Reviewer in Biology

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BIOLOGY REVIEWER
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS:
A. CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are organic molecules made of sugars and their polymers. These polymers are formed
by condensation reaction or dehydration reaction, such as when two simple sugar units are build up to form a
certain disaccharide, a water molecule is removed during the reaction. The building blocks of carbohydrates
are simple sugars called monosaccharides. Carbohydrates served as energy for cells, structural support and
cell-cell communication.
Types of Carbohydrates:
1. Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides = (Mono = single; sacchar = sugar); simple sugar in which C, H, and O occur in the ratio of
(CH2O).
Monosaccharides are major nutrients for cells. Examples of this carbohydrate type are glucose (from grape
sugar, corn sugar and dextrose), galactose ( part of milk sugar ) and fructose ( from honey ). The most common is
the blood sugar known as glucose which can be produced by photosynthesis.
.
2. Disaccharides (double sugars) or oligosaccharides (short-sugars) and it gives energy for cells.
Examples :
· Maltose = glucose + glucose (brewing beer)
· Lactose = glucose + galactose (milk sugar)
· Sucrose = glucose + fructose (table sugar)
3. Polysaccharides (long chainas of sugar polymers) - these sugar polymers are not "sweet" although they are made
up of repeating glucose monomers.
Examples :
3.1 starch is a storage polysaccharides of plants, consists entirely of glucose monomers joined by glycosidic
bonds. Starches store energy in the potential chemical energy in the bonds of carbohydrates.Plants store excess
starch as granules with organelles as amylose and amylopectin.
3.2 glycogen is the stored starch in animals found in liver and muscle cells.
3.3 Chitin is the exoskeleton of insects and arthropods and is also present in cell walls of fungi. It is also
used to make strong and flexible surgical threads that will decompose after the wound is healed.
3.4 Cellulose is a major component of the tough wall of plant cells. Cellulose, just like starch is a polymer of
glucose but the glycosidic linkages differ.
B. LIPIDS
Lipids are hydrophobic biomolecule because they consist mostly of hydrocarbons, which form non
polar covalent bonds. The building blocks of lipids are glycerol and three fatty acid molecules. Glycerol is a
three-carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl group attached to each carbon, while fatty acids consist of a carboxyl
group attached to a long carbon skeleton
The most biologically important lipids are fats, phospholipids and steroids. Sources of lipids are fats,
oils, waxes, beef fat, lard, margarine, butter and others. Lipids are the most concentrated stored fuel which
can be utilized by the body if burnt during exercise. These lipids are very important components of the cell
membrane.
TYPES OF FATS
1. Saturated fats have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible and no double bonds . Each
carbon
is ‘saturated’ with hydrogen. Saturated fats are more stable than unsaturated fats
2. Unsaturated fats have one or more double bonds in its structure.

There are certain unsaturated fat which can’t be utilized by the body therefore they must be supplied in the
diet. These essential fats include omega-3 fatty acids, which are required for normal growth, and to provide protection
against cardiovascular disease.
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
Phospholipids are the major component of all cell

membranes. This macromolecule is composed of glycerol, phosphate group, choline, and two fatty acids.
Glycerol, phosphate and choline form the hydrophilic head of phospholipids, while the two fatty acids form its
tail. Phospholipids are generally hydrophobic.
Phospholipids as an important component of cell membranes when submerged to water, self-assemble into a
bilayer structure, with the hydrophobic tails pointing toward the interior
Phospholipids in food
The smell of discolored leaves and sliced cucumbers come from phospholipid fragments. Eggs are abundant
source of the phospholipid lecithin and are used as ingredient in mayonnaise, custards, Hollandaise sauce.
STEROIDS
Steroids are lipids with a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings. Terpenes in plants and cholesterol are
examples of steroids. Cholesterol is an important steroid which also served as a component in animal cell membrane.
Confused about dietary fat and health?
Fats are said to be the most concentrated stored energy which can be utilized by the body. There are also
evidences which marks that taking in much fat will lead to heart attacks and other heart-related illnesses. Here is a
summary about the differences between fats and some of the possible health effects of each fat.
Saturated (fats): no double Solid at room temperature - animal fats (bacon, lard, butter, palm oil, coconut
bonds; saturated with oil). These fats raise total blood cholesterol level, HDL and LDL, and have been
hydrogens. shown to increase the risk of coronary heart disease.
MonoUnsaturated (oils): a Liquids at room temperature - olive oil, canola oil, peanut oil. These are the GOOD
double bond ("kink") forms fats - they lower total blood cholesterol by raising HDL (good) cholesterol
(loss of 2 hydrogens). and lowering LDL (bad) cholesterol levels.
PolyUnsaturated (oils): more

Liquids at room temperature - corn oil, soybean oil, Omega-3 and -6 fish
than one double bond ("kink")
oils. These are also the GOOD fats – they lower total blood cholesterol by
forms (loss of more than 2
lowering both HDL (good) and LDL (bad) cholesterol.
hydrogens).
Solids at room temperature - these oils are factory-made by adding hydrogen to

liquid vegetable oil, creating a solid shortening or margarine. Evidence has been
Hydrogenated oils accumulating for over 10 years that these 'trans-fats' have adverse effects on
(margarine, crisco) -hydrogen health - Are thought to raise both LDL (bad) cholesterol and lower HDL (good)
are added synthetically to plant cholesterol levels. Food with hydrogenated oils can be even be worse than
oils to create trans- saturated animal fat as it leads to the development of coronary heart
fatty saturated acids. disease. Starting in 2006, all food labels will be required to list the amount of trans-
fats, and numerous food companies like Kraft Nabisco are taking big steps to
reduce the amount of trans-fats in your foods.

C. PROTEINS
Proteins as the polypeptide tools of the cell are made of polymers of amino acids that are linked by peptide
bonds. It performs varied important functions in the cell such as structural support and immune protection, storage and
transport of molecules such as oxygen, chemical messengers transmitting nerve impulses, generate movement, and
they also control growth and differentiation.
TYPES OF PROTEINS ACCORDING TO FUNCTION
1. Enzymes are proteins that accelerate biochemical reactions by speeding up chemical reactions. These
enzymes are vital for chemical processes like digestion and cellular metabolism. It can either break down
their substrate ( catabolic enzymes) or build larger molecules (anabolic enzymes) from their substrate.
Salivary amylase for instance is an enzyme in the mouth and the small intestine that breaks down starch
into amylose. Whenever you chew bread or biscuits, the longer it will stay in your mouth, the sweeter it
will taste because your taste buds are receptive to the glucose molecules exposed by the amylase. Other
enzymes are pepsin and trypsin which catalyze the digestion of proteins in the stomach and in the small
intestine. Lipase is another form of enzyme which catalyzes reactions that emulsify fats in the small
intestine. Biosynthetic enzymes include DNA polymerase, which catalyzes the synthesis of new strands
of the genetic material before cell division and the fatty acid synthetase, which is involved in the
synthesis of new fatty acids for fat or membrane lipid formation.
2. Hormones are a type of protein used for cell signaling.
This protein type is secreted by endocrine cells that act to control or regulate specific physiological
processes that include growth, development, metabolism and reproduction. Insulin is a protein hormone
that helps to regulate blood glucose levels.
3. Transport proteins transport respiratory gases used in cellular metabolism. Hemoglobin is an example of
transport protein present in the blood and is responsible for the red coloration of the blood
4. Structural proteins provide structure and support. The proteins actin, tubulin and myosin form cellular
structures and allow muscles to contract, while keratin and collagen form the structural support for the dead cells that
become fingernails and hair. Collagen is a fibrous protein found in our skin.
5. Antibodies are proteins that are responsible in fighting antigens and pathogens. Immunoglobulin is an
example of antibody which helps recognize and destroy foreign pathogens in the immune system.
NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleic Acids store and transmit hereditary information. They are made up of nucleotides which are linked
together by condensation reaction. These nucleotides are made of a five-carbon sugar covalently bonded to a
phosphate group and a nitrogenous base. There are two types of pentose sugar found in nucleic acids: ribose and
deoxyribose. Ribose is the pentose sugar in Ribonucleic Acid, while Deoxyribose is the pentose in Deoxyribonucleic
Acid. The phosphate group is attached to the 5th carbon of the pentose sugar.
There are two families of nitrogenous bases: Pyrimidines such as Cytosine , Thymine ( found only in DNA ),
and Uracil (found in RNA only ). The other type is purine family which includes Adenine and Guanine.
Nucleic Acids store and transmit hereditary information in the form of DNA which makes up the genes. There
are two types of Nucleic Acids: Deoxyribonucleic Acid and Ribonucleic Acid. Deoxyribonucleic Acid, a double
stranded molecule which can only be found in the eukaryotic cell contains coded information that programs all cell
activity and also contains direction for its own replication for the purpose of passing the replicated information from
one generation of cells to another.
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
The Central Dogma: DNA Encodes RNA and RNA

Encodes Protein
KEY POINTS
The genetic code is universal because it is the same among all organisms.
Replication is the process of copying a molecule of DNA.
Transcription is the process of converting a specific sequence of DNA into RNA.
Translation is the process where a ribosome decodes mRNA into a protein
The central dogma of molecular biology describes the flow of genetic information in cells from DNA to messenger
RNA (mRNA) to protein. It states that genes specify the sequence of mRNA molecules, which in turn specify the
sequence of proteins.
Transcription: DNA to RNA

Transcription is the process of creating a complementary RNA copy of a sequence of DNA.. During transcription, a
DNA sequence is read by RNA polymerase, which produces a complementary, antiparallel RNA strand. Unlike DNA
replication, transcription results in an RNA complement that substitutes the RNA uracil (U) in all instances where the
DNA thymine (T) would have occurred. Transcription is the first step in gene expression. The stretch of DNA
transcribed into an RNA molecule is called a transcript. Some transcripts are used as structural or regulatory RNAs,
and others encode one or more proteins.
Translation: RNA to Protein

Translation is the process by which mRNA is decoded and translated to produce a polypeptide sequence, otherwise
known as a protein. This method of synthesizing proteins is directed by the mRNA and accomplished with the help of
a ribosome, a large complex of ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) and proteins..
The main function of tRNA is to transfer a free amino acid from the cytoplasm to a ribosome, where it is attached to
the growing polypeptide chain. tRNAs continue to add amino acids to the growing end of the polypeptide chain until
they reach a stop codon on the mRNA. The ribosome then releases the completed protein into the cell.
CELLULAR STRUCTURE
THE CELL STRUCTURE AND THE CELL THEORY

Cells are the smallest functional units of all living organisms on earth. Simple and complex organisms are all
made up of cells..
The term cell was first observed and identified by an English physicist Robert Hook in the year 1665.There
were many theories developed for cell. Later in the year 1839 a two German scientists , Theodore Schwann a
zoologist and Matthias Schleiden, a botanist provided few basic principles of cell which lead to the concepts
that form the cell theory. The scientists concluded in 1839 that all organisms are composed of cells after
Schwann and Schleiden discovered that plants and animals are made up of cells. This idea remained as the
foundation of modern biology until today. The following are the views that make up the cell theory:
1. All known living things are made up of cells
2. The cell is structured and functional unit of all living things
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells through the process called cell division
4. Cells contain hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during cell division
5. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition
6. All energy flow such as metabolism and biochemistry of life occurs within cells.
PROKARYOTIC CELL: ITS ORGANELLES AND FUNCTIONS
Prokaryotic cells are single-celled organisms which do not contain nucleus but have structures such
as capsule, cell wall, cell membrane, nucleoid, pilli, flagella, ribosomes and plasmids. Prokaryotes are the first living
things to exist here on earth. Examples of these are E. coli, blue-green algae and bacteria.
PROKARYOTIC CELL ORGANELLES AND ITS FUNCTIONS
1. Capsule- It is the slimy outer covering of the cell wall which is responsible in protecting the cell from
desiccations and helps in protecting the cell from external pressures.
2. Cell wall – It is the middle layer which is situated between the capsule and cell membrane. This part is tough
and rigid, which provides the shape and protects the internal organelles.
3. Cell membrane-It is a permeable membrane that separates the cell from its environment. It regulates the
entrance and exit of substances in the cell.
4. Cytoplasm – It is the liquid membrane located between the cell membrane and nucleoid. It stores all types of
materials essential for an organism to support life.
5. Nucleiod- It is the region where genetic materials of prokaryotes are stored.
6. Ribosomes – They are the smallest membrane present inside the cytoplasms which play an important role in
protein synthesis.
7. Plasmids- They are smallest membrane of a cell with double stranded DNA and are rarely present in
prokaryotic organisms. These structures play an important role in exchanging DNA between the bacterial
cells.
8. Pilli – It is the thinnest membrane of a prokaryotic cell, composed of protein complex called pilin which is
mainly involved in sticking to the objects especially during sexual reproduction.
9. Flagella – These are helical shaped membranes which play a vital role in motility of organisms as they swim,
glide, spin and rotate from one place to another place.
EUKARYOTIC CELL: ITS ORGANELLES AND FUNCTIONS
Eukaryotic cells are more complex than prokaryotic cells. Eukaryotic organisms include protozoa, fungi, algae,
plants and animals, which bear membrane bound nucleus with complex organelles responsible in performing
important functions within the system. Eukaryotes reproduce both sexually and asexually.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF EUKARYOTIC CELL
1. Cell wall – It is a thicker outer layer present only in plant cells which is made up of cellulose. It plays a vital
role in supporting and protecting the cell.
2. Cell membrane – It is a semipermeable membrane surrounding the cell which controls the entrance and
exit of certain substances.
3. Cytoplasm – It is the jelly type organelle present in the inner region of a cell which plays a vital role in
keeping the cell stable and keeps the cell parts separate from each other.
4. Nucleus – It stores the cell’s genetic materials in the form of DNA and other important information
necessary for a cell to control cellular activities. It also plays an important role in reproduction.
5. Nuclear membrane – It is a phospholipid bilayer membrane which protects the nucleus and served as
barrier between the nucleus and other cell part
6. Nucleolus – an organelle inside the nucleus which plays an important role in the production of ribosomes.
7. Chromosomes – These are the repository parts of every organism’s genetic constituents made up of
Deoxyribonucleic Acid that provides instructions for traits and characteristics.
8. Ribosomes – minute organelle found inside the nucleus and in the cytoplasm which are responsible in
protein synthesis
9. Endoplasmic reticulum – These structures contain enzymes which help in the production of proteins, lipids
and steroids. Its main role is to store and secrete substances and it also help in the transport of materials
in the cell. Endoplasmic reticulum is of two types: the smooth ER and the rough ER.
10. Mitochondria – These are membrane bound organelles which play a vital role in generating and
transforming energy thus are also termed as the powerhouse of the cell.
11. Golgi bodies – These are flattened sacs involved in storing, packing, and transporting of materials within
the cell.
12. Lysosomes – These organelles are only present in animal cells and not in plant cells. They are referred to
as suicide bags since after it perform its function on cell renewal and breaking down of old cell parts, they
will immediately burst.
13. Vacuoles – They help in storing water, food and wastes. Plant vacuoles are larger than animal vacuole
14. Chloroplasts – These organelles are only present in photosynthetic bacteria, blue-green algae and plants.
They contain green pigment called chlorophyll which traps light necessary for the plants in manufacturing
their own food.
15. Cytoskeleton – these are flexible tubular scaffold of microfilaments which maintain cell shape and provide
support.
a. Microfilaments – these are made up of solid proteins called actin which is assembled at one end
and disassembled at the other end
b. Intermediate filaments – These are rope-like fibrous proteins that provide structural reinforcement
to the cell and keep the nucleus in place.
c. Microtubules – these are hollow tubes of tubulin that maintains cell shape and are also
responsible in the movement of organelles.
16. Cilia – These are short but numerous hair-like structures composed of microtubules that are involved in
cellular movement.
17. Flagella – The whip-like, less complex organelle in animal cell which help in cellular locomotion.
Types of Animal tissues
1. EPITHELIAL TISSUES
Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces and lines body cavities. This tissue performs several functions such as,
lining, protecting and forming glands. Furthermore, epithelial tissues are also responsible for movement of
materials in, out or around the body, protection of the internal environment against external environment and
secretion of products. Epithelial tissues are of three types:
A. Squamous epithelium which are composed of flattened cells

B. Cuboidal epithelium is composed of cube-shaped cells.
C. Columnar epithelium is consists of elongated cells. Epithelial tissues can be simple if they are just made up
of a layer of cells or stratified they are made up of more than one layer of cells.
2. Connective Tissues
Connective tissues are made up of cells which are separated from one another by a non-cellular matrix. The
matrix in bone cells is solid, while it is soft in loose connective tissues and liquid in blood. Connective tissues
play many roles such as binding, supporting, protecting, forming blood, storing fats and filling spaces.
Types of Connective Tissues:

A. Loose Connective Tissue occurs beneath epithelium in skin and many internal organs, such as lungs,
arteries and the urinary bladder. This tissue type also forms a protective layer over muscle, nerves and
blood vessels. Fibroblasts are loose connective tissues which are separated by a collagen fiber containing
matrix. These collagen fibers provide elasticity and flexibility.
Adipose tissue has enlarged fibroblasts storing fats and reduced matrix. It facilitates energy storage
and insulation.
B. Dense Connective Tissues are made up of many collagen fibers which are closely packed together.
Dense connective tissues are found in tendons which connect muscles to bones and in ligaments which
are responsible in bone to bone connection in a joint.
C. Cartilage is rigid connective tissues which contains structural proteins deposited in the matrix between
cells. It forms the embryonic skeleton of vertebrates and the adult skeleton of sharks and rays. It can also
be found in nose tips, in the ears, tip of the sternum, and at joints such as the knee and between bones of
the spinal column.
D. Bone tissues contain calcium salts in the matrix giving it greater strength. The bones serve as
reservoir for calcium and minerals as well as protein fibers which provide elasticity to the bones.
Two types of bones:
a. Dense bone has osteocytes or bone cells located in the lacunae, which is commonly known
as Haversian canals connected by canaliculi.
b. Spongy bone is found on areas such as bony bars and plates and at the ends of bones. The
solid parts of spongy bone pick up stress.
E. Blood is a connective tissue of cells separated by a liquid matrix called plasma. Blood is composed of
Red Blood Cells called erythrocytes which carry oxygen, White Blood Cells known as leukocytes which play
important roles in immune functions. Another component of the blood is the blood plasma which transports
dissolved glucose, wastes, carbon dioxide and hormones. Plasma also regulates water balance for the blood
cells. Platelets in blood are cell fragments responsible in blood clotting.
3. Muscle Tissues are responsible in facilitating movement of the animal when muscle fibers or individual
muscle cells contract. There are three types of muscle fibers which are found in animals.
a. Skeletal muscle fibers have alternating bands of actin and myosin to the long axis of
the cell and these muscle types are responsible for voluntary muscle movements.
b. Smooth muscle fibers lack the bands, although there are still actin and myosin
present. The smooth muscle fibers are spindle shaped cells that are components of
structures in the digestive system, reproductive tract and blood vessels. These cells
function in involuntary movements and autonomic responses such as breathing,
secretion, ejaculation birth and other involuntary reflexes
c. Cardiac muscle fibers are the muscle fibers that make up the heart. The cells are
forked shaped and have striations but each cell only possesses single central
nucleus. The cells are connected to each other by intercalated disks. Cardiac
muscles action is voluntary.
4. Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue is composed of neurons and glial cells. Neurons or nerve cells are the functional units
of the nervous system. They are responsible for the transmission of nerve messages for integration in the
brain. Each neuron is composed of a cell body, axon and many dendrites. The cell body contains the nucleus,
mitochondria and other organelles typical of eukaryotic cells. Dendrites on the other hand receive information
from another cell and convey the message to the cell body. The axon carries the impulses away from the cell
body.
Plant Cell Types
a. Parenchyma cells are the major cells of plants a reason why they are called as the biochemistry machines
of the plants. Parenchyma cells have thin primary walls, and highly functional cytoplasm. They make up
plant leaves and are responsible in plant metabolism and food production. Parenchyma cells are alive at
maturity and are responsible for a wide range of biochemical function. For instance, the leaves are made
up of parenchyma cells. Some of these parenchyma cells are in the epidermis which performs functions
such as light penetration, regulating gas exchange, and anti-herbivory functioning. Another example is the
mesophyll which is specialized for photosynthesis.
b. Collenchyma cells are also alive at maturity and they only have a primary wall. Collenchyma cells are
elongated and hard but not as hard as sclerenchyma cells. They provide young plants with stretchable
support as the plants grow in length. These collenchyma cells provide plastic support that can hold a
young stem or petiole into the air.
c. Sclerenchyma cells are much harder than collenchyma cells thus it give the plant support. The cells are
hard and brittle and it develops an extensive secondary wall which contains lignin, making it extremely
hard. The walls are waterproof because of its lignin and cutin component. Sclerenchyma cells are
responsible for support, and conduction of water and nutrients. These cell types can be found in roots of
plants and they do not live past maturity. Sclerenchyma includes the fibers used for making thread and
fabric which are utilized in weaving linen.
d. Xylem cells are the water conducting cells. They transport water to the leaves of plants.
e. Phloem cells are a system of cells that transport the product of photosynthesis by the leaves throughout
the plant
BASIC CELLULAR PROCESSES
All organisms require energy to help them perform their tasks and also in the synthesis, breakdown and
transport of molecules to the different parts of our body. For instance, the complex molecules we take in everyday
such as carbohydrates are broken down into simple sugar in the form of glucose that can be converted into energy
through cellular respiration. The proteins needed for the building up of muscles are synthesized from smaller
molecules. Neurotransmitters and hormones are secreted by glands and are transported to target organs. Viruses,
bacteria and other pathogenic microorganisms are ingested and destructed by cells. All of these processes require the
expenditure of energy.
TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
STRUCTURE AND COMPONENTS OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
The plasma membrane is the boundary that separates the living cell from its nonliving surroundings. It
surrounds the cell and controls chemical traffic into and out of the cell, and because of its phospholipid bilayer
sandwiched between two layers of globular protein, lipid and lipid soluble materials enter cells more easily than
substances which are lipid insoluble. The gate-keeping function of the plasma membrane makes life possible because
of its ability to discriminate in its chemical exchanges with the environment.
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
Plasma membrane is a semipermeable structure which served as the security guard of the cell, controlling the
entry of harmful substances and the exit of essential materials. The lipid bilayer is permeable to water molecules and
a few other small, uncharged molecules like Oxygen and Carbon dioxide. These materials can freely and easily
diffuse in and out of the cell. On the other hand, the plasma membrane is not permeable to ions such as potassium,
Sodium, Calcium, Chlorine, Carbonic acid, small hydrophilic molecules like glucose and macromolecules like proteins
and Ribonucleic Acid.
Passive transport is the diffusion of substances across a biological membrane. This happens when a
substance is more concentrated on one side of the membrane and is moving to the area where the substance is less
concentrated. Passive transport does not require carrier proteins and any expenditure of energy. In facilitated
diffusion, only carrier protein is required but energy is not obligatory in the transport of substances. Active transport
such as sodium-potassium pump, endocytosis and exocytosis involve the utilization of substances in moving biological
materials into and out of the cell.
PASSIVE TRANSPORT PROCESSES
1. Diffusion is a passive transport process. In diffusion, a substance in the form of solute is moving from a
region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration gradient until dynamic equilibrium is
reached.
The random
movement
of molecules
in diffusion
is what we
call
“Brownian
motion”.
2. Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a membrane. Water passes by diffusion from a region of higher to a
region of lower concentration.
A. Hypotonic solutions. In this set up, concentration of water in the medium surrounding the cell is greater
than that of the inside environment of the cell.
In hypotonic solutions, water molecules move from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration so that water molecules will enter into the cell. If a red blood cell is placed in a hypotonic medium, the
RBC will undergo hemolysis or it will burst due to the influx of water. Plant cells and bacterial cells resist bursting in
hypotonic surroundings with the help of their rigid cell walls, which allow the buildup of turgor pressure within the cell.
In time when the turgor pressure is equal to the osmotic pressure, then diffusion of water across the membrane stops.
Hypertonic solutions. Cells in hypertonic solutions contain more water than solutes compared to its
surrounding environment. For instance, if red blood cells are placed in a beaker containing sea water which holds 3%
salt concentration, the red blood cells lose water and the cells will shrink or undergo crenation. Likewise, if a pant cell
is placed in the same environment, the cell will shrivel and undergo plasmolysis due to excessive water loss.
B. Isotonic solutions. In this condition, solute and solvent concentration inside the cell is just equal to its
surrounding environment; therefore there is no net movement of water because water molecules diffuse
across the membrane in both directions at an equal rate. Students must be reminded that even though
there is no net movement of water across the membrane, the water molecules do not stop moving.
When Red Blood Cells are placed in a saline solution, containing 0.9% salt, the cells are just
isotonic to its medium so the cells neither gain nor lose water by osmosis. Intravenous substances injected
into our bodies are isotonic to our cells and extracellular fluid of mammalian cells is isotonic to the
cytoplasm.
FACILITATED TRANSPORT which is also called facilitated diffusion is a type of passive
transport wherein materials pass through the membrane with the help of transport proteins without
expending cellular energy. These transport proteins shield these materials from the repulsive force
of the cell membrane, allowing the materials to diffuse into the cell.
In facilitated transport, the materials which are transported are first attached to glycoprotein receptors on the
peripheral surface of the plasma membrane. The substances are then passed to transport proteins that facilitate their
passage to channel proteins in the phospholipid bilayer which are specific to the substance which is about to enter or
get out from the cell. The channel proteins are either open at all times or they are gated, which then controls the
opening of the channels.
Another type of protein embedded in the plasma membrane is a carrier protein that is typically specific for a
single substance thus adding to the overall selectivity of the plasma membrane. This carrier protein binds a substance
and change its shape as it moves the bound molecule from the outside of the cell to its interior, or depending on the
gradient, the material may also move in the opposite direction.
Channel and carrier proteins transport material at different rates. Channel proteins transport substances
much more quickly than carrier proteins.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Active transport is the process by which dissolved molecules move against the concentration gradient across
a semipermeable membrane. In active transport, it uses energy and a special transport protein in the cell membrane
which picks up the useful substances on one side of the cell and the transport protein then rotates through the
membrane and releases the particle on the other side of the membrane passing through a specific protein channel.
Cells which are always involved in active transport contain a lot of mitochondria to supply the required energy to
complete the process, since this energy is obtained from cellular respiration which occurs in the mitochondria. Active
transport is important in the kidneys for its reabsorption process of essential substances needed by the body such as
glucose, sodium, and potassium.
▪ Active transport process

▪ Movement of sodium and potassium across a membrane
PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Primary Active Transport moves ions across a membrane thus creating an electrochemical gradient. In
primary active transport, energy in the form of Adenosine Triphosphate is hydrolyzed by ATPase transport protein so
that it can provide the free energy needed for transport against an electrochemical gradient. Primary active
transporters are also called pumps. Primary active transport functions with the active transport of sodium and
potassium and this allows secondary transport to happen.
:
· With the enzyme oriented towards the interior of the cell, the carrier has a high affinity for sodium ions. Three
sodium ions bind to the protein.
· ATP is hydrolyzed by the protein carrier, and a low-energy phosphate group attaches to it.
· As a result, the carrier changes shape and re-orient itself towards the exterior of the membrane. The protein's
affinity for sodium decreases and the three sodium ions leave the carrier.
· The shape change increases the carrier's affinity for potassium ions, and two such ions attach to the protein.
Subsequently, the low-energy phosphate group detaches from the carrier.
· With the phosphate group removed and potassium ions attached, the carrier protein repositions itself towards the
interior of the cell.
· The carrier protein, in its new configuration, has a decreased affinity for potassium, and the two ions are released
into the cytoplasm. The protein now has a higher affinity for sodium ions, and the process starts again.
Several things have happened as a result of this process. At this point, there are more sodium ions outside of the cell
than inside and more potassium ions inside than out. For every three ions of sodium that move out, two ions of
potassium move in. This results in the interior being slightly more negative relative to the exterior. This difference in
charge is important in creating the conditions necessary for the secondary process. The sodium-potassium pump is,
therefore, an electrogenic pump (a pump that creates a charge imbalance), creating an electrical imbalance across
the membrane and contributing to the membrane potential.
BULK TRANSPORT
Cells need important ions and molecules necessary to maintain life. They also need to remove and
take in larger molecules and particles for the cell to hold its normal functions. A cell can engulf large particles
even an entire bacterium by enclosing the substance or pathogens to be transported in their own membranes,
which can change and modify its shapes into buds or fuse with the membrane to move the substance into or
out from the cell. This transport process is called bulk transport mechanism. The best example it can show
is, when a macrophage engulfs a certain pathogen, its cell membrane will form protrusions around the
pathogen, then enclosed it and convey the microbe towards the cell going into the food vacuole where the
pathogen is digested. This type of bulk transport process is known as endocytosis specifically called as
phagocytosis. However, not all body cells phagocytize, there are also others which can only take smaller
substances. This transport mechanism is called pinocytosis or cell drinking because the cell was purposely
taking in extracellular fluid such as finer molecules, including water which the cell needs.
In as much as cells require substances and molecules for its proper functioning, they have to expel waste
products too to maintain balance within the cell. Eliminating materials from the cell which are not needed by the cell is
called exocytosis. The waste materials from the cell are then enclosed by a vesicle and are fused to the interior of the
plasma membrane. The fusion permits the opening of the membranous envelope on the exterior of the cell, and the
waste materials are then expelled out from the cell going into the extracellular space. Examples of cells releasing
secretions via exocytosis include ejection of milk in the mammary glands, secretion of saliva by the cells in the salivary
glands and the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft by synaptic vesicles.
CELL DIVISION
Living things as one of its property has the ability to reproduce. If we recall the components of the cell theory,
one of the important statement about cells is “All cells arise from preexisting cells. This fundamental principle was first
postulated by Rudolf Virchow in 1858 and this provides the basis for the continuity of life. A cell reproduces by
undergoing an organized sequence of events in which the cell divides into two through cytokinesis after it duplicates
its contents. The cycle of duplication and division is called cell cycle, and it is the means by which living things
reproduce.
Image credit: "The cell cycle: Figure 1" by OpenStax College, Biology (CC BY 3.0)
The cell cycle is the sequence of growth and development a cell has to undergo between its birth (formation
by the division of a mother cell) and reproduction (the process of division to make two new daughter cells).
STAGES OF THE CELL CYCLE

The cell before it divides must yet complete several activities such as growth, DNA or gene replication, and
cytokinesis for the cell to be divided into two daughter cells. Cells perform these tasks in organized and orderly steps
which then collectively make up the cell cycle. Eukaryotic cells which contain nucleus have a cell cycle that is divided
into two major phases: the interphase stage wherein the cell grows and makes a copy of its DNA and the Mitotic or M
phase, when the cell separates its DNA into two sets then undergo cytoplasmic division, forming two new cells.
INTERPHASE
G1 stage is the first gap phase. During this stage, the cell grows and synthesizes more of its
ribosomes, proteins and organelles. This cellular activity ensures that the daughter cells produced after mitotic division
are functional daughter cells which contain all the parts and organelle present in the parental cell. In most cells G1 is
the longest stage.
S phase. In the S phase, the cell must undergo DNA replication so that a complete copy of its genetic
material will be given to each of its daughter cells. During S phase, the cell also duplicates its centrosomes which will
then play an important role in moving the chromosomes during mitosis.
G2 stage. Once the DNA synthesis is completed, the cell enters a second gap phase, called the G2 stage.
During this stage, the cell further grows bigger, synthesizes additional proteins and makes its organelles and starts to
reorganize its contents in preparation for mitosis.
MITOSIS
Mitosis is the stage of the cell cycle wherein the cell divides its copied nuclear DNA and cytoplasm to form two
new cells. M phase is further divided into Mitosis and Cytokinesis. In mitosis, the chromosomes which hold the genetic
materials condense into visible chromosomes and are pulled apart by the mitotic spindle fibers formed as centrioles
move far apart from each other. Cytokinesis occurs when the cytoplasm of the cell divides to produce two daughter
cells. Cytokinesis in animal cell is marked by the presence of cleavage furrow, while in plant cell, since the cell is rigid
due to its cell wall, instead of cleavage furrow, there is the appearance of a cell plate which divides the cell into two.
STAGES OF MITOSIS
1. Prophase. During prophase of mitosis, the chromosomes become thicker and are visible. Each of the duplicated
chromosomes can be seen as a pair of sister chromatids joined together by a centromere. The nucleolus disappears,
the mitotic spindle fibers form as the centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell and the nuclear envelope
disappears.
2. Metaphase. The centrosomes during this stage are already in their respective poles of the cell. The microtubules
are well formed in the equator, where the chromosomes are attached and are aligned at the equatorial plane called
metaphase plate.
3. Anaphase. This stage begins when the centromeres holding each pair of sister chromatids together disintegrate.
The breaking of the centromeres causes the two sister chromatids to separate and each of the set of daughter
chromosomes begin to migrate toward opposite poles of the cell due the movement of the spindle. At the end of
anaphase, the chromosomes are now in their respective poles. The cell during this phase begins to undergo
cytokinesis.
4. Telophase. This is technically the final stage of mitosis. During this stage, the sister chromatids are already in their
respective poles. The nuclear envelope begins to reappear around the group of chromosomes at each end and two
nuclei also appear in each of the newly formed cell. As the nuclear envelopes reform, the chromosomes begin to
decondense and become more long-winded. Cytokinesis is about to be completed during telophase which is marked
by the appearance of a cleavage furrow in animal cell and cell plate in plant cell to produce its daughter cells.
MEIOSIS
Meiosis is a type of cell division which happens among germinative cells such as sperm and egg cells.
Meiosis is also called reduction division because the original number of chromosomes in the parental cell is reduced
by half and produces four gamete cells, each is called haploid cell. During reproduction, the product of meiosis, the
egg and sperm cell unite and forms a zygote containing the same number of chromosomes to that of the parent
organism thus, meiosis is significant to maintain a functional and normal offspring.
Meiosis is composed of two divisions, Meiotic I and Meiotic II. These two divisions are required in producing
gametes Meiosis I is a distinct cell division that occurs only in germ cells while Meiosis II is similar to mitotic division.
CROSSING OVER AND RECOMBINATION OF GENES
During meiosis, the two chromosomes in each homologous pair exchange segments, through a process
called crossing over. Crossing over and Recombination of genes occurs when chromosomes exchange segments with
one another. This process results in the production of gametes which are genetically unique.
DISEASES AND DISORDERS THAT RESULT FROM THE MALFUNCTION OF THE CELL DURING THE CELL
CYCLE
Mitosis is a process of cell division that creates two identical daughter cells, each carrying a copy of the
original cell's DNA. Errors in mitosis result in an incorrect DNA copy; the effect of errors on the health of the organism
range from benign to deadly, depending on the amount and type of errors. One potential consequence is cancer; all
cancer types are traced back to harmful mutations multiplied by mitosis, genetic blueprint called Deoxyribonucleic Acid
contains the hereditary material in all organisms. When DNA is not properly copied, gene mutations occur. There are
two types of gene mutations. The first type is “silent mutations “ which does not affect on the DNA sequence and the
other type is “ missense “ which cause a change on the DNA sequence and it will trigger a cell to multiply overtime
which leads to the formation of tumors, or cells that don’t stop dividing. This abnormality in cell division occurs when
the normal checkpoints that regulate mitosis does not function well so that it will result to uncontrolled cell division.
Aneuploidy, a type of chromosome abnormality is also a result of cell cycle malfunctioning. This is a
condition which occurs when there is the presence of an abnormal number of chromosomes in a cell after a cell
divides; it is either extra or missing. For instance, in the case of human cell if it contains 45 or 47 chromosomes where
in fact its normal number is only 46, so aneuploidy occurs. This leads to Mongolism or Down syndrome and Klinefelter
syndrome in the case of male with extra X chromosome.
Gene Mutation
1. POINT MUTATIONS Point mutations are the most common

type of gene mutation. Also called a base-pair substitution, this type of
mutation changes a single nucleotide base pair. Point mutations can be
categorized into three types:
a. Silent Mutation: Although a change in the DNA sequence

occurs, this type of mutation does not change the protein that is to be produced. This is because multiple genetic
codons can encode for the same amino acid. Amino acids are coded for by three nucleotide sets called codons. For
example, the amino acid arginine is coded for by several DNA codons including CGT, CGC, CGA, and CGG (A
=adenine, T = thymine, G =guanine and C = cytosine). If the DNA sequence CGC is changed to CGA, the amino acid
arginine will still be produced.
b. Missense Mutation: This type of mutation alters the nucleotide

sequence so that a different amino acid is produced. This change alters the resulting protein. The change may not
have much effect on the protein, may be beneficial to protein function, or may be dangerous.
c. Nonsense Mutation: This type of mutation alters the nucleotide sequence so that a stop codon is coded
for in place of an amino acid. A stop codon signals the end of the translation process and stops protein
production. If this process is ended too soon, the amino acid sequence is cut short and the resulting
protein is most always nonfunctional.
2. BASE-PAIR INSERTIONS/DELETIONS Mutations can also occur in which nucleotide base pairs are inserted
into or deleted from the original gene sequence. This type of gene mutation is dangerous because it alters the
template from which amino acids are read. Insertions and deletions can cause frame shift mutations when
base pairs that are not a multiple of three are added to or deleted from the sequence. Since the nucleotide
sequences are read in groupings of three, this will cause a shift in the reading frame.
For example, if the original transcribed DNA sequence is CGA CCA ACG GCG ..., and two base pairs (GA)
are inserted between the second and third groupings, the reading frame will be shifted.
Original Sequence: CGACCA-

ACG-GCG...
Amino Acids Produced:
Arginine - Proline - Threonine -Alanine ...
Inserted Base Pairs (GA):

CGA-CCA-GAA-CGG-CG...
Amino Acids Produced:
Arginine - Proline – Glutamic Acid - Arginine ...
The insertion shifts the reading frame by two and changes the amino acids
that are produced after the insertion. The insertion can code for a stop
codon too soon or too late in the translation process. The resulting proteins will be either too short or too long. These
proteins are for the most
part defunct.
GENE MUTATION CAUSES

Gene mutations are most commonly caused as a result of two types of
occurrences. Environmental factors such as chemicals, radiation, and
ultraviolet light from the sun can cause mutations. These mutagens alter DNA by changing nucleotide bases and can
even change the shape of DNA. These changes result in errors in DNA replication and transcription.
Bioenergetics is the term used by scientist to explain the transformation of energy through living systems. Metabolic
processes is the ultimate process by which energy is acquired and utilized by living systems to perform the basic
functions to support life. These metabolic processes involve the energy releasing or exergonic reactions of nutrient
and the energy consuming reaction to maintain homeostasis. Every cell in all living organism requires the continuous
production of energy to replace the amount of energy used up by the body in performing its functions.
ENERGY IN LIVING THINGS

Energy is the power needed for all organisms to perform their functions such as growth, maintaining balance
repair, reproduction, movement and defense. Energy is indeed essential to maintain life; therefore all living things
must obtain and use energy.
The plants for instance, use their chlorophyll present in their chloroplast to capture light energy from the sun. The light
energy is then combined with water and carbon dioxide from the air to produce their own food in the form of sugar.
This form of food is then converted into energy by cellular respiration. Other organisms eat green plants to obtain
energy. Organisms that possess the ability to make their own food are called autotrophs, and those who are
dependent to other organisms to survive, are heterotrophs. The process of obtaining and using energy by living things
can best be explained by anabolism, catabolism and metabolism. Anabolism is the building up phase, whereby
organisms synthesize complex molecules using simpler components, while catabolism is the breaking down phase, so
that complex substances are broken down to simpler substances accompanied by the release of energy for use.
Metabolism on the otherhand is the sum of all anabolic and catabolic activities that continuously take place inside the
cell so that the normal nature of a living thing is supported.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae and photosynthetic bacteria utilize light energy coming
from the sun and the removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to facilitate the production of food and molecular
oxygen. This process is called oxygenic photosynthesis. Other types of bacteria can also make their own food but on
the process it does not produce oxygen, thus this type of photosynthetic process is called as anoxygenic
photosynthesis.
WHERE PHOTOSYNTHESIS OCCURS?
Photosynthesis in plants occurs in leaves and in the stems of plants that contain the specialized
structures called chloroplast. Every plant leaf is made up of tens of thousands of cells and each cell has 40-50
chloroplasts. The membranes inside each chloroplast have disk-shaped compartments called thylakoids
arranged like stack of plates. A single stack of plate is called granum which lies in a fluid known as stroma.
Embedded in the membranes of the thylakoids are molecules of chlorophyll, which served as a light trapping
pigment which is required for photosynthesis. Enzymes that speed up chemical reactions and other molecules
needed in the photosynthetic process are also located in the thylakoids. These pigments and enzymes are
arranged into two photosystem types, photosystem I and photosystem II.
The light-dependent reaction (light reaction) happens in the thylakoids of the chloroplast. Here, the chlorophyll traps the energy
from the light . Once trapped this light excites and kicks out the electron (e-) into the electron transport chain. This chain is a
series of proteins in the thylakoid membrane. At every step the electron goes through, energy is lost. This “lost energy” goes on to
recharge ADP to make ATP. During the electron transport chain, NADPH is also produced, it then stores energy until it can be
transferred to the stroma. This NADPH plays an important role in the light-independent reaction (to be discussed later).
The light-dependent reaction converts light energy into chemical energy with ATP as a by-product which will then be used as a
source of energy for the light-independent reaction. During this process, the water molecules are split to produce Oxygen and 4
Hydrogens. Photolysis is the process whereby the lost electrons are replaced and in the process water is split
2 H2O → O2 + 4 [H·]
So to recap, at the end of the light reaction, these are the byproducts: ATP, NADPH, O2.
Light-independent Reaction
The by-product of the light reaction, ATP, powers the light-independent reaction producing simple sugars. This
reaction is also called the Calvin Cycle, so named for Melvin Calvin who discovered this system along with James
Bassham and Andrew Benson. It is also referred to as the dark reaction because it can occur in the absence of light
energy. NADPH and ATP produced from the light reaction power the synthesis if CH 2O from CO2 and H+ (the by-
product of the light reaction). So really, it is not that it is independent of light because the ingredients (NADPH, ATP,
and H+) would not be available for the dark reaction without the light reaction. So, one should rather say it is indirectly
dependent on light.
4 [H·] + CO2→(CH2O) + H2O
Calvin Cycle. Once again, does not require light energy to proceed. It occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast, and it
requires carbon dioxide to run and needs ATP and NADPH to fuel the reaction. When all these ingredients are
available, this reaction makes glucose sugar as a by-product. The NADPH provides the electrons needed to reduce
carbon dioxide to glucose.
In the first phase; three carbon dioxide molecules enter the Calvin Cycle. Catalyzed by Rubisco, here it reacts with
ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) to make two copies of 3-phosphoglycerate. Phosphoglycerate gets phosphorylated
by the six ATPs made in the light reaction and 1, 3-Bisphosphate is made. This by-product is then converted into
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P), during this reaction six NADPH lose their Hydrogen protons and the six
phosphates (Pi) molecules are released. After this, the cycle enters into the second phase which is the reduction
phase. One G3P exits the cycle and is used to make glucose and other organic compounds. One G3P is used to
regenerate the CO2acceptor RuBP in the preparation of the next CO2 input.
Photophosphorylation (photo=light; phosphorylation= addition of phosphate). As the name suggests, this is the
process of generating ATP.
Background Stories of ADP →ATP and NADPH and NADP+
Remember: In the light reactions the electron transport chains generated ATP, NADPH, and O 2. There are two
photosystems located in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast. Photosystems are functional protein units tasked
with the primary photochemistry of photosynthesis; absorbing light and transferring electrons and energy. They can be
identified based on the wavelength at which they are most active. Photosystem I (PSI) and photosystem II (PSII) are
at their optimum activity at 700 and 680 nanometres, respectively.
Cyclic photophosphorylation occurs in the thylakoid membrane. The electron starts its path in PSI and goes through to
a two proteins and an enzyme complex before returning to chlorophyll. Well, what’s the point then, you might ask?
The point of this cycle is to create a concentration gradient of H+ ions to power ATP synthase during chemiosmosis .
During this process oxygen and NADPH are not produced at all, unlike in the non-cyclic counterpart.
In the light reaction, chemiosmosis enables ATP synthesis. Chemiosmosis—so named for its close relation to osmosis
—is the process where ions move down their electrochemical gradient through a selectively permeable membrane
(thylakoid membrane in this case). As a result, ATP is generated as a result of the electrochemical gradient of protons
as the H+ moves across the thylakoid membrane during photosynthesis. ATP synthase powers the ATP synthesis
reaction. In the stroma of the chloroplast, the H+ ions react with NADP+ to make NADPH.
During the noncyclic photophosphorylation, PSII regains the electrons by splitting water and freeing oxygen as a by-
product.The non-cyclic photophosphorylation has two fundamental stages involving both PSI and PSII.The non-cyclic
photophosphorylation happens during the light reaction in the stroma lamellae. Water breaks down to form 2H+ + 1/2
O2 + 2e−. These two electrons stay in PSII while the 2H+ and 1/2O 2 await a different fate. Through the chlorophyll
pigments close to the reaction core a photon is absorbed.
The electrons from the pigments are excited in preparation for the electron transport chain. At the end of their journey
through this chain, the electrons end up in the core of PSII. The electrons are transferred through a series of reactions
until they are passed to plastocyanin where they power the transfer of hydrogen ions (H+) to the thylakoid space. The
resulting gradient allows H+ ions to flow back into the stroma of the chloroplast, where they serve as energy sources
for the regeneration of ATP.
Photosystem II replenishes the lost electrons from an external source, but the remaining electrons still do not return to
PSII as it happens in the cyclic pathway. Instead, these electrons are transferred to the PSI complex, which, together
with a second solar photon, increases the energy levels. The highly excited electrons are then involved in the following
reaction:
NADP+ + 2H+ + 2e− → NADPH + H+
When the supply of ATP in the chloroplast is running low and Calvin Cycle reactions cannot be sustained, NADPH
accumulates and the cyclic phosphorylation flow may be preferred

Cellular respiration is the process of breaking down glucose to release energy in the form of Adenosine Triphosphate.
On the process of cellular respiration, cells require oxygen to produce the energy which is needed for every living
thing to function such as working your muscles, growth and repair of cells, absorbing molecules in active transport,
and other essential processes which support life.
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
Anaerobic respiration is the production of energy in the absence of oxygen. In animals, anaerobic
respiration is possible to occur especially if we are engaged in strenuous activities wherein our heart and lungs cannot
supply sufficient amount of oxygen to our muscles to carry its respiration activities. Anaerobic respiration is either
lactic acid fermentation or alcohol fermentation. Lactic acid fermentation occurs in animals when glucose is broken
down in the absence of oxygen to produce energy and lactic acid while alcohol fermentation in plants happen when
glucose is broken down to produce energy, carbon dioxide and ethanol.
As you can see in the diagram, anaerobic respiration only produces small amount of energy because glucose
can only be partially broken down in anaerobic respiration. This type of respiration process is inefficient compared to
aerobic respiration and the inefficiency will yield a poisonous chemical called lactic acid, which can stop the muscles
from working and cause cramp if it continuously builds up in the body. Oxygen is required in getting rid of lactic acid
from the body. The amount of oxygen needed to break down the lactic acid is called oxygen debt.
AEROBIC RESPIRATION
Aerobic respiration is the process by which the cell uses oxygen in breaking down glucose to release energy.
This type of reaction has three major reaction pathways which include: Glycolysis, the Krebs cycle and the Electron
Transport Phosphorylation or Chemiosmosis.
A. Glycolysis
Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of plant and animal cells and its goal is to break down glucose to form two
pyruvates. After the whole process of glycolytic pathway, it will yield 4 ATP’s and 2 NADH but since to start the
process, the cell has to invest two molecules of ATP, this investment has to be paid, so it will only have a net gain of 2
ATP’s and 2 NADH. The later product which is NADH will be converted into energy n the electron transport process
which will happen in the later part of aerobic respiration.
B. Kreb’s Cycle
The next stage of aerobic respiration is the Kreb’s cycle. The Kreb’s cycle is the central pathway in all aerobic
organisms. It consists of a series of eight reactions that happen in the mitochondrion. It is not only a part of the
pathway in the breaking down of glucose, but it also participates in the breaking down of metabolites such as glucose,
amino acids and fatty acids. Each of the molecules has their own pathway that leads into the Kreb’s. Glucose for
instance is converted into pyruvate then to Acetyl CoA by glycolysis, while fatty acids are converted into pyruvate also
and then into Acetyl CoA by betaoxidation. These products called Acetyl CoA enter into the Kreb’s cycle and will be
completely oxidize to produce carbon dioxide. The chemical equation below shows the summary of the Kreb’s cycle.
( Note: Conversion of molecules into pyruvate occurs in the cytoplasm and conversion of pyruvate to Acetyl CoA
happens in the mitochondrion).
acetyl CoA + 3 NAD + FAD + ADP + HPO4-2 ---------------> 2 CO2 + CoA + 3 NADH+ + FADH+ + ATP
C. Electron Transport process ( Chemiosmosis)
Chemiosmosis is an aerobic process which happens in the mitochondrion of eukaryotes and in the
cell membrane of prokaryotes. This process of cellular respiration is responsible for producing 34 ATP from
the products of one glucose molecule, water, NAD and FADH. NADH and FADH are called electron carriers
which mean that they are capable of donating electrons to the Electron Transport chain.
Electron transport process, also called chemiosmosis is a stepwise movement of electrons from high
energy to low energy that makes the proton gradient in the form of hydrogen atoms. These hydrogen atoms
build up and flow back to the matrix and simultaneously powering the production of ATP.
CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS:
1. KINGDOM MONERA
General characteristics of the kingdom Monera are as follows:
· They are primitive organisms.
· All organisms of the kingdom are prokaryotes.
· They are present in both living and non-living environment.
· They can survive in harsh and extreme climatic conditions like in hot springs, acidic soils etc.
· They are unicellular organisms.
· Membrane bound nucleus is absent.
· DNA is in double stranded form, suspended in the cytoplasm of the organism,referred as nucleoid.
· A rigid cell wall is present.
· Membrane bound cellular organelles like mitochondria are absent.
· Habitat - Monerans are found everywhere in hot springs, under ice, in deep ocean floor, in deserts and on or
inside the body of plants and animals.
· Nutrition - autotrophs - can prepare their own food, heterotrophs - depend on others for
food, saprophytes - feed on dead and decaying matter, parasitic - live on other host cells for survival and
cause harm, symbiotic - in mutual relation with other organisms, commensalism - it is where one organism
is benefited and the other is not affected, mutualism - where both the organisms are benefited.
· Respiration - respiration in these organisms vary, they may be obligate aerobes - the organisms must have
oxygen for survival; obligate anaerobes - the organisms cannot survive in the presence of
oxygen; facultative anaerobes - these organisms can survive with or without oxygen.
· Circulation - is through diffusion.
· Movement - is with the help of flagella.
· Reproduction is mostly asexual, sexual reproduction is also seen. Asexual reproduction is by binary fission,
sexual reproduction is by conjugation, transformation and transduction.
· Kingdom Monera has been classified into two groups - Archaebacteria and Eubacteria.
Archaebacteria are microbes that live in extreme and harsh conditions, they are known as extremophiles.
These bacteria lack cell wall, their cell membrane is made up of different lipids, and their ribosomes are
similar to that of eukaryotes.
Archaebacteria are of three major groups of bacteria based on their habitat i.e., thermophiles, halophiles
and methanogens.
Some extremophiles live in boiling water like geysers of Yellowstone National Park and and in volcanoes.
These are known as 'thermophiles'.
Some extremophiles live in extremely salty water, the salt loving bacteria are known as 'halophiles'.
Some bacteria are present in the guts of ruminants and are responsible for production of methane gas from
their dung. These bacteria are known as 'methanogens'.
Eubacteria are true bacteria. The characteristic feature is the presence of rigid cell wall and if present a
motile flagelllum that aids in locomotion.These organisms are characterized based on their nutrition and their
shapes.
· Classification based on Shape
· Bacteria can be classified in four groups based on shape : Spherical or round shaped bacteria are called
cocci, Rod-shaped are bacilli, Comma-shaped bacteria are vibrio and spiral shaped bacteria
are spirilla.
· Classification Based on Mode of Nutrition
· Based on the mode of nutrition bacteria are broadly classified into Autotrophic and Heterotrophic.
·
· Autotrophic bacteria - Bacteria which prepare their own food are autotrophic. (Example Cyanobacteria)
· Heterotrophic bacteria - Bacteria which are dependent on other organisms for their food are heterotrophic.
(Example Escherichia coli)
· Autotrophic bacteria can be Chemosynthetic or Photosynthetic.
Chemosynthetic bateria are those which prepare their food with the help of inorganic substrates.
· Photosynthetic bacteria are autotrophic bacteria which prepare their own food by the process of
photosynthesis.
Cyanobacteria (Blue-green algae) - They have chlorophyll similar to plants and hence they are
photosynthetic autotrophs. They can also fix atmospheric nitrogen.
Example: Nostoc and Anaebena.
Chemosynthetic autotrophs - these organisms oxidise substances like nitrites, nitrates, ammonia etc. The
help in recycling substances like nitrogen, sulphur, iron etc.
·
· Heterotrophic bacteria are those which are dependent on other organism either directly or indirectly for their
nutrition. They are most abundant and are important decomposers. Some are helpful in curdling milk,
production of antibiotics, in nitrogen fixation and some are pathogens.
Heterotrophic bacteria can be parasitic and saprophytic.
· Parasitic bacteria are those which depend on the host for nutrition and cause harm to the host.
· Saprophytic bacteria feed on dead and decaying matter.
· Symbiotic - it is a type where the bacteria are in mutual relation with other organisms. Symbiosis is of two
types mutualism and commensalism.
· Mutualism is where the bacteria and the other organism are benefited due to the relationship.
· Commensalism is a relationship where the bacteria is benefited while the other organism is not
affected by the relationship.
Classification based on Gram's staining
Gram's staining is a test on cell walls developed by Hans Christian Gram. This method helps
classifying bacteria into Gram positive bacteria and Gram negative bacteria.
Gram Positive Bacteria - The bacteria's cell wall is made up of protein-sugar complex that takes on
purple color during gram staining.
·
· Gram Negative Bacteria - The gram negative bacteria has an extra layer of lipid on the outside of the
cell wall and appear pink during the Gram staining procedure.
Reproduction in Bacteria
Reproduction in bacteria is mainly by fission. Under unfavorable conditions they reproduce by spores.
Sexually bacteria reproduce by a primitive mode of DNA transfer from one bacterium to another i.e., by
conjugation, transduction or transformation.
Mycoplasma
Mycoplasma are the known to be the smallest living cells. They completely lack cell wall and can survive
without oxygen. Most of the mycoplasma are pathogenic in nature in animals and plants.
· Economic Importance of Bacteria

·
1. Lactic acid bacteria like Lactobacillus and Lactococcus have been used in fermentation process for
thousands of years.
·
2. The ability of the bacteria to degrade variety of organic compounds has been used in waste
management processing and biorememdiation.
3. In pest control, bacteria can be used in the place of pesticides as these pesticides are regarded
environmentally friendly.
Example: Bacillus thuringenesis.
4. The ability of the bacteria in dividing rapidly and by studies on the bacterial genome, these bacteria
can be bio-engineered for the production of therapeutic proteins like insulin, growth factors
and antibodies, etc.
2. KINGDOM FUNGI
Characteristics of Fungi
· Most fungi grow as tubular filaments called hyphae. An interwoven mass of hyphae is called a mycelium.
· The walls of hyphae are often strengthened with chitin, a polymer of N-acetylglucosamine.
The linkage between the sugars is like that of cellulose and peptidoglycan and produces the same sort of
structural rigidity.
· Fungi disperse themselves by releasing spores, usually windblown. Fungal spores are present almost
everywhere (and are a frequent cause of allergies). Spores of the wheat rust fungus have been found at 4000
m in the air and more than 1450 km (900 miles) from the place they were released. No wonder then that most
fungi are worldwide in their distribution.
· Fungi are heterotrophic
o Some live as saprophytes, getting their nourishment from the surroundings (often having first digested
it by secreting enzymes). They perform a crucial role in nature by decomposing dead organisms and
releasing their nutrients for reuse by the living.
o Some live in a mutually beneficial symbiotic relationship with another organism, often a plant. The
association of fungus and plant root is called a mycorrhiza. Some 80–90% of land plants benefit from
symbiotic mycorrhiza.
▪ The plant benefits by more-efficient mineral (chiefly nitrates and phosphates) uptake.
▪ The fungus benefits by the sugars and other nutrients (e.g., lipids) translocated to the root by
the plant.
Ascomycetes (Phylum Ascomycota)
Ascomycetes produce two kinds of spores:
· asexual spores called conidia

· ascospores produced following sexual reproduction. Four or eight ascospores develop inside a
saclike ascus (the group is commonly called sac fungi).
Some notable examples:
· Saccharomyces cerevisiae one of the budding yeasts. It ferments sugar to ethanol and carbon dioxide
and thus is used
o to make alcoholic beverages like beer and wine
o to make ethanol for industrial use
o in baking (it is often called baker's yeast). Here, it is the carbon dioxide that is wanted (to make bread
and cakes "rise" and have a spongy texture).
Yeast is also used

o in the commercial production of some vitamins.
o in the production — using recombinant DNA technology — of some human therapeutic proteins.
Basidiomycetes (Phylum Basidiomycota)
Basidiomycetes include mushrooms, shelf fungi, puffballs, rusts, and smuts. They are dispersed by spores borne at
the tips of basidia (giving rise to the name for the group).
Mushrooms are masses of interwoven hyphae growing up from the main mass of the mycelium growing underground.
The basidia develop on the undersides and release their spores (four from each basidium) into the air.
A single mycelium may expand outward year after year as its hyphae grow into new terrain. In some species,
mushrooms are sent up once a year at the periphery producing a circle known since medieval times as a "fairy ring".
Zygomycetes (Phylum Zygomycota)
All the fungi assigned to this group (which probably does not represent a single clade) form spores in a sporangium.
Some notable examples:
· the bread mold, Rhizopus stolonifera

· Rhizopus oryzae, used to make sake, the rice wine of Asia. Can also infect humans, especially if they are
immunosuppressed (e.g., AIDS patients, transplant recipients).
· Another species of Rhizopus is used in the commercial production of glucocorticoids.
· Many mycorrhizal fungi belong to this group.
3. KINGDOM PROTISTA
General characteristics of Kingdom Protista are as follows:
· They are simple eukaryotic organisms.

· Most of the organisms are unicellular, some are colonial and some are multicellular like algae.
· Most of the protists live in water, some in moist soil or even the body of human and plants.
· These organisms are eukaryotic, since they have a membrane bound nucleus and endomembrane systems.
· They have mitochondria for cellular respiration and some have chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
· Nuclei of protists contain multiple DNA strands, the number of nucleotides are significantly less than complex
eukaryotes.
· Movement is often by flagella or cilia.
· Protists are multicellular organisms, they are not a plant, animal or fungus.
· Respiration - cellular respiration is primarily aerobic process, but some living in mud below ponds or in
digestive tracts of animals ares strict facultative anaerobes.
· Nutrition - they can be both hetreotrophic or autotrophic.
· Flagellates are filter feeding, some protists feed by the process of endocytosis (formation of food vacuole by
engulfing a bacteria and extending their cell membrane).
· Reproduction - some species have complex life cycle involving multiple organisms. Example:
Plasmodium. Some reproduce sexually and others asexually.
· They can reproduce by mitosis and some are capable of meiosis for sexual reproduction.
· They form cysts in adverse conditions.
· Some protists are pathogens of both animals and plants. Example: Plasmodium falciparum causes malaria in
humans.
· Protists are major component of plankton.
Kingdom Protista Classification
Protozoans - animal-like single-celled organisms.
Algae - plant-like single or multi-celled organisms.
Animal-like Protists - PROTOZOANS
Protists that have resemblance to animals are known as protozoans. They in moist and watery enviroments. The
characteristics similar to animals are - their ability to move and their inability to produce their own food (heterotrophs).
They differ from animals being unicellular while animals are multicellular.
Protozoans are classified on the way they move into four categories:
· Sacordinians - move using pseudopod.
· Zooflagellates - move using flagella.
· Ciliaphorans - move using cilia.
· Sporozoans - forms spores.
Phylum Sarcodina - The movement in sarcodinians is by extending lobes of cytoplasm known as pseudopodia. The
pseudopoda is used for movement and feeding. During the formation of the pseudopodia the cytoplasm streams into
the lobe causing the lobe to 'ooze' and grow. Because of this the peudopodians have a 'blob like
appearance. Example: Amoeba, Foraminiferans.
Phylum Mastigophora (Zooflagellata) - These protozoans move with the help of flagella. Most of them are parasitic.
Many flagellates are seen in the intestine of humans, in termites and other animals, some flagellates are harmful.
Example: Trypanosoma gambiense causes sleeping sickness in cattle and human.
Phylum Ciliophora (Ciliates) - Protozoans of this phylum move with hair like structures called cilia. The cilia stick out of
their cells. The movement of cilia is paddle like, it sways back and forth for movement and fast beating of the cilia
causes movement of the organism. The cilia is also used to sweep food particles into the organism.
Example: Paramecium - It is a ciliate protozoan found in fresh water and ponds. It commonly known as the slipper
animal-cule.
Phylum Sporozoa - All members of this phylum are non-motile and parasitic. They forms spores and hence the name
sporozoa. They lack locomotory structures and they are carried in their hosts by their body fluids. Many sporozoans
causes serious diseases in humans. Example: Plasmodium - this parasite causes malaria in humans.
Plant-like Protists - ALGAE
Plant-like protists have chlorophyll like that in plants. The green substance in their cells enable them to make food
through photosynthesis. They produce and release oxygen like the plants. It is believed to be the most supply of
oxygen on Earth is from the plant-like protists. The plant-like protists are the major food source and primary producers
for water organisms.
Phylum Chlorophyta (Green Algae) - The green algae include unicellular and multicellular algae. They are mostly
fresh water. Body is sheet-like thallus. They have cell walls made of cellulose and pectin. Food is reserve starch which
is stored in pyrenoids. Example: Spirogyra - it is a unicellular green alga, it grows as a green thread or filament.
Phylum Rhodophyta (Red Algae) - Red algae are mostly large and multicellular. They grow in oceans. The algae 'Nori'
and Gelidium are used as food, in parts of Asia. Carragean and agar are glue-like substances in red-a;gae. Agar is
used as a medium used for growing bacteria and other organisms under laboratory conditions. Agar is also used to
make gelatin capsules. and a base for cosmetics. Carragean is used as a stabilizer and thickener in dairy products. It
is also used to give toothpaste its creamy texture.
Rhodophyta are a sub-group of algae, the red algae. Even though they are called 'red algae', not all species are
necessarily red. Their pigmentation can vary depending on where they are living. Rhodophytes in deeper waters are
typically a dark red, almost black color, while those in medium depths are bright red. In shallow areas, the algae can
appear more green than red. Some species even have pink or purple coloring.
Their color comes from an accessory pigment (a pigment in addition to chlorophyll), phycoerythrin (similar to
chlorophyll) that is found inside of the algae, giving its reddish color. The phycoerythrin absorbs other colors and
reflect the red.
Phylum Phaeophyta (Brown Algae) - Brown algae are multicellular. They grow on rocks in shallow water of the
sea. Large brown algae are called kelps. Kelps may grow densely in the sea and form kelp forests. They form
important food sources for fish and invertebrates. The brown algae growing on rocks are known as rockweed.
Example of rockweed is Sargassum. Algin is a substance derived from some algae which is used in making ice
cream, lotion and plastics.
Kelps and brown "algae"
The largest of the chromists are the Phaeophyta, the brown algae -- the largest brown algae may
reach over 30 meters in length. The rockweed shown at left, Fucus distichous, visible at low tide at
the Berkeley Marina in California, is somewhat smaller. Almost all phaeophytes are marine.
Phaeophytes, like most photosynthetic protists, have traditionally been classified as plants. However,
phaeophytes are not closely related to land plants; their cells contain different pigments, such as
chlorophyll c and fucoxanthin. They also lack the plasmodesmata and starch production of land plants
and their relatives.
Like plants and many protists, brown algae undergo a complex life cycle involving alternation of
generations.
Phylum Chrysophyta (Golden algae) - 'Chryso' means 'color of gold'. There are three types of golden-algae: yellow-
green algae, golden brown algae, diatoms. Diatoms are the most abundant and are found in seawater and freshwater
habitats. The shell of diatoms are made of silica. They are major source of food to may aquatic organisms. The shells
of fossil diatoms form thick deposits on the sea floor known as 'diatomaceous earth'.It is used as water filters, abrasive
and to add sparkling to products such as paint and fingernail polish.
Phylum Pyrrophyta (Fire Algae) - It contains of species of one-celled algae called dinoflagellate which means 'spinning
swimmers'. They store food in the form of starch and oils. The red color is due to chlorophyll a and c and xanthophylls.
These organisms have ability of bioluminescence. Almost all species like in marine water. Some species causes the
'red tide phenomenon'. The dinoflagellates causing red tides are known as Gonyaulax, which contain a neurotoxin and
are poisonous to marine fauna.
Fungus-like Protists
Slime Molds - Slime molds are saprophytic protists. They are very bright in appearance. They live in moist soil,
decaying plants and trees. They are single-celled organisms. During favorable condition they form multicellular
aggregations called plasmodium. During unfavorable conditions, plasmodia differentiate to form fruiting bodies bearing
spores at the tip. These spores posses resistant true walls, which help in survival for a long time during adverse
conditions. These spores disperse by air currents.
Economic Importance of Protists
Protists are useful in the following manners:
Source of food - Some protists like kelps are edible.
Source of commercial products - Marine protists are source of useful substances like algin, agar, carragean and
antiseptics.
Primary producer of aquatic ecosystem - Many protists are primary producers, they play a basic role in food cahins,
providing food and oxygen
4. KINGDOM ANIMALIA
A. Class Pisces
--Characteristics of Super Class Pisces are given below:
1) They are aquatic vertebrates that live in water. They have representation both in fresh waters and in marine waters
and are also represented in brackish waters.
2) Their body is invariably stream lined and they swim with the help of tail.
3) They have paired appendages in the form of fins. Unpaired fins are also present. Fins help in balancing during
swimming.
4) They have lateral line system that helps them to know the disturbances in the near by environment. The system is a
unique sense organ.
5) Their body is covered by dermal scales. The scales provide them protection. Scales of fishes arise from the dermis
layer hence are deep seated.
6) They respire with the help of gills.
7) Fishes have a two chambered heart and there is a single circulation of blood.
8) Respiration is typically by pharyngeal gills, varying from 5 to 7 on each side; some possess lungs.
9) Skin is generally covered by protective dermal scales; skin glandular.
10) Nasal cavity is not connected to the buccal cavity.
11) Internal skeleton is either cartilaginous or bony.
CLASS AMPHIBIA
Amphibia refers to "double life", or life in water and on land
Includes the salamanders, frogs, toads, and caecilians with approximately 3,900 spp.
Characterized by:
1. Being tetrapods (4 limbs) that facilitate moving about on land - these limbs evolved from the pectoral and
pelvic fins
2. Skin is thin, soft, glandular and magid (lack scales except in the caecilians) - skin of caecilians with scales
similar to those of fish
3. Ectothermic
4. Both gill and lung breathers - usually gills in the larval stage, replaced by lungs in the adult;cutaneous
respiration in many
5. Three-chambered heart with two atria and one ventricle
6. Amphibian reproduction variable fertilization may be internal or external

egg-layers (oviparous) but may have modifications associated with development
egg anamniotic – doesn’t have a shell but covered with a series of gelatinous layers
hatchling in aquatic larval form which breathe by gills
7. most larvae are herbivorous, some omnivorous to carnivorous larval stage may last from 10 days to 20+ years
8. Amphibians are unable to regulate body temperature. Skin types limit distribution to warm, moist climates (i.e.
tropics, subtropics, and temperate zones)
Order Caudata - Salamanders

"bearing a tail"
1. have four limbs usually of equal size, a tail, and elongated body
2. skin is smooth and glandular with mucus and poison glands
3. found primarily under leaf litter, in soils, or may be fully aquatic
4. have internal fertilization by way of a spematophore (packet of sperm deposited by the male which is picked
up by the female following courtship; gelatinous coating dissolves to release sperm
5. all predaceous - none herbivorous: feed on insects, worms, etc.

6. increased rainfall seems to stimulate breeding
7. most species breed annually although some breed only every two years
8. Sexual dimorphism limited - little differences between males and females
9. cloacal glands enlarge during reproductive activity to contribute mucus layers to spermatophore
10. male skin slightly rougher and caudal fins become longer
Order Anura - frogs and toads
1. have four limbs usually of unequal size - hind limbs are elongated and modified for jumping
2. head and trunk fused, tail in larval form lost as adult
3. more widespread than the salamanders
4. vocalizations are restricted primarily to the male for courtship, establishing territories - may be resonated by a
vocal pouch
5. most have external fertilization where eggs and sperm are shed directly into the water – general reproduction
patterns follow that of salamanders
6. Generalized reproductive pattern males vocalize to attract females
amplexus (clasping of the female by the male for mating) brings the cloacas of the male and female together
7. external fertilization of eggs by sperm; both deposited in the water
8. tadpoles develop - length of development depends on the species
9. adults predaceous - insectivorous/carnivorous
Order Apoda (Gymnophiona) - Caecilians
1. without legs
2. a worm-like animal
3. eyes may be covered by skin or even bone
4. tentacle of head may serve as a chemosensory organ to detect underground prey
5. vivipary common - young 30-60% of female’s body size when born
6. initial growth of fetus supported by yolk sac, embryos feed on uterine milk secreted from the epithelial wall of
oviduct
The Class Reptilia
1. Reptiles are characterized by having dry skin with keratinized epidermal scales. In addition to their scales,
reptiles have true claws (if limbs are present).
2. If they lay eggs (some give live birth), the eggs are amniotic and have a shell that allows them to develop in a
manner less reliant on water than amphibians.
Order: Testudines
(Turtles)
The reptiles that comprise the order Testudines are easily recognizable. No other vertebrate has the hard shell that
surrounds and protects the organs of turtles. Turtle shells consist of two basic parts, the top shell which is referred to
as a carapace , and a bottom shell that is known as a plastron . The two parts of the shell are connected on each side
by a portion of the shell known as the bridge. Turtle ribs and vertebrae, with the exception of the neck and tail, are
fused to form the carapace The outer surface of turtle shells are comprised of keratinized scutes or laminae
Turtles are oviparous and have internal fertilization. Fertilization is accomplished by a penis which is an outgrowth of
the cloacal wall . Turtle eggs are buried in a nest and left
to incubate and hatch. Another feature of Testudines is the lack of teeth. The jaws of many Testudines are sharp-
edged or serrated to provide a cutting surface. The beak is covered by a horny layer of keratin.
They lack of holes in the temporal region of the skull, a condition known as anapsis .
Order: Squamata
1. Order Squamata include a transverse vent or cloacal opening
2. Skulls that are more moveable (or kinetic) than other reptile orders,
3. paired copulatory organs called hemipenes
4. keratinous scales that cover the body, and the shedding of the outer epidermal layer (ecdysis ).
5. Other evolutionary trends for many Squamates include the loss or reduction of limbs and the ability to lose the
tail (caudal autotomy ) at distinct fracture planes
.
Lizards: (Lacertilia)
1. presence of four limbs (there are some lizards species elsewhere that lack limbs),
2. visible ear openings
3. movable eyelids.
Snakes: (Serpentes)
1. All snakes lack limbs; there are however, some species that have vestigial limbs in the form of small spurs
(e.g. the rubber boa).
2. All snakes lack eyelids;
3. Snakes have no external ear opening;
4. snakes have a elongate body.
CLASS AVES
General Characteristics of Class Aves:
1. Birds are bipedal feathered and warm blooded (homoiothermous) animals i.e., they are able to maintain a constant
body temperature. Their forelimbs are modified into wings. Most of them can fly except flightless birds (e.g., Ostrich).
2. The hind-limbs are adapted for perching, walking or swimming, etc., and usually bear four, sometimes three and
rarely two toes.
3. Except uropygium gland (preen gland or oil gland), at the base of the tail, no skin gland is present. Ostrich and
parrot lack oil gland.
4. The upper and lower jaws are modified into beak, which lacks teeth. Beaks are adapted to many ways of feeding;
seed-crushing, fruit-scooping, fleshtearing,
nector-sip- ping, wood-chiselling and so on.
5. Legs are modified for walking, hopping, grasping,perching, wading and swimming. Legs bear homy epidermal
scales.
6. The alimentary canal has additional chambers, the crop and gizzard. The crop stores and softens the food;
however, the gizzard helps in crushing and churning the food. There is a cloacal aperture. Gall bladder is absent in
some seed-eating birds (graminivorous) such as pigeons.
7. Respiration is by lungs. The lungs are spongy and inelastic. Air sacs are connected to lungs for supplement
respiration. The larynx does not act as a
voice box. Voice is produced by a special organ, the syrinx.
8. The heart is four-chambered. Sinus venosus is absent. Renal portal system is very much reduced. Red blood
corpuscles are nucleated, oval and biconvex.
9. The kidneys are metanephric which drain the nitrogenous waste matter (chiefly uric acid) into cloaca through the
ureters. Urinary bladder is absent except Rhea americana (American Rhea— also called “South American Ostrich”.
This is the only
bird that has urinary bladder).
10. Brain is better developed than that of reptiles, of which cerebrum, cerebellum and optic lobes are quite large.
11. Birds have 12 pairs of cranial nerves.
12. Birds have a keen sense of sight but poor sense of smell but kiwi has good sense of smell. Ear openings are
present. Each ear consists of three parts: external,
middle and internal.
13. Endoskeleton is fully ossified (bony) and the long bones are hollow with air cavities (pneumatic) to reduce weight.
There is no bone marrow. The skull is monocondyllc, i.e., with one occipital condyle. Sternum with a median keel for
the attachment of
flight muscles.
Flight Adaptations in Class Aves:

1. Spindle-Shaped Body:
It is designed to offer minimum resistance to the wind.
2. Feathers:
They provide the passage for air and reduce friction to minimum. They also prevent loss of heat and help to maintain a
constant temperature.
3. Wings:
Fore-limbs are modified into wings, which help during flight.
4. Beak:
Besides procurement of food, the beak is also used for nest-building.
5. Neck and Head:
Mobile neck and head are very useful for feeding, nest building, offence and defense.
6. Flight Muscles:
The flight muscles on the breast are greatly developed which help in flight.
7. Hind Limbs (Legs):
They are well suited for perching.
8. Endoskeleton:
Most of bones are pneumatic and filled with air instead of bone marrow. It makes the body light. Most of bones are
firmly fused together, which help in flight.
9. Air Sacs:
These are attached to lungs which serve as reservoirs of air. They may also aid as cooling devices in regulation of the
temperature of the body.
10. Warm-Bloodedness:
Birds are warm-blooded animals which is necessary for flight.
11. Circulatory System:
A large oxygen supply is required for rapid metabolism and warm-bloodedness. It is done by an efficient circulatory
system.
12. Absence of Urinary Bladder:
Except Rhea, urinary bladder is absent in birds. Excreta are passed out at once. This helps in reducing the weight of
the body.
13. Brain and Eyes:
Brain and eyes are well developed. Equilibrium is maintained by well developed cerebellum of the brain.
14. Single Ovary:

Presence of a single functional ovary on the left side in the female bird also leads to reduction of weight which is so
essential for flight.
Class Mammalia.
General Characteristics of Class Mammalia:
1. These animals are warm blooded, hairy and have mammary or milk producing glands, (mammary glands). They are
the only animals which nourish
their young ones with milk.
2. They are homoiothermous (warm blooded).
3. Oil glands (sebaceous glands) and sweat glands (sudoriferous glands) are present in the skin.
4. Teeth are of different types (heterodont) and are embedded in the sockets of jaws (the codont). These are
developed twice during the life-time of the animal (diphyodont), milk and permanent teeth.
5. Except a few, mammals possess seven cervical (neck) vertebrae.
6. The skull is dicondylic i.e., with two occipital condyles.

7. Respiration is by lungs.
8. They possess a muscular diaphragm dividing trunk into thorax and abdomen.
9. The coelom is divided into four cavities; a pericardial cavity lodging the heart, two pleural cavities each containing
the lung and an abdominal cavity having the rest of viscera.
10. The heart is four chambered. Sinus venosus is absent. The red blood corpuscles are without nucleus. Renal portal
system is absent.
11. The brain has large cerebrum and cerebellum. Optic lobes are divided into four lobes called corpora
quadrigemina. Corpus callosum connects the two
cerebral hemispheres internally.
12. pairs of cranial nerves are present.
13. Each ear consists of three parts: external, middle and internal. Pinna is a part of external ear. Middle ear has 3
bony ear ossicles (malleus— hammer
shaped, incus-anvil shaped and stapes-stirrup shaped). Internal ear has organ of Corti, the actual hearing organ.
14. Except egg laying mammals they are viviparous. There are present four embryonic membranes: chorion, amnion,
allantois and yolk sac. Except egg
laying mammals a well developed placenta is present.
15. Mammals occur in all sorts of habitats. They are dominant animals and are capable to learn because of their better
developed brain.
Classifications of Class Mammalia:

Living mammals are divided into two sub-classes.
1. Sub-classI. Prototheria:
Prototherians are considered to be the most primitive mammals.

Besides egg-laying habit, they have several reptilian characters including a cloaca. They lay eggs containing ample
amount of yolk. Subclass prototheria includes one order Monotremata e.g., Omithorhynchus, Tachyglossus-
(Echidna).
2. Sub-ClassII. Theria:
They produce young ones. Subclass theria is divided into two infraclasses; Metatheria and Eutheria.
I. Infra-Class Metatheria:
Females have a marsupium or brood-pouch for rearing young ones. Infraclass
metatheria includes one Order Marsupialia. Mammals of this order are called marsupials or pouched mammals, e.g.,
Macropus, Didelphis
(Opossum) and Phascolarctos (Koala).
II. Infra-class Eutheria:

They are provided with true placenta, hence called placental mammals. The embryos are retained in the uterus
(womb) till an advanced stage.
(1) Insectivora
Testes are abdominal. The water shrew is the tiniest mammal which is as large as a human thumb e.g., shrews,
moles and hedgehogs.
(2) Dermoptera
A hairy skin fold called patagium extends like a parachute from neck to tail for gliding, e.g., flying lemours. Actually,
flying lemurs are neither true lemurs nor do they fly.
(3) Chiroptera
They are flying mammals. The forelimbs are modified into wings, e g bats and flying foxes. The vampire bats feed on
the blood of mammals including man
(4) Edentata ( edentatus- toothless):

They are toothless. This order includes the armadillos and sloths of South America.
(5) Phoiidota (pholis- a homy scale):

The body of these mammals is covered with overlapping horny scales with sparse hair in between. Teeth are absent,
e.g. Manis (scaly ant
eater or pangolin).
(6) Primates ( of the first rank):

Primates have highly developed brain. The living primates include prosimians (meaning before monkeys) and simians.
The prosimians include lemurs, lorises and tarsiers the simians include monkeys, apes and men.
(7) Rodentia (rodo- gnaw):

They have one pair of sharp chisel-like incisors in each jaw. The canines are absent, leaving a toothless space, the
diastema in the jaw no canines, e.g., rats, mice, squirrels, guinea-pigs and porcupines!
(8) Lagomorpha:
They have two pairs of incisors in the upper jaw and one pair of incisors in the lower jaw and no canines, e.g., rabbits
and hares.
(9) Cetacea ( cetus- whale):

They have fish-like body, well adapted for aquatic life. They have fin-like fore limbs, but no hind limbs. Testes are
abdominal. The skin has a thick layer of fat called blubber serving as reserve food, an insulator for reducing the
specific gravity. Pinnae are reduced or absent. Hair is only on lips. They do not have sweat and oil glands, e g whales,
dolphins and porpoises. Blue whale is the largest living animal. Whales nor mally lack pelvic girdle and hind limbs.
The Green land whales, however, possess vestiges of pelvic girdles and bones of hind limbs inside the body
(10) Carnivora (L. Caro- flesh, vorare- to eat):

They are flesh eating mammals. These animals have sharp pointed canines, strong jaws and well developed claws,
e.g., dog, cat, wolf, jackal, fox, cheetah, lion, tiger, hyaena, mongoose, bear, panda, otter, seal, walrus, sea lion.
Cheetah is the fastest
runner. It can cover a distance of 120 Km in one
hour.
(11) Proboscidea :
They have a long muscular trunk. They are thick skinned animals hence called pachyderms . They are the largest land
animals, e.g., elephants.
(12) Sirenia They are herbivorous aquatic mammals with fin-like forelimbs and no hind limbs. They have few hairs
and do not have external ears. They have thick blubber. Testes are abdominal. The males have tusks, e.g., Manatee,
Seacows.
(13) Perissodactyla
They are herbivorous odd-toed hoofed mammals or ungulates (L. ungula- hoof) or hoofed which have an odd number
of toes (1 or 3). True horns with a bony
core are never present. The stomach is of non ruminating type (these are not
cud chewing animals) e.g., horses, asses, mules, zebras, tapirs and rhinoceros.
(14) Artiodactyla :
They are herbivorous even toed hoofed mammals or ungulates (hoofed) which have even number of toes (2 or 4).
True horns or antlers are present in many animals of this order. Many even toed hoofed mammals like cow and camel
are ruminants or cudchewing.
The four chambered stomach of cow is capable of digesting cellulose of plant materials by micro-organisms present
in the rumen (first part of
their stomach) e.g., cows, buffaloes, sheep, goats, deer, antelopes, yaks, camels, giraffes, pigs and hippopotamuses.

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Mdgsotto Page 1 of 37

2. Unsaturated fats have one or more double bonds in its structure.

Phospholipids are the major component of all cell

Confused about dietary fat and health?

PolyUnsaturated (oils): more

Solids at room temperature - these oils are factory-made by adding hydrogen to

TYPES OF PROTEINS ACCORDING TO FUNCTION

2. Hormones are a type of protein used for cell signaling.

The Central Dogma: DNA Encodes RNA and RNA

Replication is the process of copying a molecule of DNA.

Transcription is the process of converting a specific sequence of DNA into RNA.

Translation is the process where a ribosome decodes mRNA into a protein

Transcription: DNA to RNA

Translation: RNA to Protein

THE CELL STRUCTURE AND THE CELL THEORY

PROKARYOTIC CELL ORGANELLES AND ITS FUNCTIONS

EUKARYOTIC CELL: ITS ORGANELLES AND FUNCTIONS

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF EUKARYOTIC CELL

Types of Animal tissues

A. Squamous epithelium which are composed of flattened cells

Types of Connective Tissues:

Plant Cell Types

BASIC CELLULAR PROCESSES

STRUCTURE AND COMPONENTS OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANE

PASSIVE TRANSPORT PROCESSES

▪ Active transport process

▪ Movement of sodium and potassium across a membrane

PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

STAGES OF THE CELL CYCLE

CROSSING OVER AND RECOMBINATION OF GENES

1. POINT MUTATIONS Point mutations are the most common

a. Silent Mutation: Although a change in the DNA sequence

b. Missense Mutation: This type of mutation alters the nucleotide

Original Sequence: CGACCA-

Arginine - Proline - Threonine -Alanine ...

Inserted Base Pairs (GA):

GENE MUTATION CAUSES

ENERGY IN LIVING THINGS

2 H2O → O2 + 4 [H·]

4 [H·] + CO2→(CH2O) + H2O

carbon dioxide to glucose.

ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) to make two copies of 3-phosphoglycerate. Phosphoglycerate gets phosphorylated

regenerate the CO2acceptor RuBP in the preparation of the next CO2 input.

process of generating ATP.

Background Stories of ADP →ATP and NADPH and NADP+

at their optimum activity at 700 and 680 nanometres, respectively.

pigments close to the reaction core a photon is absorbed.

for the regeneration of ATP.

NADP+ + 2H+ + 2e− → NADPH + H+

accumulates and the cyclic phosphorylation flow may be preferred

C. Electron Transport process ( Chemiosmosis)

· Classification based on Shape

· Classification Based on Mode of Nutrition

Heterotrophic bacteria can be parasitic and saprophytic.

· Saprophytic bacteria feed on dead and decaying matter.

Classification based on Gram's staining

· Economic Importance of Bacteria

Example: Bacillus thuringenesis.

· asexual spores called conidia

Yeast is also used

· the bread mold, Rhizopus stolonifera

General characteristics of Kingdom Protista are as follows:

· They are simple eukaryotic organisms.

Algae - plant-like single or multi-celled organisms.