ANATOMY

AND PHYSIOLOGY
© hjtlopez
CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE 3. Acids and Bases
Inorganic Compounds (no carbon) - Also considered as electrolytes
Water, Salt, Acid and Bases - Acids
a. Give up or proton donors/naked protons
1. Water b. Hydrogen ions and anions are released
- Two-thirds (60%) of body’s weight o Anions determines the acid’s effects on the
- Properties of Water environment
a. Polarity/ Solvent Properties c. Higher hydrogen concentration
o It is an excellent solvent d. Strong acids- ionize completely and liberate all their
Ø It is a polar liquid in body temperature protons; dissociate from original compound
o Called as the “universal solvent” o HI- hydoriodic acid
Ø Solvent- liquid or gas in which solid amounts o HCl- hydrochloric acid (produced by the stomach)
can be dissolved o HBr- hydrobromic acid
Ø Solute- any dissolved substance o HNO3- nitric acid
Ø Solution- particles are tiny o HClO4- perchloric acid
Ø Suspension- particles are large o H2SO4- sulfuric acid
Ø Colloids- particles are of intermediate size e. Weak acids- ionize incompletely
o Oil and Water (H2O) o H2CO3- carbonic acid (carbonated drinks)
Ø Only hydrogen bonds will form excluding the o C2H3O2- acetic acid (vinegar)
water f. Includes black coffee, orange, etc.
o Synovial fluid- bones - Bases
o Interstitial fluid- passage of blood plasma a. Combine with or proton acceptors
b. High-heat Capacity b. Hydroxyl ions and cations are released
o It absorbs and release large amounts of heat c. Lower hydrogen concentration (alkaline)
before its temperature changes d. Strong bases
o It prevent sudden changes (metabolism and in the o LiOH- lithium hydroxide
environment) in body temperature o NaOH- sodium hydroxide
Ø Evaporation of sweat o KOH- potassium hydroxide
o Normal body temperature: 37C or 98.6F o Ca(OH)2- calcium hydroxide
o It acts as a transport and exchange medium in the o Sr(OH)2- strontium hydroxide
body o Ba(OH)2- barium hydroxide
c. Cushioning e. Weak bases
o Forms a protective function o H2CO3- bicarbonate ion (important base in blood)
o If there is no water, it may cause more ruptures f. Includes baking soda, detergents, drain cleaner, etc.
o Cerebrospinal fluid- brain Neutralization reaction- acids and bases interact
o Amiotic fluid- baby pH Concentration
d. Biochemical Reactions • Measures the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution
o Peptide bonds- protein • Ranges from 0-14
o Glycosilic linkage- carbohydrates a. Acid- Lower than 7
o Dehydration Reaction (monomer to polymer) b. Base- Higher than 7
Ø ATP is required c. Neutral- Exactly 7 (10-7 moles per liter)
Ø Water removal: to give way for bonds • Each successive change of 1 pH represents a tenfold change
Ø Bigger a. pH 3 to pH 7= (10 x 10 x 10 x 10)
Ø Monomer 1 + Monomer 2= Dimer • Normal blood pH- 7.35 to 7.45
o Hydrolysis Reaction (polymer to monomer)
Ø Release ATP: to break molecules Buffer system
Ø Needs water • Any substance that tends to minimize the changes in pH that
Ø Simpler might occur when an aid or base is added to a solution
• Highly essential to maintain homeostasis that are usually
regulated by kidneys and lungs
• Carbonic acid- donates hydrogen when blood becomes too
alkaline
• Bicarbonate acid- accepts hydrogen when blood becomes too
acidic

Organic Compounds (with carbon)
Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids and Amino Acids

2. Salts Carbon
- Involves sodium, phosphorus, potassium and calcium • The backbone of amino acids, the building blocks of protein
- Dissociation: process when salt dissolves in body fluid and
• Accounts 18% of body weight in humans
separate easily in their ions
• Forms four covalent bonds that are single or double bonds
- Electrolytes: electric current in solution that is mainly used
• It can build macromolecules
for buffer system
• Contains carbon except for carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide
- Salt is formed through ionic bonds
- Water keeps the ions dissolved because organic molecules don't just contain carbon, they
- The slightly negative ends (O-) of polar water molecules are contain hydrocarbons or carbon bonded to hydrogen.
attracted to positive ions (Na+), whereas the slightly positive
(H+) end of water are attracted to negative ions (Cl-) 1. Carbohydrates (monosaccharide)
- Important for: - Immediate source of energy
a. Nerve impulses- sodium and potassium - Contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
b. Hemoglobin- iron - Excess carbohydrates turn into fats
- Too much: - 1-2-1 CHO ratio (generalized structure: CH2O)
a. Fat- gall stones - Electroneutral- shares neutrons, never gains or loses them
b. Calcium- calcium stones
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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
© hjtlopez
- Types of Carbohydrates: o Types of Fatty Acids:
a. Monosaccharide Ø Saturated Fats (Fats)
o For cellular respiration v Low-density lipoproteins
o Contains five or six carbon atoms arranged in v Bad for the body
either five or six membered ring v Single bonds between carbons
o Can be either an aldose or ketose v Solid at room temperature
v Long fatty acid chain
v Trans fats such as margarine and baked
products
Ø Unsaturated Fats (Oils)
v High-density lipoproteins
v Good for the body
v Double bonds between carbons
o Contains carbonyl group and hydroxyl group v Liquid at room temperature
o Number of carbons- prefix + “ose” v Short fatty acid chain
o It includes: v Omega-3 fatty acids, olive oil
Ø Ribose- structure of nucleic acids b. Phospholipids
Ø Deoxyribose- structure of nucleic acids o Composed of 2 fatty acids and 1 glycerol
Ø Glucose- blood sugar (6 carbon rings) o Cell membrane structure
Ø Fructose- fruits (5 carbon rings) o Semi-permeable
Ø Galactose- dairy products (6 carbon rings) Ø Hydrophilic- water-soluble, head, glycerol
Ø Hydrophobic- water-insoluble, tail, 2 fatty
acids
c. Steroids
o Composed of four carbon rings
o Lipids that contain cholesterol
o Anterioclerosis- building up of fats
o Common steroids:
Ø Cholesterol- basis of all body steroids
b. Disaccharide Ø Bile salts- breakdown product of cholesterol
o Two monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkage released by the liver that is used for fat
o It includes: digestion and absorption
Ø Sucrose- glucose + fructose (cake sugar) Ø Vitamin D- produced in the skin on exposure
Ø Lactose- glucose + galactose (nido) to UV which is necessary for bone growth
Ø Maltose- glucose + glucose (milo) and function
Ø Sex hormones- estrogen and progesterone
c. Polysaccharides (female) and testosterone (male)
o Many sugars (polymers of monosaccharides) Ø Corticosteroids- a long-term anti-stress
o Because of their large size, they lack the hormone
sweetness of single and double sugars - Other lipid substances:
o Used for: a. Prostaglandins- derivatives of fatty acids in cell
Ø Storage membranes; functions in regulation of blood pressure,
v Starch (Plants) uterine contractions and motility of gastrointestinal
§ Joined by 1-4 linkage tract
§ Structures known as plastids b. Glycolipids- determine the blood type and helps in cell
§ Amylose- simplest form recognition
§ Flour c. Vitamin A- vision
v Glycogen (Animals) d. Vitamin E- wound healing and contribute to fertility
§ Liver e. Vitamin K- necessary for proper clotting of blood
§ Muscle cells and fat cells 3. Proteins (amino acids)
§ Systematic and cellular energy - Contains carbon, oxygen and hydrogen
source - Also contain nitrogen and sulfur
Ø Structure - Comprised of 20%-30% cell mass
v Cellulose (Plants) - Produced in ribosomes
§ Most abundant organic compound - Forms peptide bonds during dehydration synthesis
§ Major component of the tough - Denaturation: unfolding of tertiary and quaternary
walls that enclose plant cells structure that can cause them to be dysfunctional due to
§ Includes fiber change in temperature and body pH
v Chitin (Animals) - Generalized structure:
§ Major constituent in exoskeleton a. NH2 (Amine group)
(arthropods) b. COOH (Acid group/Carboxylic group)
2. Lipids (fatty acids and glycerol) c. R group- makes the amino acid unique
- Contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen but less than in
carbohydrates
- Sometimes contains phosphorus
- Main source of energy
- Insoluble in water
- Hydrpgenation- addition of hydrogen
- Types of Lipids
a. Triglycerides or Neutral fats - 20 amino acids are naturally occuring
o Composed of 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol a. 9 amino acids- produced by the bofy
o Energy storage molecules b. 11 amino aids- we can get it from the proteins that we
o Also known as fats and oils eat
o Stored in adipose tissue
o Makes up to 75% of the body fats
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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
© hjtlopez
DNA RNA
- Structures of Protein: - Deoxyribonucleic Acid - Ribonucleic Acid
a. Primary - Extra hydrogen bond - Extra hydroxyl bond
o Amino acid sequence - Base Pairs - Base Pairs
o Stabilized by peptide bonds a. A-T (2 hydrogen bonds) a. A-U (2 hydrogen bonds)
b. Secondary b. G-C (3 hydrogen bonds) b. G-C (3 hydrogen bonds)
o Can be alpha-helix or beta- - Deoxy: no sugar - Ribose: sugar
pleated - Ribose: sugar - Nitrogenous bases:
o Stabilized by hydrogen bonds - Nitrogenous bases: a. Purines (2 rings)- A and G
and peptide bonds a. Purines (2 rings)- A and G b. Pyrimidines(1 ring)- U and C
c. Tertiary b. Pyrimidines(1 ring)- T and C - Single- stranded
o Three-dimensional - Double- stranded - Helical structure
o Stabilized by hydrogen - Double-helix structure - Involves in protein synthesis
bonds, peptide bonds and - Genetic blue print - Exists as:
disulfide bonds - Replicates itself exactly before a. mRNA- contains the codon
d. Quaternary Acell divides (interphase) For for synthesis
o Differs in numbers of -aProvides instructions for b. tRNA- anti-codons
polypeptide chains aabuilding every protein in the c.rRNA- overlooks the
- Types of Proteins aabody aaatranslation
a. Fibrous Proteins (Structure)
o Strand-like, water soluble and stable ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
o Provides mechanical support and high tensile • Without ATP, molecules cannot be made or broken down
strength • It is consists of
o It involves: - Adenine base
Ø Collagen- most abundant; bones, cartilage - Ribose sugar
Ø Keratin- hair, skin, nails - Three phosphate groups
Ø Elastin • Universal energy source
b. Globular Proteins (Functional) • Chemical work- energy-absorbing chemical reaction
o Compact, spherical, water soluble, sensible to the • Transport work- gate across cell membranes
environmental changes • Mechanical work- ADP to ATP; activates contractile proteins in
o Mainly functions in biological process muscle cell to shorten mechanical work
o It involves: • Sodium-Potassium Pump
Ø Hormones
- Sodium out
Ø Antibodies- immunity
- Potassium in
Ø Actin and Myosin- movement of muscles;

contractile

Ø Enzymes

- Enzymes

a. Most are made up of proteins (tertiary and quaternary

strcutures)

b. Acts as catalyst

c. Not permanently changed in the process

d. Usually ends with -ase

e. They weakened the bonds in order to lower the

activation energy

f. Induced Fit- change in shape

g. What affects the Enzyme Activity:

o Environmental Changes

Ø Denaturation Factors that can increase the rate of Chemical Reactions
Ø pH level
Increase the kinetic energy of the
Ø Ionic concentrations Higher Temperature
molecules
o Co-factors and Co-enzymes
Higher concentration Increase the number of collisions
Ø Inorganic substances such as zinc, iron and
of particles
vitamins
4. Nucleic Acids (nucleotides) Smaller particle size More kinetic energy and moves faster
- Contains carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and Holds the reactant in proper positions to
phosphorus Presence of catalyst
interact
- Largest molecule in the body

- Make up the genes
- Direct the growth and development by directing protein
structure
- It is composed of:
a. Nitrogen-containing base
o Adenine
o Guanine
o Cytosine
o Thymine
o Uracil
b. Pentose sugar
c. Phosphate group





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