminum, barium, or other metals or through
and lubricant to provide prolonged operation in the log-log paper. The viscosity of the base oil at the test same viscosity at 210 F as the oil whose VI is
the use of finely divided inorganic or organic compounds
boundary lubrication regime at slow speed, and the prob- temperature provides a lower bound on the grease to be calculated
ability of encountering some boundary operation at
such as modified bentonite, colloidal silica, or arylureas. -
A wide range of oils has been used including petroleum, apparent viscosity. In many cases a sufficiently high viscosity will be
high speed. The great significance of material factors in animal, vegetable, and synthetic oils. The wide variety The viscosity index (VI) is a measure of the rate of
all types of boundary operation cannot be overem- of startine materials and the combinations that have ensured at the maximum temperature by specifying the
. .
phasized.
. -- a
change of viscosity with temperature. Oils from a minimum acceptable viscosity at each of two tempera-
been made have produced lubricants applicable over a l'ennsylvania crude, which had the lowest rate of change tures; however, such specifications may permit an
1.5 Lubricants. Lubricants for marine machinery of viscosity with temperature existing at the time the
temperature span from -100 to 450 F. excessive viscosity when operating at intermediate
usually have a petroleum base. Crude petroleum oils index was established (1929), were arbitrarily assigned
are roughly classified as paraffinic, naphthenic, or mixed The factors to be considered in selecting the lubricants temperatures. A comparison of the economic value of
to be used aboard ship are as follow: a VI value of 100. Another series of oils from a Gulf lower oil costs for a lower VI oil versus the longer term
base; the differences being associated with the presence Coast crude with the greatest change were assigned a
of paraffin wax in the paraffinic crude, asphaltic com- The lubricant in each machine must have sufficient value of a reduced low-temperature power loss must be
value of 0. The viscosities of each series of oil were made to provide a valid decision.
ponents in the naphthenic, and both in the mixed-base viscosity to meet the most severe anticipated opera- determined for 100 F and 210 F. The viscosity index
oils. An entire range of crudes exists, ranging from the tional requirements. The effectof temperature on oil viscosity is illustrated
of an oil is then computed as in Fig. 4. Mercury and'cwater have been included to
highly paraffinic to the highly naphthenic; however, The viscosity of the lubricant in each machine should
advances in refining and in additive chemistry have be held to the minimum to minimize power losses and illustrate low-viscosity fluids. The data given in Fig. 4
greatly reduced the significance of geographic source in cooling requirements. L - u may be converted to other standards by employing the
-7
VI = --- X 100
the final application of the oil. Both the wax and the The volume and variety of lubricants carried aboard L-H following relationships:
asphalts are largely removed in the manufacture of the ship should be minimized.
lubricating oil. The specific property levels desired are where To obtain Reyns (lb-sec/sq in.), multiply the
attained by blending refined, naturally occurring oils and From the known loads, speeds, and temperatures of viscosity in centipoises (dynes-sec/sq cm) by 1.45 X lo-'.
by the introduction of additive packages. the power plant bearings and gear teeth, the physical
U = viscosity at 100 F of the oil whose VI is to be To obtain centistokes, divide centipoises by the oil
calculated density in grams/cu cm.
776 MARINE Ek BEARINGS AND LUBRICATION 777
Above 60 centistokes, the following approximations oil overflow, blockage of oil return lines, loss of cooler which sustained burning occurs when similarly tested; service application. The purpose of the tests is to
may be used: effectiveness, air binding of pumps, etc. and to the temperature at which ignition occurs without provide assurance that dervice operation will be free of
g. Corrosion Inhibition. The corrosion inhibition oxternal flame. These values have no meaning for trouble from unspecified or unspecifiable lubricant
Saybolt Universal Seconds = 4.62 X centistokes
capabilities of a lubricating oil or grease are intended to lubricating processes but are significant where fire characteristics. Many different types of engine tests
Redwood No. 1 Seconds = 4.05 X centistokes
Degrees Engler = 0.132 X centistokes define either the tendency of the product to corrode a hazards exist. Marine lubricating oil distribution and the Navy work factor test may be cited as examples
component of the system being lubricated or to protect systems are generally considered to constitute such a of this type of test. Service simulation tests are often
b. Oxidation Stability. Oxidation stability provides the surfaces in the system from being corroded by fresh hazard. very arbitrary.
a measure of the lubricant's resistance to oxidation under or salt water entering the system. A wide variety of i. Pour Point. The pour point defines the lowest Although petroleum-base$ materials satisfy the great
an accelerated test. Testing is performed by exposing a tests is used on new oils or greases. Each test is closely temperature at which the oil will pour. An oil sample majority of marine lubrication requirements, a number of
small oil sample (300 ml) contaminated with water related to the intended application. Most of the tests contained in a tube is cooled in 5-deg F increments. The other lubricants,should be mentioned. Synthetic liquids
(60ml), and containing a steel-copper wire catalyst coil, are for surfaces wetted by the lubricant; however, tests tube is tilted after the temperature stabilizes and the oil have been among the most widely used petroleum sub-
to a flow of 0.5 liters per hour of oxygen at a temperature have been developed also to measure the vapor space behavior is observed. When the sample shows no stitutes. The synthetic fluids in wide use include [3]:
of 203 F. Neutralization numbers are determined corrosion protection offered by oils that have vapor space motion after 5 sec, it is considered to have become solid.
periodically during and at the end of the test. Limits corrosion inhibitors included in their formulation. Dibasic acid ester-for high VI, low volatility, and
The previous 5 deg F point is reported as the pour point. low freezing point
may be set by reaching a maximum neutralization number All of the corrosion tests are examples of surface The significance of the pour point in lubrication lies in
or by time. The test provides an indication of the chemistry phenomena and therefore require exceptional a Phosphate e s t e r s f o r fire resistance and boundary
the inability of pumps to move the lubricant to the lubrication
oxidation-limited life of a lubricant in service. care in the preparation of the test surfaces. The material bearings in time to prevent damage, when starting near
c. NeutralizationNumber. The neutrdiiation num- of the specimen must be exactly to specification. The a Silicones-for the highest VI, thermal and oxidation
the pour point. Tank heating coils are provided to stability, and low freezing point
ber is a measure of the acidity of an oil. The oil is finishing method is critical in each step as to grades and avoid difficulties associated with low pour points.
extracted or mixed in a solvent and the number of milli- types of abrasive, speeds of finishing, and scratch Polyglycol e t h e r s f o r high VI, and good boundary
j. Grease Penetration. The grease penetration num- lubrication
grams of potassium hydroxide required to neutralize a pattern and depth. Each of these items has an effect ber is a measure of the consistency of a grease. Penetra-
gram of oil is reported as the neutralization number. The on the surface structure and residual stress, and hence t i o is
~ determined on both worked and unworlred samples. For more than a century, water has been used to
neutralization number can provide a usefd indication of on the corrodability of the surface. Finally, the cleaning Worked samples are produced by forcing the grease back lubricate stern tube and strut bearings lined with lignum
the degree of oxidation of an oil and hence to the need to of the specimen must be performed exactly as specified, and forth through a perforated disk for a specified vitae wood. Plastic and rubber bearings have also been
replace the oil. Care should be used with additive oils if all the ~reviouscare is not to be wasted. number of strokes. Normally only a modest number of used in conjunction with water lubrication. Pump
since the additive may affect the neutralization number. The actual corrosion test methods are numerous. strokes are required; however, a greater number of bearings have of necessity been lubricated with water
d. Carbon Residue. Carbon residue is the per- ASTM, federal, and military specifications cover most strokes can be specified and can reveal shear instability when water was the fluid being pumped, as is the case
centage of carbonaceous material remaining after an oil of those tests of concern to the marine engineer. One of of some greases. The penetration is measured by with the motors and pumps of pressurized water reactors.
sample has been burned. The test is best made in a the most frequent tests applied to both oils and greases allowing a standard cone to sink into the grease for a Air and other compressible gases and vapors have been
small glass container (Ramsbottom Method) by subject- is the copper strip test. Copper is easily corroded and is period of 5 sec. The depth of penetration in tenths of a studied extensively for bearing service where rotational
ing a weighed sample of oil to a constant temperature of catalytic to petroleum oils or at least to some of the millimeter is reported as the penetration. Grease speeds are high or where the space and weight savings of
1020 F for a fixed time period. The test indicates the constituents. The copper strip after proper finishing penetration is useful in selecting greases for ball and working fluid machines warrant the added engineering.
carbon-forming tendencies of the oil and is significant for and cleaning is partially immersed in the lubricant and roller bearing applications and as a quality control check. These bearings have been employed extensively in gas-
internal combustion engine oils. heated in a bomb pressurized with oxygen for 20 hr at Greases that are too soft tend to excessively flow into cooled nuclear reactor circulating fan bearings, in turbo-
e. Demulsibility. The demulsibility of an oil is a 210 F. After solvent cleaning, the test strip is compared the path of rollers and cause high heat through churning. expanders for cryogenic work, and in control gyros for
measure of the separating tendency of oil-water mixtures to a reference strip for evidence of discoloration, etching, Harder greases, especially those displaying channeling inertial platforms in missiles.
or emulsions. Equal volumes (40 rnl) of oil and water and corrosion. The test will identify lubricants with oharacteristics, run much cooler. Hardness alone will Solid lubricants include the lamellar solids (graphite,
are stirred for five minutes at 130 F. If the volume of sufficient activity to cause corrosion. not ensure grease channeling. Channeling is a complex molybdenum disulfide, tungsten disulfide, boron nitride,
emulsion (unseparated oil and water) remaining is less The corrosion inhibition test for steam turbine oils function of grease hardness, tack, fiber structure and etc.); the soft solids, (white lead, talc, clay, etc.); chemi-
than 3 ml when the sample is examined at 5-min intervals, uses a sample of oil (300 ml) contaminated with 30 ml application factors including temperature, shear rate, cal coatings of oxides, sulfides, and phosphates; waxes
the mixture is reported as breaking and the time is noted. of seawater for marine turbine oils (or with the same and vibration. Since no single test suffices to predict (paraffin, beeswax); polymerized olefines (polyethylene,
If the mixture fails to break after one hour, the volumes of amount of distilled water for oils to be used with land- channeling, it is often necessary to resort to experiments polytetrafluroethylene); thin metal films of tin, lead,
oil, water, and emulsion remaining are reported. The based turbines). The resistance to rusting of very in critical applications. silver, or indium; and a wide variety of composite
maximum time for demulsification is specified for each carefully abraded and cleaned low-carbon steel rods that k. Grease Drop Point. The drop point of a grease materials. Graphite and molybdenum disulfide are
particular oil. In used ails, the test is heavily affected are suspended in the oil-water mixture for 24 hr at 140 F is the temperature at which the grease starts to drop out the most widely used of the solid lubricants. They can
by rust, oxidation products, and other less clearly defined is used as the test criterion. of the end of an inverted cone. The drop point is the be applied as rubbed films, bonded coatings, or as
contaminants. The test provides an indication of the The Underwood corrosion test ig intended for use with nearest approximation to a grease melting point. I t does dispersions in a carrier such as heavy steam cylinder oil.
effectiveness of separators in water removal and of the internal combustion engine oil. The test specimehs are t not provide a safe upper temperature for use of a grease, A number of the solid lubricants are available in con-
probable sludge-forming tendencies of the oil. Heavy connecting-rod shells of bearing materials known to be but it does identify a temperature above the usable venient aerosol dispenser packages.
sludges or emulsions can block the flow in oil return lines easily corroded. Jets spray oil on the bearings at 375 F range. The solid lubricants are characterized in lubrication
and reduce the effectiveness of oil coolers. for 30 hr. 1. Service Simulation Testing. A wide variety of
f. Foaming. The foaming tendency of a lubricating
oil indicates the stability of air-oil foams. The test is
None of the corrosion tests are expected to yield
corrosion rate predictions but they do provide general
1 service simulation tests has been included in various
technology by requiring feplacement as the films wear
out, by being unable to remove frictionally -generated
specificationsfor lubricants. These tests are intended to heat, and by satisfactory operation at lower Hersey
performed by the formation of a foam by the passage of guidance regarding the corrosive tendency or corrosion- check the overall suitability of a lubricant for a particular numbers than any other lubricant system.
94 ml per minute of air for 5 min through a 200-ml oil inhibiting characteristics of an oil.
sample. Foam volumes are noted as formed and also h. Flash, Fire, and Autogenous Ignition Points.
after settling for 10 min. Tests are run at 75 F and at These three points refer, respectively, to the temperature
200 F. Lubricating oils having a tendency to foam are at which the vapor over a heated oil sample will flash
undesired because foam can cause inadequate lubrication, when tested with a small flame; to the temperature at
BEARINGS AND LLlBRlCATlON
I
778 MARINE ENGINEERING
Table 2 Characteristics of Sliding and Rolling Contact Bearings
Section 2
SERVICEFACTORS CHARACTERISTIC SLIDING ROLLING
Bearings
Unidirectional Good Excellent
2.1 General. Bearings may be of either the sliding- b. Cylindrical Overshot Bearing. This bearing, Cyclic Good Excellent
{
contact type, where the bearing elements are separated Fig. 5(b), is the same as that in Fig. 5(a), except a relief Starting Poor Excellent
by a film of oil, or of the rolling-contact type such as ball, Load Unbalance Good Excellent
Excelle~t
groove is added in the unloaded half of the bearing. Shock Fair
roller, or needle bearings. Sliding-contact bearings This is used to reduce the power loss and to provide extra Emergency Fair Fair
include many varieties of sleeve or journal bearings, and cooling capacity. Oil is usually admitted a t the trailing- Turbulence
Temp. rise. Centrifugal loading
Speed limited by
they also include thrust bearings and guide bearings (e.g., edge spreader groove and allowed to flow over the shaft I Dynamic effects
bearings which guide linear motions such as crosshead ,*
within the relief. The excess oil over the bearing Mdsaldgnmenl toler- Fair I Poor in ball bearings
guide bearings in diesel engines). The determination of requirement is often drained away from the leading-edge ance except where designed
the type of bearing to use is based upon a study of spreader groove. for a t sacrifice of
!oad capacity. Good
several characteristics relating to the mechanical c. Pressure-Dam Bearing. Fig. 5(c) shows a pres- in spherical roller
requirement, the environmental conditions, and the sure-dam or "Newkirk" bearing. I n the pressure-dam bearings. Poor m
relative cost. 9ylindrical roller bear-
bearing a groove over the top half of the bearing is ings
Each type of bearing has its peculiar advantages with terminated at a sharp-edged dam about 45 deg beyond
respect to each condition of application; Table 2 sum- Starting fr-idion Poor Good
the top vertical line. Stopping the oil flow in the groove
marizes the relative advantages of each [6]. 'Generally at the dam creates an oil pressure due to viscous pumping Space requiremenis
speaking, sliding bearings are used in propulsion steam and this pressure increases the load on the bearing 1121. (Radial beur-ing)
Radial dimension Small ' Large
turbines, main reduction gears, diesels, industrial-type This design is quite successful in reducing the oil-whip Axial dimension to 2 times the to f i the shaft dia
gas turbines, turbine generator auxiliary power plants, phenomenon; however, it is not always a cure for bearing shaft dia
diesel -electric
.- -
emergency
-
plants, large- - motors
- or gener- instability and it therefore has a limited use. Type of failure Often permits Limited operation may
ators, boiler feed pumps, large fans and blowers, compres- limited emergency continue after fatigue
sors and refrigeration plants, lineshaft bearings, stern d. Multiple-Groovp Bearing. This is another varia- operation after failure but not after
tion of the cylindrical bearing, but instead of two spreader failure lubricant failure
tube bearings, steering gears, and rudders. Rolling-
element bearings are generally used with electric motors grooves a t the split line, it has four axial grooves spaced Damping Good Poor
up to 50 hp, aircraft-type gas turbines, small gear sets, either 35 or 45 deg from the vertical centerline. It has Oil or other fluid,. Oil or grease
Type of lubricant
some small auxiliary steam turbines, and small me- been used successfully in steam turbine rotors at loads grease, dry lubri-
chanical equipment. of 150 to 250 psi and LID ratios of 0.4 to 0.6. It has cants, air, or gas
2.2 Pressure-Fed Journal Bearings. Many different
some effectiveness in eliminating oil whip. A four- hbricatdon, quantity Large, except in low- Very swan, except
groove bearing is shown in Fig. 5(d). required speed boundary- where large amounts
types of journal bearings have been developed over the lubrication types of heat must be
years and a rather large variety remains in use. These e. Elliptical Bearing. An elliptical bearing has a removed
may be roughly classified into the three differentmethods bore similar to an ellipse. It is manufactured by machin- Noise Quiet May be noisy, depend-
of lubrication: namelv, ~ressure-fed.
" , A .
, nonDressurized.and
-
ing the bore with shims installed at the split line. After ing upon quality of
bearing and resonance
I externally pressurized bearings.
A number of designs of pressure-fed bearings are in
machining, the shims are removed so that when assem-
bled the bearing bore has a larger clearance horizontally
of mounting
1
of the bore. Variations of grooving and bores give rise ly as speed. Usually
to the following common types of bearings: to 1.0. They are commonly used as steam turbine, !ewer than glider bear-
a. Cylindrical Bearing. This bearing, Fig. 5(a), has industrial gas turbine, and generator bearings. 1g
An elliptical-overshot bearing is the same m an ellip-
'I a cylindrical bore. It usually has two oil spreader
I
f. Three-Lobe Bearing. A three-lobe bearing, shown Maintenance Clean lubricant Clean lubriesnt
I
to a bearing instability known as oil whip.2 in Fig. 5Cf), is very effective in preventing oil whip a t required required. Only oc?
li
sionrtl attention m t h
I light-load conditions. Its chief disadvantage is its
manufacturing difficulty and awkwardness in handling.
Very small in mass- ~nt'eh-ediatebut
2 Any bearing instability, regardless of its nature, is commonly It is commonly made in three sections with shims in the production quanti- standardize& varying
referred to as 'oil whipn in the marine trade. Actually bearing joints. ties, or simple types little with quantity
instabilities fall into two types, half-frequency whirl and resonant
whip. Half-frequency whlrl is a vibration of a shaft in a fluid film g. Tapered-Bore Bearing. As a variation of the Function of design Function of t pe of
journal bearing which may occur a t any s eed and a t a frequency three-lobe bearing, a three-groove tapered-bore bearing and installation installation. 6sually
of one-half or near one-half journal speed! A resonant whip is a shaft need not be
resonant vibration of a shaft in a fluid-film journal bearing which has 30 deg of arc that is cylindrical and 90 deg of arc replaced
is self-starting a t a shaft speed approximately twice the actual that is tapered to a depth of 0.004 to 0.005 in. Unlike
first system critical and remains at a constant frequency as the the three-lobe bearing, the tapered-bore bearing can be
s eed increases. The fre uency of this vibration is equal to the
&st critical frequency of t$e shaft regardle~of running apeed. machined in a lathe with a special bore-tapering attach-
780 MARINE EN BEARINGS AND LUBRICATION 78 1
2.4
oil viscosity, r e p s
Externally Pressurized Journal Bearings. Slid-
Fig. 8 Schematic diagram
of a hydrostatic lift
There are several disadvantages to oil rings. At low ing bearings of the oil-film type operate on a hydro-
Fig. 5 Types of pressure-fed bearings
speeds, such as 0.1 rpm while on turning gear, oil dynamic film after the surface speed is sufficient to carry
delivery is uncertain. Also, rings may tend to hold up the load. Under these conditions an oil-film bearing is
on the ring guides and thereby impair oil delivery. I n extremely efficient and reliable. The problem arises
addition, the oil delivery from rings is proportional to when the speed is too low to maintain a hydrodynamic
ment. These bearings can be made in two halves. A viscosity so that, as a bearing overheats and the oil film. Because steam turbine rotors require a cooling-
sketch of this bearing is shown in Fig. 5(g). temperature rises in the sump, the oil delivered to the down period of several hours under turning gear opera-
h. Tilting-Pad Bearing. The most effective bearing bearing is decreased a t the very time when more oil is tion, the lineshaft bearings during this period operate on
to prevent oil whip and dampen shaft vibration is the needed. boundary films or metal-to-metal contact even with
tilting-pad or multiple-shoe bearing as illustrated by Disk bearings are lubricated by a plate clamped to the extremely low loadings (the lineshaft speeds are in the
Fig. 5(h). The bearing surface is divided into equal shaft a t one end of the bearing. At the OD of the plate range of so to % rpm). Tests on a 13 in. disk-lubri- line has a total area of from 2 to 5 percent of the total
shoes or pads (3,4, or 5 are the numbers most commonly a cylindrical section forming a part of the disk rubs cated lineshaft bearing with 300 SSU oil show that projected area. Generally, 1 to 2 gpm of oil is supplied
used) and each pad is allowed to tilt freely a ; ~the load against a brass scraper which removes and directs oil mixed-film lubrication (i.e., the onset of boundary film at a pressure of about 1000 psi; however, each application
and oil-film wedge dictates. Pivot locations are nor- into the bearing, generally a t the top centerline of the lubrication) exists a t a Sommerfeld number of about must be designed for the specific flow and pressure
mally centered, but can be shifted downstream to 0.6 the bearing (as in Fig. 12 of Chapter 11). The cylindrical 0.008 (see Fig. 6). It is standard marine practice to required to lift the load free of the bearing. Starting
shoe length for increased load capacity. The tilting-pad section of the disk is submerged below the oil sump limit loadings and rely on large LID'S because of the friction with hydrostatic lifts is reduced by a factor of
bearing was designed for the light-load bearing instability level, and rotates with the shaft at shaft speed. Disk limitations resulting from continuous operation at turning about 10 to 1. For thrust bearings on deep submergence
problem, but its oil film operates-at a lower temperature bearings have a greater and more positive oil flow a t all gear speed. vessels, whIch have large breakaway thrust on starting, a
than a comparable full-sleeve journal bearing and it is speeds. Disk oil flow exceeds ?ing oil flow in a given Some thrust bearings and journal bearings of large hydrostatic lift may be required in cases where the avail-
capable of withstanding higher unit loads than a full- bearing anywhere from 1.5 to 7 times depending on the low-speed shafts have externally pressurized pockets in able starting torque is limited.
sleeve bearing. speed. the bearings as shown in Figs. 7 and 8 for starting and 2.5 Thrust Bearings. As in the case of journal
Tilting-pad bearings are in common use on steam Tests with disk-lubricated bearings show that a t low stopping under hydrostatic pressure [I]. The hydro- bearings, there is a variety of thrust bearing designs
turbines, high-speed reduction gears, and centrifugal speeds the oil delivery can be expressed as: static lift in thrust bearings consists of a pocket a t the which have been in use to meet various application
compressors. center of each pad of approximately 2 to 4 in. dia requirements. The various types can be classed as
The bearings as listed in items (a) through (h) are (Fig. 7). The pads are drilled from the pad OD to the follows: flat land, tapered land, tilting pad, step, and
generally in the order of increased rotor damping center. An orifice and check valve are mounted on the pocket thrust. The first three types are in common use
where pad OD which in turn is connected to a high-pressure
properties. The cylindrical bearing offers the least and are therefore covered in detail.
protection against oil-film whip or rotor unbalance Q = oil flow from disk, gal/hr manifold supplied with oil from a high-pressure pump. a. Flat-Land Thrust Bearings. The flat-land bearing
vibration, while the tilting pad is the most satisfactory b = disk width, in. Figure 8 illustrates a hydrostatic lift arrangement for a is the simplest form of thrust bearing. It consists of an
for these types of problems. Even though widely D = disk diameter, in. journal bearing. The oil pocket at the bottom center- annular flat surface with or without oil grooves, running
i
MARINE ENGINEERING BEARINGS AND L~BRICAT~ON
of pads is always used. The ratio of pad length to pad bearings should be limited to a maximum loading of
height is kept near 1.0 for optimum load capacity. The about 300 psi.
oil groove width amounts to about 20 percent of the pad Tilting-pad thrust bearings quite often have the same
length. Pad tapers range from 0.005 to 0.009 in. a t the bearing elements ahead and astern for interchangeability
I D and from 0.003 to 0.006 in. a t the OD, depending on purposes; a full set of bearing elements may be installed
the pad size. As the pad increases in size, the amount on both the ahead and astern sides or a reduced number
of cooling oil required increases and thus tapers are may be provided on the astern side (in exceptional
increased to pass a sufficient amount of cooling oil. cases). Also in exceptional cases, bearings of smaller
Detail calculations can be made for this type of bearing size may be provided on the astern side than on the ahead
by employing the procedure outlined in reference [6] or side.
[131. The bearing design variables of film thickness, power
c. Tilting-Pad Thrust Bearings. The tilting-pad loss, oil flow, and temperature rise can be determined by
thrust bearing of the Kingsbury or Michell types (both the hydrodynamic relations given in reference [6].
held patents concurrently dating from 1910) differ from d. Resonance Changers. An interesting modifica
the tapered-land bearing in that each pad is an individual tion to the leveling link (hard) main propeller shaft
shoe that is free to pivot as the oil film dictates. The thrust bearing is the resonance changer or soft thrust
pivots can be a radial line as in the Michell type or a bearing. Instead of leveling link supports behind the
radiused button support as in the Kingsbury type. It thrust pads, a piston and bushing is placed beneath each
has become common practice in American marine pad, Fig. 10. The pistons are connected to oil manifolds Fig. 10 Resonance changer
'
applications for tilting-pad bearings to have plates, and piped to a high-pressure (2000-3000 psi) oil supply.
known as leveling links, which equalize the load between By varying the quantity of gas in an accumulator, the
pads. In Europe and Japan, most marine thrust longitudinal resonant frequency of the shafting system
bearings are built with thrust pads supported directly can be changed. This bearing modification has proven
in housings without leveling linlm. A conventional extremely useful in multiple-screw ships where excessive
marine ma& thrust bearing ofthe self-equalizing type is longitudinal shaft vibrations are experienced when the
Fig. 9 Self-equalizing main thrust bearing shown in Fig. 9. ship is in a hard turn [16].
A standard thrust bearing has 6 pads with the OD e. Thrust Meters. Electronic thrust meters were
equal to twice the ID. The pads, with 51-deg arc, first used by the Navy for standardization trials on new
have a length to radial height ratio of 1.33. Bearings ships; however, electronic thrust meters have subse-
against a rotating thrust collar or shoulder. The load-
carrying ability is derived from the proper number and of this design have an area equal to one half the square quently been frequently used in pumps, turbines, com-
of the bearing OD. They are capable of carrying loads pressors, and as permanently installed equipment to
radiusing of the oil grooves on the flat face. Theoreti-
cally the flat-land bearing has no load-carrying capacity. of 300 to 500 psi, depending on the bearing size, speed, measure propeller thrust. An electronic thrust meter
and the type of oil. consists of a standard tilting-pad bearing with strain
However, experience has shown that a well-designed
Larger bearings for main propulsion shafting usually gage type load cells added to the shoes or leveling links;
flat-land bearing will operate successfully a t a unit
have restrictions on the bearing OD; therefore, in order see Fig. 11. In an &pad leveling-link bearing, load cells
loading of 100 psi. Their normal application is in the
to minimize the bearing size, these bearings quite often can be used in quantities of 2, 4, 6, or 8 depending on
range of 50 to 100 psi. This type of bearing is used on
pumps and compressors on the inactive face (or idle have 8,10, or 12 pads. One conventional marine thrust the accuracy and reliability desired. Two or four are
side) of the thrust collar, where the reverse load is bearing has 16 pads. The most common marine common for tankers or cargo ships. Fig. 1 1 Electronic thrust meter
propeller thrust bearing for cargo ships and tankers is Standard load cells have been manufactured to fit all
momentary. Where steady, heavy-thrust loads exist, a
tapered-land or tilting-pad bearing is used. an 8-pad bearing ranging in OD from 41 to 61 in. There thrust bearings from 5 to 65 in., ranging in unit load cell
The power loss for a flat-land bearing can be deter- is no hydrodynamic or manufacturing limit on the size ratings of 1000 to 100,000 lb each. Load cells can be
mined by the use of empirical data such as presented in of thrust bearings: fitted to existing machinery installations. The thrust rolling-contact bearings provide a radially (or axially)
reference 161. signal from the load cell is an electronic one, and can be stiff bearing that permits heavy loading of machine
The spherically radiused button supports of tilting-
read or recorded from any one of a large variety of components with minimum deflection. The lubrication
b. Tapered-Land Thrust Bearings. The tapered- pad bearings are generally placed at the center of the pad
instruments ranging from a single readout of strain to a system is usually simpler for rolling-contact bearings,
lalid thrust bearing has the general appearance of the in the circumferential direction. This is to accommodate 1
multichannel recorder, which can record directly any e~pecially~where the size, load, and speed are such that
flat-land thrust bearing. Its surface is divided into a ahead and astern rotation. A study by Raimondi and
number of cells simultaneously. These devices are grease lubrication can be used. Rolling-contact bearings
number of pads separated by an equal number of radial Boyd [14] showed that in theorfa flat pad with a center
extremely responsive to thrust variations. have much lower starting friction coefficients (0.002 to
oil-feed grooves. I n the tapered-land bearing, each pad pivot had no load capacity. In actual practice the pad
is tapered in the circumferential direction so that the 0.006) than self-acting sliding-contact bearings (0.15 to
crowns due to the load over the center pivot and from 2.6 Rolling-Contact Bearings
motion of the runner will wipe oil into the wedge area to 0.25).
thermal gradients in the pad itself. Thrust bearings I a. General. Rolling-contact bearings are distin- The load capacity of rd@ng-contact bearings is fairly
build up load-carrying oil pressures. The taper can be for unidirectional rotation can be designed with a pivot
either single, that is, the same amount at the I D and OD, guished by the use of a series of rolling elements to well-defined in terms of the cycles of operation to obtain
a t 0.58 the shoe length for optimum load-carrying
or compound, where the taper a t the I D is larger than capacity. position the shaft with respect to the housing of the a fatigue failure in a definite percentage of a given
machine. The rolling elements most frequently em- population at a single load level. This fatigue failure
that a t the OD. For optimum load-carrying capacity, Navy practice is to apply self-equalizing main thrust mode is the normal basis for sizing rolling-contact
ployed include; balls, needles, and cylindrical, tapered,
compound tapers are used. The taper usually extends bearings at loads of about 500 psi, while the merchant bearings to satisfy the requirements of a given applica-
for 80 to 90 percent of the pad with the rest of the pad and convex rollers. The rolling elements of rolling-
marine practice is to size the bearing at 350 to 400 psi 1151. contact bearings provide much closer positioning of tion. Equations have also been developed to compute
remaining flat. For convenience of manufacture and to Most propulsion steam turbines employ self-equalizing
accommodate splitting in two halves, an even number shafts than can be achieved with the use of self-acting the static load to cause surface indentation of a size
pad bearings loaded a t 400 to 500 psi. Nonequalizing sliding bearings. In addition to the close positioning, known to cause rough running. The static load capacity
I
784 MARINE EN( BEARINGS A N D LLlBRlCATlON
provides a design limit for slow-speed, high-load appli- housing. In cases where the free-end bearing is to be bearing is normally restricted to shafts less than three of the conical roller. The large end of the roll and its
cations. preloaded to provide a quieter installation, the spring inches in diameter and speeds below 3600 rpm. The mating rib are shaped to provide a converging load-
The contact areas in rolling-contact bearings are very
small and the cyclic stresses in the load zone are quite
force should be applied so that it is reduced by differential
thermal expansion within the machine.
1 needle bearing is qyailable as a full complement of
needles and as a bearing with the needles separated by a
carrying wedge. Pairs of tapered roller bearings used
as fked-end locating bearings provide a very rigid high-
large. Useful fatigue lives are achieved by using very Opposed-shoulder mountings tend to be less expensive oage. The cage-type bearing is less subject to skewing load capacity unit.
hard (Rockwell "C" Scale 58 to 65) high-yield material. than fixed-free mounting in manufacture; however, the of the needles than the full-complement bearing. The g. Roller Thrust Bearings. Roller thrust bearings
The majority of bearings are manufactured from SAE axial location is not as close as may be obtained in fixed- noedle bearing occupies the least radial space of any have no radial load capacity and must be used in con-
52100 steel containing 13 percent chromium and 1- free mounting. Some opposed-shoulder mounts are roller bearihg. Both needle and cylindrical roller junction with a radial bedring. The radial bearing
percent carbon. Heavy-duty bearings, which are used designed to allow adjustmetit of the free play through bearings may be used without an inner race; in such a must be positioned very carefully if internal loading
in applications where shock is likely; employ case- the use of shims between the cap shoulder and the housing aese the shaft must be hardened to a Rockwell C hard- between the radjtL1 and thrust bearing is to be avoided.
carburizing grades Qf steel. Instrument bearings are to obtain the degree of axial control sought. ness of 58-65 and given a fine grind. Roller thrust bearings have a very high thrust capacity.
made from higher alloy steel such as AISI 440C (17- c. Ball Bearings. Ball bearings consist of one or two f. Tapered Roller Bearings. Tapered roller bearings Their speed limits are much lower than radial bearings
percent chromium, l-percent carbon) ; the lower hardness rows of balls contained in grooves having a circular use frustums of a cone as a rolling element. The races and more viscous oil is usually employed to prevent
attainable with this grade of steel is more than com- cross section. The grooves form raceways and are have a mating taper. The apex of the tapers on both smearing of the surfaces. The supporting structure
pensated for by the increase in atmospheric corrosion normally cut into rings that confine the balls. The rings and rolls meet at a single point on the axis of rota- must be very rigid to develop the full capacity of roller
resistance. Nearly all the steel used in bearings is radius of the raceway cross section is slightly larger than tion. Cages are used to separate the rollers and a rib is thrust bearings. Care must be taken regarding the oil
vacuum-melted or vacuum-degassed to reduce non- that of the ball. The largest ball possible, consistent provided on the inner ring to accept the roll thrust circulatian in large roller thrust bearings to avoid thermal
metallic inclusions in the steel. The nonmetallic inclu- with the other design features of the bearing, is normally oomponent resulting from the small angle of divergence distortions.
sions act as nucleation sites or stress raisers in the steel used since this gives the largest load capacity. The
that are responsible for many of the fatigue failures in sphericity of balls is defined by the ball grade, the
bearings. variation becoming smaller as the grade number becomes
The size variation of rolling-contact bearing elements smaller. Since the cost of the smaller grade number
must be ltept to very small values. Size variations balls increases sharply as the number decreases below
within an element or between elements in a bearing grade 50, the largest grade number consistent with the
Section 3
must be minimized to provide a uniform distribution of
load between the elements. Any lack of internal uni-
required performance should normally be used. Ball
bearings accept either radial or bidirectional thrust
Lubrication Systems
formity must be compensated for by compression of the
rolls and deflection of the rings arid supporting structure.
Rem&kable advances have been made in achieving
loading. Angular-contact ball bearings provide a very
high axial load capacity in one direction. Duplex pairs
of angular-contact ball bearings are used for very high
I 3.1 Obiectives. Lubrication systems have a number
of objectives: these objectives mav be:
To deliver the required amount of lubricant to each
not be repeated here; instead, the present chapter will
concentrate on the geared steam turbine lubrication
system. Reference fig], a publication of the joint
uniformity of rolling-element diameters. Size variations bidirectional axial loadings. rubbing surface under controlled levels of temperature ASTM-MEMA-ASME committee on turbine lubrication,
of from 50 to 300 microin. were not, uncommon less than Ball thrust bearings are designed with a row of balls and contamination. provides the most detailed guidance available for marine
a decade ago. At least one military specification, running in grooved washers placed perpendicular to the To provide operator assurance that delivery is being geared-turbine systems. Related references [20-261
MIL-B-17931, restricts ball size variation within a axis of rotation. The bearing will accept virtually no accomplished and to provide timely warning of system provide additional recommended practices.
single bearing to 10 microin. Balls with only 3-microin. radial load and thrust load is liinited to one direction. malfunction. There are two basic types of lubricating systems:
diametrical variation are available. Two-direction thrust capacity is obtained by adding a To provide the capability of coping with reasonable gravity systems and pressure systems. In addition,
Unevenness in mounting surfaces also imposes an un- second row of balls and a third washer. contingencies. however, there are two typgs of lubricating systems
equal load distribution on the bearing components and d. Cylindrical Roller Bearings. Roller bearings are In many cases, to provide oil to the speed control which combine features of both gravity and pressure
probably accounts for many of the premature bearing classed as line-contact bearings in contrast to the point- and to the low oil pressure shutdown device. systems; these are high-head pressure/gravity systems
failures. contact designation of ball bearings. Cylindrical roller and low-head ~ressure/mavitv
,u " svstems.
"
b. Mounting. The highly desirable rigidity and bearings consist of right-circular cylindrical rollers Marine lubricating systems are distihguished by the A gravity system uses one or more head tanks to supply
close-positioning capability of rolling-contact bearings between rings of cylindrical inside and outside diameters. necessity of including list, trim, roll, and pitch as oil to the propulsion plant. This system requires a high
have implications in the incorporation of these bearings The roller length is less than four times its diameter. design criteria. The American Bureau of Shipping head room; reference 1271 suggests a minimum elevation
into machinery designs. Careful analysis of the starting Rolls are separated by retainers that may be positioned 1171 requires satisfactory functisning of lubricating of 30 ft above the machinery. It is the most reliable
and operating temperature gradients of the machine radially by the rolls or by either of the two rings. Tho ~ystemswhen the vessel is permanently inclined to an type of system, if adequate capacity is built into the head
design should be made to prevent internal loading of the rolls are restrained in an axial direction by ribs on either angle of 15-deg athwartship and 5-deg fore and aft. In tanks. Reference [19] recommends a minimum of four
bearings as a result of thermal expansion forces. A of the two rings. The cylindrical roller bearing has very addition, reference [17] requires that the bearings not minutes of, oil supply in each tank. The lubricating-oil
number of mounting designs have been developed to little thrust capacity, and for this reason it is frequently epill oil under a momentary roll of 223 deg, for electrical pumps supply the head tanlts directly in the gravity
accommodatethe most frequently encountered situations. used to provide longitudinal freedom in fixed-free shaft generators. Military vessels are required to accept system. Figure 14 of Chapter 18 illustrates a piping
Two basic alternative principles underlie most of mountings. The fixed-end bearing may be any bearirig larger trim, list, roll, and pitch requirements. Reference diagram of a typical gravity system.
the mounting arrangements; i.e., fixed-free mounting providing axial location. Cylindrical roller bearing^ [18] cites the same permanent trim and list of 5 and 15 The pressure system supply is direct from the lubricat-
or opposed-shoulder mounting. These arrangements with solid rolls usually have a somewhat larger radial deg for surface ships, but adds 45-deg roll and 10-deg ing-oil pump. This system eliminates the space and
assume that the shaft will be supported by two bearings, play than ball bearings of the same bore size. By tho pitch requirements. For submarines, reference [18] weight'requirements of the gravity system's head tanks;
one near each end of the shaft. Axial positioning will use of hollow rollers, cylindrical roller bearings may ba imposes a requirement of 30-deg trim, 15-deg list, 60deg however, the reserve oil supply must be foregone in order
be determined by either imposing the constraint at one given an internal radial preload. The cylindrical roller roll, and l0deg pitch. to utilize direct pumping. Two pumps, each capable
end, as in the fixed-free mounting, or allowing the shaft bearing has a very high radial load capacity and low 3.2 Syslem Types. The lubrication system selection of supplying the full requirement, are required by
to float between the opposed shoulders of the shaft and friction. is determined in part by the prime mover selected and, reference [17]. Automatic switching of the supply from
housing. The free-end play provided in a fixed-free
mounting must exceed the sum of the thermal and
e. Needle Bearings. Needle bearings differ from
cylindrical roller bearings in having their roll length
1 in part, by the layout of the machinery space. The
systems for diesels and gas turbines have been covered
one pump to the other is required.
A gravity/pressure system is a pressure system with
'
elastic differential motion between the shaft and the more than four times the roll diameter. The needlu in the chapters dealing with these prime movers and will one or more head tanks floating on the line to provide a
786 MARINE ENGINEERING
BEARINGS AND 'LUBRICATION
CONTAMINANT
Temperature, deg F
Contaminant
,------
70
AIR-?
140
Table 3
-- 70
WATER -- --
Contaminant Settling Rates in Turbine Oil
140 70
SAND
140
IRONOXIDE7,--
70 140 70
IRON-,
140
sf temperature is recognized in reference [28] by recom- the emergency generator is started automnticnlly niid
mording the provinion of heaters in settling tanks.
Houters arc dso suggested for sumps but only for heating
provides continuity of electric power. Pumps driven
by shaft takeoff gearing (usually from the reductioli
density lb/cu. in. 0.000043 0.000038 0.03603 0.03552 0.094 0.094 0.206 0.206 0.2M 0.284 tho oil to a temperature near that of operation. Ref- gears) have been used and are satisfactory if properly
eronce [20] contains some explicit warnings on the danger applied. I t should be apparent, however, that meeting
Contaminant of heating coils with an excessive surface temperature. the oil requirement at very low speeds and at jacking
Diameter
mlcron8 mib T Rising Velocity, ips -. Settling Velocitv. ~ D S hmaximum surface temperature of 250P isrecommended
with a flow rate of 2-3 fps. If steam is used for heating,
speeds with a ~haft~drive?pump is not practical.
Auxiliary motor-driven pumps are installed for lowv-
the pressure should not exceed 5 psig. Electric heater speed and turning-gear operation.
limitations of 12 watts per square inch for moving Check valve+'inust be provided on pump suctions to
l y ~ t e mor
s 6 watts per square inch for static systems are prevent pumping through the standby pump to thesump.
recommended. Pump isolating valves should be provided to permit
Contaminant Tanks must be provided with adequately sized vent underway repair of either pump.
Diameter lines and overflows. Vents must be so located that 3.5 Strainers. Duplex lubricating-oil strainers are
mlcrons mils T Time to Rise 12 in. -,, Time to Settle 12 in. customarily installed after the pump discharge. These
2
4 direct impingement of cold air on the vents is avoided;
0.08 19 mo 1 . 7 m o 157mo 11.2mo 9.8mo 0.8mo 3.5mo
20 0.80 5.7 d 12 hr 1.6mo 3.4d
1.3wk 2.4mo 0.9wk otherwise, the breathing of the tanks under normal strainers, equipped with 80- to 100-mesh screens, are
3.0d fi 5.9hr 1.ld 2.lhr 17.5hr 1.5hr
200 8.0 1 . 4 hr 7.3m 11.4 hr , 4 9 m 43m 3.6 m 15.2m 1.3 m 10.5 m 53 sec operation may bring moist warm air into contact with capable of passing 150-micron particles [19]. I t should
2000 80.0 49 sec 4 sec 411 sec 29 sec 26 sec 2 sec 9 sec the cold metal and result in condensation and rusting. be noted that 150 microns equals 0.006 in., a much larger
0.8sec 6 sec 0 . 5 sec
mo = months; wk = weeks; d = days; m = minutes; sec = seconds Cure should also be taken to prevent the possibly size than the designed minimum film thickness in marine
combustible vapor in the vent lines from coming into bearings at the lower speeds of operation. Finer
contact with hot surfaces. The safe handling of the filtration imposes severe penalties in the form of much
reserve supply of oil. The high-head version is designed overflow should be considered for each tank. Every larger filters and higher pressure drops across the filter.
Guidance with regard to the necessary transit time (or taxik should be provided with a drain system, preferably The lubricating oil is provided with its fine filtration by
to provide full flow a t rated pressure for four minutes. settling time) of an oil in a tank can be obtained by
The low-head system supplies oil for the same period from a well at the lowest point of a sloping bottom. A means of a bypass cycle to the purifier system. That
investigating tbe terminal settling (or rising) velocity of oonnection to the oil purifying system should be located portion of the oil used for turbine speed control may be
but at a reduced pressure. the anticipated contaminants. Stokes showed that the
The various types of lubricating systems have most of to take suction above the top of the well. Oil drained given supplementary filtration. This higher degree of
viscous resistance, f, of a small sphere of radius 1.traveling from the well is normally waste oil, too heavily contam- filtration is restricted to the much smaller quantity of
the functional elements in common. The recom- through a fluid, gas or liquid, of viscosity p with a
mendations on their design, location, and capacity are inated to be cleaned with a reasonable effort. control oil.
velocity u was given by the equation Tanks should be designed with the necessity of initially Strainers should be provided with pressure-drop
virtually the same. Oil is supplied to the ship through a
fill line to the storage or settling tank, run by navitv to f = 6?rrpu cleaning the lubricating oil system and the possibility of indicators to provide warning of the necessity for cleaning
the main lubricating-oil sum6 subsequent cleaning taken into account. Baffles, dams, the strainers. Various recommendations have been
up iy For a sphere acting under the force of gravity, the t~ndthe like will always make cleaning more difficult but made for an allowable change in pressure drop across a
suction, and discharged through filters and lubricating-
oil coolers to the head tanks or to the bearings, depending gravitational force is (4/3)?rr3(w - w') where w is the good design practice can relieve this difficulty to some strainer before shifting and cleaning. "Any noticeable
on the specific system in use. weight density of the sphere, and w' is the weight density extent. increase, " "5-psi increase, " and "25-percent increase
3.3 Tanks. The design of storage, settling, sump, of the fluid. At the terminal velocity, the gravity and Tank capacity is based on the maximum oil require- over normal" have been recommended. I n a constant-
and head tanks is largelv based on the same desim
criteria. The material recommended for use is restricted
-- -
viscous forces are equal; therefore,
(4/3)?rr3(w - w') = 61rrpu F
ment per unit time, and on the minimum allowable
residence time in oil return lines and tanks. The oil
head system, the pressure increase across the strainer
represents a reduction of oil flow and the allowable
to clean steel plate. Nonferrous metals have catalytic defoaming requirement exerts considerable influence on increase should be related to the system pressure drop.
effects on the oil which tend to promote oxidation. and thue the desired ratio of tank capacity to3flow rate. Head Where head tanks are employed, the allowable pressure
Many coatings have been attempted for the interior 2r2(w - w') tanks in gravity systems are specified to have four- drop should be less than that required to overflow the
of oil tanks; however, the lack of total success and the U = 9~ (10) minutes capacity by reference [19]. Sump tanks must head tank. I n a pressure system, the pressure drop
should be less than that required to produce a low-oil-
high hazard associated with coating failure have led to
the recommendation that interior coatings not be used.
where 1
I
be able to accept at least one overhead tank, in gravity
systems. Military ships with pressure systems may use pressure alarm at the most remote bearing. Where posi-
Tank inlets should be arranged to prevent the intro- u = terminal velocity of sphere, ips sump tanks having as little as one-minute flow capacity. tivedisplacement pumps are employed, the allowable
duction of air below the surface by the impingement of r = sphere radius, in. Storage and settling tanks should be designed to accept pressure drop is more dependent upon the effects of over-
oil jets on the surface. At the same time, it is of sub- w = sphere weight density, 1b/cu in. a complete oil change. pressure don the filter medium. The strainer collapse
stantial benefit to introduce oil as near the free surface as w' = liquid weight density, ib/cu in. 3.4 Pumps. Lubricating-oil pumps may be of either pressure is an undesirably high limit since strainer open-
possible to minimize the distance that the air entrained p = liquid viscosity, lb-sec/sq in. the positive-displacement or centrifugal types. Ref- ings are enlarged by pressure, ~frmittinglarger particles
in the oil must rise to reach the surface and be released. erence 11'71 requires two pumps, each capable of meeting to pass. Allowable pressure hmits should be selected
Table 3 gives the settling rates of the more common the full system requirement. Reference [19] recom- that will not endanger the balance of the lubrication
Suction intakes in lubricating-oil tanks should be main- contaminants in turbine oil which is presumed to have a '.Te
tained a minimum of 10 in. above the tank bottom to mends that each pump have a capacity equal to 125 system.
viscosity of 47 microreyns at 70 F and 4 microreyns at percent of the full flow requirement for the system. The Strainer shifting valves should be so arranged that
avoid picking up solid contaminants from the bottom. 140 F with a specific gravity of 0.9 at 60 F. The tablo
The distance from the inlet to the outlet should be use of different types of drives for the two pumps is there will be no flow interruption when shifting strainers.
shows clearly that any chemical agent capable of in- Valves should be provided to vent and drain each section
arranged to maximize the distance traveled by the oil in creasing the size of foreign particles can accelerate preferred; if the primary pump or its power source fails,
passing through the tank. The greater the transit then the resulting low discharge pressure brings the idle of the strainer. Each strainer compartment should be
corltaminant removal; chemical agents are the respon- provided with a removable bar magnet system to collect
time, the more the particulate matter will settle out; in pump on the line. However, this arrangemknt is not
sibility of the oil supplier. iron s articles in the strainer. Regular observation of
order to increase the transit time of the oil, baffles are common in commercial practice. I n commercial prac-
No very exhaustive treatment of tank desigp is tice, both drives are usually electric and come off the the strainer basket and magnets can provide one of the
sometimes provided in tanks to good advantage. recognized as being authoritative. The favorable effect emergency switchboard. If the main generator fails, earliest waxnings of trouble in the system.
788 MARINE ENGINEERING
BEARINGS AND LUBRICATION 789
3.6 Coolers. Coolers are provided to remove heat header, some means must be provided to prevent oil
from the oil; normally seawater is the cooling medium. starvation of any single point either as the result of A purifier capacity of a t least 10 percent per hour of head requirements and in elevation between the most
The cooler is designed to cool the oil a t full-power excessive design clearance or a bearing casualty allowing the in4ervice oil charge is recommended by reference remote bearing and other bearings in the system.
operation and at maximum seawater temperature and excessive oil flow to occur. The details of orifice design [21]. Operation a t reduced capacity will take out finer A pressure measurement a t each pump confirms pump
maximum tube fouling. Single-screw ships are recom- are thoroughly covered in reference [29]. Virtually all pmticles than operation a t design values. Since the rate performance. Low pressure a t a pump may indicate an
mended to have two coolers and multiple-screw ships of the precautions cited as being significant in tho of oil deterioration is much higher for turbogenerators excessive oil temperature, piping leakage, suction difficul-
should have one cooler per shaft. Two separate means application of orifices as measuring devices are applicable than for the main turbine, the purifier is arranged to ties, or internal pump wear. An abnormally high pump
of circulating water through the coolers are required to their use as flow controls. take suction and discharge to each of the main tanks and pressure may indicate a !ow oil temperature or an
by reference [17]. Drains, vents, and isolating valves auxiliary sumps in such a way that the possibility of cross obstruction downstream of the pump. A simultaneous
Generally, the pump capacity is about 25 percent in oontamination is virtually eliminated. Separate supply measurement of both oil pressure and temperature aids
are needed in both the oil and watersides of the coolers to excess of the bearing requirements to allow for changes in
permit cleaning, leak detection, and repair. 8nd return connections are located on the tanks to greatly in defigng the true problem.
flow and other contingencies. In systems pressurized maximize the flow distance within the tank between A measurement of the differential pressure across
The coolers are usually operated on a bypass with by a pump, the pressure in the system is controlled by
sufficient oil being passed through the cooler to maintain recirculating the oil flow excess back to the sump through purified and dirty oil to prevent recycling of pursed oil. strainers is used to monitor the increase of resistance as
the oil supply temperature within the design range. The a back-pressure control valve. This bacl+pressurc The heaters must have the capacity of maintaining the deposits of dirt are built up, and such measurements
temperature-regulating valves should be arranged so that control valve is connected to the system downstream of lubricating-oil inlet temperature to the purifier between indicate the need to shift strainers. An excessive
the oil flow to the system cannot be shut off. Tempera- strainers and filters so that the system pressure a t the 160 and 180 F when operating a t a normal rate. The pressure drop across the waterside of coolers usually
ture monitoring should be provided a t the inlet and outlet bearings is maintained at the desired pressure irrespectiuc purifier oil heater requires the same precautions to limit indicates excessive fouling and the need to clean the tubes
of the oil cooler. Provisions should be made for supply- of strainer and lube-oil-cooler pressure drops. An exces- mrface temperatures as were noted for the main lubri- a t the eext convenience.
ing steam at 5-psi maximum to the waterside of the cooler sive pressure buildup at the pump is avoided by the usc oating oil heater. Positive assurance that oil is reaching a bearing is
in order to heat lubricating or cleaning oil for initial or of a pressure relief valve a t the pump. 3.9 Condition Monitoring. Condition monitoring of ~rovidedby the use of a sight-flow fitting, often called a
subsequent cleaning of the lubricating-oil system. a lubrication system provides information regarding the bubbler. The oil supply to the sight-flow fitting is taken
Suction piping for pumps should be sized to prevent functional status of the system components, the lubri- from the bearing discharge; through a g l window ~ in the
The oil pressure in the cooler should be maintained a t a cavitation at the pump inlet. The oil requirements of
higher pressure than the water pressure to minimize bearings increase rapidly at startup and this sudden oant, and the bearings serviced by the system. Infor- sight-flow fitting, the watch stander can observe the
mation should be supplied a t a rate and in sufficient depth stream of oil being discharged from the bearing. Where
saltwater intrusion into the lubricating-oil system in the demand can upset the balance of the system.
Even that reliable performance is ensured. Since the con- the bubbler is fitted on top of a turbine or gear bearing it
event a leak occurs. Corrosion protection to the water- positive-displacement pumps can temporarily disrupt
side of the cooler should be provided by the inclusion of a submerged suction supply a t startup if the suctiori dition of the lubrication system is essential to $he avail* is often necessary to bypass enough oil from the bearing
zincs or other electrolytic protection. bility of the main propulsion plant, an indication of inlet to provide the head necessary to raise the oil to the
piping has been made too small. Pump suction piping aystem performance should be provided to the ships top of the bearing cap. Sight-flow fittings operating on
The allowance for pressure drop through both the and pump suctions should be submerged in oil to ensura
water and oil sides of the cooler must be established for that the pump will immediately take suction upon oommand and control system. Where staf3ng is not a bypass oil indicate the excess of inlet oil over that being
problem, the report of the watch stander may provide discharged through a bearing. The flow is thus a
the full range of design conditions. The water pressure startup. If the pump suction and piping cannot bo maximum when the bearing fipw is at its minimum and
drop should be established for clean and for maximum submerged in oil, an oil bleed from the oil header, that sufficient assurance to meet command needs. Where
the manning of the engineering space is reduced, an decreases as the bearing flow increases. The require-
allowable fouling conditions. Oilside losses must be is provided with a check valve, should be installed to ment for sighting of the bubbler by the operator, the
known to establish overall system pressure drops at the ensure that the suction piping is maintained full of oil a t increased depth and sophistication of the condition
maximum and minimum operating oil temperatures. a pressure above atmospheric. monitoring input to the command and control system absence of a quantitative relationship between the oil
are required. flowing in the bearing and the flow in the sight flow, and
See Chapter 14 for additional discussion regarding Drain piping is sized on a different basis than supply
coolers. In designing the condition monitoring system, there is the absence of a remote alarm capability are other
piping. Drain lines are designed to run only about a basic selection of passive and active systems. Passive disadvantages of this system. Sight-flow fittings are
3.7 Piping and Valves. The lubricating-oil piping one-half full in order to help separate air from the oil.
system must be designed to deliver the required amount Booser and Smeaton [3] give the following formula for systems present data for visual observation either a t the frequently fitted with thermometers to provide an
point sensed or a t a remote point; recorded data (manual indication of bearing discharge temperature.
of lubricant under all reasonable conditions with the the minimum slope of a drain line running half full.
or machine) belong in the class of passive systems. Temperature is one, if not the best, condition indicator.
minimum available head. In addition the piping should Temperatures are usually measured in the lubricating-oil
be designed with the 6bjectives of providing some Active systems compare the data to some limits and
provide an alarm or a change in operating conditions or sump, a t the outlet of the oil cooler, and a t the discharge
separation of entrained air in the drain piping, simplifying
both in the event that the data exceed the specified of each bearing. Sudden changes in temperature usually
the initial cleaning and subsequent cleaning, preventing
limits. Both passive and active systems may be indicate a situation that requires investigation to ensure
the cracking of piping due to the vibration of unsupported where that the cause will not result in system damage. Since
lengths, and preventing inadvertent maloperation of the designed to either continuously monitor the data or
s = slope of drain line, in./ft intermittently scan the data a t a prescribed rate; the the success of a monitoring system depends to a large
system through errors in valve operation. Q = oil flow, gpm sampling rate is chosen to be compatible with the data- degree on the amount of time provided to take corrective
The objective of securing the required quantity of oil r = oil kinematic viscosity, Centistokes handling response rates. action, the rate of response of the sensor is of critical
with the minimum head can only be obtained by the d = pipe inside diameter, in. importance. The rate of response of a sensor can be
most careful study of system pressure drops over the full Lubricating-oil pressures and temperatures are the
L
characteristics most widely monitored to obtain an measured on the basis of the time to respond to a step
required operating range. Lubrication piping systems 3.8 Lubricating-Oil Purifler Subsystem. The lubri- I indication of eystem performance. By monitoring the increase. The characteristic time of a sensor is defined
consist of a number of series and parallel flows through cating-oil purifier subsystem employs the centrifugal as the time required for %be sensor t o rise to 63 percent
pipes of varying diameter and throttling valves that are force in the purifier to remove very small particles [tho pressure at the most remote bearing, assurance is obtained
that the system head is being maintained; however, it is of the amplitude of a step increase. In a period of three
changed to meet the required conditions of operation. duplex strainer is expected to pass particles up to 150 times the characteristic time, the sensor will indicate
The pressure-drop analysis starts from the pressure and recognized that the proper pressure a t the most remote
microns (0.006in.)] from the lubricating oil. The actual bearing does not necessarily ensure that oil is flowing to more than 95 percent of the true amplitude of the step
flow required through each bearing and gear spray for particle size passing through a purifier depends on tho increase. Typical characteristic times are from milli-
all bearings. If the pressure a t the most remote bearing
the maximum speed conditions. Orifices are usually thickness, longitudinal velocity, and viscosity of the oil drops below a preset limit, an alarm sounds and, in seconds to seconds for thermocouples, from three to
provided to restrict flow to that needed at the machine layer containing the particle, the magnitude of the cen- ten seconds for resistance thermometer elements and
addition, the low-pressure signal may start the standby
element to be lubricated. Where a number of parallel trifugal force, and the mass difference between tho lubricating-oil pump. Low-pressure alm settings thermistors, and t n to thirty seconds for glass ther-
points are to be supplied with lubricant from a single particle and the oil volume displaced.
ahodd be made taking into &ccount the dieerence in mometem. Glass [herrnorneters amd many metal ther-
790 MARINE ENGINEERING
CHAPTER XXI
mometers are installed in thermometer wells that
1 Automation
Surface Profile on the Load Capacity of Thrust Bearings i
greatly slow down their response. Thermocouples with Centrally Pivoted Pads," Trans. ASME, vol. 77,
and resistance elements may be installed in the babbitt 1955.
layer of the bearing to shorten response by locating the 15 B. Sternlicht, J. C. Reid, and E. B. Arwas, W. 0. Nichols
sensor close to the source of heat. Alarm points are set "Review of Propeller Shaft Thrust Bearings," ASNE
about 25 deg F above the normal operating temperature Journal, May. 1959.
measured by the sensor during maximum-power opera- 16 A. J. H. Goodwin, "The Design of a Resonance
tion. Changer to Overcome Excessive Axial Vibration of
There is no clearly optimum type of temperature Propeller Shafting," Trans. IME, vol. 72, 1960.
sensor. Thermocouples, resistance thermometer ele- 17 Rules for Building and C l a s h Steel Vessele, Section 1 /'
ments, thermistors, and glass and metal thermometers American Bureau of Shipping.
have all been used as lubricating-oil temperature sensors. 18 "Turbines, Steam, Propulsion, Naval Shipboard, "
Auton~alior~Systenls !
References
Military Specification MIL-T-17600. 1.1 Introduction. Controls are defined as those technical capability provides little or no restriction, the
19 "Recommended Practices for the Design of Marine variously designed devices provided to direct, govern, selective function takes on paramount importance if
1 Dudley D. Fuller, Theory and Practice of Lubri- Propulsion Turbine Lubricating Systems, " Joint ASTM- or influence the operation of machines. The control de- "overdesign," excessive cost, and undue complication are
cationfor Engineers, John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York, NEMA-ASME Committee on Turbine Lubrication, vice is therefore the interconnection between man and to be avoided. Reliability and maintainability are es-
1956. ASME Standard 111, New York, ASME, 1960. the machine. The interface between man and the con- sential determinations in the evaluating process.
2 0. Pinkus and B. Sternlicht, Theory of Hydro- 20 "ASTM-ASME Recommended Practices for the trol/machine complex is the point where man exercises The overall success of an automated system or plant
dynamic Lubrication, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, Flushing and Cleaning of Marine Propulsion Turbine the commanding direction or influence upon the ma- depends on more than merely the control system itself.
1961. Lubricating Systems, " Joint ASTM-ASME-NEMA ohine's activities. The progress of technical achieve- The substitution of mechanization for the manual func-
3 Standard Handbook of Lubrication Engineememng,Committee on Turbine Lubricating Systems, ASME ments has permitted this interface to become more and tion can be accomplished through several approaches.
J. J. O'Connor and John Boyd eds., McGraw-Hill Book Standard 113, New York, ASME, 1964. more remote from the basic machine. Control systems In one approach, the function may be eliminated through
Co., New York, 1968. 21 "Recommended Practices for the Purification of have increased in complexity and extent to the point component or system design; this means simplification
4 Proceedings International Symposium on Lubri- Marine Propulsion Turbine Lubricating Oil," ASME where they are recognized under a separate broad cat* and with simplification increased reliability usually
cation and Wear, D. Muster and B. Sternlicht eds., Standard 114, New York, ASME, 1964. follows. Alternatively, the frequency of the manual
pry termed "automation."
University of Houston, 1965. 22 "Recommended Practice for the Design, Opera- function may be reduced to the point where the usage of
In the broad sense the "automation packageu on a
5 H. C. Rippel, Cast Bronze Hydrostatic Bearing tion, and Maintenance of Marine Auxiliary Machinery vesseL consists of all controls that are installed regard- mahpower is not objectionable, thus again eliminating the
Design Manual, second edition, Cleveland, Cast Bronze Lubricating Systems," ASME Standard 115, New York, need for automatic controls. The provision of automated
Bearing Institute, 1965. less of whether they are for propulsion, cargo handling,
ASME, 1968. navigational control, et al. In this case the entire ship features should proceed after consideration has been
6 D. F. Wilcock and E. R. Booser, Bearing Design 23 "Recommended Practices for the Design of Steam given to the preceding approaches. In summary, con-
and Application, McGraw-Hill Book CO., ~ e ~wo i k , Turbine Generator Oil Systems," ASME Standard 116, is the control/machine complex and the degree of auto-
mation depends upon the extent to which human judg- trol system design cannot be divorced from overall
1957. New York, ASME, 1968. ment and effort are used in the control process. For the system or plant design.
7 H. F. P. Purdy, StreamlineFlow, Constable & Co., 24 "Recommended Practices for the Cleaning of For the accomplishment of a specific task, the knowl-
London, 1949. aake of simplicity, the ship may be subdivided into its
Steam Turbine Generator Oil Systems," ASME Standard various functional systems; however, it is important to edge of the marine engineer should overlap that of the
8 Mayo D. Hersey, Theory and Research in Lubri- 117, New York, ASME, 1968. control designer and supplier. It is essential that a
cation, John Wiley and Som, Inc., New York, 1966. retain recognition that each system is a part of the total
25 "Recommended Practices for the Purification of complex and its relation to the whole must be considered common ground of understanding exist between the
9 H. C. Rippel, Cast Bronze Bearing Design Manual, Steam Turbine Generator Oil," ASME Standard 118, two ~ a r t i e sconcerning desired functions, operational
Cast Bronze Bearing Institute, Cleveland, 1965. if the degree of automation applied is to be effective.
New York, ASME, 1968. To be effective the applied automation must ac- demands, machine limitations and performance char-
10 H. C. Rippel, Cast Bronze Thrust Beaping Design 26 "Recommended Practices for the Flushing and acteristics and control characteristics. This is desirable
Manual, Cast Bronze Bearing Institute, Cleveland, 1967. Cleaning of Marine Auxiliary Machinery Lubricating complish a worthwhile objective. It is common to
think that reduction of operating personnel is the prime whether the control is a simple automatic valve or a
11 A. G. M. Mitchell, Lubrication: Its Principles and Systems," ASME Standard 119, New York, ASME, complex subsystem.
Practice, Blakie, London, 1950. objective of automation. Actually this is only one of
1968. the many possible purposes for automation. Opera- 1.2 Control System Types. A control system is a
12 B. L. Newkirk and L. P. Grobel, "Oil Film Whirl 27 "Marine Machinery Lubrication, " The Texas system which measures the condition of some entity
-A Non-Whirling Bearing," Trans. ASME, vol. 56, Company, 1959. bility is another. Some functions could not be ac-
wmplished without it; a good example is the control of and, with this information, governs the state of a vari-
1934. 28 J. B. Poole and D. Doyle, Solid-Liquid Separation, able; i.e., speed, temperature pressure, position, etc.
13 0. Pinkus, "Solution of ~a~ered-p and Sector Ministry of Technology, Her Majesty's Stationary an electric generating set. Automation may also pro-
vide increased efficiency and safety. All of these factors Control eystems may be classified by four major char-
Thrust Bearing," ASME Paper 57-A-152, December Office, London, 1966. acteristics:
1957. ultimately affect overall operating costs; so, as in the
29 Fluid Metere, ASME Research Committee on case for so many endeavors, economics becomes the
14 A. Raimondi and J. Boyd, "The Influence of Fluid Meters, ASME, New York, 1959. 1 System configuration (open or closed loop)
primary motive force directing the desire and controlling 2 Type of operation (manual or automatic)
the extent of automation. 3 Type of copmand,input (constant or variable)
The determination of the functions to be accomplished Type of primary control medium @neumatic,
through automation and the coordination of subsystem electronic, etc.)
control into a total system concept is the work of the
marine engineer. He must provide the lcnowledge The open-loop system is the simplest form a control
peculiar to the marine environment, establish the basic system may assume. It is distinguished from the closed-
design parameters, and exercise the selective action (both loop system by the lack of an input which measures the
technical and economic) that will serve to produce the state of the controlled variable; such an input is called,
practical installation desired. In these days when a feedback.
79 1
i
1
CONDENSATE PUMP The degree of control obtained depends upon the in- be a response). This deviation from the set point
v FLUID OUTPUT AT dividual's ability to recognize and respond to off-normal across the operating range is called the proportional band.
CONDENSER DESIRED TEMPERATURE oonditions as detected by the instrumentation. Man's Some controls have a means for adjusting this pro-
ability to sense and respond to a change is generally portional band. Control stability is affected by the
poor, therefore system stability should be high and re- band; if it becomes too narrow (large change in error
FLUIW
TEMPERATURE
I FEED BACK (1 AND 5 )
sponse to a change in output should be slow in order for
manual operation to be effective. Man is not constituted
signal for a small change in demand), hunting may occur.
On the other hand, if ,it is too narrow (small change in
SENSOR CAPILLARY TUBE
to be continuously on the alert; this factor further limits error signal for a large chaLge in demand), adequate
the effectiveness of manual operation. Manual control control may not be provided. The actual deviation
can be applied only where the demand for control action from the set p e t can be reduced through the use of
HEATED FLUID
HEATING CONTROL-LED ERROR SIGNAL(3)
occurs at a low frequency when considered over an ex- relays where #the output signal can be amplified and
MEDIUM VARIABLE DIAPHRAGM POSITION tended time frame. There is no physical limitation re- varied proportionately to the input.
garding the relative location of the command input and Where the command input is a variable and a cor-
aontrolled variable since various mechanisms can be used responding proportionate change in the controlled
HEAT
EXCHANGER to provide motion and instrumentation from any dis- variable is desired, positioner systems are used. As in
VALVE ACTUATING
MECHANlSM(4) tance. These remote manually operated mechanisms are the regulator system, a feedback supplies the comparison
(STEM) an integral part of the "automation package"; the to obtain an error signal. However, in this case, the
~ystemelements do not have to be "automatic" to be a mechanism is caused to be motivated until the error
part of the automation package. signal is reduced to zero. The ship's steering gear is a
Fig. 1 Diagram of open-loop system
\ \HEATING MEDIUM
L CONTROL
Examples of manual control systems in marine use are
ehip's steering (nonautomatic), bridge and engine room
classic example of the positioner type system. The
variable input is introduced through the steering wheel
pulsion plant has had a major effect on ship operation. periodic inspections are made. These further serve to
However, cargo handling, mooring, food handling, fuel prevent unsafe operating conditions.
transfer, and many other shipboard systems have been 2.3 Steam Propulsion Plant. It has been generally
automated to some degree and have also made a contribu- accepted that where the control and information systems
tion to the reduction of the operating burden. of a steam propulsion plant are sufficient to reduce the
All ship installations have, to some extent, control and watch standing personnel to two or less, the plant is to
information systems to assist their operation. Therefore some degree automated. Thus three levels of engine
a good question is: "When does automation begin?" room automation (two men, one man, and unattended)
Obviously it is a purely arbitrary point which may de- are open to consideration. Only the general aspects of
pend to some extent upon the installation in question. these alternathe considerations can be discussed since
If one were forced to establish such a point, one criterion system detafls depend upon the specific plant/llesign, of
might be when the operation of a major component is which there are many.
made sufficiently automatic to no longer require operating A reduction in manning is one of the objectives of
personnel. Another might be when operating functions automation, and the degree of automation, is often ex-
are centralized. These two criteria seem to fit most in- pressed in terms of the number of watch standing per-
stallations; no doubt there are others that can be applied. sonnel; however, the actual number of crew members
2.2 Regulatory Body Requirements. Many reg- does not decrease in proportion to the number of watch
ulatory bodies associated with the marine field have standers. As the number of watch standers decreases,
-
established recommendations for the midance of de- it may be emected that there will be an increase in the
Fig. 3 Vessel 0--control center console Fig. 4 Vessel 0-mimic display
f signers in develo~ingautomated installations 16-11]. numbkr of personnel assigned to daily tasks. The ulti-
~irthermore,the au6mation of a propulsion machinery mate, of course, is the unattended watch where the crew is
installation is sufficiently important for classification on duty for an eight-hour period during the day. The
are prime requisites. Without these conditions fatigue a sloping surface since, here, a specific rather than overall societies to establish minimum reauirements for class machinery space is unattended for the intervening six-
soon takes over, resulting in deterioration of the decision- view is required. Control-actuating devices performing record and designation. Although ihe numerous bodies teen hours; however, a licensed officer usually is as-
making capability which is the one major function man similar functions should operate in the same manner; have varied interests which to some extent are reflected in signed the responsibility of each "watch" and responds to
can provide in a manner superior to the machine. they should also be readily distinguishable from purely their recommendations, the feature of safety appears to alarms which sound during his assigned period. The
Man normally utilizes all the senses of sight, feel, indicating devices. Rapid assessment of operating be a common denominator. The safetv features encom- daily workers' tasks become primarily that of mainte
smell, and sound to evaluate the performance of ma- conditions can be assisted if the instruments are arranged pass the safety of the ship, safety of and safety nance rather than operation. It therefore becomes evi-
chinery. When he is removed from direct use of these to form a specific pattern under normal conditions (e.g., of the property within the influence of the ship's presence. dent that automation not only affects the design of the
senses, substitutions may be necessary. For example, lights form a straight line, pointers are all in the same Safety is approached in several different ways. Integ- machinery but also the type of personnel and the under-
where control stations are remote from the operating general direction). Instrumentation may also be ar- rity of the control is perhaps one of the most important. lying philosophy of the ship operational procedure.
machinery, devices sensitive to rate of temperature rise ranged in the form of a diagram (mimic) representing Reliability is stressed through good component design As a general consideration, the propulsion plant control
or excessive vibration may be required to assist in the the system. A mimic diagram is shown on a console in and redundancy of vital elements to insure continuity of system should be designed so that the engineer retains
evaluation of the operating condition. Fig. 3 and is shown in detail in Fig. 4. This arrangement the control function. The desirability for self-monitor- responsibility for the satisfactory operation of the ma-
Information. presentation should provide a logical requires more console space but is particularly advant* ing features in control and information systems and the chinery and the watch officer on the bridge remains free
display and permit rapid assessment of the operating geous in complex systems involving the transfer of fluids ability for rapid correction of faults are recommended from machinery performance considerations. The com-
condition. Sectionalizing and subsystem grouping are from a variety of sources to a variety of discharges. features. plications involved in starting a cold plant have dictated
important. Continuously displayed performance in- The presentation of the information should be aN I n view of the limited manpower on an automated that the starting procedure be accomplished under direct
formation can best be surveyed when mounted on a simple and logical as possible. The time required to vessel. safetv considerations cannot be limited to the manual control with gradual transfer to the automatic
vertical surface; this permits a general assessment of the understand the control function should be minimized; controlled machinery alone. Fire detection is an impor- features.
situation to be made from a position some distance from this is particularly important in the marine field whero tant feature and the methods used, as well as the extent First, consider the steam generating plant since its
the board. Remote control actuators may be located on rapid crew turnover is sometimes the case. of the system, vary depending upon the arrangement and automation is generally common to all three manning
manning level. The detection methods available in- levels. Control systems of the nonautomated plant
clude sGtems which have sensors sensitive to smoke, rate have included combustion controls, feedwater regulation,
of temperature rise, and ionized particles. Each type and to some extent power-actuated soot blowers. In-
Section 2 has its limitations, and location of the sensing element is formatioh systems have been limited to water level in-
particularly important. In an installation intended to dication and a set of direct-reading gages to indicate
Applications operate under unattended watch, it may be necessary to steam, oil, and air/gas conditions. The major features
provide a detecting system which utilizes all three meth- that have been added for the automated boiler are wide-
2.1 General. The techniques of automation can be This situation naturally leads to a wide variation in not, ods. range burner capability, steam temperature control, and
applied to almost any phase of ship operation. The only the extent of automation applied but also in tho Another auxiliary system required for safety is flood- safety shutdowns and albrins.
extent to which they are applied is a matter of judgment type of equipment used in automatic control systems. ing control. A high water level in ,the bilge may be Wide-rahge burners are used with two major variations
primarily made by the owner/operator of the vessel. All of the various systems and types of control and in- simply alarmed; or, the bilge pump may be arranged in control concept. One system depends upon the vari*
The economic gain pbtained through manning reduction formation components used are not discussed in t h i ~ for automatic operation. Of course the system can be tion in fuel flow only and all burners are in continuous
and increased efficiency must be balanced against the fac- chapter; instead, the discussion is limited to certain further sophisticated to w a n of excessive frequency or use. The other system involves the automatic lighting-
tors of first costs, plant reliability, maintainability, and examples of the shipboard systems which have been extended periods of pump operation; however, such off and securing of burners as well as utilizing the wide
operating costs. The solution is quite complex since automated and the general principles involved. The refinements are not usually considered essential. range capability of the burners. The latter arrangement
the factors of efficiency, reliability, and maintainability propulsion plant is probably the system that has received To insure that all systems are in working order and provides for a wider range by reducing the minimum fuel
are often difficult to assess and quantify. the greatest attention; also, the automation of the pro- properly maintained, test procedures are established and flow capability to that of one burner. It does, of course,
798 MARINE ENGINEERING AUTOM
- VALVE ACTUATINO POWER I procedure stops and sounds an alarm. Indication may only have sufficient force to move the valve but they can
STATUS
INDICATION
READY
TO
START
2 - MANUAL VALVE SET-UP I
LOCAL CONTROL ON'REMOTE~ (
also be given that the failure to start was caused by low
oil pressure.
accurately position the valve. This is important since
at low power levels very little valve movement is re-
I PUMP NOT RUNNlNQ 1 The gland seal control valve is likewise given a specific quired to obtain a significant change in propeller revolu-
time in which to open. If the position sensor faas to tions. The throttle valves may be either the globe or bar-
MASTER detect an open valve in the allotted time, the sequence lift type; usually the ahead valve is of the bar-lift type
stops and the alarm is sounded as in the case of low oil since it provides a ' single mechanism to give the full
pressure. If the sensor detects that the gland seal con- range of power with minimal throttling losses.
AUXlLl ARY.
LUBE OIL trol valve is open, the sequence continues and the pump There are two basic concepts for the control of pro-
PUMP suction valve is opened. In this case both position and peller revolutions : one permits sqbstantially infinite
pressure are checked before the system is cleared for the variation; " the other commands speci5 increments,
LUBE OIL
next and final step of opening the steam supply valve. generally following what might be equivalent to tele
SENSOR
The described system is a relatively simple one; how- graph commands. A feedback system is employed to
ever, complexity is easily achieved if the desire for auto- accurately position the valve. The feedback input may
matic operation is extended. In this case the system was be simply valve position, in which case the command
kept reasonably simple by requiring manual setup for signal represents strictly a valve position. Valve posi-
Fig. 5 Logic diagram, boiler feed tion is, of course, related to power, assuming standard
pump remote start-up certain valves and power supplies, and the starting se-
quence was manually initiated. Where an unattended conditions. The command unit may be characterized to
POSITION SENSOR watch is required, the additional feature of automatic approximate propeller revolutions.
start-up of the standby unit in the event of operating Variations in sea conditions, displacement, hull fouling,
unit failure would be provided. Such a feature would etc. affect the relationship between propeller revolutiqns
have to possess the ability to determine which of the and power. A positioning system may be refined to
installed units will operate and which will serve as correct for this by introducing a feedback signal pro-
standby. portional to propeller revolutions. This signal serves to
For an unattended boiler, additional protective fea- bias the position signal, resulting in a command for
tures are also required to monitor the critical conditions. propeller revolutions rather than a specific power. Speed
To substitute for the fireman's eye, each burner is feedback is generally made effective in the maneuvering
equipped with a flame detector. The detectors are sensi- range only; speed feedback is usually not employed at
tive to the ultraviolet emission from the flame and auto- the higher revolutions associated with free route at sea
rnatically shut off the fuel in event of a flameout. The because the motion of the "vessel due to sea conditions
condition is, of course, alarmed. mav result in rDm variations (such as under conditions
Off-normal water levels are also alarmed. If the level where the broaches' the water). The cor-
PUMP RUNNINO FAILURE TO START
gets below a safe limit, the flames are automatically responding variation in propeller rpm would cause un-
extinguished. A high level may cause damage to the necessary movement of the throttle mechanism in an
machinery by water carry-over into the steam lines; attempt to hold constant rpm and therefore increase
therefore, protection may be provided' by shutting the wear.
feed valve. In addition, closing the main throttle or Variations of speed feedback have been used to increase
require additional control equipment to operate air equipped for a one-man watch may be provided with the speed of response by opening or closing the valve to
registers, control fluid flows, and provide ignition. extinguishing the fires may prove beneficial by causing a
means for remotely starting the pumps. Adost marine "shrinkJ' in the drum water level. 'Alarms may also be
Either system is generally suitable for port conditions plants have steam turbine-driven feed pumps and their provided for such off-normal conditions as low steam
because the minimum fuel range capability of the burners starting requires a control system that provides the pressure, high steam temperature, and low level in fuel-
is lower than that required under port standby conditions. sequential steps necessary. Such systems are usually Table 1 Automated Features Provided for Various
oil tanks. Manning Levels
However, the continuous-use type may generate excess referred to as logic systems since they contain the in-
steam during a transient reduction in power. To prevent The main propulsion turbine and gear unit on an --MANNING LEVEL-
telligence required to initiate each step in proper order automated vessel will have the following features not
the safety valve from popping, a feature may be provided Unat-
and to check if each step is accomplished satisfactorily. provided on a nonautomated vessel: AUTOM.~T~:D FEATURE 2 Men 1 Man tended
to artificially increase steam demand by dumping steam Figure 5 is a logic diagram showing the steps that might Steam generating plant. . . . . . . . . x x x
to the condenser. be required; obviously the system will vary depending 1 Remote operation of the ahead and astern throttle Bridge propulsion control . . . . . . .
'
x x
To maintain satisfactory combustion throughout the upon the particular feed pump and driver installed. valves. Propulsion auxiliaries:
full range of fuel flow, refinements have been required in Figure 4 shows such a system installed on a console. 2 Automatic operation of astern guardian and bleeder console start.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
the systems controlling both air flow and fuel flow. Inlet In this example there are four inputs to the system to automatic stadby, start. . . . . . x
valves. Fire detection system+&larm. . . . - x
vanes on forced-draft blowers have been supplemented indicate that the power and piping are set up in such a 3 Extensive monitoring systems.
with discharge vane control and with automatic speed Fire extinguishing
manner that the system is in a ready state. With these
1 tpermissivesJJin proper array the start switch may be
4 Remote emergency shutdown. system-console control. . . . . . . x x
changing to minimize excess air a t low flows. Fuel- Bilge system:
pump discharge pressure is programmed to maintain a manually actuated to initiate the starting cycle, which The throttle remote-operating system is the major level alarm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x x
constant differential pressure across the flow-control ! x
begins with the running of an auxiliary oil pump. The addition. Usually there are two remote-control stations,
valve which permits good control characteristics even a t console
automatic
c6ntrol.. .. . . . . . . . . . . .
control. X
establishment of normal oil pressure permits the sequence one a t the control center and one in the wheelhouse.
low flows. Data logging-off limit. . . . . . . . . x
The boiler feed pump is a vital auxiliary and in most
to continue and energize a gland seal control valve motor
operator. Note that in the event that pressure is not
1 Dependingupon its design, various means may be utilized Alarm system:
i to actuate the valve. Electro-hydraulic servo mechan- location-control center. . . . . . . x x x
cases is located remote from the control station. Plants obtained within a specified time (time delay unit) the isms have been used to the largest extent because they not location-Engrs. quarters. . . . . x
MARINE ENGINEERING AUTOMATION
Table 3 Information Systems Provided for starf up of standby condensate and lubricating-oil pumps, i
Vessels A, B, and C gland seal pressure control, condensate recirculation for
VESSEL VESSEL VESSEL
"C" air ejector condenser, lubricating-oil temperature con-
"A" 'IB1l troll etc. as may be desired depending - upon
- the plant
Data Logger. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . None 60.ppin t Off-limit design and the desired manning level. -
Bell Logger. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Digital D i ~ t a l Analog The operation of steam turbines has always required
Fire detection system. . . . . . . None None Yes
Off-watch personnel call instrumentation for monitoring and control purposes. -
system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yes Yes Yes It is therefore not surprising that the additional informa-
Pressure indications tion systems required on the automated vessel are not
(all systems). . . . . . . . . . . . . -.--
Tem erature indications extensive. Typically, they may include alarms to warn
(aRsystems), . . . . . . . . . . . . of a high bearing temperature, low condenser vacuum,
Liquid level indications. . . . .
Auxiliary running indi- or loss of throttle control power.
cations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The electric generating plant is a prime auxiliary
Valve position indications. .. associated with the propulsion plant. The automatic
Off-limit alarms:
(a) pressures.. .......... control of voltage and frequency is essential for proper
(b) temperatures.. . . . . . . performance of the electric plant and, therefore, such - COMBUSTION
CONTROL CHAMB
(c) hquid levels. . . . . . . . .
(4 incorrect set-up. . . . . . control is commonplace. The automated vessel, how-
(e) miscellaneous.. ...... 13 9 ever, may be equipped for remote start-up and automatic
Smoke indicator.. . . . . . . . . . . Yes Yes Yes synchronization of the standby unit from a remote -
Flame detector voltage.. . . . .
Throttle valve position.. ....
Bridge command lever po-
sition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
station.
The control and monitoring provided for other auxiliary BOILER
-
ON LOWER L E V E L
I
Engine order telegraph.. . . . . Yes Yes Yes systems depend upon the manning level, type of ma- LIQUID LEVEL DRINKING
chinery, and machinery arrangement. I n general the INDICATORS SALINITY
Shaft revolution indicator PANEL
and counter.. . . . . . . . . . . . . Yes Yes Yes watch stander's normal duties must be made consistent
1
Horsepower meter. . . . . . . . . . Yes Yes None
with his available time; in many cases this means the
Generator voltage, current,
load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yes Yes Yes elimination of a function or its assignment to a dav worker.
Generator frequency. . . . . . . . . . Yes Yes Yes The extent to which automatic z r remote operation is
Generator power factor.. ...... Yes Yes Yes FEED WATER
applied is limited only by economics. Table 1 gives the T E S T FACILITY 7 PCNl
general features to which automation might be applied
in a steam propulsion plant depending upon the manning
level. These may be considered as basic requirements;
positions beyond that required for steady-state condi- actual installations will vary considerably in scbpe and
tions. The speed of response is also affected by the rate detail.
of valve movement (which corresponds to a rate of change The focal point of all control and information systems
of power). It is important that this rate be compatible in the engine room is the control center. This center is
with the ability of the steam generating plant to change usually located in or adjacent to the machinery space such
its rate of output. Shrink and swell in the boiler drum that there is ditect vision of the boiler firing aisle (this is a
Must stay within acceptable limits and combustion con- preference but not a necessity). Minimum require ENGINE ALARMS
trols should change the rate of firing with acceptable ments for the instrumentation are established by the CONTROL RELAY
pressure variations and smoking. A time of 20 to 40 sec regulatory bodies [6-111 and depend upon the manning
from fully open to fully closed appears to work well for level desired; actual installations vary to suit not only --
the average plant. The incentive to decrease this time the specific plant but also operator's and designer's
STOP VALVE
is low because during the first 20 to 40 sec of a fuH-power preferences.
quick reversal, the hydrodynamic resistance of the hull Three ships, designated as vessels "A," "B," and
provides the major braking form to slow the ship. Fur- "C," have been selected for illustration and are tabulated
thermore, the propeller cavitates heavily if reverse power in Tables 2 and 3. It will be noted that there is consid-
is applied too abruptly; consequently the propeller has erable difference in-scope and arrwgement even though
limited effectiveness until the ship has reduced speed each center serves to control a single-sci-ew geared-tur-
appreciably. IR bine plant with two boilers. These diffetences represent Fig. 6 Vessel A-trol center arrangement
The throttle control system may be arranged to ac- variations in regulatory body requirements and the
complish allied functions, such as : owners' particular interests and operating practices.
1 Automatic closing of extraction and opening of
Vessel A is intended for a two-man watch. The con-
astern guardian valves upon reduction in power. trol center, Fig. 6, is located on a flat open to the ma-
chinery space and adjacent to the firing aisle. The main control which is in excess of regulatory body minimum tions plotted against time. Note that the vertical portion
2 Automatic intermittent rotation of the turbine when requirements. The operators, in this cape, considered of the console contains the information display which
under a stopped-shaft condition. generator switchboard forms a part of the station. The
console, Fig. 7, faces athwartship and is high since sight the feature desirable to permit the watch standers to can be readily observed from the deck area in front of the
3 Throttle closure or modulation upon loss of boiler assume duties other than throttle operation. The r e console. Control systems are located on the lower por-
over it is not required. The height permits the use of
fires, low steam pressure, overspeed, etc. cording of data is limited to a strip chart recorder for tion of the console where they are convenient for manual
conventional instruments without requiring excessive
Auxiliary automatic controls may be provided for length. This vessel is equipped with bridge throttle command location, throttle command, and shaft revolu- manipulation.
MARINE ENGINEERING AUTOMATION 805
dial and the value is read on the indicator. Continuous GROUP CONTROL " C n
display is provided for vital information. Indicators NON- VITAL a R E ~ R I G .
located on the console are electric instruments; a sensor
at the measuring point sets up a voltage proportional to
the actual value which is transmitted to the console / y - ' /
CENTRALIZED
instrument. Instruments which would be required to E L E C T R I C A L CENTRALIZED
CONTROL PANEL
operate in the event of a power failure are directly ac- CONTROL EQUIPMENT
I.
equipment is shown in more detail in Fig. 4. Other mand will be less. This can be a vital factor in areas
features of Vessel B include remote start of the boiler where navigation requires careful maneuvering and the
feed pumps and more extensive monitoring. watch officer must concentrate on ship movements and
Vessel C is intended for eventual unattended operation not lever position.
when underway at sea. The control center, Fig. 9, is The duty of maintaining a bell log may be handled by N TURBO-GENERATOR
located in a separate air-conditioned compartment with an automatic alpha-numeric printer (digital data logger).
easy access from the quarters and also direct access to This unit is electronically controlled and receives inputs
the machinery space. This has been made possible from a master clock, throttle cornsand, actual propeller
through the use of top-fired boilers, the firing aisles of rpm, and location of control (bridge or engine room).
which are visible from the control station through shatter- The printout is initiated by a change in command and is
proof glass windows. The generator control and dis- repeated two or three times at 30-sec intervals to record
tribution switchboard is also located in the control center, engine response. c
115V E M E R G . PANE
thus eliminating the need for duplicate instrumentation. 2.4 Diesel Propulsion Plant. The basic concepts de-
The generators are installed directly below the switch- scribed for the steam propulsion plant are equally ap-
board, minimizing the length of unprotected cable. plicable to a diesel installation. The specific instru- / L.O. P ~ M PCONTROLLERS
I
The console, Fig. 10, has extensive control and informa- mentation will of course differ considerably. As in the i H E A T E R PANEL
tion systems. Automatic start of vital propulsion auxil- steam plant, there are many varied combinations of en-
I
Fig. 8 Vessel B-contrpl center arrangement
iary standbys is provided. The size of the console has gines, drives and associated auxiliaries; each has its own
been minimized by arranging the occasionally read data requirements for control and information systems.
806 MARINE ENGINEERING
AUTOMATION 8 07
rangements were simply remotely controlled means to Fig. 12 . Bridge console-propulsion control
manipulate the usual fuel setting and reversing levers on
the engine. Automated systems, however, are more
sophisticated and operate through sequencing devices
and interlocks for maximum engine protection while
permitting bridge personnel to maneuver the vessel 1 Fire in the scavenge belt
without concern for engine operation. 2 Excessive vibration
For example, one directly reversible engine control 3 Turbocharger failure
system accomplishes the following sequential steps when 4 Low lube-oil pressure or high temperature
the control mechanism is given an astern command from 5 High cooling water temperature
an ahead position:
Emergency controls are provided to override the shut-
q eclRculT
T BREAKER
o u M 1 Move the fuel control to stop, shutting off fuel and down features if necessary, The control system also
removing a blocking device from the reversing
mechanism.
contains provisions for avoiding operation at critical
speed points, below 25-percent rated speed, and limiting
2 Move the reversing mechanism to astern, blocking
the fuel control from the fuel position and position- fuel increase during propeller freewheeling.
ing the starting air distributor and camshaft brake Where controllable-pitch propellers are provided, a
Fig. 9 Veuel C--control center arrangement
'I
monitor the procedure should be located. This selection mutically the location of the valves in the system. such an installation are more than merely manpower
may depend to some-extent on the degree of automation Pump controls praent an interesting operating prob- reduction. The vessel is maintained in a more stable
LUBE OIL COOL position at the dock, thus assisting in the more efficient
TURBINES FOR provided for the auxiliary systems such as fuel handling, lem. The initial starting of a unit is customarily handled
lubrication, cooling, and compressed air systems. These
systems must be placed in operation to support the prime
by the ship's engineers; however, the actual control af
the pumping cycle is controlled by the pumpman, who is
handling of cargo.
Navigational control is another area that is receiving
t
1
GAS TURBINES FOR mover and the complexity of automating these systems a member of the deck crew. Controls are therefore atteqtion. The "automatic pilot" designed to control I
for remote start may not be economically feasible. provided for adjusting pump speed and stopping the unit the steering mechanism to hofd a fixed course has long
F. W. GENERATOR 2.6 Cargo-Oil Pumping System. The handling of at the control station. Information systems include an since been perfected. However, careful observance and I
cargo oil on tankers presents an interesting opportunity indication of pump speeds and discharge pressures. course :tdjustmen),to avoid collision remains the direct 1
to gain advantages of not only reduced manpower but The central control would not be complete without an duty of man. Bere the problem of constant surveillance
Fig. 13 Diesel propulsion-control center arrangement
also increased safety through better surveillance of the information system indicating the liquid level in the becomes the stimulus to develop an automatic waaning i
process through applied automation. The cargo system various tanks. This is particularly important at the and course adjustment system. I
usually consists of piping systems leading from the tanks high and low levels to prevent overfilling or pumps run- References
to a pump room in which several pumping units, usuallv ning dry. Communication is also an important part of
driven by steam turbines, are located; &owever, whe; such an installation and direct communication is pro- 1 H. L. Harrison and J. G. Bollinger, Introduction
deep-well pumps are employed, the pumps are individu- vided with such locations as the deck loading station, to Automatic Controls, International Textbook Company,
ally located on deck and there is no central pump room. bridge engine room, and in many cases, shoreside facili- 1968.
The pumping units provide the power to discharge the ties. 2 "Terminology for Automatic Control," The Ameri-
cargo to shore facilities through deck lines and hose con- 2.7 Other Applications. There are few systems can Society of Mechanical Engineers, ASA C85.1-1963.
nections. These same lines are used in part or in whole aboard ship that have not been affected, at least to some 3 Ernest J. McCormick, Human Factors Engineer-
for the loading operation. degree, by automation. The complexity of the modern ing, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1964.
Great care must be exercised when loading and dis- vessel would not be possible without it. No one gives a 4 Wesley E. Woodson, Human Engineering Guide
charging cargo. The loading and unloading procedure second thought to the air-conditioning system operating for Equipment Designers, University of California Press,
must be controlled to prevent undue stresses occurring in completely automatically. ks in the case for propulsion Berkeley, 1960.
the hull structure. Also, the rate of flow must be ad- equipment, the application of automation principles is a 5 "Human Engineering Design Criteria for Wfilitary
justed to coincide with shoreside facilities; and in the matter of coordinating the man, machine, and control Systems, Equipment, and Facilities," Military Standard
loading cycle, care must be taken to prevent overfilling, system complex to result in an application which accom- MIL-STD-1472. 53
which results in spilling cargo on deck and into the har- plishes one or more objectives such as reduced manning, 6 "Guide for Shipboard Centra zed Control and
bor waters with attendant fire and pollution hazards. improved efficiency, safety, and operability. Automation," American Bureau of Shipping, December
-- . .
'I'he mammoth tanker has stimulated the application of The diversity of break-bulk cargo handled made the 1965.
Fig. 14 Diesel propulrio~controlcenter cowole 7 "Automation in Ships," Lloyd's Register of
central control systems 'to ease the burdens of these application of automation difficult until the concept of
operations. The very size of these large vessels has made containerization was established. The establishment of Shipping, 1963, London.
the direct manual operation dif£icult and to a degree "standard" container dimensions subsequently made a 8 "Automated Main and Auxiliary Machinery,"
impractical. control system feasible. I t is interesting to note, how- Navigation and Vessel Inspection Circular No. 1-69,
The acoustic characteristics of the engine generally The control systems for cargo-oil service consist of ever, that many container vessels have the material United States Coast Guard.
dictate a separate sound-proofed enclosure for the engine both remote controls and information systems. Remote handling equipment ashore rather than on shipboard in 9 "Rules for Equipment of Unattended Engine
room control center. The information systems will controls are applied to both the piping system valves order to gain greater utility from the investment. Plant in Motor Ships," Danish Ship Research Institute,
naturally vary to suit the machinery installation; how- and the pumps. The ever-present explosive hazard The tending of mooring lines to compensate for changes October 1967, Report No. DSF-15E.
ever, the method of display will parallel that of the steam limits the selection of control components. Electrical in ship position relative to the dock has been relieved by 10 "Regulations for Automatic or Remote Controlled
plant. Fig. 13 illustrates a typical direct-drive diesel systems, if used, must be intrinsically safe; i.e., they the automatic mooring winch. The winches have been Installations in Seagoing Ships," Germanischer Lloyd,
plant arrangement, and Fig. 14 shows a typical control must have a sufficiently low energy level such that a fitted with devices that sense the line tension, and the 1965.
center console. For additional discussion regarding the short circuit will not result in a discharge that is capable control system uses this input to maintain the line ten- 11 "General Technical Conditions Concerning the
automation of large slow-speed diesel engines, see Chap- of initiating a fire or an explosion. This means that the sion within a selected range by directing the winch to Automation of Ships," Bureau Veritas, Guidance Note.
ter 8. power level must be maintained at a low value, and there-
2.5 Gas Turbine Propulsion Plant. The gas tur- fore the application of electrical equipment ialimited to
bine, like the diesel engine, is a self-contained prime information-type systems. Hydzaulic and pneumatic
mover, and the engine requires certain automatic con- systems have been used most extensively.
trols in order to function properly (see Chapter 6). Many of the cargo valves are located in the tanks, and
These control systems are an integral part of the engine hydraulic systems have been most extensively applied
and are normally provided as part of the engine package. for operating these valves. In some cases the valves
Adaptation of these controls to suit marine automation are actuated by hydraulic pistons located directly on
naturally depends upon the method selected to transmit the valve; deck-mounted hydraulic motors which drive
the power to the propeller. However, as in the diesel the valve through extended shafts have also been applied.
installation, it involves the provision of remote (engine Where valves are accessible, such as in a pump room,
room and bridge) control systems to transmit the com- pneumatic systems have been provided. In either case,
mand input to the engine control system. the control station not only provides the means for com-
Starting cycles are automatically sequenced. Remote manding valve movement, but also provides an indication
start therefore involves primarily the decision as to of the valve position. Quite often such a system will bo
CONSTRUCTKI N MATERIALS 81 1
CHAPTER XXll recognize when problems exist and when to consult a measured with a saturated calomel half cell, determine
I Construction Materials
corrosion specialist. which metals will be anodic to others. Table 1is such a
W. 1. Williams References [13-221 are suggested for additional detailed listing of metals in seawater, arranged in approximate
discussion with regard to general corrosion theory. order from the most anodic in behavior (magnesium
M. R. Gross 2.2 Types of Corrosion. Corrosion in the form'of alloys) to the most cathodic in behavior (graphite,
direct chemical attack, without the presence of an electro- graphitized cast iron). The listing is actually not exact,
lyte, is one general type of corrosion. It can occur from as relative positions may change due to variations in
reaction with certain chemicals, such as chlorine and water velocity, temperature, oxygen content, and so
sulfur. In such cases solution of the problem involves forth [23]. Furthermore, the listing is based on open-
Seetion 1 elimination of the corrodant or selection of a material circuit When current begins to flow between
with inherent resistance to the corrodant. Direct two metals inta closed circuit, polarization effects occur
Prefacing Remarks chemical attack also can occur from hot gases such as due to reactions at the metal-liquid interfaces. The
A single chapter on construction materials must be I n contrast to a critical problem faced by the naval those encountered on firesides of boilers and in gas polarization reduces the potential difference between the
limited in scope and restricted to items of greatest general architect in selecting materials for hull structures, the turbines. These cases may result from fuel constituents coupled metals and tends to reduce the galvanic current
interest. Therefore, this chapter is confined to discus marine engineer is not so concerned with "brittle" such as sulfur or vanadium, or from salt contamination and corrosion.
sion of metals for marine engineering applications. It is in the fuel and/or combustion air; and reducing the The suibbiiity of a dissimilar-metal couple in practice
fracture of materials which normally behave in a ductile may depend on the relative areas of the anode and
recognized that nonmetallic materials, such as plastics, manner; therefore, this chapter does not devote special corrosive constituents, lowering of operating tempera-
elastomers, and ceramics, have their places of usefulness. tures, and selecting more resistant materials are the cathode. If the anode is small and the cathode large,
attention to this mode of failure, except for brief mention the anode may suffer an unacceptable rate of deteriora-
However, metals have been and will continue to be the in Section 5 under inaterials for low-temperature and cures most frequently employed, as noted in Section 5.
principal materials of construction for nearly all vital Another general type of corrosion occurs by electro- tion. On the other hand, if the cathode is small and the
cryogenic equipment. Failures caused by corrosion, chemical atlack in the presence of an electrolyte. Sea- anode large, the corrosion and average penetration rate
shipboard machinery and equipment. The large number fatigue, and high-temperature creep are of particular
of metallic materials and the complexities involved in water is the most common electrolyte encountered aboard of the anode may remain a t a tolerable level.- For
importance, however, and receive special discussion in ship, and is responsible for the most complicated and example, Monel rivets in a large steel plate might be
their selection for various applications dictate that metals Sections 2. 3. and 4.
- .
troublesome corrosion problems. The reasons for this acceptable, whereas steel rivets in large Monel plate
receive primary consideration.
Material selection involves considerations of cost,
Section'5 'considers the selection and application of
metallic materials in some of the more critical equip
are the great chemical activity of seawater as compared would not be acceptable. t
fabricabiiity, maintenance, life, and freedom from to other electrolytes such as fresh water, the wide Occasionally, circumstances may dictate that dissimilar
ments of concern to the marine engineer. The uses and assortment of environmental and material variables metals be coupled with an undesirable cathode/anode
failure. Failure may range from simple malfunction to types of materials for these equipments normally are
catastrophic destruction. Inasmuch as shipboard equip- which affect seawater corrosion of metals, and the wide area ratio. In such cases it may be possible to reduce
ments are constructed principally of metals, the marine covered by regulatiohs and specifications developed by variety of forms in which deterioration can occur. Other corrosion of the anode with paint. However, the paint
engineer is concerned about "why" and "how" metals regulatory bodies and technical societies. These regula- electrolytes leading to electrochemical attack aboard should not be applied to the @node,because exposure of
fail in service. tions and specifications are updated periodically, and ship usually involve rather specific environmental the anode a t any imperfection in the paint film would
The complete fracture of metal compbnents from gross contain a large amount of detailed information which circumstances and materials of construction, and are result in an even more unfavorable cathode/anode area
overstress (e.g., overtorqued bolts or accidental over- should be available to the practicing marine engineer. mentioned in Section 5 as appropriate. ratio and concentration of the galvanic current a t the
loads) is easily understood and is not of primary concern. References [I-1211 are typical examples. 2.3 Seawater Corrosion. The nature and extent point of imperfection in the paint. Although the cathode
The vast majority of metal failures are more subtle and A glossary of selected metallurgihal terms is included of seawater corrosion depend on the alloy and its com- is not the metal requiring protection, painting of the
aTe attributable to wear, seizure, repeated stressing a t the end of the text for the convenience of the positional and heat-treatment variations. Of equal cathode would provide a more favorable cathode/anode
(fatigue), mechanical shock (impact), crkep, stress reader. importance are environmental variations such as degree area ratio and a reduction of galvanic current; and any
rupture, embrittlement, corrosion, or the combined action Finally, a selected list of key references appears a t the of aeration, alternate wetting and drying, fouling, corrosion of the anode woqld be distributed instead of
of stress and corrosion (stress corrosion, corrosion end of the chapter. The references discuss certain sub- dissimilar-metal couples, velocity, turbulence, cavitation- concentrated a t one place [20].
fatigue). Because of the chainlike reaction that can jects in greater detail, and many of them contain exten- erosion, temperature, and crevices. The various types The same line of reasoning leads to a warning against
occur when one part fails in a complex piece of machinery, sive bibliographies for those who may wish to explore of corrosion which can occur in a seawater environment the application of noble-metal coatings on a less noble
it is not always easy to identify the source of failure. further. I
are as follows: base metal: for example, chromium plating on carbon
a. General Corrosion (Uniform Attack). With rare steel. If $he coating contains any imperfection or
exceptions, the important forms of electrochemical holiday, the large cathode/anode area ratio can cause
degradation occur by severe local attack rather than by severe and rapid corrosion of the base metal in the
excessive rates of general corrosion. When general localized area of the imperfection [24].
corrosion is of concern, it usually can be controlled with Table 1represents an endeavor to rate the acceptability
, paints, metallic coatings, sacrificial anodes, impressed- of various metal couples in seawater a t 40 to 80 F as a
Corrosion of Metals current systems, or by selection of more resistant function of relative cathode/anode area ratio. The table
2.1 Infroduction. Much vital equipment aboard It is not expected that the marine engineer have a materials. is useful only as a qualitative guide. The ratings tend
ship must perform srttisfactorily in the presence of cor- complete understanding of complex corrosion theories b. Galvanic corrosion can occur when two dissimilar to be conservative so that any uncertainties will be in the
rosive environmente. Therefore, the control of corrosion and corrosion-engineering practices. However, the metals are electrically coupled in the presence of an safe direction. However, due to variations in oxygen
deterioration is an important consideration in marine marine engineer should be aware of the general types of electrolyte such as seawater. Current will flow through content, temperature, velocity, and turbulence, the
engineering. Control does not neceesarily mean com- corrosion and some of the material and environmental the electrolyte from the anodic material to the cathodic indications can apply only in a broad sense. This is
plete elimination of corrosion. More commonly it circumstances under which they occur. He can then material. The corrosion resulting from this "battery particularly so for the couples marked with "X" and "C".
involves careful selection of materials for particular effect" is known as galvanic corrosion. Usually, cor- Those marked with "U" should certainly be avoided.
design and operating parameters to optimize cost, - rosion of the anode is accelerated, and corrosion of the c. Pitting corrosion is a form of attack that may
maintenance, reliability, and equipment life. 1 Numbere in brrrckets designate References st end of chapter. cathode is decelerated. occur from local cells (potential diierencee) which develop
The potentials of metals in the electrolyte, as might be on the eurface of a single material [14, 20, 211. The cells
MARINE ENGINEERING
rolling operations 1341 (see the preceding discussion of 150 F, and then the problem is usually associated with
sxfoliation). conditions leading to the concentration of salts on
Some titanium alloys can stress corrode in seawater. evaporating surfaces [37]. (See Section 5 regarding the
An examp1e.i~Ti-7Al-2Cb-1Ta alloy, in which the stress- use of austenitic steel in nuclear power plants.)
corrosion susceptibility is associated with tendencies i. Corrosion fatigue, which results from the combined
toward formation of submicroscopic Ti3A1 precipitates action of a corrosive environment and cyclic stresses, is
in the structure [24, 351. Immunity to stress corrosion covered in Section 3.
in this alloy can be accomplished by lowering the 2.4 Cathodic protection. eathodic protection some-
aluminum to 6% and adding 1% molybdenum to times is used to provide partial or .complete corltrol of
suppress the formation of Ti3AI. electrochemical cyrosion problems [13]. One method
Titanium alloys that do stress corrode in seawater involves the ipdtallation of sacrificial anodes (zinc,
usually will not do so in the absence of a stress concen- magnesium, or iron), thereby setting up a galvanic
tration such as a crack or corrosion pit. Since titanium couple which reduces corrosion of the protected material
alloys are practically immune to all forms of marine by making it the cathode. Another method involves
corrosion, including pitting, the existence of stress the use of an impressed-current system with an external
corrosion tendencies was not recognized for many years; power source; the anode is usually an inert material,
it was noted only when sharply notched specimens were such as platinum, to prevent consumption. Impressed-
exposed to seawater and found to support smaller loads current systems are not often used for the protection of
than similar specimens exposed to air [36]. machinery and auxiliary equipment handling seawater
The common grades of austenitic stainless steels do not aboard ship, because of difficulties in voltage corltrol and
pose stress-corrosion problems in seawater except above current distribution on protected surfaces.
Fig. 5 Seawater dealuminization of a cast aluminum bronze be dangerous to design on this basis, because the' degree
of residual stress is seldom known, and because local
corrosion pits or other discontinuities can serve as sources
of 4% nickel leads to a suitable alloy for seawater of unanticipated stress concentration.
service. Dealuminization can be particularly insidious, Stress corrosion of a particular material usually occurs Section 3
because the corroded gamma phase can occupy such a ' only in specific environments, and these environments
minor part of the alloy's volume that there may be no may be essentially noncorrosive or only mildly corrosive
Fatigue
outward appearance of corrosion. The attack is in the absence of stress. Thus, the affected part may 3.1 Introduction. The term "fatigue" as used herein sumed in generating a crack from a "stress raiser" to a
evident only on fractured surfaces, yet the alloy may appear perfect except for the appearance of a crack. refers to the failure of a component under the action of size sufficient to be visible to the unaided eye or to be
have suffered drastic loss of strength and ductility. Examples are the cracking of hardened martensitic repeated stress. Fatigue is probably responsible for as detectable by nondestructive inspection. The crack
Intergranular corrosion of austenitic stainless steels is stainless steels in hot high-purity water [30] and the many as SO percent of all machine part failures. Of will continue to grow in size with each stress cycle,
yet another form of selective attack. The carbides in "season cracking" of brasses in environments containing these, failures due to bending forces are the most usually a t an increasirlg rate, until the remair~ir~g
section
steels sensitive to this form of deterioration tend to a few parts per million of ammonia [31]. prevalent type, with the torsion type next and the axial is no longer able to support the load. Complete fracture
precipitate a t grain boundaries when the steels in the Pi-actically all low-alloy and high-alloy steels can type seldom occurring. Although service conditions then occurs instantaneously. The terminal fracture
annealed condition are reheated into the 800 to 1600 F stress corrode in the marine environment if they are usually involve combinations of variable and steady- may be ductile or brittle depending on the material and
range. Such temperatures are reached in the heat- heat treated or otherwise produced to a yield strength in state stresses, and sometimes both bending and torsion, surrounding conditions.
affected zones adjacent to welds. Preferential corrosion excess of 150,000 psi [32]. The dangerous yield-strength usually a dominant type of failure is found. 3.3 Cyclic Stress and Strain. lcigure 8 shows the
can then occur along the grain boundaries. This type of range does vary with the alloy, however. With many 3.2 Fatigue Fracture. Figure 7 shows a typical stress-strain relationships liliely to develop under cyclic
attack can be avoided by using low-carbon (0.03% of the steels, electrochemical processes seem to pre- fatigue fracture. I n many instances these failures are loading conditions. The relationship in Fig. S(a) occurs
maximum) varieties of the alloys, using stabilized grades dominate when stress corrosion occurs a t the lower end easy to recognize because of distinctive characteristics when the applied force or moment is completely reversed
(containing titanium or columbium), or putting 'the of the susceptible yield-strength range. It is sometime^ associated with fracture appearance. These are a "flat,
precipitated carbides back into solution by quench possible, therefore, to extend the useful strength rango brittle" appearance of a large portion of the fracture, and
cooling (annealing) from above 1950 F [20]. by cathodic protection to stop electrochemical attack, "beach marlis" or "oyster shell" marliings which focus
Exfoliation (delamination) is a special form of selective- However, cathodic protection can cause generation of on the origin or nucleus of failure. However, the
phase attack in which the corroding phase occurs in a hydrogen on the surface of the steel, and this can result in absence of such marliings does not necessarily eliminate
highly preferred orientation because of rolling or other failure from hydrogen crackingJ331. Indeed, a t high fatigue as a cause of failure inasmuch as the level and
forming operations. An example is shown in Fig. 6. enough yield-strength ranges, the steels can suffer kind of loading, temperature, and e~lvironment can
If it is necessary to use an alloy with this susceptibility, hydrogen cracking from the hydrogen generated solely by affect fracture appearance greatly and may malie
it is desirable to prevent exposure of the cross section to natural corrosion processes. It is wise to examine tho diagnosis on the basis of appearance alone impossible. I n
the corrodant. Sometimes this can be accomplished by circumstances very carefully whenever a steel in excess of such cases the use of an electron microscope to examine
"buttering" the edge with weld metal. On the other 150,000 psi yield strength is to be used in the mari~lo the fracture surfaces a t high magnifications may be
hand, pitting of the surface eventually may cause environment. helpful.
penetration to the nonresistant phase. When this Numerous high-strength aluminum alloys, particularly Fatigue failures are progressive, beginning as minute
occurs, the corrosion can proceed rapidly beneath the in the 2000 and 7000 series of alloys, are susceptible to craclts that grow under the action of the fluctuating
surface by a tunneling effect. If corrosion products are stress corrosion in seawater. The direction and rate of stress. Failure usually consists of three distinct stages,
voluminous, internal pressure may cause blistering of the crack propagation can be highly dependent on tlio namely: cracli initiation, slow craclt propagation, and
external surface. direction of the applied stress in relation to directio~lal rapid terminal fracture. If a cracli is not present
h. Stress corrosion is a form of local deterioration microstructural variations or "texturing" associated with initially, a certain number of stress cycles \\-ill be con- Fig. 7 Fatigue failure of a manganese bronze propeller blade
MARINE ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS 819
CYCLE -
+s
ALTERNATING
STRESS AMPLITUDE, S,
/
MEAN
STRESS, 5,
I I I
MAXIMUM MINIMUM
STRESS. S, STRESS. S,; 10' , lo5 lob 10' 100
'I I
TIME
I LOG N. NUMBER (X CYCLES TO WURE
but within the elastic region. St is the total stress the dominant factor in low-cycle fatigue. Although
range and et is the total strain range. Figure 8(b) shows subsequent sections may discuss high- and low-cycle
the relationship that develops under reversed loading fatigue separately, it is desirable in evaluating materials
into the plastic region. The stress-strain relationship is to consider the broad spectrum of fatigue behavior
no longer linear, but follows the hytfteresis loop BCDEB ranging from about loe to lo8 cycles.
during each cycle aftm initial loading along OAB. There are several methods of applying the load in
3.4 Fatigue Testing. Over 95 percent of our knowl- fatigue testing. The specimen may be subjected to
edge of the fatigue behavior of materials has developed direct tension or compression, to bending, to torsion, or
from laboratory tests of relatively simple specimens. to a combination of these. The simplest and most
Some 200 laboratories in the United States are engaged frequently used method for high-cycle fatigue testing is
in fatigue studies. The number outside the United the rotating beam test [38-401. The specimen may be
States is estimated to be even larger. It can be assumed loaded either as a simple 4point loaded beam or as a
that nearly all of these laboratories are generating cantilever beam. The specimen is usually dead-weight asymptotic thereto.
specimen data of one form or another. In spite of all the loaded and rotated a t a constant speed, thereby creating
information developed, the fatigue behavior of materials fully reversed bending stresses with each revolution. In
is not completely understood. As will be seen, the low-cycle fatigue testing, both axial and flexural loading
subject is highly complex and to a great extent continues have been used with success [41].
to remain empirical in nature. 3.5 Fatigue Data Presentation. I n presenting or
Until the middle 1950's, practically all the fatigue orgadsing high-cycle fatigue data, the following nomen-
information was in the so-called hi&-c~ele region. That clature, depicted in Fig. 9, is used:
is, design and test data were concerned with the failure
of materiab aftermany millions of stresscycles. such Stress cycle. The smallest section of the stress-time
information continues to have direct applicability to the function which is repeated periodically and identi-
,200 KS1 STEEL. SMOOTH SURFACE AIR ENVIRONMENT -
majority of fatigue problems in marine engineering. It cally.
was recogxibed, however, that some structures and N~minalstress, 8. The dress Calculated by simple J
equipments were failing by fatigue because of a liniited theory without taking into account variations in
number of high-stress cycles. One of the principal stress caused by geometrical discontinuities, such arr
causes of such failures was thermal gradients produced holes, grooves, and fillets.
by periodic heating rand cooling of heavy-&ion pressure Maximum stress, Smm. The highest algebraic value of
vessels and machinery components such as turbine stress in the cycle.
casings. It is now recognized that other types of equip- Minimum stress, Sm&. The lowest algebraic value of
ment are subject to this type of failure because of other stress in the cycle.
factors, such as periodic high-pressure excursions. Stress range, ST. The algebraic difference between tho
Failure by fatigue a t finite numbers of stress cycles, maximum and minimum stresses in one cyclo,
i.e., less than 5 X lo6, is called low-cycle fatigue. There Sr = Smm - Smc. \
is general agreement among investigators that the high- Alternating stress amplitude, S.. One half the strestl
cycle fatigue performance of metallic materials is related range, S , = Sr/2.
to tensile strength, whereas low-cycle fatigue perform- Mean stress, S,. The algebraic mean of the maximum
ance is related to tensile ductility. Accordingly, the
amount of cyclic strain that a material undergoes becomes
and minimum stresses in one cycle, Sm = (S,.. +
Smin)/2*
MARINE ENGINEERING I CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS 82 1
though the measured parameter is strain. The dis- as hammer peening, shot peening, and cold rolling. To d. Corrosion. The combined effect of a corrosive
advantage is that unrealistically high stress values are produce the desired effects, it is necessary that the stress- environment (such as salt water) and cyclic stressing is
obtained in the very-low-cycle region. ing technique plastically deform the surface layers of the called corrosion fatigue and can be highly detrimental to
Figure 11 shows the broad-spectrum fatigue behavior For most metals the notch sensitivity tends to increase metal. It is estimated that 80 percent of the improve- the life of metals. This is particularly true in the case
of two steels with markedly different yield strengths. with increasing strength. Thus, in the presence of ment in fatigue resistance is due to favorable residual of carbon and low-alloy steels wherein the high-cycle,
The solid lines compare the steels under ideal conditions, sharp notches (Kt 1 3), it is not unusual to find little or corrosion-fatigue strength in salt water is about the
no advantage for higher-strength materials. stress development and 20 percent to physical change of
i.e., a smooth surface in a noncorrosive environment. As the surface metal. same regardless of composition or strength level (see Fig.
mentioned previously, the high-cycle fatigue life under b. Maximum and Mean Stresses. The maximum The benefits in fatigue of surface cold working tend to 11). As might be expec%d, metals that are either
these conditions is related to the strength properties of tension stress or strain developed in the cycle has an decrease with (a) increasing yield strength and (b) partially or completely resistant to the corrosive environ-
the steels. Thus, the fatigue limit of the 200,000-psi important bearing on fatigue life. The results discussed decreasing fatigue life. There are probably three ment will be less affected. For example, the fatigue
steel is considerably higher than that of the 40,000-psi thus far have been based on completely reversed (equal reasons for the decrease with increasing yield strength: behavior of cups6nickel and nickel-copper alloys normally
steel. However, the curves cross each other in the low- tension and compression) cyclic stress or strain indepen- the higher forces required to deform the surface metal used for salt%ater equipment is not greatly different
cycle region. The higher tensile ductility of the 40,000- dent of any steady-state conditions. This is the result in a shallower layer; the notch sensitivity of both
psi steel is conducive to higher fatigue strengths in the whether exposed to salt water or to air. Many titanium
exception rather than the rule. Most practical applica- the deformed and undeformed metal is higher; and the
very-low-cycle region where strain deformation is the tions result in stress-time patterns of the type shown in alloys are exceptionally resistant to corrosion fatigue in
lower ductility of the high-strength material is conducive salt water.
principal controlling factor. Fig. 9. It is apparent that if the maximum and minimum to cracking induced by some stressing techniques. Protection of susceptible materials against corrosion
The dashed curves in Fig. 11 depict the performance of stresses are known, then all constant stress amplitude Unfavorable residual stresses, i.e., surface tensile
the two steels under adverse conditions, i.e., a stress problems can be resolved into mean stress and alternating fatigue is similar to that taken against general corrosion,
stresses, originate principally from heat treatment, i.e., the use of protective coatings that are both resistant
raiser in a corrosive environment. Behavior of the two stress components. I n general, in the high-cycle region, welding, misfits, and cold forming. It is possible to
steels is similar despite the large difference in static the permissible alternating stress decreases with increas- and impervious to the environment, and cathodic pro-
relieve unfavorable residual stresses in metals by a so- tection. Both of these methods are simple in principle
strength properties. Under such conditions, there ing mean stress. Through the use of mathematical or called stress-relieving heat treatment and thus improve
but often difficu t to put in practice.
would be no advantage in selecting the more expensive,
higher-strength steel.
3.7 Factors Affecting Fatigue Life. The following
diagrammatical relationships, such as the Goodman
diagram or the Haigh-Soderberg diagram, it is possible to
convert the stress conditions shown in Fig. 9 to an
fatigue resistance. This treatment requires that the
materials be heated to elevated temperatures. The 2
e. Other actors. The foregoing sections have
discussed four of the most important factors that affect
paragraphs briefly describe the effects of various factors applicability of the stress-relieving treatment is limited
equivalent, completely reversed stress condition. by facilities for handling large structures and by the fact fatigue life. Other factors that may be of importance
on the fatigue behavior of metals [43-491. It is important to recognize that maximum stress are cumulative damage, prestressing, metallurgical
a. Stress Raisers. Practically all fatigue failures that the temperature required for stress relief may have
controls the whole course of events. If the maximum a detrimental effect on other properties such as yield structures, weldments, creep, temperature, surface finish,
start a t a stress raiser (stress concentration) on the surface stress exceeds the elastic limit, the mean stress is size, and stress state.
of a machine part. The majority of stress raisers fall into strength and impact resistance.
decreased and a new set of conditions comes into play.
one of the following broad groups: Factors most likely to alter the mean stress are stress
raisers and residual stresses.
Those caused by changes in the geometry of a part, The influence of mean stress decreases with decreasing i
such as steps a t changes in diameter, abrupt corners, fatigue life, and when the alternating stress equals or Section 4
holes, keyways, threads, press or shrink fits, junction of exceeds the yield strength, the mean stress becomes zero.
bolt shanks and heads, and so forth. Accordingly, whether or not mean stress is an important Behavior at Elevated Temperatures
Surface discontinuities such as nicks, notches, factor in low-cycle fatigue depends upon the yield 4.1 Introduction. An elevated temperature can be a t room temperature and above, whereas for low-alloy
machining marks, pitting, and corrosion. strength of the material. In high-strength materials, it defined as any temperature a t which mechanical behavior steels they are time dependent only above about 700 F.
Defects inherent in the material such as non- may be necessary to consider mean-stress effects a t is affected by time a t temperature. I n the broadest Accepted practice dictates that, insofar as possible, a
metallic inclusions, local discontinuities, minute cracks, fatigue lives ranging down to 100 cycles. sense it can include such things as the change in tensile metallic material be used in a condition of metallurgical
and voids. c. Residual Stresses. Residual stresses may bo . properties by aging of certain aluminum alloys (including stability a t the operating temperature. For example, a
either favorable or unfavorable insofar as fatigue life i~ a few that age a t room temperature), the change in quenched and tempered steel normally would not be
The ability of a discontinuity to concentrate stress is concerned [48]. Fatigue cracks initiate and/or propagab tensile properties and hardness by heat treatment of used unless the tempering temperature were a t least
dependent upon its shape and size. Cracks have the only in a tensile-stress field. Therefore, tensile residual precipitation-hardening alloys, the release of residual 100 deg F higher than the intended operating tempera-
highest stress-concentrating effect, whereas generous stresses are usually detrimental to fatigue life whereu~ stresses by stress-relief heat treatment of weldments, and ture; otherwise, the strength obtained by the temper
fillets with a smooth, polished surface have the lowest. compressive residual stresses are beneficial. Nearly all the loss of ductility by temper embrittlement of steels. would be reduced on heating to the operating tem-
Analytical methods have been developed for calculating fatigue failures initiate a t the surface. Accordingly, However, a more restricted definition of elevated tem- perature.
the stress-concentrating effects of discontinuities based processes that introduce compressive stresses in tho perature is applied herein, 4.2 Time-Dependent Properties. When a metal is
on geometry, dimensions, and assumed elastic behavior. surface layers of a machine part can be effective in I n the context of this discussion, an elevated tempera- subjected to a static load a t an elevated temperature, an
The effect arrived a t in this manner is called the theoret- improving fatigue performance. ture is any temperature a t which strain and load-carrying immediate elastic strain occurs followed by a time-
ical stress concentration factor K t [38, 501. However, The most commonly used metallurgical processes for ability are time dependent. Below the elevated- dependent permanent plastic strain called creep. A
the actual effect of a given stress concentration may vary increasing fatigue resistance are case carburizing, temperature range, design for any life can be based on typical strain-versus-time curve is shown in Fig. 12.
both within and among materials. By means of tests it nitriding, or carbonitriding. In these processes, carboll properties measured in "short-time" tests such as the con- The creep occurring a t a diminishing rate a t the initial
is possible to establish the reduction in fatigue strength and/or nitrogen is diffused into the surface layers of tho ventional tensile test. Within the elevated-temperature part of the curve is called primary creep. This is followed
caused by a particular stress-concentration factor for a part. When properly applied and heat treated, tho range, however, mechanical properties must be measured by seconhrg creep, characterized by a relatively constant
particular material a t a particular strength level. By resultant metallurgical structure in the diffused laycr by means which account for a change of properties with rate of strain. The creep rate may ultimately accelerate
comparing these data with unnotched (smooth) test occupies a greater volume than that of the parent metal. time. and lead to rupture in a stage called tertiary creep. It is
data, one can arrive a t the so-called fatigue notch factor The greater volume causes compressive residual stresaw. Elevated-temperature behavior occurs over different rather obvious that stress-temperature combinations
Kf. From K t and Kf the notch sensitivity index, q, of Compressive residual stresses can also be introduced temperature ranges for different materials. For example, leading to tertiary creep within the life of the equipment
the material can be calculated as follows: by cold working the surface material by such techniques . the mechanical properties of lead can be time dependent should be avoided.
822 MARINE ENGINEERING
IN MATERIALS 823
RUPTW 40 I
due to creep. The data from such a test commonly are I
Section 5 Code, wvhich sets allo~vabledesign stresses as a function are not subject to this danger if the steam passing through
of temperature for each commonly used alloy. them is already dry.
Applicatio~~sof Materials For the low-alloy steels, the tempekature and stress There are places in boilers where special metals may be
5.1 Introduction. The design, construction, and heat standpoint, because heat removal by water and tolerances tend to increase progressively in the series of employed. Mention has already been made of cast
operation of modern shipboard machinery and auxiliary steam circulation is necessary to keep tube temperatures carbon, carbon-XMo, 1xCr-XMo, and 2xCr-IMo 60Cr-40Ni alloy for superheater support members.
grades. There are, of course, other competing alloys, Alloys such as Inconel may be used for oxidation-
equipment are usually the result of years of experiment within tolerable limits. The design must provide for
and experience. The wealth of information so gained is but these four are the most frequently employed. resistant brick bolts; desuperheater parts are often made
circulation under all steaming conditions, and operators of a 16Cr-lNi alloy; and cBsings or other parts exposed
documented, and up-dated occasionally, in general must not allow low water to occur. The watersides The useful temperature ranges for these alloys can
specifications available for the guidance of the marine overlap if suitable adjustment of the design stress is to corrosive flue gases, particularly a t temperatures over
must be kept clean and free of deposits which can 700 F, may be,mde of stainless steel.
engineer. References [I-51 are typical examples. I n interfere with proper heat transfer. made. Holvever, carbon steel is seldom used above
addition, certain of the military specifications contain Corrosion also must be prevented. This is accom- 750 F because of its low strength. If it is used a t higher 5.3 Main and Auxiliary Sfeam Piping Systems. 1n
general guidelines for specific items of naval machinery temperatures, it is advisable that the steel be a grade general, the guideli~lesfor main and a w i l i a r ~steam
plished on the water and steam side by several means. piping systems on merchant vessels are set by applicable
(e.g.1 MIL-B-18381 for Naval High Pressure Steam Deaeration of makeup water prevents corrosion and deoxidized \vith silicon instead of aluminum. Alu-
Boilers, and MIL-T-17600 for Naval Steam Propulsion rninum-killed carbon steels have a greater tendency to sections of the American National standards ~nstitute
pitting from oxygen. An alkaline-phosphate treatment Code, ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code [5, 101,
Turbines). These general specifications refer in turn become embrittled by decomposition of iron carbide
of the boiler water provides an optimum pH for rninimiZ-
to a variety of specific material specificationscontaining (graphitization) after prolonged high-temperature expo- and U.S. Coast Guard Marine Engineering Regulations
ing corrosion, and also controls damaging scale-forming
details of the materials acceptable for particular com- salts by producing insoluble phosphates which can be sure. Graphitization occurs most readily near welds. [I]. Navy practice follo~vsthe same pattern, differing
ponents and operating conditions. Several organiza- Molybdenum and particularly chromium are strong only in details.
removed by blowdotvn or easy mechanical cleaning.
tions publish material specifications, with those of the carbide-forming elements and inhibit graphitization As in the case of boilers and supeclleaters, the rationale
Proper water treatment and blowdown also prevent for choosing between carbon and alloy steels for steam
American Society for Testing and Materials being the damage by foaming and excessive carry-over of solids tendencies in alloys containing these elements.
ones to which reference is most often made. Typical applications of carbon steels (including lines is largely a matter of service temperature and
into the superheater. Volatile amines may be used to
Examples of typical materials used in critical applica- minor modifications in chemistry for welding, etc.) pressure. However, in contrast to certain parts in
control corrosion in condensers and return lines, and to include steam and water drums, water-wall headers, boilers which are exposed to hot combustion gases,
tions, with some rationale as to why they are used, and prevent deposition of copper in boiler tubes.
the limitations under which they will provide satis- generating tubes, downcomers, and economizer tubes and steam lines are not exposed to temperatures beyond
Caustic embrittlement, especially of boiler drums, is those of the contained steam.
factory service are given in the following sections. not the common problem today that it was in the past. headers. Depending on applicable specifications, either
5.2 Boilers and Superheaters. The materials used Proper water treatment has helped. Of equal impor- or seamless tubes can be used. Inspection for The carbon and low-alloy ferritic steels can be used
in critical components of modern marine boilers have tance has been the use of fusion-welded construction in
evolved over many years into a series of standardized lieu of riveted construction. This has eliminated many
alloys which optimize cost and mechanical properties. of the crevices within which waterside chemicals could
I n addition, they include where necessary other attributes concentrate.
such as castabilit~,v~eldabiity, forgeability, and/or Fireside corrosion from fuel-combustion products can
sufficient ductility to permit forming operations such as be controlled