Lipids

Lipid Molecules
Fats and oils, which may be saturated or unsaturated, can be unhealthy but also serve
important functions for plants and animals.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Differentiate between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
 Fats provide energy, insulation, and storage of fatty acids for many organisms.
 Fats may be saturated (having single bonds) or unsaturated (having double
bonds).
 Unsaturated fats may be cis (hydrogens in same plane) or trans (hydrogens in
two different planes).
 Olive oil, a monounsaturated fat, has a single double bond whereas canola oil, a
polyunsaturated fat, has more than one double bond.
 Omega-3 fatty acid and omega-6 fatty acid are essential for human biological
processes, but they must be ingested in the diet because they cannot be
synthesized.
Key Terms
 hydrogenation: The chemical reaction of hydrogen with another substance,
especially with an unsaturated organic compound, and usually under the influence
of temperature, pressure and catalysts.
 ester: Compound most often formed by the condensation of an alcohol and an
acid, by removing water. It contains the functional group carbon-oxygen double
bond joined via carbon to another oxygen atom.
 carboxyl: A univalent functional group consisting of a carbonyl and a hydroxyl
functional group (-CO.OH); characteristic of carboxylic acids.
Fats have important functions, and many vitamins are fat soluble. Fats serve as a long-
term storage form of fatty acids and act as a source of energy. They also provide
insulation for the body.
Glycerol and Fatty Acids
A fat molecule consists of two main components: glycerol and fatty acids. Glycerol is an
alcohol with three carbons, five hydrogens, and three hydroxyl (OH) groups. Fatty acids
have a long chain of hydrocarbons with a carboxyl group attached and may have 4-36
carbons; however, most of them have 12-18. In a fat molecule, the fatty acids are
attached to each of the three carbons of the glycerol molecule with an ester bond
through the oxygen atom. During the ester bond formation, three molecules are
released. Since fats consist of three fatty acids and a glycerol, they are also called
triacylglycerols or triglycerides.
Triacylglycerols: Triacylglycerol is formed by the joining of three fatty acids to a
glycerol backbone in a dehydration reaction. Three molecules of water are released in
the process.
Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fatty Acids
Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated. In a fatty acid chain, if there are only
single bonds between neighboring carbons in the hydrocarbon chain, the fatty acid is
said to be saturated. Saturated fatty acids are saturated with hydrogen since single
bonds increase the number of hydrogens on each carbon. Stearic acid and palmitic
acid, which are commonly found in meat, are examples of saturated fats.
When the hydrocarbon chain contains a double bond, the fatty acid is said to be
unsaturated. Oleic acid is an example of an unsaturated fatty acid. Most unsaturated
fats are liquid at room temperature and are called oils. If there is only one double bond
in the molecule, then it is known as a monounsaturated fat; e.g. olive oil. If there is more
than one double bond, then it is known as a polyunsaturated fat; e.g. canola oil.
Unsaturated fats help to lower blood cholesterol levels whereas saturated fats
contribute to plaque formation in the arteries.
Unsaturated fats or oils are usually of plant origin and contain cis unsaturated fatty
acids. Cis and trans indicate the configuration of the molecule around the double bond.
If hydrogens are present in the same plane, it is referred to as a cis fat; if the hydrogen
atoms are on two different planes, it is referred to as a trans fat. The cis double bond
causes a bend or a “kink” that prevents the fatty acids from packing tightly, keeping
them liquid at room temperature.

Fatty Acids: Saturated fatty acids have hydrocarbon chains connected by single bonds
only. Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds. Each double bond may
be in a cis or trans configuration. In the cis configuration, both hydrogens are on the
same side of the hydrocarbon chain. In the trans configuration, the hydrogens are on
opposite sides. A cis double bond causes a kink in the chain.
Trans Fats
In the food industry, oils are artificially hydrogenated to make them semi-solid and of a
consistency desirable for many processed food products. During this hydrogenation
process, gas is bubbled through oils to solidify them, and the double bonds of the cis-
conformation in the hydrocarbon chain may be converted to double bonds in the trans-
conformation.
Margarine, some types of peanut butter, and shortening are examples of artificially-
hydrogenated trans fats. Recent studies have shown that an increase in trans fats in the
human diet may lead to an increase in levels of low-density lipoproteins (LDL), or “bad”
cholesterol, which in turn may lead to plaque deposition in the arteries, resulting in heart
disease. Many fast food restaurants have recently banned the use of trans fats, and
food labels are required to display the trans fat content.
Essential Fatty Acids
Essential fatty acids are fatty acids required for biological processes, but not
synthesized by the human body. Consequently, they have to be supplemented through
ingestion via the diet and are nutritionally very important. Omega-3 fatty acid, or alpha-
linoleic acid (ALA), falls into this category and is one of only two fatty acids known to be
essential for humans (the other being omega-6 fatty acid, or linoleic acid). These
polyunsaturated fatty acids are called omega-3 because the third carbon from the end
of the hydrocarbon chain is connected to its neighboring carbon by a double bond.
Salmon, trout, and tuna are good sources of omega-3 fatty acids.
Research indicates that omega-3 fatty acids reduce the risk of sudden death from heart
attacks, reduce triglycerides in the blood, lower blood pressure, and prevent thrombosis
by inhibiting blood clotting. They also reduce inflammation and may help reduce the risk
of some cancers in animals.

Omega Fatty Acids: Alpha-linolenic acid is an example of an omega-3 fatty acid. It has
three cis double bonds and, as a result, a curved shape. For clarity, the carbons are not
shown. Each singly bonded carbon has two hydrogens associated with it, also not
shown.
Waxes
Waxes are nonpolar lipids that plants and animals use for protection and have many
functions in society.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe the roles played by waxes
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
 Natural waxes are typically esters of fatty acids and long chain alcohols.
 Animal wax esters are derived from a variety of carboxylic acids and fatty
alcohols.
 Plant waxes are derived from mixtures of long-chain hydrocarbons containing
functional groups.
 Because of their hydrophobic nature, waxes prevent water from sticking on
plants and animals.
 Synthetic waxes are derived from petroleum or polyethylene and consist of long-
chain hydrocarbons that lack functional groups.
 Synthetic and waxes are used in adhesives, cosmetics, food, and many other
commercial products.
Key Terms
 paraffin wax: A waxy white solid hydrocarbon mixture used to make candles,
wax paper, lubricants, and sealing materials.
 polyethylene: A polymer consisting of many ethylene monomers bonded
together; used for kitchenware, containers etc.
Waxes
Waxes are a type of long chain nonpolar lipid. Natural waxes are typically esters of fatty
acids and long chain alcohols. Waxes are synthesized by many animals and plants.
Animal wax esters are typically derived from a variety of carboxylic acids and fatty
alcohols. The composition of a wax depends not only on the species, but also on the
geographic location of the organism. The best known animal wax is beeswax, but other
insects secrete waxes as well. A major component of beeswax is the ester myricyl
palmitate, which bees use for constructing honeycombs. Spermaceti is also a wax that
occurs in large amounts in the oil of a sperm whale’s head. One of its main constituents
is cetyl palmitate, an ester of a fatty acid and fatty alcohol. Plant waxes are derived from
mixtures of long-chain hydrocarbons containing functional groups such as alkanes, fatty
acids, alcohols, diols, ketones, and aldehydes. Plants also use waxes as a protective
coating to control evaporation and hydration and to prevent them from drying out.
Waxes are valuable to both plants and animals because of their hydrophobic nature.
This makes them water resistant, which prevents water from sticking on surfaces.
Plant Waxes: Waxy coverings on some leaves are used as protective coatings.
Unlike most natural waxes, which are esters, synthetic waxes consist of long-chain
hydrocarbons lacking functional groups. Paraffin wax is a type of synthetic wax derived
from petroleum and refined by vacuum distillation. Synthetic waxes may also be
obtained from polyethylene. Millions of of these waxes are produced annually, and they
are used in adhesives, cosmetics, sealants and lubricants, insecticides, and UV
protection. They are also used in foods like chewing gum.

Generic structure formula of bee waxes: Ester myricyl palmitate is a major

component of beeswax.
Phospholipids
Phospholipids are amphipathic molecules that make up the bilayer of the plasma
membrane and keep the membrane fluid.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe phospholipids and their role in cells
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
 Phospholipids consist of a glycerol molecule, two fatty acids, and a phosphate
group that is modified by an alcohol.
 The phosphate group is the negatively-charged polar head, which is hydrophilic.
 The fatty acid chains are the uncharged, nonpolar tails, which are hydrophobic.
 Since the tails are hydrophobic, they face the inside, away from the water and
meet in the inner region of the membrane.
  Since the heads are hydrophilic, they face outward and are attracted to the
intracellular and extracellular fluid.
 If phospholipids are placed in water, they form into micelles, which are lipid
molecules that arrange themselves in a spherical form in aqueous solutions.
Key Terms
 micelle: Lipid molecules that arrange themselves in a spherical form in aqueous
solutions.
 amphipathic: Describing a molecule, such as a detergent, which has both
hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups.
Defining Characteristics of Phospholipids
Phospholipids are major components of the plasma membrane, the outermost layer of
animal cells. Like fats, they are composed of fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol
backbone. Unlike triglycerides, which have three fatty acids, phospholipids have two
fatty acids that help form a diacylglycerol. The third carbon of the glycerol backbone is
also occupied by a modified phosphate group. However, just a phosphate group
attached to a diacylglycerol does not qualify as a phospholipid. This would be
considered a phosphatidate (diacylglycerol 3-phosphate), the precursor to
phospholipids. To qualify as a phospholipid, the phosphate group should be modified by
an alcohol. Phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylserine are examples of two important
phospholipids that are found in plasma membranes.

Phospholipid Molecule: A phospholipid is a molecule with two fatty acids and a

modified phosphate group attached to a glycerol backbone. The phosphate may be
modified by the addition of charged or polar chemical groups. Two chemical groups that
may modify the phosphate, choline and serine, are shown here. Both choline and serine
attach to the phosphate group at the position labeled R via the hydroxyl group indicated
in green.
Structure of a Phospholipid Molecule
A phospholipid is an amphipathic molecule which means it has both a hydrophobic and
a hydrophilic component. A single phospholipid molecule has a phosphate group on one
end, called the “head,” and two side-by-side chains of fatty acids that make up the lipid
“tails. ” The phosphate group is negatively charged, making the head polar and
hydrophilic, or “water loving.” The phosphate heads are thus attracted to the water
molecules in their environment.
The lipid tails, on the other hand, are uncharged, nonpolar, and hydrophobic, or “water
fearing.” A hydrophobic molecule repels and is repelled by water. Some lipid tails
consist of saturated fatty acids and some contain unsaturated fatty acids. This
combination adds to the fluidity of the tails that are constantly in motion.
Phospholipids and Biological Membranes
The cell membrane consists of two adjacent layers of phospholipids, which form a
bilayer. The fatty acid tails of phospholipids face inside, away from water, whereas the
phosphate heads face the outward aqueous side. Since the heads face outward, one
layer is exposed to the interior of the cell and one layer is exposed to the exterior. As
the phosphate groups are polar and hydrophilic, they are attracted to water in the
intracellular fluid.

Phospholipid Bilayer: The phospholipid bilayer consists of two adjacent sheets of

phospholipids, arranged tail to tail. The hydrophobic tails associate with one another,
forming the interior of the membrane. The polar heads contact the fluid inside and
outside of the cell.
Because of the phospholipds’ chemical and physical characteristics, the lipid bilayer
acts as a semipermeable membrane; only lipophilic solutes can easily pass the
phospholipd bilayer. As a result, there are two distinct aqueous compartments on each
side of the membrane. This separation is essential for many biological functions,
including cell communication and metabolism.
Membrane Fluidity
A cell’s plasma membrane contain proteins and other lipids (such as cholesterol) within
the phospholipid bilayer. Biological membranes remain fluid because of the unsaturated
hydrophobic tails, which prevent phospholipid molecules from packing together and
forming a solid.
If a drop of phospholipids is placed in water, the phospholipids spontaneously form a
structure known as a micelle, with their hydrophilic heads oriented toward the water.
Micelles are lipid molecules that arrange themselves in a spherical form in aqueous
solution. The formation of a micelle is a response to the amphipathic nature of fatty
acids, meaning that they contain both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions.

Micelles: An example of micelles in water.

Steroids
Steroids, like cholesterol, play roles in reproduction, absorption, metabolism regulation,
and brain activity.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe some functions of steroids
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
 Steroids are lipids because they are hydrophobic and insoluble in water, but they
do not resemble lipids since they have a structure composed of four fused rings.
 Cholesterol is the most common steroid and is the precursor to vitamin D,
testosterone, estrogen, progesterone, aldosterone, cortisol, and bile salts.
 Cholesterol is a component of the phospholipid bilayer and plays a role in the
structure and function of membranes.
 Steroids are found in the brain and alter electrical activity in the brain.
 Because they can tone down receptors that communicate messages from
neurotransmitters, steroids are often used in anesthetic medicines.
Key Terms
 neurotransmitter: any substance, such as acetylcholine or dopamine,
responsible for sending nerve signals across a synapse between two neurons
 osmoregulation: the homeostatic regulation of osmotic pressure in the body in
order to maintain a constant water content
 hormone: any substance produced by one tissue and conveyed by the
bloodstream to another to affect physiological activity
Structure of Steroid Molecules
Unlike phospholipids and fats, steroids have a fused ring structure. Although they do not
resemble the other lipids, they are grouped with them because they are also
hydrophobic and insoluble in water. All steroids have four linked carbon rings, and many
of them, like cholesterol, have a short tail. Many steroids also have the –OH functional
group, and these steroids are classified as alcohols called sterols.

Steroid Structures: Steroids, such as cholesterol and cortisol, are composed of four
fused hydrocarbon rings.
Cholesterol
Cholesterol is the most common steroid and is mainly synthesized in the liver; it is the
precursor to vitamin D. Cholesterol is also a precursor to many important steroid
hormones like estrogen, testosterone, and progesterone, which are secreted by the
gonads and endocrine glands. Therefore, steroids play very important roles in the
body’s reproductive system. Cholesterol also plays a role in synthesizing the steroid
hormones aldosterone, which is used for osmoregulation, and cortisol, which plays a
role in metabolism.
Cholesterol is also the precursor to bile salts, which help in the emulsification of fats and
their absorption by cells. It is a component of the plasma membrane of animal cells and
the phospholipid bilayer. Being the outermost structure in animal cells, the plasma
membrane is responsible for the transport of materials and cellular recognition; and it is
 involved in cell-to-cell communication. Thus, steroids also play an important role in the
structure and function of membranes.
It has also been discovered that steroids can be active in the brain where they affect the
nervous system, These neurosteroids alter electrical activity in the brain. They can
either activate or tone down receptors that communicate messages from
neurotransmitters. Since these neurosteroids can tone down receptors and decrease
brain activity, steroids are often used in anesthetic medicines.

Lipid Metabolism

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

 Explain how energy can be derived from fat

 Explain the purpose and process of ketogenesis
 Describe the process of ketone body oxidation
 Explain the purpose and the process of lipogenesis

Fats (or triglycerides) within the body are ingested as food or synthesized by adipocytes
or hepatocytes from carbohydrate precursors (Figure 1). Lipid metabolism entails the
oxidation of fatty acids to either generate energy or synthesize new lipids from smaller
constituent molecules. Lipid metabolism is associated with carbohydrate metabolism, as
products of glucose (such as acetyl CoA) can be converted into lipids.
Broken Down into a Monoglyceride A triglyceride molecule (a) breaks down into a
monoglyceride (b).
Lipid metabolism begins in the intestine where ingested triglycerides are broken down
into smaller chain fatty acids and subsequently into monoglyceride
molecules (see Figure 1b) by pancreatic lipases, enzymes that break down fats after
they are emulsified by bile salts. When food reaches the small intestine in the form of
chyme, a digestive hormone called cholecystokinin (CCK) is released by intestinal
cells in the intestinal mucosa. CCK stimulates the release of pancreatic lipase from the
pancreas and stimulates the contraction of the gallbladder to release stored bile salts
into the intestine. CCK also travels to the brain, where it can act as a hunger
suppressant.

Together, the pancreatic lipases and bile salts break down triglycerides into free fatty
acids. These fatty acids can be transported across the intestinal membrane. However,
once they cross the membrane, they are recombined to again form triglyceride
molecules. Within the intestinal cells, these triglycerides are packaged along with
cholesterol molecules in phospholipid vesicles called chylomicrons (Figure 2). The
chylomicrons enable fats and cholesterol to move within the aqueous environment of
your lymphatic and circulatory systems. Chylomicrons leave the enterocytes by
exocytosis and enter the lymphatic system via lacteals in the villi of the intestine. From
the lymphatic system, the chylomicrons are transported to the circulatory system. Once
in the circulation, they can either go to the liver or be stored in fat cells (adipocytes) that
comprise adipose (fat) tissue found throughout the body.
Chylomicrons contain triglycerides, cholesterol molecules, and other apolipoproteins
(protein molecules). They function to carry these water-insoluble molecules from the
intestine, through the lymphatic system, and into the bloodstream, which carries the
lipids to adipose tissue for storage.

Lipolysis

To obtain energy from fat, triglycerides must first be broken down by hydrolysis into their
two principal components, fatty acids and glycerol. This process, called lipolysis, takes
place in the cytoplasm. The resulting fatty acids are oxidized by β-oxidation into acetyl
CoA, which is used by the Krebs cycle. The glycerol that is released from triglycerides
after lipolysis directly enters the glycolysis pathway as DHAP. Because one triglyceride
molecule yields three fatty acid molecules with as much as 16 or more carbons in each
one, fat molecules yield more energy than carbohydrates and are an important source
of energy for the human body. Triglycerides yield more than twice the energy per unit
mass when compared to carbohydrates and proteins. Therefore, when glucose levels
are low, triglycerides can be converted into acetyl CoA molecules and used to generate
ATP through aerobic respiration.

The breakdown of fatty acids, called fatty acid oxidation or beta (β)-oxidation, begins
in the cytoplasm, where fatty acids are converted into fatty acyl CoA molecules. This
fatty acyl CoA combines with carnitine to create a fatty acyl carnitine molecule, which
helps to transport the fatty acid across the mitochondrial membrane. Once inside the
mitochondrial matrix, the fatty acyl carnitine molecule is converted back into fatty acyl
CoA and then into acetyl CoA (Figure 3). The newly formed acetyl CoA enters the Krebs
cycle and is used to produce ATP in the same way as acetyl CoA derived from
pyruvate.

Figure 3.
Breakdown of Fatty Acids. During fatty acid oxidation, triglycerides can be broken down
into acetyl CoA molecules and used for energy when glucose levels are low.

Ketogenesis

If excessive acetyl CoA is created from the oxidation of fatty acids and the Krebs cycle
is overloaded and cannot handle it, the acetyl CoA is diverted to create ketone bodies.
These ketone bodies can serve as a fuel source if glucose levels are too low in the
body. Ketones serve as fuel in times of prolonged starvation or when patients suffer
from uncontrolled diabetes and cannot utilize most of the circulating glucose. In both
cases, fat stores are liberated to generate energy through the Krebs cycle and will
generate ketone bodies when too much acetyl CoA accumulates.

In this ketone synthesis reaction, excess acetyl CoA is converted

into hydroxymethylglutaryl CoA (HMG CoA). HMG CoA is a precursor of cholesterol
and is an intermediate that is subsequently converted into β-hydroxybutyrate, the
primary ketone body in the blood (Figure 4).
Figure 4. Ketogenesis. Excess acetyl CoA is diverted from the Krebs cycle to the
ketogenesis pathway. This reaction occurs in the mitochondria of liver cells. The result
is the production of β-hydroxybutyrate, the primary ketone body found in the blood.

Ketone Body Oxidation

Organs that have classically been thought to be dependent solely on glucose, such as
the brain, can actually use ketones as an alternative energy source. This keeps the
brain functioning when glucose is limited. When ketones are produced faster than they
can be used, they can be broken down into CO2 and acetone. The acetone is removed
by exhalation. One symptom of ketogenesis is that the patient’s breath smells sweet like
alcohol. This effect provides one way of telling if a diabetic is properly controlling the
disease. The carbon dioxide produced can acidify the blood, leading to diabetic
ketoacidosis, a dangerous condition in diabetics.

Ketones oxidize to produce energy for the brain. beta (β)-hydroxybutyrate is oxidized
to acetoacetate and NADH is released. An HS-CoA molecule is added to acetoacetate,
forming acetoacetyl CoA. The carbon within the acetoacetyl CoA that is not bonded to
the CoA then detaches, splitting the molecule in two. This carbon then attaches to
another free HS-CoA, resulting in two acetyl CoA molecules. These two acetyl CoA
molecules are then processed through the Krebs cycle to generate energy (Figure 5).
Ketone Oxidation. When glucose is limited, ketone bodies can be oxidized to produce
acetyl CoA to be used in the Krebs cycle to generate energy.

Lipogenesis

When glucose levels are plentiful, the excess acetyl CoA generated by glycolysis can
be converted into fatty acids, triglycerides, cholesterol, steroids, and bile salts. This
process, called lipogenesis, creates lipids (fat) from the acetyl CoA and takes place in
the cytoplasm of adipocytes (fat cells) and hepatocytes (liver cells). When you eat more
glucose or carbohydrates than your body needs, your system uses acetyl CoA to turn
the excess into fat. Although there are several metabolic sources of acetyl CoA, it is
most commonly derived from glycolysis. Acetyl CoA availability is significant, because it
initiates lipogenesis. Lipogenesis begins with acetyl CoA and advances by the
subsequent addition of two carbon atoms from another acetyl CoA; this process is
repeated until fatty acids are the appropriate length. Because this is a bond-creating
anabolic process, ATP is consumed. However, the creation of triglycerides and lipids is
an efficient way of storing the energy available in carbohydrates. Triglycerides and
lipids, high-energy molecules, are stored in adipose tissue until they are needed.

Although lipogenesis occurs in the cytoplasm, the necessary acetyl CoA is created in
the mitochondria and cannot be transported across the mitochondrial membrane. To
solve this problem, pyruvate is converted into both oxaloacetate and acetyl CoA. Two
different enzymes are required for these conversions. Oxaloacetate forms via the action
of pyruvate carboxylase, whereas the action of pyruvate dehydrogenase creates acetyl
CoA. Oxaloacetate and acetyl CoA combine to form citrate, which can cross the
mitochondrial membrane and enter the cytoplasm. In the cytoplasm, citrate is converted
back into oxaloacetate and acetyl CoA. Oxaloacetate is converted into malate and then
into pyruvate. Pyruvate crosses back across the mitochondrial membrane to wait for the
next cycle of lipogenesis. The acetyl CoA is converted into malonyl CoA that is used to
synthesize fatty acids. Figure 6 summarizes the pathways of lipid metabolism.
 Figure 6. Lipid Metabolism. Lipids may follow one of several pathways during
metabolism. Glycerol and fatty acids follow different pathways.

Chapter Review

Lipids are available to the body from three sources. They can be ingested in the diet,
stored in the adipose tissue of the body, or synthesized in the liver. Fats ingested in the
diet are digested in the small intestine. The triglycerides are broken down into
monoglycerides and free fatty acids, then imported across the intestinal mucosa. Once
across, the triglycerides are resynthesized and transported to the liver or adipose tissue.
Fatty acids are oxidized through fatty acid or β-oxidation into two-carbon acetyl CoA
molecules, which can then enter the Krebs cycle to generate ATP. If excess acetyl CoA
is created and overloads the capacity of the Krebs cycle, the acetyl CoA can be used to
synthesize ketone bodies. When glucose is limited, ketone bodies can be oxidized and
used for fuel. Excess acetyl CoA generated from excess glucose or carbohydrate
ingestion can be used for fatty acid synthesis or lipogenesis. Acetyl CoA is used to
create lipids, triglycerides, steroid hormones, cholesterol, and bile salts. Lipolysis is the
breakdown of triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids, making them easier for the body
to process.

Review Questions

1. Lipids in the diet can be ________.

A. broken down into energy for the body

B. stored as triglycerides for later use
C. converted into acetyl CoA
D. all of the above

2. The gallbladder provides ________ that aid(s) in transport of lipids across the
intestinal membrane.
A. lipases
B. cholesterol
C. proteins
D. bile salts

3. Triglycerides are transported by chylomicrons because ________.

A. they cannot move easily in the blood stream because they are fat based, while
the blood is water based
B. they are too small to move by themselves
C. the chylomicrons contain enzymes they need for anabolism
D. they cannot fit across the intestinal membrane

4. Which molecule produces the most ATP?

A. carbohydrates
B. FADH2
C. triglycerides
D. NADH

5. Which molecules can enter the Krebs cycle?

A. chylomicrons
B. acetyl CoA
C. monoglycerides
D. ketone bodies

6. Acetyl CoA can be converted to all of the following except ________.

A. ketone bodies
B. fatty acids
C. polysaccharides
D. triglyceridesCritical Thinking Questions

1. Discuss how carbohydrates can be stored as fat.

2. If a diabetic’s breath smells like alcohol, what could this mean?

Glossary

beta (β)-hydroxybutyrate
primary ketone body produced in the body
beta (β)-oxidation
fatty acid oxidation
bile salts
salts that are released from the liver in response to lipid ingestion and surround
the insoluble triglycerides to aid in their conversion to monoglycerides and free
fatty acids
cholecystokinin (CCK)
hormone that stimulates the release of pancreatic lipase and the contraction of
the gallbladder to release bile salts
chylomicrons
vesicles containing cholesterol and triglycerides that transport lipids out of the
intestinal cells and into the lymphatic and circulatory systems
fatty acid oxidation
breakdown of fatty acids into smaller chain fatty acids and acetyl CoA
 hydroxymethylglutaryl CoA (HMG CoA)
molecule created in the first step of the creation of ketone bodies from acetyl
CoA
ketone bodies
alternative source of energy when glucose is limited, created when too much
acetyl CoA is created during fatty acid oxidation
lipogenesis
synthesis of lipids that occurs in the liver or adipose tissues
lipolysis
breakdown of triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids
monoglyceride molecules
lipid consisting of a single fatty acid chain attached to a glycerol backbone
pancreatic lipases
enzymes released from the pancreas that digest lipids in the diet
triglycerides
lipids, or fats, consisting of three fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol
backboneSolutions
Answers for Review Questions

1. D
2. D
3. A
4. C
5. B
6. C

Answers for Critical Thinking Questions

1. Carbohydrates are converted into pyruvate during glycolysis. This pyruvate is
converted into acetyl CoA and proceeds through the Krebs cycle. When excess acetyl
CoA is produced that cannot be processed through the Krebs cycle, the acetyl CoA is
converted into triglycerides and fatty acids to be stored in the liver and adipose tissue.
2. If diabetes is uncontrolled, the glucose in the blood is not being taken up and
processed by the cells. Although blood glucose levels are high, there is no glucose
available to the cells to be converted into energy. Because glucose is lacking, the
body turns to other energy sources, including ketones. A side effect of using ketones
as fuel is a sweet alcohol smell on the breath.