Renewable Energy 130 (2019) 831e842

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Renewable Energy
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Energy analysis of biodiesel production from jojoba seed oil

Arwa Sandouqa, Zayed Al-Hamamre*
Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering, The University of Jordan, Amman, 11942, Jordan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this work, energy analysis is carried out to account for inputs and outputs of energy and GHG
Received 24 January 2018 emissions associated with the biodiesel production system. Jojoba oil is obtained by cultivation of the
Received in revised form jojoba plant, harvesting of seeds followed by extraction of oil, which is then converted to biodiesel by the
13 June 2018
process of transesterification. Energy efficiency is expressed in terms of the net energy balance (NEB) and
Accepted 2 July 2018
the net energy ratio (NER). The use of the byproducts (husk, cake or meal, waste residues and glycerin)
Available online 3 July 2018
are also included as a part of the system boundary. The results show that the NEB and NER values are
calculated at 46724.1 MJ/ha (28.9 MJ/L biodiesel produced) and 2.16, respectively. At the same time, the
Keywords:
Energy analysis
total amount of GHG emissions are estimated at 2.28 kg-CO2eq/L biodiesel produced (66.0 g CO2eq/MJ
Jojoba oil biodiesel produced). Nevertheless, if manure is used as fertilizer for jojoba plant cultivation, the primary
Biodiesel energy input will fall by 9.52% (to 22.49 MJ/L of biodiesel).
GHG emission © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Jordan

1. Introduction
An increased dependency on biodiesel can significantly
contribute towards reducing the use of fossil fuels and greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions. In the case of Jordan, this will reduce the need
to import fuels, improve the environment and increase the use of
renewable fuels. Biodiesel can be produced from oil crops, waste
cooking oils or animal fats by transesterification with an alcohol
(methanol or ethanol) yielding methyl or ethyl ester with glycerol
as a by-product [1e4]. Moreover, the produced biodiesel properties
are similar to those of conventional diesel. Thus, biodiesel can be
used as an alternative to petroleum diesel using existing in-
frastructures and utilized in current engines in a pure state or as
blends with conventional diesel.
However, several concerns have risen against biofuels regarding
environmental sustainability, feedstock availability and production
cost. This is because the production of biodiesel involves emissions
to the environment coming from the use of fertilizers during
plantation phase, use of crop protection chemicals and emissions
from fuel use during oil extraction, transportation, etc. Further, the
use of food crops to produce biodiesel may prejudice the supply of
food [5e7] and indirectly influence the land use and biodiversity
[7e11]. Therefore, much interest should be concentrated on oil-
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: a.sandouqa@ju.edu.jo (A. Sandouqa), z.hamamre@ju.edu.jo
(Z. Al-Hamamre).
producing plants that do not represent food for humans or ani-
mals. Thus, it is necessary to address the environmental implica-
tions of biodiesel production.
The wild nature of jojoba and the high oil content of jojoba seeds
make it one of the best crops which can be utilized for biodiesel
production. Jojoba plant is perennial shrub plant that grows natu-
rally in deserts. It produces seeds that are crushed to extract oil
which makes up to half the weight of the seeds [12]. Jojoba is
becoming increasingly popular as an industrial crop in some
countries as the USA, South America, South Africa, Egypt and Israel
[13,14]. The tree appears to be promising scope for cultivation in the
relatively hot weather, arid and semi-arid areas. Therefore, the tree
is now cultivated more in some arid regions in countries such as
Australia, Argentina, India, Mediterranean and African lands
[15e18].
The characteristics of jojoba oil differ fundamentally from other
common vegetable oils [19]. Its chemical structure is that of a long
straight chain ester, while other common vegetable oils are tri-
glycerides (branched esters based on the molecule glycerol). Con-
ventional oilseed crops produce glyceride oils in which fatty acids
are bound to a glycerol. Jojoba oil, on the other hand, contains no
glycerides [20]. It is composed of fatty acids bound directly to fatty
alcohols.
This oil is normally a low acidity (<2%) [21] and is unique in its
molecular simplicity, stability under pressure and high tempera-
ture, and unsaturation characteristics. Hence, it can be stored
without going rancid [22]. The oil has a total carbon chain length of

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.07.015
0960-1481/© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
832 A. Sandouqa, Z. Al-Hamamre / Renewable Energy 130 (2019) 831e842
Abbreviationlist
A Field area (hectare)
BE Biodiesel Energy (MJ/hectare)
BPE Biodiesel production energy (MJ/hectare)
CDE Cleaning, De-hulling energy (MJ/hectare)
CE Cultivation energy (MJ/hectare)
CF Cultivation fuel (L/hectare)
CPE Crop Protection Energy (MJ/hectare)
E Tractor Effectiveness
ExE Extraction energy (MJ/hectare)
F Amount of fungicides required (kg/hectare)
FC Fuel consumption (L/km)
FE Fertilizer Production Energy (MJ/hectare)
GE Glycerin energy (MJ/hectare)
GHG Greenhouse gases
HE Harvesting energy (MJ/hectare)
HE Husk energy (MJ/hectare)
HHV Higher heating value (MJ/kg)
I Amount of insecticides required (kg/hectare)
38e44 carbons. The wax esters are from long-chain mono-
unsaturated fatty acids of 18e24 carbons and mono-unsaturated
fatty alcohols of 20e24 carbons [23]. This structure makes jojoba
oil similar to human sebum and whale oil rather than being close to
other traditional vegetable oils.
Jojoba oil appears to be a promising renewable resource for
biodiesel production [24e27], as a neat fuel [28] or blended with
diesel fuel) for diesel engines [29e33] and in natural gas/LPG dual
fuel engines [34].
The aim of this study is to present a full chain energy analysis of
biodiesel production from jojoba oil in Jordan. The amounts of
energy required in farming and seed processing for oil production
are reviewed from literature. For biodiesel production, a continuous
two-stage esterification-transesterification process of jojoba oil is
proposed. Based on this process, the energy required for biodiesel
production is calculated. Both net energy balance (NEB) and the net
energy ratio (NER) are used as indicators for investigating the ef-
ficiency of this full chain biodiesel production from jojoba seed oil.
Further, GHG emissions in a life cycle of biodiesel production are
evaluated.
2. Jojoba cultivation requirements and plant characteristics
The germination and growth of jojoba are controlled by several
agro-climatic factors including temperature, soil type, salinity level
of the soil and water, and the planting methods (direct seeding
rooted cuttings, and tissue culture) [35].
2.1. Jojoba cultivation
2.1.1. Climate
Jojoba plant has alleged ability to grow and produce seeds in
variable climatic conditions. It can tolerate extremely high tem-
perature up to 54
C in summer and low temperature up to 5
C in
winter. However, the plant cannot survive temperatures below
-5
C [36]. Its agro-ecological requirements seem to be met in
extensive areas of the country. This makes the plant attractive for
potential use both in oil production and in sand-dune fixation [37],
leaving the fertile lands available for food production. Nevertheless,
the temperature of 25e30
C and equally distributed moisture in
the soil is most suitable for seed germination [38,39].
LCA Life cycle assessment
NEB Net energy balance
NER Net energy ratio
P Rated power of equipment (kWh)
Pe Power transmitted to the fluid by the pump in kW
Q Fluid flow in m3/h
RE Rest (cake) Energy (MJ/hectare)
SAR Sodium adsorption ratio
SYP Seed yearly production (kg)
T Seeding time (h)
TDC Tractor diesel consumption (L/h)
TE Transportation Energy
TEI Total energy invested (MJ/hectare)
TER Total energy return (MJ/hectare)
TF Distance between the farm and field (km)
TM Distance between the field and market (km)
W work width (m)
WRE Jojoba wastes or residues energy (MJ/hectare)
Y Biodiesel yield (kg/hectare)
t Seeding time (h/hectare)
2.1.2. Irrigation and water quality
Natural jojoba populations grow in areas receiving 76e450 mm
of precipitation annually [39]. The plant is moderately drought
tolerant and can produce regular crops with 420 mm per year [39].
However, for commercial production and due to economic reasons
(460e610 mm) of annual precipitation is needed for quick planta-
tion establishment and for best yields [40].
Hence, in most dry places where annual rainfall is less than
640 mm, supplementary water by irrigation is required to ensure a
healthy profitable crop production, unless the roots can reach
permanent soil moisture [40].
On the other hand, an area with high rainfall (1200 mm), a
drainage facility should be provided for long-term survival as jojoba
is susceptible to waterlogging [39,40]. However, where drainage is
good as in sandy soil, extra water may not be detrimental. Different
methods can be adapted depending on the availability and cost of
water, the landform, and the soil type [40]. For example, drip and
sprinkler irrigation systems can be used for sandy soils and furrow
irrigation systems on heavier soils. Still, it is most preferable to use
drip irrigation to minimize water consumption, growing grass, and
facilitate collection [37]. A plant maximally requires 50e70 L of
water weekly in summer and 10e30 L in winter [37]. In the United
States, the average annual irrigation applied is 2000e4000 L per
plant under drip irrigation [40].
The jojoba plants have a deep root system that taps into the
underground moisture and uses water from deep soil layers only as
a reservoir to resist and recover from drought stress. Mature shrubs
could have roots penetrating to a depth between 15 and 25 m into
the soil [36]. Furthermore, the plant has very high water used ef-
ficiency. The jojoba leaves have a water transpiration rate which is
10% less than that of standard crop plants even when experiencing
very dry air conditions [37].
The water shortage in Jordan, which has been a permanent
problem, has led to increasing the dependency on treated waste-
water for agriculture [41,42]. Such water has moderate salinity as
the average Cl content ranged between 150 and 450 mg/L with the
allowable limit is 400 mg/L [43,44].
Jojoba plant can grow well on sewage treated water and can
resist water salinity [45e47]. It can tolerate water with a salt con-
centration up to 7000 ppm without significant reduction of flowers
[35,48,49] and can survive and do well with water salinity up to
 A. Sandouqa, Z. Al-Hamamre / Renewable Energy 130 (2019) 831e842
10000 ppm [36]. However, the increased level of salinity was re-
ported to have reduced jojoba shoot, leaf expansion, growth rate
and the number of leaves and flowers [14,45,46,50,51]. Neverthe-
less, differences in response among clones have been observed
[39,45,50]. Further, the type of salt appears to be more significant
than the amount [40]. For example, high sodium to calcium con-
tents (>3:1) often results in a severe water infiltration problem due
to soil dispersion, plugging and sealing of the surface pores [52,53].
Further, Salinity buildup in the root zone could be a future problem
for plantations with restricted drainage that uses saline water.
Therefore, high sodium adsorption ratios (SAR) should be avoided
or need to be carefully managed and long-term tolerance to salinity
in plantations should be investigated.
2.1.3. Soil
Jojoba has the ability to grow in wide range of soils including
coarse, light or medium textured soils with good drainage and good
water penetration. The plant can grow and produce seeds in the soil
of marginal fertility. On the other hand, the waterlogged conditions,
clay soils, and soils with poor porosity and soils prone to flooding
are unsuitable for jojoba cultivation. Moreover, measurements (in
wild jojoba populations in Mexico and the United States) indicated
that soil acidity or alkalinity may not a limiting factor for jojoba
growing in soils ranging from pH 5 to 8 [39,40].
2.1.4. Temperature
Jojoba can tolerate extremely high temperatures and low tem-
peratures compared with other plants and crops. However, Tem-
perature represents a critical factor in growing jojoba.
Temperatures above 38
C cause the stomata to close, thereby
stopping vegetative growth and decrease plant productivity
[39,40]. Adverse effects are observed when temperatures exceed
50
C [39]. Likewise, when temperatures reach 5
C, flowers and
terminal portions of young branches of most jojoba plants are
damaged [39,40]. Further, during early seedling development, an
excessive cold may kill entire plantations. Therefore, it is important
to consider low-temperature hazards when selecting a site for
jojoba plantation. For example, valley bottoms, where cold-air
pooling occurs, and frosty land must be avoided since when wa-
ter freezes inside the plant it can expand and bust the cell wall,
causing cell death. However, hardened plants may withstand 9
C
without sustaining long-term damage and frost may not threaten
their survival to the same degree but it may decrease yields [39,40].
2.1.5. Plant maintenance requirements
Jojoba tree is an evergreen plant which has relatively long life-
time compared with other types of trees since it can reach 150e200
years [36,39]. The plant is a relatively pest and disease resistant
plant. More than 100 insects have been identified on jojoba plants,
but few cause any known severe damage. The plant may catch
waterborne fungal diseases: Verticillium wilt, Fusarium, Pythium
and Phytophthora [40,54]. Frost and weeds appear to be the biggest
threat to yields. However, the weed problem usually disappears
after two years because weed becomes shaded and suppressed by
the growing jojoba plants. The Rutherglen bug, biting insect pest,
parrots and Heliothis caterpillars can cause minor damage [55].
Furthermore, the jojoba plant needs little fertilizers in the first 4
years of plantation [36,37,39]. During the first year of the planta-
tion, application of nitrogen, phosphorus and potash at the rate of
7.5 kg, 37.5 kg and 75 kg per hectare respectively, is recommended.
An increase of 15 kg/hectare/year nitrogen, as well as potash and
75 kg/hectare/year phosphorus, is recommended with the growth
and development of plant [54]. Minimal chemical fertilizing could
be added to the water used for irrigation.
833
2.2. Plantation
Jojoba is normally planted by seeds or seedlings in sandy, well-
drained soil or it may be propagated through seed, rooted cuttings,
and tissue culture [39]. However, the plantations raised through
cuttings are uniform, highly survived and stable in yield potential.
The best plantation is from March through October [43,44] and the
most commonly used plantation layout is 4e5 m between rows and
1.5 me2 m between the seedlings [43,44,55].
The rows should be deep ripped three to four months before
planting and at the same time fertilized with nitrogen and phos-
phate fertilizers [55]. The plant may also be provided with nitrogen
and zinc in the first four years [37]. Though, fertilization has never
been a major factor that limits jojoba productivity [40].
Because jojoba is a dioecious plant (there are male and female
plants), it is essential to identify the sex of the plant prior to its
transplantation to the field in order to achieve the desired ratio of
male and female plants. Female plants produce the seed, but in
order to ensure adequate cross-pollination, males should be
distributed throughout the plantation with consideration given to
average wind speed and direction at a male to female ratio ranged
between 5 and 20% [40]. This is also important from an economic
point of view since such distribution help reduce cultivation costs
and boost yields by increasing fruit-bearing plants per unit area
[56]. Moreover, the selection of a single plant is usually based on
seed yield per plant, seed size, growth habit, wax content and
fruiting pattern. The variability of these parameters is usually
striking both within and among natural populations [39]. Never-
theless, the wax composition was found to be uniform throughout
the area in spite of broad botanical variability, differences in
geographic origin and differing cultural practices [39].
Jojoba is a relatively pest and disease resistant plant but frost
and weeds are the biggest threat to the plant in the first few years of
establishment [56]. To reduce the effect of weeds and allow the
build-up of soil moisture, Plastic guards approximately 20 cm high
and 10 cm wide placed around the young plants [55]. Mounding
may also be helpful by reducing the effects of seasonal water-
logging and allow herbicides for weed control to be more precisely
aimed underneath the plant. Moreover, upon using fertilizer, it
should be placed 20 cm into the rip line in an attempt to make it
unavailable to the majority of weeds [55]. Nonetheless, jojoba is a
wind-pollinated plant and thus there are no known insect polli-
nators other than accidentals. Consequently, Preventative or
corrective disease/insect spraying is rarely needed [37].
The plantation density varies depending on the size and shape
of the bushes and the management practices to be used a variety of
densities have been practiced for different site types. A hectare of
tall tree-like jojobas might contain fewer than 1500 plants while a
hectare of small bush-like ones could hold 5000 plants. A density of
about 3600 per hectare was also investigated [40].
2.2.1. Harvesting
Jojoba seeds are harvested when they are fully mature. The
jojoba seeds become dry and dropped to the ground from where
they are collected. Earlier harvesting of green seeds reduces the
quantity of wax that can be extracted. Further, when it is pressed
green seed introduces water into the oil which reduces its quality
and price.
A vacuum harvesting technique is usually used to suck up
mature fallen seeds from the ground [40,55]. However, suction may
pick up dirt and rocks and thus they are separated from the beans
by winnowing and a gravity table.
Another method of collecting the seed straight from the shrub
has been also applied in the United State [40]. A large over-the-row
jojoba picker, modified from grape and blueberry pickers, is used.
834 A. Sandouqa, Z. Al-Hamamre / Renewable Energy 130 (2019) 831e842

The picking machine uses layers of plastic fingers to flip seeds off Table 4
the plants and onto belts that deliver them to containers on the The GHG emissions factors for fertilizers and pesticides [88].

harvester. Further, the seeds can also be hand collected and then Item gCO2/kg gCH4/kg gN2O/kg gCO2-eq/kg
vacuumed in large farms. Seeds can be left uncollected for several N-fertilizer 2827.00 8.68 9.64 5880.59
weeks without any impact on the quality of oil [37]. Therefore, P-fertilizers 964.89 1.33 0.05 1010.74
more than one harvesting of bushes can be avoided when the seeds K-fertilizer 536.31 1.57 0.01 576.08
do not mature and fallen at the same time. This reduces the har- Pesticides 9886.50 25.53 1.68 10971.32

vesting cost and increases significantly the efficiencies.

2.3. Plant yield Table 5

The annual production of jojoba seeds per tree supplied with 400 mm of water
annually.
There is a significant difference between the net yield from rain-
fed plants and irrigated plants. This difference increased consider- Tree age Yield kg seeds/tree/yr Reference

ably with an increase in the number of years. For effective germi- 1 0 [59]
nation and subsequent growth, young jojoba plants require some 2 0 [59]
3 0.05 [59,60]
form of irrigation to ensure an adequate water supply for the
4 0.15 [59]
seedlings over the winter months. Jojoba plants, and depending on 5 0.2 [57]
the rate of watering, start producing fruit in 3 years; full maturity 6 0.406 The average value of the 5th and 7th year
takes 10e12 years [38]. 7 0.613 [61]
A conservative estimate for the yield of a jojoba plant may reach 8 0.8 [61]
9 1.0 [61,62]
200 g of seed after 5 years and 500 g after 10 years. After 7e8 years 10 1.5 [62]
the yield can be predicted, moderately, as high as 1.5e2.0 kg per 11 2 [62]
female per year. However, for good quality full maturity plants i.e., 12 2.5 [38,62]
after 11e12 years, an optimistic estimation can be in the range of 13 3 [63]
14 4 [63]
2.0 kg/tree (collected from plants of 2.7 m height and 2.3 m diam-
15 5 [63]
eter [39] when the rainfall in excess of 400 mm per annum
[39,57,58]. Table 5 shows the annual production of jojoba seeds per
tree. The values are for an annual water supply of 400 mm. The oil
using utilizing jojoba seeds for the replacement non-renewable
content of the seeds ranged from 44 to 59% and it is directly
rules is mainly of reducing the dependency on imported fuels in
correlated with seed size. However, the quality of the oil has no
order to reduce the energy bill.
observed dependency on the geographic origin of the seed [40].
However, in setting out the possibilities of utilizing jojoba seeds
as an alternative green energy source, it is right to consider the 2.4. Oil characteristics
cumulative energy balance and lifecycle implications. The benefit of
The heating value of jojoba oil was measured at 49.339 MJ/kg
while the heating value of the jojoba rest (the byproduct of jojoba
Table 1 oil extraction) was measured at 15.121 MJ/kg [64]. The oil, which is
The IPCC 100-year global warming potentials [88].
sulfur-free [36], can serve as a supplemental fuel on its own or as a
Gas CO2 CH4 N2 blend with diesel fuel in engines [65]. The physicochemical prop-
Global Warming Potential 1 23 296 erties of jojoba oil are presented in Table 6.

2.5. Jojoba Plantation in Jordan

Table 2
GHG emission factors for fossil fuels, electricity from the grid, feedstock, product and The agro-ecological requirements of jojoba tree seem to be met
co-products [88].
in several areas of the country. The advantage characteristics that
Item gCO2/MJ gCH4/MJ gN2O/MJ gCO2-eq/MJ make the tree one of the most practical and scientific solutions for
Diesel 87.64 0.00 0.00 87.64 plantation in Jordan in order to be used as a source of alternative,
Electricity 114.48 0.37 0.00 124.42 renewable energy. Some of the advantages are its high oil content
Natural gas 62.96 0.20 0.00 67.59 seeds, its adaptability to extreme drought conditions, temperature
Biodiesel or FAME 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 variation and soil characteristics. On the other hand, the inherent
Jojoba biomass 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
(waste and residues)
limitations included the huge genetic variability between
Glycerin 79.7a 0.00 0.00 79.7
a
Singhabhandhu et al. [89]. Table 6
The physicochemical properties of jojoba oil.

Table 3 Property Value

The GHG emissions factors for chemicals encountered in biodiesel production [88]. 3
Density (g/cm ), at 25 C

0.86 [63, 66]
On the other hand, The GHG emissions factors used for agricultural inputs are given Viscosity (cp) 35-37 (at 25
C) [63]
in Table 4. Acid value (mg KOH/g oil) 2 [63]
Saponification value (mg KOH/g oil) 92 [63]
Item gCO2/kg gCH4/kg gN2O/kg gCO2-eq/kg
Iodine value g I2/100 g oil 82 [63]
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) 193.85 0.55 0.00 207.73 43.80e56.55 [66]
Methanol (MeOH) 16.28 0.05 0.00 16.28 Peroxide value (mEq O2/kg oil) 1.98e2.85 [66]
Potassium hydroxide (KOH) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Flash point (oC) 295 [66]
Magnesium sulphate (MgSO4) e e e 0.3 [90] Ash content, % by weight 0.064 [63]
Bicarbonate of soda (NaHCO3) e e e 1.17 [90] Heating value (kJ/kg) 49.34 [63]
 A. Sandouqa, Z. Al-Hamamre / Renewable Energy 130 (2019) 831e842
individual plants.
As jojoba production in Jordan is still in its infancy. A private 7-
ha jojoba demonstration farm in the Jordanian desert east of the
airport is constructed with 6000 jojoba trees. Also, the Jordan
University of Science and Technology (JUST) campus hosts a small
field of jojoba trees with a seed yield of 1.5e2.0 tons per year
[67,68].
2.5.1. Site selection
The Eastern (Badia), represents an extension of the Arabian
Desert. In Al-Mafrq area, which is 26,551 km2, the rural area rep-
resents 60.8%, while the urban area represents 39.2%. The average
rainfall in these areas is below 100 mm/a, and maximum temper-
atures may reach 25
C during the summer months. Fig. 2 shows
the rainfall and temperature distribution in this region.
The climate of Azraq Basin is characterized by hot and dry
summers, leading to very high evaporation rates (80e90%). The
mean annual rainfall within Azraq Basin ranges from 100 to
150 mm in the west and north. Although the annual rainfall below
100 mm over more than 80% of Azraq area, the Azraq basin has the
most substantial resources of surface and groundwater. During the
winter, surface flows in the wadis are estimated to average 40.9
MCM/year [69]. The saturated thickness of the aquifers decreases
towards the center of the basin, from over 300 m in both north and
south to about 50 m around Azraq.
Moreover, the soil in the Azraq desert is suitable soil for jojoba
cultivation. It is mainly rocky basalt plateau soil with high salinity
(13.5 mg/g NaHCO3 and 28% CaCO3). The sand, clay and silt content
of the soil was reported at 22%, 35%, and 43%, respectively [70].
Fig. 1. System boundary for biodiesel production from jojoba seed oil.
Fig. 2. The rainfall and temperature distribution in the Eastern Badia region (data
obtained from Ref. [69]).
835
Further, the soli has low organic content (1.92% organic C) and low
N-content (0.062%). Hence, the potential of utilizing this area for
agricultural food production is low. Though, such kind of soil is
highly preferable for jojoba plantation and growing [38].
2.5.2. Jojoba farm
Jojoba trees are usually grown in lines that are 4.0 m apart. The
average distance between the trees is 1.5 m. This makes an average
of 1670 plants/hectare. If 13% of them are expected to be mail trees
(i.e. 220 plants/hectare), then 1450 plants/hectare are female trees
that produce jojoba seeds. There is, therefore, the reason to predict
that a yield potential of 2900 kg seed/hectare is reasonable for
moderate prediction of 2.0 kg seeds per full maturity female plants
per year. For a total farm area of 50 ha, the total annual production
of seed will be 145 ton seed/year. With 50% oil seed content, the
expected amount of oil produced is estimated at 72.5 ton/year.
Jojoba is usually irrigated by dripping to minimize water con-
sumption and growing grass. Therefore, the farm has to be equip-
ped with drip irrigation system that can provide 5.67 m3/h per
10 ha (assuming annual irrigation rate requirement of 3000 L/
plant).
3. Material and Methods
The analysis starts with the extraction of raw material and ends
with fuel utilization by the consumer. Through this analysis, the
additional quantity of energy required to turn the energy present in
the raw materials into a useable energy of the fuel is estimated.
Therefore, the potential factors related to product lifecycle energy
balance, including raw materials, production, consumption, and
waste utilization are evaluated.
The energy in the biodiesel fuel lifecycle is analyzed via calcu-
lating all energy flows from production to disposal during the
biodiesel fuel life cycle. The amounts of energy required for the
various processes and products in the biodiesel production chain
from jojoba oil are obtained from literature and experimental data.
This includes the energy inputs to produce jojoba seed, to supply
the amount of fertilizers and chemicals required for crop protec-
tion, which are provided during jojoba crop growth and energy
required for transportation.
Both net energy balance (NEB) and the net energy ratio (NER)
are used as indicators for investigating the results of this full chain
energy analysis. The NEB is the difference between the total energy
outputs (the energy content of biodiesel and its co-products) and
total energy inputs (as fossil fuel energy and/or electrical energy) in
the fuel production cycle. It is used as an indicator for comparing
the energy efficiency of biofuels [71]. On the other hand, NER is the
ratio of total energy outputs to total energy inputs and reflects the
energy efficiency of the process.
For biodiesel production, a continuous two-stage esterification-
transesterification process of jojoba oil is proposed based on lab-
scale bath process. Based on this process, the energy required for
biodiesel production is calculated. Both the energy inputs and
outputs at farm level are expressed as energy MJ/ha. At the same
time, energy efficiency in terms of the net energy balance (NEB) and
net energy ratio is analyzed.
3.1. System boundary
The system boundary of this study is shown in Fig. 1. It is started
with jojoba plantation and includes further the extraction and
conversion of seed oil into biodiesel. Energy inputs during fertilizer
production and application, jojoba plantation and harvesting, oil
extraction, biodiesel production, product transportation and dis-
tribution are included. Energy outputs from biodiesel and its co-
836 A. Sandouqa, Z. Al-Hamamre / Renewable Energy 130 (2019) 831e842
products (straw, seed cake, and glycerin) are considered in the
analysis. Nevertheless, the analysis excludes the assessments of
energy consumption associated with facilities construction i.e.
manufacturing machines, irrigating structures, vehicles, etc. as well
as manual labor.
3.2. Energy analysis model
The production of biodiesel from jojoba oil is only feasible if the
energy required to produce it is less than the energy produced from
it. Therefore, it is necessary to calculate the energy requirements for
each process included in the system boundary shown in Fig. 1.
Moreover, energy efficiency is one of the most important elements
of sustainability analysis [72]. One simple indicator of energy effi-
ciency is the measure of net energy ratio (NER) or net energy return
[71,73e75]. The NER calculations are performed on a per hectare
basis using the following formulas:
TER
NER ¼ (1)
TEI
where TER is the amount of energy produced (MJ/ha), and TEI is the
total of energy invested or used in production (MJ/ha).
3.2.1. The energy Inputs
3.2.1.1. Cultivation energy (CE). It is the amount of energy in the
form of diesel fuel used (expressed in liter per hectare) for driving
the tractor and operating the machinery to cultivate the land. This
includes running the tractor to distribute fertilizers, chemicals or
manure. The following formula is used for calculating the CE (MJ/
ha)
CE ¼ HHV  CF (2)
where HHV is the higher heating value of diesel fuel (41.24 MJ/kg)
and CF is the amount of fuel required in L/ha calculated as [76].
CF ¼ TDC  t (3)
where TDC is the tractor diesel consumption (L/h)
t is the seeding time (h/ha) and calculated as [77]:
 
10000
t¼ (4)
workwidth  ½workspeed  1000  effectivness ð%Þ
For a 4 wheel drive (4 WD) normal size tractor, the diesel con-
sumption will be 3.62 L/h [76], the working width, the working
speed and effectiveness are 1.5 m and 3.0 km/h and 85%, respec-
tively [77]. Hence, the t (the seeding time) and CF are estimated at
2.6 h/ha and 9.4 L/ha, respectively.
3.2.1.2. Fertilizer production energy (FE). Fertilizer Production En-
ergy (FE) is the energy required for the production of the three
major mineral fertilizers: nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. The
quantities of fertilizers (N, P, and K, respectively, in kg/ha) used for
jojoba seed production are obtained from Kureel et al. [54]. The
energy conversion factors (in MJ/kg) are based on Lewis [78].
Though, the conversion factor for N-fertilization is based on Jenssen
and Kongshaug [79]. The factors are as follows: N-fertilizer 40.3 MJ/
kg, P2O5-fertilizer 8.6 MJ/kg and K2O-fertilizer 6.4 MJ/kg. Hence, the
FE (MJ/ha) is calculated using the following formula:
FE ¼ 40:3  N þ 8:6  P þ 6:4  K (5)
where the amount of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash fertilizers
are specified at a rate of 75.0 kg/ha, 37.50 kg/ha and 75.0 kg/ha,
respectively [54]. However, if composted manure is used as fertil-
izer, then the fertilizer energy production would be set to zero [80].
3.2.1.3. Crop protection energy (CPE). It is the energy required for
the production of insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides (I, H, F)
respectively. Jojoba is a relatively pest and disease resistant plant
[81]. Nevertheless, it is affected by waterborne fungal diseases [54]
and to a minor level by Rutherglen bug, parrots and Heliothis cat-
erpillars [55]. In order to control such threat, the seed treatment is
done with Bavistin and insecticides.
The energy conversion factors of insecticides and fungicides are
200 MJ/kg and 96 MJ/kg, respectively [82]. Hence, the CPE (in MJ/
ha) is calculated as
CPE ¼ 200  I þ 96  F (6)
where I and F represent the amount of insecticides and fungicides
required kg/ha. In severely infected filed [54], recommended the
use of 25 kg/ha of insecticides and 5.8 kg/ha.
3.2.1.4. Transportation energy (TE). It represents the energy
required for round trips between the farmhouse and field (TF) and
from the field to the (TM) production plant or market. In this work,
it is assumed that the production plant is built near the farm with
TF ¼ 2 km and the distance between the farm and main city TM is
35 km. For a truck size of 8 ton, the fuel consumption rate is
assumed at 30.0 L diesel/100 km [77]. Considering the average total
distances (in kilometer) over the cultivation period and doubled to
account for the return trips, the transportation energy (MJ/ha) is
estimated using the following formula.
 
TF þ TM
TE ¼ 2  Fuel Consumption  HHV  (7)
Field Area
where a total filed area of 50 ha is assumed.
3.2.1.5. Irrigation energy (IE). It is the power required to drive
pumps that are used for supplying irrigation water. The electrical
power used to deliver the pump motor is estimated using the
following formula:
Q ðrghÞ
Pe ¼
(8)
h 3:6  106
with:
Pe ¼ Power transmitted to the fluid by the pump in kW, Q is the
fluid flow in m3/h, r is the density of the fluid (water) which is
1000 kg/m3, h is the differential head in meter, h is the efficiency
of the pump and g is the acceleration of gravity (9.81 m2/s).
3.2.1.6. Harvesting energy (HE). It is the amount of energy in the
form of diesel fuel used, called Harvesting fuel (CF in liter per
hectare). The harvesting energy is calculated using equation (2). At
the same time, the value of the CF is obtained from equation (3) and
the value of t is calculated from equation (4).
For a harvesting machine with an engine size of 140 kW, the
diesel consumption is obtained at 7.50 L/h. At the same time, the
working width, the working speed, and effectiveness are 6 m and
5.0 km/h and 90%, respectively [77]. Hence, the harvesting time (t)
is estimated at 0.37 h/ha.
3.2.1.7. Cleaning & dehulling energy (CDE). Dehulling is the process
 A. Sandouqa, Z. Al-Hamamre / Renewable Energy 130 (2019) 831e842
of removing the hulls from dried beans and other seeds using a
cracking or dehulling machine. The dehulling step is usually used
when a large amount of undehulled seeds is supplied to the process
plant in a regular manner. The cleaning & dehulling energy is the
energy required for automatic feeding of un-hulled seeds to the
dehulling equipment and for the removal the shells from kernels,
separate and re-separates un-hulled seeds from kernels. The CDE
energy (MJ/ha) is calculated using the following equation:
 
seed yearly production  Time  Rated Power  3:6
CDE ¼
Field Area
(9)
The cleaning and dehulling time for a machine with a capacity of
500 kg/hr provided by Zhengzhou Amisy Trading Co., Ltd [83] are
estimated at 289.5 h (assuming annual seed production of 145 ton),
while the machine rated power is reported at 6.73 kW. The con-
version factor between MJ and kWh is 3.6 MJ/kWh and the area of
the filed expressed in hectare.
3.2.1.8. Extraction and grinding energy (EGE). Jojoba seeds contain
at least 50% of its weight as oil. The pressing of jojoba seeds is easily
achieved using a screw press [84]. Moreover, screw pressing
required lower energy compared with solvent extraction and
required no further thermal separation steps. A multifunction
including screw oil press, electrical element for the heating
chamber and vacuum filter for clearing oil. The ExE is obtained from
equation (9).
The extraction time for a 6YL-A oil press machine with filters
with a capacity of 500 kg/hr provided by Henan Name Brand Ma-
chinery CO., LTD [85] is estimated at 290 h (assuming annual seed
production of 145 ton), while the machine rated power is 15 kW.
3.2.1.9. Biodiesel production energy (BPE). In spite of the fact that
the jojoba oil to biodiesel conversion process involves several steps
as shown previously in Fig. 1, the energy required mainly in the
esterification and transesterification steps. The material and energy
balance calculations for the whole process is performed using excel
2013.
For the BPE calculation, it was assumed that energy is only
supplied using a natural gas-fired boiler to generate the necessary
heat and imported electricity from the grid. Several studies showed
that the fraction of imported electricity from the grid ranged be-
tween 4% and 12% of the total Biodiesel Production Energy. An
average value of 8% is considered in this study.
3.2.2. The energy output
The Energy outputs comprise of the energy content in the pro-
duced biodiesel as well as co-products (husk, waste residues, seed
cake and glycerin).
3.2.2.1. Jojoba Biodiesel energy (BE). Energy output in the form of
biodiesel (BE, MJ/ha) is calculated according to the following
equation:
BE ¼ HHV  BDYield (10)
where HHV is the heating value of biodiesel in MJ/kg and the bio-
diesel yield (BDyield) is expressed in kg/ha.
3.2.2.2. Energy from glycerin (GE). Glycerin is the byproduct left
over after the biodiesel reaction process is complete. The energy
output in the form of Glycerin is calculated using equation (10).
3.2.2.3. Energy from rest (cake) (RE). Jojoba oil is extracted by
837
pressing the seeds several times. The jojoba rest or residue repre-
sents the residual solid matter remaining after oil extraction [64].
The energy content in jojoba rest is calculated using equation (10).
3.2.2.4. Energy from Husk (HE). Husk is the outer shell or layer of
seeds. In order to obtain meal with low fiber contents, seeds with
high husk content must be decorticated. The energy content in
jojoba rest is calculated using equation (10).
3.2.2.5. Energy from residues (WRE). It is the energy available in
jojoba wastes or residues, particularly the tree branches and other
material left over after commercial timber harvesting. The WRE is
calculated using equation (10).
Therefore, the total energy return (TER) from the jojoba bio-
diesel production is the summation of all the individual output
processes.
 
MJ
TER ¼ BE þ GE þ RE þ WRE (11)
ha
The net energy ratio (NER) is the ratio of total energy return
(outputs) to total energy inputs and reflects the energy efficiency of
the process and calculated according to equation (1). The NER value
should be higher than 1 in order to consider the fuel renewable and
energy efficient [86,87]. Moreover, the net energy balance (NEB in
MJ/ha) which is the difference between the total energy outputs
(TER: the energy content of biodiesel and its co-products) and total
energy inputs (TEI), as fossil fuel energy and/or electrical energy, is
calculated as:
NEB ¼ TER  TEI (12)
3.3. The GHG emissions
Greenhouse gas emission calculations include emissions of
carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). The
relative contributions of these gases depend on the amount
released and their global warming potential. In this study, the IPCC
100-year global warming potentials factors are used. Using these
factors, total GHG emissions are expressed in units of kilograms of
carbon dioxide equivalent (kgCO2eq). The factors are presented in
Table 1.
The GHG emission factors for all consumption of fossil fuels,
electricity from the grid, feedstock, product, and co-products are
shown in Table 2.
The CO2 emissions generated by biodiesel combustion are
“recyclable” through plant photosynthesis. The CO2 is released into
the atmosphere is recycled by the growing plants, which are later
processed into the fuel.
The GHG emissions factors for the chemicals utilized in biodiesel
production are shown in Table 3.
On the other hand, The GHG emissions factors used for agri-
cultural inputs are given in Table 4.
3.4. Production of jojoba methyl ester
A lab-scale experiment is conducted to convert jojoba oil into
biodiesel. A two-steps process is used for oil conversion to bio-
diesel: In the first step, acid catalyzed esterification is used, while in
the second step alkali-catalyzed transesterification process is
adapted. In the acid catalyzed esterification, 300 g (0.492 mol) of
crude jojoba oil is preheated to 65
C and mixed with 116.6 g
(3.64 mol) of methanol. This is followed by drop-wise addition of
6 mL (0.113 mol) concentrated Sulfuric acid as catalyst. The mixture
838 A. Sandouqa, Z. Al-Hamamre / Renewable Energy 130 (2019) 831e842

is stirred, under reflux, for approximately 2 h in order to esterify the

Jojoba Oil
free fatty acids. Upon cooling to room temperature, the alcoholic
layer is removed by gravity separation in a separating funnel, while 9.063kg/h
the oil phase is washed with 5% sodium bicarbonate solution (three
times) and distilled water (3  400 mL) to remove the residual
sulfuric acid. Esterification conversion was determined according to Q= 1744 MJ
the changes in acid value between the jojoba oil before and after Heater (A)
the esterification process. 1.66 kg /h
Methanol
In the alkali-catalyzed transesterification step, methoxide so- Esterification
9.063 kg /h
lution is prepared by mixing 7.27 g (0.03 mol) of potassium hy- Jojoba Oil Q= 336 MJ
droxide with 105.5 g (3.3 mol) methanol. The solution is then
H2SO4
0.16 kg /h Reactor
mixed with the pretreated jojoba oil (i.e. which is obtained from the
acid catalyzed esterification step). The mixture is kept at 65
C for
4 h with stirring (800 rpm) under reflux. The mixture is then
allowed to settle in a separating funnel in order to separate the
Separator
methyl ester layer and glycerol layer. The crude methyl ester layer is
then washed with water to remove residual catalyst, glycerol, 8.85 kg /h
unreacted oil, and soap. It is then dried with magnesium sulphate Water 0.44 kg /h Wash column (1)
NaHCO3
(MgSO4) to produce dried jojoba methyl ester. The trans-
8.85 kg /h
esterification conversion and methyl ester yield are determined Water
Wash column (1)
according to the procedure described in Ref. [1].
Based on the experimental findings, material, and energy bal-
ance calculations are performed for a continuous process, which
Q = 808 MJ
combines both esterification and trans-esterification steps in order
Heater (B)
to convert jojoba oil into jojoba methyl ester. Excel 2013 is used to
perform the required calculations. 0.087 kg/h
KOH
Trans- Q= 56 MJ
4. Results and Discussion esterification
Methanol 1.5 kg/h

4.1. Jojoba methyl ester yield

The yield of the pretreated jojoba oil is measured at 98% (i.e. Separator
approximately 294 g of the pretreated oil are produced). At the
same time, the acid value of the oil is reduced from 2 mgKOH/g to 7.03 kg /h
Water Wash column (3)
1 mg KOH/g in the acid esterification step. The methyl ester yield
after the transesterification step is estimated, with respect to the
crude jojoba oil, at approximately 96% (i.e. 289.87 g of methyl ester 0.056 kg /h Dryer
MgSO4
is produced when using 300 g of crude jojoba oil). The acid value of
the produced methyl ester is measured at 0.12 mgKOH/g.

Biodiesel
4.2. Mass and energy balance
8.76 kg/h
The material and energy flow for the esterification and trans-
esterification steps of jojoba oil are presented in Fig. 3. The calcu- Fig. 3. Mass and energy balance for biodiesel production from jojoba seed oil.
lations are performed based on the experimental data obtained
from the batch of lab-scale experiments.
The total plant capacity is set to 72.504 ton/year. Assuming 8000
operating hour per year, the estimated oil flow rate in a continuous FPE ¼ CE þ FE þ CPE þ IE þ HE þ TE (13)
process will be 9.063 kg/h. Assuming a total oil to biodiesel con-
version of 96%, the produced biodiesel can be as high as 8.76 kg/h. where CE is the cultivation energy, FE is the fertilizer production
energy, CPE is the crop protection energy, TE is the transportation
energy, IE is the irrigation energy, HE is the harvesting energy. On
4.3. Energy analysis
the other hand, the COE is the total amount of energy necessary for
the conversion of jojoba oil to biodiesel. Hence,
The energy analysis is performed for a 50-ha farm with 1670
jojoba tree/hectare of which 1450 female's trees (i.e. seed-
producing trees) and 220 male trees. The estimated total annual COE ¼ CDE þ EGE þ BPE (14)
seed production is 145-ton seed/year.
where.
CDE is the cleaning and dehulling energy, EGE is the extraction
4.3.1. The Total energy Inputs (Investment) and grinding energy and BPE is the biodiesel production energy.
The total energy invested in the process (TEI, MJ/ha) include Thus
both the conversion energy (COE, MJ/ha) and the feedstock pro-
duction energy (FPE, MJ/ha). The FPE is the total energy (MJ)
TEI ¼ CE þ FE þ CPE þ TE þ IE þ HE þ CDE þ EGE þ BPE (15)
required to produce the per-hectare feedstock and deliver it to the
biofuel processing plant. It is the therefore Utilizing the previously described model equations, the
 A. Sandouqa, Z. Al-Hamamre / Renewable Energy 130 (2019) 831e842 839

Table 7 of the husk is measured at 6.4 MJ/kg husk.

A summary of inputs energy. Moreover, the jojoba rest (cake or meal remaining after oil
Item Energy Energy % extraction) to seed ratio equal approximately 1:1 by weight. The
(MJ/hectare/year) (GJ/year) ash content in the cake was reported at 3.85% and thus the ash free
CE 325.5 162.8 0.81 jojoba cake represents 46.15% with a heating value of 15.344 MJ/kg
FE 3825 1912.5 9.52 [64]. Further, its combustion characteristics are similar to most
CPE 5556.8 2778.4 13.83 types of wood [64,65]. Therefore, it can be used as a replacement
TE 15.4 07.7 0.038
for coal-based and oil shale-based appliances in industrial furnaces,
IE 1500 750.0 3.73
HE 363.6 181.8 0.905 boilers, power generating plants and household heating devices.
Sum (FPE) 11586.3 5793.2 28.84 Hence, jojoba rest can be attractive as a solid fuel of biomass origin
CDE 140.3 70.2 0.35 and as a substrate for a biogasification process.
EGE 312.7 156.4 0.78
In addition, the residue-to-product ratio (RPR) which is defined
BPE 28137.0 14068.5 70.03
Sum (COE) 28590 14295.0 71.16
as the fraction of waste residues generated in the field at the time of
Total Invested 40176.3 20088.2 100 harvests (field based residues) such as wood, branches, and leaves
Energy (TEI) for jojoba like tree was reported at 0.1 [93,94]. At the same time, the
TEI (MJ/L BD) 24.86 average heating value of such kind of residues was reported at
15.2 MJ/kg [93].
The different outputs energy values are calculated using the
different energy values are calculated per hectare. The energy previously described model and presented per hectare in Table 8.
required for irrigation is calculated assuming an annual irrigation Therefore, the total energy return (TER) from the jojoba bio-
rate requirement of 3000 L/plant. The calculated flow rate is diesel production which is the summation of all the individual
5.76 m3/h per 10 ha. Assuming a total differential head of 160 m output processes is calculated as 86900.1 MJ/ha. The JBE and RE
(including the head of system þ depth of water level þ distance of make the largest contribution to the total energy return at 23.6%
water source), the total power required to deliver a 60% efficiency and 64.3%. This shows the importance of utilizing the jojoba rest
water pump is calculated as 4.23 kW. Hence, 5 pumps with 5.5 kW (cake or meal) as a source of energy.
are chosen [91] to provide the water required for the whole farm
area (50 ha). Table 7 shows a summary of the different inputs en- 4.3.3. The energy efficiency
ergy values. For the biodiesel production from jojoba seed oil, the net energy
The total energy investment (energy input) is estimated at balance (NEB) value is estimated at 46724.1 MJ/ha and the NER
40176.3 MJ/ha. The percentage of EPE is 28.84% while that of COE is calculated as 2.16. The NER value is higher than 1.0. This value gives
71.16%. The fertilizer production energy and crop production en- a positive indication that the energy produced in a form of biodiesel
ergy contribute to approximately 9.2% and 13.8% of the total energy and its co-product is higher than the amount of energy which is
invested. Therefore, fertilizers and crop protection energy makes used to produce biodiesel. Therefore, the jojoba biodiesel fuel can
the largest single contribution to the total FPE of biodiesel pro- be considered renewable [87]. However, according to Hall et al.
duction from jojoba seed oil. The application of N-based fertilizers [74], a minimum NER of 3 should be achieved in order to support
accounts for about 79% of the total FE. Moreover, the BPE, the FE, continuing economic activity and social function.
and CPE contribute to about 93.38% of the total energy investment. The value of the energy efficiency or NER is highly dependent on
Hence, the energy requirements of biodiesel are relatively sensitive the crop yield which is affected by various agricultural technologies
to the energy requirements of fertilizers and crop protection. In that may be applied [72]. The Energy efficiency can be modified by
order to reduce the total energy investment and consequently in- applying composted manure. In this case, the fertilizer energy
crease the energy efficiency, the biodiesel production methods production is set to zero [80] and NER will be 2.39. Further modi-
must be modified and manure must be utilized as fertilizer. fication can be achieved by reducing the amount of insecticides and
fungicides and thus the crop protection energy.
4.3.2. The energy outputs
The Energy outputs comprise the energy content in the pro- 4.4. The GHG emissions
duced biodiesel and co-products (husk, straw, seed cake and glyc-
erin). The material balance revealed that the biodiesel yield is 96% Calculation of the representative amounts of GHG emissions is
by weight (calculated with reference to jojoba oil). At the same shown in Table 9. In order to produce 1 L of biodiesel in this plan,
time, the ratio of the glycerin produced as a byproduct to biodiesel the total amount of emitted is estimated at 2.0156 kg-CO2.
equal to 16.6% by weight. The energy content of biodiesel and Moreover, other GHG emissions, such as methane (CH4) and
glycerin are measured at 40.2 MJ/kg and 20 MJ/kg, respectively. nitrous oxide (N2O), can be released from the production of bio-
In addition, jojoba seeds are covered by a thin hull (husk) with diesel from jojoba seed oil. These gases contribute to the green-
relatively high fiber content. The amount of husk produced is house effect and are, hence, also implicated in global warming. The
estimated at 25% of the total seed produced [92]. The heating value total GHG emissions are estimated at 2.282 kgCO2eq/L biodiesel.

Table 8
A summary of outputs energy.

Property (energy) Property Yield (kg/hectare) Energy output (MJ/hectare/year) Energy output (GJ/year) %

Jojoba rest (Cake) (RE) 1340 20508 10254 23.6

Husk (HE) 720 1476.7 738.35 1.7
Waste residues (WRE) 290 4401 2200.5 5.06
Glycerin (GE) 230 4632.7 2316.35 5.33
Biodiesel (JBE) 1390 55881.7 27940.85 64.30
Total Energy Return (TER) 86900.1 43450.05 100
840 A. Sandouqa, Z. Al-Hamamre / Renewable Energy 130 (2019) 831e842

Table 9
The total annual greenhouse gas emissions from the conventional production of biodiesel from jojoba seed oil (values are presented per hectare).

Item kgCO2 kgCH4 kgN2O kgCO2eq

Cultivation (D) 28.5 0.00 0.00 28.5

Transportation (D) 1.3 0.00 0.00 1.3
Harvesting (D) 31.9 0.00 0.00 31.9
Cleaning & Dehulling (E) 16.1 0.1 0.00 17.5
Irrigation (E) 171.7 0.6 0.00 186.6
Crop protection (Pesticides) 304.5 0.8 0.1 337.9
N-fertilizer 212.0 0.7 0.7 441.0
P-fertilizers 36.2 0.00 0.00 37.9
K-fertilizer 40.2 0.1 0.00 43.2
Extraction (E) 35.8 0.1 0.00 38.9
BDP (NG) 1629.9 5.1 0.00 1749.6
(E) 257.7 0.8 0.00 280.1
BDP chemicals H2SO4 20.5 0.1 0.00 22.0
MeOH 18.1 0.1 0.00 18.1
MgSO4 1.7 0.3 0.00 1.7
NaHCO3 82.4 e e 82.4
Glycerin 369.2 0.00 0.00 369.2
Total kg/hectare 32587.58 84.0 80.0 36888.0
kg/L biodiesel 2.0159 0.0052 0.0005 2.2820
kg/kg biodiesel 2.3440 0.0060 0.0006 2.6535
kg/MJ biodiesel 0.0583 0.0002 0.000 0.0660

D: denotes that diesel fuel is used as energy source, E: electricity, and NG denotes for natural gas.

Glycerin
10.01% Fer zer
Pes cides
14.16%
9.16%

Chemicals
3.37%

CE
0.77%

TE
0.04%
BPE IE
55.04% 5.06%
HE
0.86%
ExE CDE
1.05% 0.47%

Fig. 4. Percentage GHG emissions encountered in the biodiesel production from jojoba seed oil.

Fig. 4 shows that the most significant contribution to GHG
emissions from the production of biodiesel from jojoba seed oil is
due to fertilizers at 14.16%, crop protection at 9.16% and the bio-
diesel production step at approximately 56.32%. The GHG emis-
sions (expressed as kgCO2eq) arise from the application of nitrogen
fertilizer to the soil during and after cultivation of jojoba plant
account for 12.23% of the total GHG emitted due to the use of
fertilizers.
Total GHG emissions in the production of the biodiesel fuel can
be reduced by exclusively using renewable energy sources for the
production of biodiesel. Hence, the effect of possible modifications
to the conventional production of biodiesel from jojoba oilseed oil
is examined. These modifications consist of growing the jojoba
trees using manure as fertilizer and utilizing biodiesel to replace
fossil fuels in road transport vehicles and agricultural machinery. It
is estimated that the primary energy input can fall by 9.52% (to
22.49 MJ/L of biodiesel) and the GHG emissions can be decreased by
16% (to 55.5 g CO2/MJ or 1.92 kg CO2/L of biodiesel). Further, if
biodiesel is used to replace 50% of the natural gas used in boilers (at
the transesterification step), the GHG emissions can be decreased
by 52% (to 31.8 g CO2/MJ or 1.1 kg CO2/L of biodiesel).
On the other hand, biomass materials encountered in the pro-
duction process (jojoba cake, husk, and waste residues) are por-
trayed as being derived from “waste” materials. On the other hand,
CO2 emissions from the combustion of the biomass materials
encountered in the production process (jojoba cake, husk, and
waste residues) are assumed climate neutral i.e. the CO2 released
from biomass combustion approximately equals the amount of CO2
sequestered in biomass. By ignoring time element, then burning
them to generate energy will emit the same amount of carbon as
they are expected to decay eventually.
5. Conclusions
In this study, the life cycle energy analysis for biodiesel pro-
duction from jojoba seed oil is investigated. The main factors of
 A. Sandouqa, Z. Al-Hamamre / Renewable Energy 130 (2019) 831e842
energy consumption are crop protection and fertilizers during the
planting phase, 13.83% and 9.52% respectively. The nitrogen fertil-
izer input contributes to about 79% of the total energy input in the
form of fertilizers. On the other hand, in the transesterification
phase, methanol is the main contributor to energy consumption
accounting for 88.13% of the total energy consumed at the trans-
esterification stage. At the same time, most energy consumptions
occur at the transesterification stage, which accounted for 71.16% of
the total energy invested for biodiesel production from jojoba seed
oil. Taking into consideration the energy output of produced bio-
diesel as well as the co-products, the net energy balance (NEB)
value is calculated at 46724.1 MJ/ha (28.92 MJ/L biodiesel pro-
duced) and the net energy ratio is calculated as NER ¼ 2.16. The
total amount of GHG emission in the whole production cycle is
estimated at 2.28 kg-CO2eq/L of produced biodiesel. The energy
efficiency (NER) can be enhanced (to reach 2.39) and the CO2
emission can be reduced by 52% (to 1.1 kg CO2/L of biodiesel) by
using manure as fertilizer, utilizing biodiesel to replace 50% of the
fossil fuels used in the transesterification step and all diesel fuel in
road transport vehicles and agricultural machinery.
References
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