CHAPTER 6

FATS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1 | Understand the roles of lipids in the body.

2 | Identify the different types of fats and their major functions.

3 | Explain the differences between essential and nonessential lipids.

4 | Explain how the body digests fat.

5 | Identify the nutritional sources of fats.

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Fats, also known as lipids, have long been demonized in health and nutrition.
However, this macronutrient plays an important role in human physiology
and is just as important as proteins and carbohydrates. Fats are dense and
yield high amounts of energy through the beta-oxidation pathway. They
differ from proteins and carbohydrates in both digestion and assimilation.
Like proteins, there are both essential and nonessential fats, and, like
carbohydrates, there are many different structural fats with different roles in
the body.

LIPIDS:

Organic biomolecules soluble in organic solvents, but not water.

BETA-OXIDATION:

The catabolic metabolism of fatty acids to generate the molecules needed to

synthesize adenosine triphosphate.

Lipids are a necessary part of a balanced diet for numerous reasons, including
the following:

 They store and help use the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K.

 They maintain the function and integrity of cellular membranes.
 They provide a concentrated source of energy.
 They make meals more palatable and filling.

FATS
Here are the major lipids found in the human diet and in the body:

 Triglycerides
 Fatty acids
 Essential fatty acids
 Omega-3 fatty acids
 Gamma linolenic acid
 Medium chain triglycerides
 Phospholipids
 Lecithin
 Cholesterol
CHOLESTEROL:

A lipid found in all cells and used in digestion, hormone production, and
vitamin absorption.

The building blocks of lipids are fatty acids and the small molecule glycerol.

Fatty acids are long chains of hydrogen and carbon, ranging from 4 to 36
carbon atoms in length. They are classified by the number of carbons in their
chains as follows:

FATTY ACIDS:

A chain of carbon and hydrogen atoms with a carboxyl group (carbon and
oxygen) at one end.

GLYCEROL:

A three-carbon alcohol molecule and the structural backbone of lipids.

 Short-chain fatty acids have 4 or 5 carbon atoms.

 Medium-chain fatty acids contain 6–12 carbons.
 Long-chain fatty acids include 19–23 carbon atoms.
 Anything with 20 or more carbons is a long-chain fatty acid.
Three fatty acids linked to a molecule of glycerol make a triglyceride. There
is a wide range of types of fatty acid molecules leading to a wide variety of
triglycerides.
TRIGLYCERIDE:

Three fatty acids linked to a molecule of glycerol.

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Figure 6.1 Formation of Triglycerides.

Glycerol and three fatty acids combine to form a triglyceride and water.

Nutritional fats are classified into two types: saturated

fats and unsaturated fats. The difference in molecular structure between
these two types of fats is minimal and involves single- and double-carbon
bonds, but their roles in the body differ significantly. For example, saturated
fats are known to raise levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL)
cholesterol, which is considered the “bad” type of cholesterol.

SATURATED FATS:

A fat or fatty acid with single bonds between carbons.

UNSATURATED FATS:

A fat or fatty acid with one or more double bonds between carbons.
LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN (LDL) CHOLESTEROL:

“Bad” cholesterol building up in and contributing to the hardening of arteries.

Unsaturated fats have one or more double bonds between carbon atoms in the
fatty acid chains. These can be further divided into monounsaturated fatty
acids—with just one double bond—and polyunsaturated fatty acids—with
more than one double bond. Unsaturated fats make up structural components
of cells and are important for proper growth, development, and maintenance
of body tissues. These fats are derived from plants and plant-based foods.

MONOUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS:

Fatty acids with just one double bond between carbons.

POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS:

Fatty acids with more than one double bond.

Saturated fats contain the maximum number of hydrogen atoms; they are
saturated. They have no carbon double bonds. This small change in molecular
structure means they are in a solid state at room temperature, while
unsaturated fats remain in a liquid state.

Saturated fatty acids are used for energy or stored as bodyfat. The shorter the
fatty acid length, the easier it is to metabolize for energy. The longer fatty acids
can also be used as energy or stored as bodyfat but have other functions as
well, such as cell membrane structure.

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THE ROLE OF LIPIDS IN THE BODY

Fats have a long-standing reputation in health and fitness, both positive and
negative. Medical research has linked a diet high in saturated fats and
cholesterol to diseases such as cancer, heart disease, and obesity. On the other
hand, fats are essential to the normal functioning of cells and organ systems.
Fats tend to make foods taste better, which can lead to weight-control issues.
The importance of lipids in the body is evident, and restricting or strictly
limiting fat intake should be avoided unless prescribed by a medical
 professional. Optimal health comes from the right balance between all three
macronutrients.

The main functions of nutritional lipids include the following:

 A major fuel source during exercise

 Bodyfat stores for insulation and temperature regulation
 Absorption and storage of fat-soluble vitamins
 Energy storage
 A supply of essential fatty acids that the body cannot synthesize
 Protective padding for body structures and organs
 Structure in membranes and other cell structures
 Healthy skin
 Building blocks for other biomolecules
 Hormone synthesis
Once cellular energy needs have been met in the body, excess energy
(converted to triglycerides and fatty acids) stores as bodyfat, or adipose
tissue. Excess fat is stored either subcutaneously (under the skin) or
viscerally (between organs in the abdomen) via lipogenesis.

ADIPOSE TISSUE:

Loose connective tissue made of adipocytes for storing excess fats in the body.

LIPOGENESIS:

The metabolic process forming fat for storage in adipocytes.

Lipogenesis usually happens under conditions of high energy and insulin

levels. When both energy availability and insulin levels are
low, lipolysis occurs to reverse the process, and stored fat is metabolized for
energy.

LIPOLYSIS:

The breakdown of lipids for energy occurring during fasting and exercise when
energy availability and insulin are low.

Fats play an important role in hormone production, and nutritional intake of

fat can affect several hormones and their downstream effects. For instance,
nutritional lipids affect the synthesis of prostaglandins and steroid
hormones, which are each a part of human reproduction. The body makes
prostaglandins and steroid hormones from cholesterol and fatty acids in cells.
 PROSTAGLANDINS:

Hormones involved in the inflammatory response to injury as well as female

reproductive phases.

STEROID HORMONES:

Hormones derived from cholesterol, including estrogen and testosterone.

DID YOU KNOW:

Did you know one molecule of glucose produces 36 adenosine triphosphate

(ATP) molecules? One molecule of palmitate (a fatty acid) can yield 129 ATP
molecules through beta-oxidation in the mitochondria of cells. The end result
is more energy than glucose, but the process of metabolizing the fatty acid to
make ATP is slower and less efficient.

Fatty acids are found in higher concentrations within type-1 skeletal muscle,
but the uptake is higher only if availability is higher. If an individual consumes
more fat, muscle tissue will use it but not necessarily at an efficient rate.

ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS

Of the many lipids, only two are essential. Three others are considered
important but are not strictly essential. They are sometimes referred to as
“conditionally essential” because some people may need them due to disease
or developmental conditions. Essential fatty acids cannot be produced in
the body and must be supplemented or consumed as part of a balanced diet.

ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS:

Fats that cannot be produced in the body and must be supplemented or

consumed as part of a balanced diet.

Some of the specific functions of essential fatty acids include the following:

 Maintaining the structure and function of cellular and subcellular membranes

 Serving as precursors for eicosanoids, which are important in regulating a
wide diversity of physiological processes
 Transferring oxygen from the lungs through the alveolar membrane
 Maintaining proper brain and nervous system function
 Producing prostaglandins, a group of hormones important in inflammation
and reproduction
 Forming healthy skin and hair
 Healing wounds and the inflammatory response

OMEGA-3 AND OMEGA-6

The omega acids are named for the chemical structure and the location of the
final double bond. The first double bond is three carbons from the end of the
omega tail for omega-3s and six carbons from the end of the tail for omega-6s.
The groups of fatty acids simply categorize the types of lipids the body uses to
function.

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The omega-3 fatty acids are essential and play a critical role in human cell
membranes on a microlevel. On a macrolevel, omega-3s have been found to
support brain development, fight inflammation, improve bone density, and
reduce liver fat.

OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS:

A group of essential polyunsaturated fatty acids, including eicosapentaenoic

acid, docosahexaenoic acid, and alpha-linolenic acid.

The omega-6 fatty acids are also essential and primarily used for energy in
the body. Linoleic acid is a common omega-6 and is often consumed in far
greater quantities than the omega-3 fatty acids. Research has shown the ideal
nutritional ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 should be 4:1, but the average
Western intake averages closer to 16:1 due to extensive use of vegetable oils.

OMEGA-6 FATTY ACIDS:

A group of essential polyunsaturated fatty acids, including linoleic acid.

LINOLEIC ACID:

A common essential omega-6 fatty acid.

LINOLEIC ACID
Found in safflower, corn, and soybean oils, this polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty
acid can help reduce adipose tissue deposits and improve immune function. It
has a vital role in cell membrane fluidity and structure as well as cell signaling.

DID YOU KNOW:

Omega-3 fatty acids are considered anti-inflammatory while omega-6 fatty

acids are considered proinflammatory.

Figure 6.2 Linoleic Acid.

Excess linoleic acid in the body can cause inflammation, headaches, and
lethargy, while deficiency can lead to skin and hair conditions like dermatitis
and alopecia or developmental delays in children. It should be noted that
deficiency is rare.

Linoleic acid is needed to synthesize another fatty acid, arachidonic acid.

Arachidonic acid becomes essential only when there is a deficiency in linoleic
acid. The presence of arachidonic acid in the diet has a sparing effect on
linoleic acid.

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ALPHA-LINOLENIC ACID
Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), an omega-3 fatty acid, is the other essential
fatty acid. It is also a polyunsaturated fat and is found in both animal products
and some plant oils. ALA has several functions in the body, is important in
growth, and is the precursor of two other important fatty
acids: eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid
(DHA).

ALPHA-LINOLENIC ACID (ALA):

An omega-3 fatty acid found to be effective for treating depression and

anxiety.

EICOSAPENTAENOIC ACID (EPA):

An omega-3 fatty acid used to reduce triglyceride levels.

DOCOSAHEXAENOIC ACID (DHA):

An omega-3 fatty acid used to reduce chronic disease and functions in the
development of the brain, skin, and eyes.

Figure 6.3 EPA, DHA, and ALA Structures.

The body uses the essential fatty acids for growth and functional needs over
energy needs. A diet high in essential fatty acids and low in nonessential fatty
acids increases metabolism and discourages bodyfat formation, assuming
reasonable calorie consumption. Flaxseed oil, walnuts, chia seeds, fatty
fish, and poultry are good sources of the essential fatty acids.

Research has shown that eating the right ratio of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty
acids can help reduce systemic inflammation in the body. The
recommendation for the nutritional omega-6 to omega-3 ratio is between 2:1
and 4:1. Most Americans eat far too few omega-3 fatty acids, resulting in a
skewed ratio. The ratio for most Americans is between 11:1 and 30:1.

DID YOU KNOW:

Did you know flaxseed oil supplies a good source of ALA? Flaxseed oil
contains about 51–57 percent ALA but also 15–18 percent linoleic acid. Using
flaxseed oil as a substitute for cooking and for salad oils, butter, and
margarine helps to increase essential fatty acids intake.

EPA AND DHA

As early as the 1950s, researchers found that EPA and DHA could lower
cholesterol. Decades later experts realized just how important these fatty acids
are after documenting low rates of cardiovascular diseases among Greenland
natives. This population consumes high amounts of fatty fish with DHA and
EPA.

EPA and DHA are omega-3 fatty acids but can be produced in the body from
the essential fatty acid ALA, making them not technically essential. Despite
this, adding them to a healthy diet can have benefits, especially for diets low in
saturated fatty acids.

EPA and DHA disperse fatty acids and cholesterol in the bloodstream, which
is thought to be how they reduce arterial clogging and cardiovascular disease.
They have a blood-thinning effect and discourage blood clotting. EPA and
DHA may also lower blood triglycerides and raise high-density lipoprotein
(HDL) cholesterol levels.

HIGH-DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN (HDL)::

The “good” cholesterol carrying LDL out of the bloodstream and to the liver,
where it is broken down and excreted.