Journal of Coastal Research 35 1 196–209 Coconut Creek, Florida January 2019

Sediment Bypassing from the New Human-Induced Lobe to

the Ancient Lobe of the Turbo Delta (Gulf of Urabá,
Southern Caribbean Sea)
Javier Alcántara-Carrió†*, Ana Caicedo‡, Jonny C. Hernández§, Alfredo Jaramillo-Vélez††,
and Rogério P. Manzolli‡‡
† ‡ §
Instituto Oceanográfico Grupo de Investigación en Geociencias Seccional Oceanografı́a
Universidade de São Paulo Marinas y Costeras Universidad de Antioquia
São Paulo 05508-120, Brasil INVEMAR Turbo 057867, Colombia
Santa Marta 470006, Colombia
†† ‡‡
Grupo de Investigaciones Oceánicas GEOC Departamento de Ingenierı́a Civil
Facultad de Ingenierı́a y Ambiental
Universidad de Antioquia Universidad de la Costa
Medellı́n 050010, Colombia Barranquilla 080002, Atlántico, Colombia

ABSTRACT
Alcántara-Carrió, J.; Caicedo, A.; Hernández, J.C.; Jaramillo-Vélez, A., and Manzolli, R.P., 2019. Sediment bypassing
from the new human-induced lobe to the ancient lobe of the Turbo Delta (Gulf of Urabá, Southern Caribbean Sea).
Journal of Coastal Research, 35(1), 196–209. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208.

Artificial river diversions cause intense and unpredictable changes in the geomorphological evolution and sedimentary
dynamics of deltas. This study analyzes the effects of the 1958 course diversion of the Turbo River delta, Gulf of Urabá,
southern Caribbean Sea. Recent satellite images were analyzed and beach topography was monitored to obtain the
shoreline migration and sediment budget; surface sediments were seasonally sampled, and their grain size parameters
were determined; and seasonal sediment transport directions were deduced according to grain size trends. It was
concluded that the bimodal wave regime controls the seasonal sedimentary patterns associated with southward
longshore transport during both the dry and rainy seasons, and the northward longshore transport occurs in the
midsummer drought. Beach morphodynamics of Yarumal Point, close to the present-day river mouth, show that this is
the most exposed sector to waves, whereas fluvial sediment inputs are evidenced by a decrease in mean grain size and by
poorly sorted sediments in the rainy season. A new spit is forming in Yarumal Point, with an intense increase in area and
a westward progradation related to high fluvial sediment inputs from the La Niña event of 2010–12 and low erosion from
the El Niño events of 2009–10 and 2015–16. In the central sector, longshore drift has formed the Yarumal barrier spit
with a southeastward progradation that recently closed the interdistributary El Uno Bay. Consequently, a human-
induced sand barrier–lagoon system resulted with a stable or slightly regressive shoreline. Moreover, the Yarumal
barrier spit has generated a new sediment bypass to Barajas Beach in the northern limit of the Las Vacas spit (i.e. the
ancient delta lobe). Therefore, there is an unusual accretion of the abandoned delta lobe by sediment supply from the new
lobe.

ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS: Delta evolution, river diversion, spit, sand barrier, beach, ENSO.

INTRODUCTION instance, the Colombian Caribbean coast, particularly the Gulf

Geomorphological evolution and sedimentary dynamics of
deltas are mainly determined by the dominance of fluvial,
wave, or tidal processes (Galloway, 1975), in addition to other
control factors, such as grain size of supplied sediments and
depth of the sedimentary basin (Elliot, 1986; Morgan, 1970;
Orton and Reading, 1993). However, human disturbance is
currently a very important control factor, too. In the past, high
vegetation coverage under natural conditions has favored
lower erosion rates, and human disturbances—such as changes
in territory uses and river courses, mining, dredging, and
construction—have accelerated the erosional processes, thus
generating higher fluvial sediment supply to the littoral
(Restrepo, 2005; Restrepo and Kjerfve, 2000). As a result, for
DOI: 10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-17-00221.1 received 24 December 2017;
accepted in revision 31 May 2018; corrected proofs received
25 July 2018; published pre-print online 5 September 2018.
*Corresponding author: javier.alcantara@usp.br
Ó
Coastal Education and Research Foundation, Inc. 2019
of Urabá, has experienced severe geomorphological changes
with intense accretion and formation of new spits in some
sectors, but severe beach and cliff erosion in many others
(Correa, Alcántara-Carrió, and González, 2005; Correa and
Vernette, 2004; Posada and Henao, 2008).
Geomorphological evolution of deltas is characterized by the
development of successive deltaic cycles. Each cycle is related
to the initial formation of a lobe and its subsequent abandon-
ment when the diversion of the river course generates a natural
relocation of the river mouth and, consequently, the develop-
ment of a new lobe. Therefore, the evolution of each lobe
includes a first constructive phase with progradation related to
dominance of fluvial processes and a final destructive phase
with retrogradation and erosion through the dominance of
subsidence, waves, and tidal processes (Allen, Laurier, and
Thouvenin, 1979; Coleman and Gagliano, 1964). Natural
channel shift and mouth relocation are usually the result of
floods. Relocation of the Mississippi River mouth developed six
 Sediment Bypass from New Human-Induced Lobe to Ancient Delta Lobe
successive lobes from about 4600 years BP to present (Cole-
man, 1976, 1988; Frazier, 1967; Kolb and Van Lopik, 1958;
Roberts, 1977; Törnqvist et al., 1996). In a shorter time scale,
the mouth of the Huanghe (Yellow River) has been relocated
more than 10 times in the last 200 years: the four major
channel shifts occurred in 1855, 1904, 1947, and 1976 (Kuenzer
et al., 2014; Prior et al., 1986; Wu et al., 2015; Yang et al., 2009).
River mouth relocation is not always a natural process; it can
also be caused by human activities. Sometimes it is accidental,
as was the relocation of the Umfolozi River mouth when large
amounts of sediment were deposited in the estuary because of
bad farming techniques in the hinterland (Wright and Mason,
1993). At other times, channels are directly enlarged or new
channels are created to facilitate fluvial sailing and merchan-
dise transport to the littoral and harbors, despite the severe
effects they create in the coastal geomorphology (Alcántara-
Carrió et al., 2018; Correa and Alcántara-Carrió, 2007; Dias et
al., 2012; Mahiques et al., 2009) and ecosystems (Blanco-
Libreros, 2016; Restrepo et al., 2016). River mouths can also be
relocated to create new harbors (Yasumoto et al., 2007).
Moreover, artificial river mouth relocation has also been
considered a coastal engineering solution, for example, to
create a new artificial mouth in the Senegal River (Kane,
Humbert, and Kane, 2013). A similar solution has been
proposed for the Mississippi River (Winer, 2011). Therefore,
intentional or unintentional human activities such as river
mouth relocation generate unpredictable geomorphological,
ecological, and socio-economic effects in large coastal areas.
The 4-km northward artificial relocation of the Turbo River
mouth took place in 1958 (Keep, 2000), leading to the formation
of a new lobe, which includes the development of a new spit
with migration rates .40 m/y (Correa and Vernette, 2004).
This spit progressively closed the interdistributary El Uno Bay
and is therefore named the Yarumal barrier spit in this study,
according to the classification of Otvos (2012). However, the
artificial river mouth relocation also increased the previous
erosional trend of the Las Vacas spit near the ancient mouth
and the City of Turbo (Correa, Alcántara-Carrió, and González,
2005). Because of both the magnitude of the geomorphological
changes and its socioeconomic implications for the city, the
objective of this study is to analyze the present-day sedimen-
tary dynamics and geomorphological evolution of the Turbo
Delta. This analysis focuses on (1) the influence of natural
processes and human activities, (2) the seasonal patterns of the
sedimentary dynamics, (3) the sedimentary interaction be-
tween the new and ancient lobes, and (4) their implications for
coastal zone management.
Natural Setting of the Study Area
The Gulf of Urabá is an N-S embayment located in the
southernmost portion of the Caribbean Sea. The shape of the
Urabá Gulf allows the differentiation of a northern sector, from
the outer limit of the Turbo Delta to the narrowest and
shallowest southern sector, which corresponds to Colombia Bay
(Bernal et al., 2005). The Turbo Delta (888 0 25 00 –883 0 43 00 N;
76845 0 26 00 –76840 0 21 00 W) is located in the eastern flank of the
Urabá Gulf. It contains an ancient lobe related to the Las Vacas
spit, which is composed of beach ridges and alluvial deposits
younger than 200 years (Correa, Prüsssmann, and Garrido,
Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 35, No. 1, 2019
197
2016) and a new lobe that includes Yarumal Point with a young
spit and the Yarumal barrier spit. The interdistributary El Uno
Bay is located between both lobes (Figure 1).
The regional weather is controlled by the annual migration of
the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ). The dry season
(December–April) occurs when the ITCZ migrates toward 28 N
and northeasterly Trade Winds blow in the Caribbean Sea. By
contrast, the rainy season (May–November) is related to the
ITCZ migration toward 158 N, with southeasterly trade winds
blowing over the study area. Moreover, a transitory period
(June–July), regionally named the midsummer drought, occurs
before the ITCZ catches the northernmost position (Andrade,
1993; Magaña, Amador, and Medina, 1999). Consequently, the
winds in the Urabá Gulf blow from the north in the dry season
at average velocities of 4.9–5.6 m/s, in a variable approach
direction in the rainy season at 3.7–4.3 m/s, and mainly from
the south in the midsummer drought (Molina-Flórez, 2014;
Poveda, 2004; Poveda and Mesa, 1999).
The average rainfall in the Turbo basin during the dry season
is very low and presents several maxima in the rainy season,
with intermediate rainfall values in the midsummer drought.
Consequently, measurements of river flows close to the current
mouth of the Turbo River are minimum in the dry season and
maximum in May–June, August–September, and November
(Table 1).
The wave pattern is also determined by the migration of the
ITCZ. Thus, NNW–NNE swell waves arrive from the Caribbe-
an Sea throughout the year, with the highest and lowest
significant wave heights (Hs) in the dry and rainy seasons,
respectively. Additionally, southern wind-sea waves are gen-
erated in the rainy season by the local winds. The shape of the
Urabá Gulf determines that NW swell waves are dominant in
the northern sector, with Hs of 0.6 m and peak wave period (Tp)
of 11 s close to the Turbo Delta, with southern wind-sea waves
dominant southward, with Hs of 0.4 m and Tp of 4 s (Molina-
Flórez, 2014). The astronomical tides correspond to a mixed
microtidal regime with maximum amplitudes of 0.75 m
(IDEAM, 2015).
The circulation pattern of the marine currents in the Urabá
Gulf is complex, simultaneously comprising estuarine circula-
tion, one- to three-layer flows, and even inverse circulation
(Escobar, Velásquez, and Posada, 2015). This estuarine
circulation is mainly due to the fluvial discharge of the Atrato
River, which flows in the western margin, as well as to the
Leon, Turbo, and Caiman rivers flowing in the eastern margin.
The Atrato is one of the world’s greatest rivers by average
discharge of water (81.08 km3/y) related to its basin area, and
after the Magdalena River, it is the second largest by sediment
supply (11.3 3 106 t/y) into the Caribbean Sea (Restrepo and
Kjerfve, 2000). The subaerial Atrato Delta is the largest in the
Urabá Gulf, and it has a bird’s-foot morphology because it is a
river-dominated delta, but it is also influenced by waves
(Vernette et al., 2002; Restrepo and López, 2008). The last
natural relocation of the Atrato River mouth took place in 1898
because of wave erosion that generated a shoreline retreat and
opened El Roto mouth (Vann, 1955, 1959). During the rainy
season, the Atrato River turbid plume extends northward and
dominates the dynamics of suspended sediments in the gulf;
during the dry season and extreme events, the river’s plume
198 Alcántara-Carrió et al.

Figure 1. The Turbo Delta with the human-induced new lobe in the northern sector, showing the location of the topographic profiles, GPS shoreline track, and
bathymetric course measurements taken in 2016.

and the littoral drift of fine sediments shift southward (Escobar creases in the dry season (Agámez and Arrieta, 2005) and in the
and Velásquez-Montoya, 2018). last period of the rainy season (Ibargüen and Córdoba, 2012).
In contrast to the Atrato, the Turbo River is a minor river
that supplies only about 73,000 t/y of sediments with an
Human Activities and Induced Erosion
average sediment load of ,100 t/d from January to April and Turbo City is one of the five most important urban areas of
ranging from 100 to 400 t/d from May to December (Arroyave- the Colombian Caribbean coast (DANE, 2010), and it has
Rincón, Blanco-Libreros, and Taborda, 2012; Restrepo, 2005; shown intensive development in the last decades, despite its
Restrepo and Kjerfve, 2000). low landscape value (Rangel-Buitrago et al., 2013). Barajas
Hydro-isostasy and neotectonics have been proposed as the Beach is the most important recreational area of Turbo City
main natural causes for the high coastal erosion of the Urabá (Correa, Alcántara-Carrió, and González, 2005). Recently, the
Gulf (Correa and Vernette, 2004). Additionally, seasonal construction of two new harbors and the expansion of the
changes in wave and river flow patterns also affect coastal ancient harbor have been approved, all of them in the eastern
sedimentary processes. Thus, erosion of Barajas Beach in- margins of the Urabá Gulf. Therefore, intense economic
Table 1. Monthly rainfall on Turbo Basin and Turbo River flow. AR ¼ average rainfall, MR ¼ maximum rainfall, mR ¼ minimum rainfall, AF ¼ average river
flow, MF ¼ maximum river flow, mF ¼ minimum river flow. Source: meteorological station (885 0 N, 76842 0 W, 1984–98) and river flow station (888 0 N, 76842 0 W,
1987–98) from IDEAM (Alcaldı́a Municipal de Turbo Antioquia, 2000).

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
AR (mm) 86.7 53.0 80.5 251.9 271.3 270.6 217.0 254.4 195.6 182.4 241.6 159.8
MR (mm) 179.0 179.0 168.8 427.0 370.1 441.2 493.3 546.8 311.7 311.2 378.0 592.0
mR (mm) 0.0 0.5 2.0 40.8 148.5 102.1 58.2 117.5 97.0 51.0 39.3 31.8
AF (m3/s) 1.37 1.36 1.32 2.80 3.06 3.40 2.86 3.80 4.52 3.43 4.00 1.54
MF (m3/s) 4.15 3.92 4.64 8.01 5.80 8.11 7.30 12.39 13.44 15.59 14.06 6.35
mF (m3/s) 0.16 0.17 0.17 0.28 0.39 0.53 0.20 0.85 0.71 0.64 0.27 0.21

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 35, No. 1, 2019

 Sediment Bypass from New Human-Induced Lobe to Ancient Delta Lobe
development of the eastern margin of the Urabá Gulf, and
consequently the expansion of the semiurban and urban
coastal areas, is expected in the next decades.
The human disturbances of the Turbo Delta in the last
decades include river course diversion, intensive agriculture
and ranching, sand mining, and the construction of coastal
engineering defenses without previous planning. These activ-
ities have caused severe environmental impacts, including
changes in vegetal cover, pollution, and the alteration of the
sedimentary dynamics, with an increase of coastal erosion at
the Las Vacas spit (Blanco-Libreros et al., 2013; Correa and
Vernette, 2004; Franco and Gómez, 1996; Posada, 2011; Posada
and Henao, 2008; Taborda, 2013; Vallejo-Toro et al., 2016). In
fact, relocation of the Turbo River mouth (Correa and Vernette,
2004; Posada, 2011) and the high sediment inputs from intense
deforestation and artificial changes in the river course (Blanco-
Libreros et al., 2013; Taborda, 2013) allowed the development of
a new lobe with intense progradation in Yarumal Point. This
new lobe narrowed the communication between the northern
and southern sectors of the Urabá Gulf. Simultaneously,
intense longshore sediment transport generates the southeast-
ward progradation of the Yarumal barrier spit, with shoreline
migration rates .40 m/y (Correa and Vernette, 2004). The
shoreface and backshore present high coverage of long
fragments of trunks; this accumulation of drift trunks has been
described by Walker and Barrie (2004) as driftwood jams,
because they act as accretion anchors and stabilize the back-
shore environments. In contrast, the erosion of the western side
of the Las Vacas spit in the last century increased after the
mouth relocation, while the southern head of this spit presented
low progradation. In fact, the northeast coast of the Urabá Gulf,
including Turbo, has shown a generalized shoreline retreat,
reaching up to 40 m/y (Correa and Vernette, 2004).
METHODS
Fieldwork carried out included image monitoring, topoba-
thymetric measurements, and surface sediment sampling.
Coastal pictures were taken by drones and during fieldtrips
from September 2014 to August 2016. Five topographic surveys
were carried out from March 2016 to August 2016, covering the
dry, rainy, and midsummer drought seasons. For each survey,
seven beach topographic profiles were measured by a Trimble
M3 total station, with an accuracy of a few centimeters. For
each topographic survey, surface sediments were sampled from
the backshore (berm), foreshore, and shoreface of every beach
profile. Additionally, a bathymetric survey was carried out in
May 2016 with a Knudsen monobeam echosounder combined
with a differential global positioning system (DGPS), also
achieving an accuracy of centimeters. The shoreline position
was measured with an Eltrex10 Garmin GPS with metric
accuracy (Figure 1).
The recent shoreline evolution was obtained by comparing
the ortophotomap of 2009 (source: Correa, Prüsssmann, and
Garrido, 2016), the annual Landsat images from 2010 to 2015,
and the shoreline measured by GPS in May 2016. Then, the
morphological evolution of the new lobe was characterized by
the annual variations of the emerged area and shoreline
migration. The latter was determined from 2009 to 2016 along
with two reference lines: a parallel at latitude 898000 N and a
Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 35, No. 1, 2019
199
meridian at longitude 306200 E (UTM coordinates, zone 18P;
87 0 13 00 N, and 76845 0 32 00 W, respectively). Geometric accuracy of
LANDSAT-7 is 15 m, and a digital zoom of 43 was applied over
the images before digitizing shorelines.
The laboratory analyses of the sediment samples included
oxidation of organic matter and determination of grain size
curves combining dry sieving at 1-phi intervals from3 to 4 phi,
and sieve-pipetting methods. Grain size parameters after Folk
and Ward (1957), unimodal or multimodal distribution, and
textural classification after Folk (1974) were determined by
Gradistat software (Blott and Pye, 2001).
Plotting of beach profiles, shoreline migration, and sediment
budgets for each topographic profile, between correlative
surveys, and from the initial survey (accumulated data) were
obtained by Grapher software.
The sedimentary cartography of Yarumal Point and Barajas
Beach, including mean grain size and sorting maps for each
survey, were computed by the kriging interpolation method
and plotted by Surfer software.
The sediment transport directions after the grain size trends
were obtained for each survey, considering the location, mean
grain size, sorting, and skewness parameters of each sediment
sample (Gao and Collins, 1992, 1994). A characteristic distance
of 1800 m was considered, corresponding to the maximum
distance between adjacent samples (Gao, 1996). The maps of
sediment transport direction were plotted by ArcGIS.
RESULTS
The Turbo Delta has shown a particular stage in its
geomorphological evolution in the present decade that is
related to its sedimentary dynamics.
Recent Geomorphological Changes
The coastal geomorphology showed severe changes from
2009 to 2016 with an intense westward progradation at
Yarumal Point, reaching up to 147.2 and 464.1 m of the
westward and southward shoreline migration, respectively.
Nevertheless, it can be observed that during the periods of
2009–10 and 2015–16, the total emerged area was reduced, and
for the 2010–14 period, the progradation was initially west-
ward and, later, since 2012, southward (Table 2). On the other
hand, the natural inlet of El Uno Bay closed in June 2015
because of the southeastward progradation of the Yarumal
barrier spit (Figures 2 and 3).
Several human-induced changes were also identified in the
geomorphological evolution of the study area. Thus, before the
total closure of the natural inlet, a new artificial inlet was
created for navigation of anglers, cutting the narrower sector
(886 0 29 00 N, 76844 0 51 00 W) of the Yarumal barrier spit at 1.5 km
of Barajas Beach. Later, this artificial inlet began to migrate
southeastward with an associated erosion in its SE margin and
subsequent accretion in the NW margin. Some other human
disturbances included the destruction of some sectors with
mangrove over the Yarumal barrier spit and machines stirring
sand at Barajas Beach.
The presence of submerged sandbars was identified in the
shoreface of both Yarumal Point, near the Turbo River mouth,
and the Yarumal barrier spit, close to the artificial inlet of El
Uno Bay. These sandbars were better developed and very
200
Table 2. ENSO events, changes in area, and shoreline migration of the new spit in Yarumal Point (2009-16). Positive values of both area and shoreline
migration indicate progradation, whereas negative values indicate erosion. The resolution obtained in the image analyses was 11.3 m; therefore, the maximum
error of this analysis is 7.68% and 6.67% of the maximum westward and southward shoreline migration, respectively, with a root mean square error of the
analysis ,5%.
2
Period ENSO Events Area (m ) Annual Rate (m/y)
2009–10 Niño 38,602.3
2010–11 Niña 26,003.1
2011–12 Niña 58,121.8
2012–13 — 11,0311.9
2013–14 — 41,545.1
2014–15 — 20,393.2
2015–16 Niño 4069.4
dynamic at Yarumal Point, and at the same time, presented a
stable position during the study period at the Yarumal barrier
spit. In contrast, submerged sandbars at Barajas Beach were
scarcely developed (Figure 4). Moreover, the accumulation of
sediments close to the mouth of the Turbo River created a
submerged sandbank westward of Yarumal Point (Figure 5).
Seasonal Sedimentary Dynamics
Most of the cross-shore beach profiles presented shoreline
retreat in the first periods and progradation later. Yarumal
Point and Barajas Beach showed the most dynamic behavior
with both retreat and progradation trends at Yarumal Point
and a clear progradation trend at Barajas Beach, particularly
for profile 5. By contrast, the Yarumal barrier spit showed a
very stable shoreline, with a shoreline migration less than
61.5 m (Figure 6A).
Similarly, the sediment budgets at Yarumal Point allowed
the identification of a clear erosional trend for profiles 2 and 3,
whereas profile 1 showed a low accretion or sedimentary
equilibrium trend; the Yarumal barrier spit (profile 4) showed
sedimentary equilibrium during the study period, and Barajas
Beach showed accretion (Figure 6B).
The texture of sediments mainly corresponded to sand (68
samples), but samples of gravelly sand (28), muddy gravelly
sand (1), muddy sand (2), and sandy mud (3) were also
identified. All muddy samples were located at Yarumal Point.
Most (98) of the grain size curves presented unimodal sandy
distributions, whereas only four samples from profile 1 showed
bimodal curves, with both sand and silt modes (Table 3). Mean
size ranged from medium sand to very coarse silt, with the
coarsest sediments always located in the backshore and the
finest ones in the shoreface. Moreover, seasonal sedimentary
patterns were identified. Thus, Yarumal Point and Barajas
Beach presented the finest values in the midsummer drought
season, whereas the Yarumal barrier spit showed the reverse
behavior. Sorting values ranged from well sorted to poorly
sorted, again with differences among the three sectors. The
presence of silty fractions was located mainly at Yarumal Point
during the midsummer drought, inducing poor sorting of
sediments, whereas the Yarumal barrier spit and Barajas
Beach presented similar grain size features without a signif-
icant presence of silt.
A seasonal pattern was also deduced for the potential
sediment transport direction at Yarumal Point and the
Yarumal barrier spit, with predominant transport trends
Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 35, No. 1, 2019
Alcántara-Carrió et al.
Westward Migration Southward Migration
Accumulated (m) Annual Rate (m/y) Accumulated (m)
22.6 22.6 — —
56.6 34.0 — —
90.6 124.5 — —
22.6 147.2 158.5 158.5
22.6 124.5 34.0 192.4
11.3 113.2 101.9 294.3
0.0 113.2 169.8 464.1
toward the SSE in dry and rainy seasons, and it progressively
changed toward NNW in the midsummer drought. By contrast,
Barajas Beach did not show a clear trend for sediment
transport direction (Figure 7).
DISCUSSION
The seasonal sedimentary dynamics of the Turbo Delta is
mainly controlled by wave and river seasonal patterns. In
contrast, on a decadal scale, the geomorphological evolution of
the delta is also controlled by climatic variations, mainly El
Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), and by human disturbanc-
es.
Wave and River Control of Sedimentary Dynamics
Seasonal changes identified in the sediment transport
directions (Figure 7) can be explained by wind patterns and
hydrodynamics of the Urabá Gulf (Molina-Flórez, 2014;
Poveda, 2004; Poveda and Mesa, 1999). Thus, southward
sediment transport in the dry season (March and May) is due to
north swell waves generated by the Choco jet. In contrast,
eastward and northward sediment transport in June and July,
respectively, is caused by wind-sea waves from the SSW
because of wave refraction, although they are generated by
southerly winds associated with the intensification of the
Caribbean Low Level Jet in the midsummer drought. Finally,
southward sediment transport in the main rainy season
(August) is generated again by north swell waves associated
with a new intensification of the Choco jet.
The average and maximum river flows are significantly
higher from April to November (Table 1), whereas sediment
load is higher from May to December (Arroyave-Rincón,
Blanco-Libreros, and Taborda, 2012). These seasonal varia-
tions in the fluvial input of sediments explain the percentage
increase of very fine sand and silt close to the river mouth after
the beginning of the rainy season. Consequently, in this period
of the year, the mean grain size ranges from medium sand to
very coarse silt (1.5–4.5 phi), with a very poor sorting of
sediments. This seasonal grain size pattern of the Turbo Delta
is in accordance with the previous grain size characterizations
of Molina-Flórez (2014).
Submerged sandbars are characteristics of dissipative or
intermediate states on beach morphodynamics (Wright and
Short, 1984). Then, although the Turbo Delta is sheltered from
extreme waves because of its location inside the Urabá Gulf
(Correa, Alcántara-Carrió, and González, 2005), the presence
 Sediment Bypass from New Human-Induced Lobe to Ancient Delta Lobe 201

Figure 2. Main features in the geomorphological evolution of the Turbo Delta. At the top, evolution from 1946 to 2009 (after Posada, 2011): the artificial relocation
of the river mouth in 1958 allows the development of a new human-induced lobe with associated spits. In the bottom, recent shoreline evolution (2009–May 2016):
the first spit closed the interdistributary El Uno Bay, becoming a barrier spit, while a new spit develops from Yarumal Point.

of submerged sandbars on the shoreface is evidence that it is corresponds to the period of the year with the highest waves
relatively exposed to wave energy. These submerged sandbars (Molina-Flórez, 2014).
were better developed and more dynamic in both Yarumal Net sediment transport throughout the study period was
Point and Barajas Beach during the dry season, which southward, which is in agreement with the potential annual

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 35, No. 1, 2019

202
Figure 3. Recent natural closure of the tidal inlet in the southern limit of El
Uno Bay: drone images from 18 September 2014 (A, B); field trip pictures
from 3 July 2014 (C), 3 April 2015 (D), 16 May 2015 (E), and 31 May 2015 (F);
drone images from 4 June 2016 (G, H).
sediment transport modeled by Molina-Flórez, Osorio Arias,
and Otero Dı́az (2014). Nevertheless, it must be noted that
southward sediment transport is characteristic of both the dry
and the rainy seasons, but northward sediment transport is
dominant in the midsummer drought (Figure 7). Therefore, the
direction of the longshore drift has a seasonal cyclic rotation.
Geomorphological Evolution
The subaerial morphology of the Turbo Delta is typical of
wave-dominated deltas, after the classification of Galloway
(1975), similar to the main deltas of the Colombian Caribbean
coast (Restrepo and López, 2008). Asymmetric spit develop-
ment in deltas is due to the oblique directions of wave approach
(Bhattacharya and Giosan, 2003); the Turbo Delta shows
asymmetric spit development (Figure 1), which is associated
with the predominance of north swell waves (Molina-Flórez,
2014). Moreover, the river mouth is detached to the WSW,
which is evidence of the intense littoral drift and sediment
inputs coming from the northern sector of the gulf, according to
Nienhuis et al. (2016). The presence of submerged sandbars in
the beaches (Figure 4) confirms this intense wave control.
A new lobe of the Turbo Delta has been developing since the
mid-20th century, when the river course was artificially
diverted (Correa and Vernette, 2004) and associated with high
deforestation (Arroyave-Rincón, Blanco-Libreros, and Tabor-
da, 2012; Blanco-Libreros et al., 2013). Currently, the mouth of
this lobe is 4.5 km NW of the previous mouth close to the Las
Vacas spit, separated by the interdistributary El Uno Bay. The
geomorphological evolution of the ancient and new lobes has
Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 35, No. 1, 2019
Alcántara-Carrió et al.
Figure 4. Seasonal beach morphodynamics in 2016. MHWS ¼ mean high
water spring, MSL ¼ mean sea level; MLWS ¼ mean low water spring (see
Figure 1 for location of the beach profiles).
shown reverse sedimentary trends, with high erosion of the
ancient lobe and high progradation of the new lobe (Correa,
Alcántara-Carrió, and González, 2005; Posada, 2011), in
accordance with the natural geomorphological evolution of
deltas (Allen, Laurier, and Thouvenin, 1979; Coleman and
Gagliano, 1964), although the modern lobe of the Turbo Delta
was artificially induced.
The Colombian Caribbean coast is under the influence of
ENSO events, with La Niña characterized by strong rainfall
and floods (Hoyos et al., 2013; Restrepo and Kjerfve, 2000).
According to the Multivariate ENSO Index (Wolter and Timlin,
1993), one of the seven strongest La Niña events from 1949 to
the present occurred in 2010–12 (ESRI, 2018). Therefore, the
influence of La Niña events on the geomorphological evolution
of the Turbo Delta can be deduced. Thus, the highest westward
progradation of the delta occurred mainly during the 2010–12
La Niña event; similarly during the La Niña event and the next
year (between 2012 and 2013), the highest increase in the area
of the spit occurred. After this high fluvial sediment supply
associated with the La Niña event, a southward progradation
 Sediment Bypass from New Human-Induced Lobe to Ancient Delta Lobe 203

Figure 5. Bathymetry of the Turbo Delta in May 2016. Lower dip of the spits
associated with the human-induced new lobe is evidence of the presence of
submerged sandbanks and bars.

began during the normal ENSO period (2012–15). In contrast,

the El Niño events of 2009–10 and 2015–16 generated low
erosion (decrease in the area of the spit), showing a higher
relative dominance of the wave processes over the fluvial input
processes (Table 2). Nevertheless, according to Arroyave-
Rincón, Blanco-Libreros, and Taborda (2012), sediment supply
of the Turbo River presents a low correlation with rainfall and
river flow on a decadal scale, because the high rates of
sediments supplies are caused by human disturbances and, Figure 6. Sedimentary dynamics: (A) accumulated shoreline migration (m)
and (B) accumulated sediment budget (m3/m) from March 2016. Trends
particularly, deforestation. Therefore, combining both analy- (dashed lines) were obtained by linear regression.
ses, it can be deduced that the geomorphological evolution of
the Turbo Delta is mainly controlled by human activities and,
secondarily, by the occurrence of ENSO events. developed on the inland side of the Yarumal barrier spit from
The evolution of the new lobe of the Turbo Delta, as well as elongation by the formation of successive recurved hooks, in
the morphology of the ancient Las Vacas spit, is characterized
accordance with Leathermann (1987). Consequently, the north
by the formation of several beach ridges.
of the lagoon was segmented and filled in a process similar to
Similar complex spits are common in the Colombian
that described by Zenkovich (1967). Some sectors of the
Caribbean, such as the Galerazamba spit (Orejarena Rondón
Yarumal barrier spit showed a stable shoreline (profile 4 in
et al., 2015). Moreover, both systems resulted in the formation
of a closure bay because of a barrier spit. The Yarumal barrier Figures 4 and 6), and others showed a slight regression (Figure
spit developed from Yarumal Point until it closed the 2).
interdistributary El Uno Bay in June 2015 (Figure 2), when a The new artificial inlet at the Yarumal barrier spit is
sand barrier–lagoon system was formed. Then, El Uno Bay currently open throughout the year because it is maintained
changed from being an open bay to a restricted lagoon and by tidal currents, with the additional influence of fluvial
finally a closed lagoon according to the classification of Kjerfve outputs in the rainy season. Moreover, it is migrating
(1986). Moreover, several minor cuspate forelands were southeastward following the typical longshore inlet migration

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 35, No. 1, 2019

204 Alcántara-Carrió et al.

Table 3. Textural classification of sediment samples.

No. of Samples
Mar May Jun Jul Aug Total
Sand 15 9 13 14 17 68
Gravelly sand 6 7 6 5 4 28
Gravelly muddy sand 0 1 0 0 0 1
Muddy sand 0 1 1 0 0 2
Sandy mud 0 0 1 2 0 3
Unimodal 21 17 19 20 21 98
Bimodal 0 1 2 1 0 4

in sand barriers (Fitzgerald, 1988; Tung et al., 2009).
Consequently, the mangroves over the sand barrier spit will
be progressively destroyed from this artificial inlet to the
southern limit of El Uno Bay. Later, in natural conditions, new
mangroves will grow after the inlet passes. It is expected that
this migration will continue until the new inlet arrives at the
southern limit of El Uno Bay.
Barajas Beach, on the northern margin of the Las Vacas spit,
is part of an ancient lobe of the Turbo Delta. In the last decades
it has showed an erosive trend from human disturbances
(Correa and Vernette, 2004; Posada, 2011; Posada and Henao,
2008). However, it has recently shown a very intense
progradation. This drastic change in the sediment budget
because of the sediment supply from the new Turbo River
mouth across the Yarumal barrier spit causes sediment
bypassing from the new lobe to the abandoned lobe. Prograda-
tion of abandoned lobes is unusual in geomorphological
evolution of deltas; on the contrary, they are characterized by
subsidence and erosion (Allen, Laurier, and Thouvenin, 1979;
Coleman and Gagliano, 1964). Nevertheless, an accretion trend
at Barajas Beach should be expected to continue in the next
decades, and progressively, sediment will recover the rest of
the beaches at the Las Vacas spit.
Implications for Coastal Management
Several regional studies have shown the negative effect of
dams on the coastal sediment budget. The present study and
several previous ones show that artificial river diversion is as
dramatic as dams for delta evolution (Table 4), and it is usually
linked to deforestation and other landscape disturbances.

Figure 7. Seasonal variations of the potential sediment transport directions (dimensionless) deduced from grain size trends. Yarumal Point and the center of the
Yarumal barrier spit show a similar pattern controlled by the seasonal wave patterns, whereas Barajas Beach did not show a clear trend.

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 35, No. 1, 2019

 Sediment Bypass from New Human-Induced Lobe to Ancient Delta Lobe
On a local scale, human activities such as sand mining or
groin construction usually generate erosion of sand barriers
(Costa, Alejo, and Alcántara-Carrió, 2002; Morton, 2008; Stutz
and Pilkey, 2005). To avoid it, specific management policies
should be implemented for the protection of the new lobe of the
Turbo Delta (i.e. Yarumal Point and the Yarumal barrier spit).
In fact, the closure of El Uno Bay by the Yarumal barrier spit
and the partial filling of the lagoon are similar to the process at
the Rionegro lagoon that started in the 18th century
(Ménanteau, 2007) in the northeastern margin of the gulf.
Both areas present a high coverage of mangroves (Blanco-
Libreros, Ortiz-Acevedo, and Urrego, 2015; Correa and
Vernette, 2004), and the Rionegro lagoon is currently protected
as a regional natural park. Therefore, the new lobe of the Turbo
Delta and El Uno Bay should be protected for their ecological
values and as a source of sediment to the Turbo beaches.
Coastal progradation of Yarumal Point and Barajas Beach is
clearly related to sediment supply from the Turbo River
(Correa and Vernette, 2004). Therefore, the management plan
of the Turbo hydrographic basin should consider the relevance
of the Turbo River as a source of sediments to the littoral.
A second source of sediments is by longshore sediment
transport from beyond the north limit of the Turbo Delta
(Figure 7). This input of sediments should also be characterized
and considered in the coastal management plan of the Turbo
Delta. The effect on this longshore drift of two future harbors
north of the Turbo Delta should be accurately analyzed to avoid
disturbing this other source of sediments.
Migration of the artificial inlet over the Yarumal sand barrier
spit and the associated erosional process must also be
considered in coastal management plans, particularly when it
comes to Barajas Beach. In fact, it could suppose a new
dangerous condition for sea bathing, similar to a previous
closure of a natural inlet in 2015, when several people died by
drowning at Barajas Beach. Therefore, the migration rate of
this inlet must be accurately determined to predict its arrival
time at Barajas Beach. Additionally, a permanent beach safety
plan, considering its particular wave and geomorphological
conditions, should be implemented in the northern sector of
Barajas Beach when the inlet arrives.
The sediment input from the Yarumal barrier spit to Barajas
Beach created a new situation in 2015 not previously
considered in sedimentary dynamics studies or the coastal
management of Barajas Beach. Previous studies proposed the
construction of coastal engineering structures to avoid coastal
erosion at the Las Vacas spit (Urbano, 1993). In fact, high beach
erosion allowed the progressive and disorganized construction
of numerous groins and seawalls in the last decades (Rangel,
2009; Rangel, Stancheva, and Anfuso, 2011). However, they
were clearly inefficient for sand recovery (Correa and Vernette,
2004). In this new delta configuration from 2015, it is expected
that sediment supply to Barajas Beach and the rest of the Las
Vacas spit will continue for the next decades, favoring a high
tourist potential. The effect of old coastal engineering struc-
tures on recovery of present-day beaches should be assessed.
Moreover, when sand recovery extends along the Las Vacas
spit, they should be retired to improve the development of
tourism. Additionally, any coastal engineering structure
should be forbidden in the future to allow natural sediment
Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 35, No. 1, 2019
205
recovery. Physics modeling for designing coastal engineering
structures only considered wave propagation and induced
sediment transport, without taking into account its geomor-
phological evolution. Therefore, the location of the Las Vacas
spit in an abandoned lobe of the Turbo Delta, for which the
subsidence rates should be determined, as well as the long-
shore drift from the Yarumal barrier spit should be considered
when designing the coastal management plans of the region.
In summary, this geomorphological model of several lobes
and their sedimentary interactions is basic for the integrated
coastal management of the Turbo Delta. The protection of the
new lobe should be assumed in coastal management plans,
which would positively affect the present and future economy of
Turbo City.
Finally, it is remarkable that other delta lobes have been
created in the Colombian Caribbean coast as the result of the
artificial diversion of river courses (i.e. the formation of the new
Tinajones lobe at the Sinu River caused by the opening of a
drainage channel in 1938, abandoning the previous mouth
inside Cispatá Bay) (Correa and Alcántara-Carrió, 2007).
Therefore, similar studies should be replicated in these areas
and their results considered for their coastal management
plans.
CONCLUSIONS
The Turbo Delta presents intense geomorphological changes
from the artificial diversion of the river in 1958, wherein a new
human-induced lobe was formed, including the development of
Yarumal Point and the associated Yarumal barrier spit.
The sedimentary dynamics of the delta are controlled by both
the bidirectional wave pattern and the seasonal fluvial
sediment inputs. Swell waves transport sediments southward
during the dry and rainy seasons, whereas wind-sea waves
transport sediments northward in the midsummer drought.
Fluvial input of sediments has been identified by the increase of
the silty fractions at Yarumal Point, lower mean grain size, and
worse sediment sorting.
Yarumal Point is the delta’s most exposed sector to wave
action with the presence of submerged sandbars. Seasonally, it
shows shoreline retreat in some sectors, but sedimentary
equilibrium or shoreline progradation in others. Altogether, it
presents a decadal accretion trend and the development of a
new spit, with an intense increase in area and westward
progradation related to fluvial input by the La Niña event of
2010–12 and low erosion by waves from the El Niño events of
2009–10 and 2015–16. After the 2010–12 La Niña event, an
intense southward progradation of the new spit by longshore
drift also occurred.
The Yarumal barrier spit closed the interdistributary El Uno
Bay in June 2015, resulting in a sand barrier–lagoon system
configuration. This barrier spit presents a stable shoreline with
low erosion and a reshaped shoreline, including the southeast-
ward migration of a new artificial inlet.
Finally, Barajas Beach, in the northern margin of the Las
Vacas spit, currently presents high accretion and shoreline
progradation because of sediment bypass from the Yarumal
barrier spit. This sediment bypass from the new lobe to the
ancient lobe is unusual in the geomorphological evolution of
deltas. It is expected that this sediment bypass will continue in
206
Table 4. Review of some human effects on rivers from dams, diversions, and other activities.
Source
Carriquiry, Sánchez, and
Camacho-Ibar (2001)
McManus (2002)
Calzadilla Pérez (2003)
Syvitski and Saito (2007)
Jabaloy et al. (2008)
Acosta (2013)
Renaud et al. (2013)
Parra and Restrepo (2014)
Flor-Blanco et al. (2015)
Restrepo et al. (2016)
Alcántara-Carrió et al.
River Causes Consequences
Colorado River Hoover Dam construction Flow decrease
Mississippi River Atchafalaya River River capture Loss of river discharge, course
diversion
Indus River Dam construction Flow decrease, loss in sediment
Ebro River charge, erosion of delta
Niger River
Nile River
Nile River Water diversion for irrigation Flow decrease, loss in sediment
charge, erosion of delta
Po River Land use changes Decrease in sediment yield by
Shkumbani, Semani, and Vjose deltas deforestation, introduction of
Mississippi River farming, small dam projects for
irrigation, extraction of sand and
gravel
Guapo River River diversion for flood control Flow velocity increase, erosion of
riverbed downriver, progradation of
delta, change in lagoon salinity,
turbidity increase, depth decrease
Yellow River Oil field structures Progradation in new zones, erosion in
old areas
Mississippi River Coastal protection structures
Colorado River Highway construction Continuous dredging to control delta
growth
Po River Sediment reduction near the coastal Canal construction and continuous
lagoon (Venice lagoon) redirection to maintain river output
Extensive breakwalls to reduce storm
surge damage
Krishna River, Mahanadi River Flood control and agricultural Dam construction leading to
Nile River irrigation decreased sediment supply
Indus River
Fraser River Airport runways Protection structures necessary to
maintain the infrastructure and
armoring of the delta
Rhone River Salt mining New geomorphologies associated with
sea salt hills and the structure
required for shipping facilities
Adra River Dam construction and relocation of Erosion of 93% of new lobe previously
river delta for flood control and formed in 18 y, formation of new
malaria prevention delta lobe with approximate
accretion rate of 16.7 m/y
Sinu River Dam construction Loss in sediment charge, erosion of
delta and nearby beaches
Rhine-Meuse delta Protective structures for flood control Armoring of the delta
and prevention
Ganges River Dam construction Loss of sediment charge, erosion of
delta and nearby beaches
Indus River Supply water to the irrigation system Increase in delta salinity, effect on
many ecosystems
Mekong River Channel construction, flood and Erosion in some areas, armoring and
coastal protection flooding of others
Danube River Deforestation and agriculture Erosion, floods
Patı́a River ‘‘Naranjo’’ channel built between two High rates of erosion and
tributaries sedimentation in different places in
the shore delta; change in salinity,
turbidity, and depth of both
affluent mouths; disturbance in
mangrove ecosystems
Fazouro River Jetty construction in the mouth of the Development of beaches and dunes
Navia River river close to the jetties, erosion in other
Nalón River coastal dunes and beaches
Suances River
Zumaya River
Magdalena River Artificial channel built from Increase in turbidity affecting the
Magdalena River to Barbacoas Bay coral reef, increase in bay
sedimentation
Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 35, No. 1, 2019
 Sediment Bypass from New Human-Induced Lobe to Ancient Delta Lobe 207

Table 4. Continued.

Source River Causes Consequences

Xing et al. (2016) Yellow River River diversion for flood control Erosion of north coast and its
subaqueous area, progradation of
southeast coast
Benmoussa et al. (2018) Medjerda River Flood event in 1973 and dam Dominance of clay sediments in Tunis
construction upstream Gulf coasts
Yang et al. (2018) Yangtse River Dam construction Loss in sediment charge, erosion of
delta and nearby beaches
Alcántara-Carrió et al. (this study) Turbo River River diversion and high Formation of new delta lobe, sediment
deforestation bypass of ancient delta lobe

the next decades, with accretion therefore progressively taking
place along the whole seaside of Las Vacas spit.
Because of the socioeconomic implications of the geomorpho-
logical evolution of the delta, it is recommended (1) to protect
the new lobe from any future human disturbance, (2) to forbid
any future coastal engineering structure at Barajas Beach and
progressively over the rest of the Las Vacas spit, and (3) to
implement a safety plan on the northern margin of Barajas
Beach when the artificial inlet arrives there.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study is a contribution to the research projects
‘‘Proposal to reduce the downing risk in Barajas Beach,
Turbo, Antioquia’’ funded by the Universidad de Antioquia.
Authors are indebted to Profs. Jesús Perez and Carlos
Gutierrez from the Universidad EAFIT, as well as to the
Colombian National Army (Batallón Fluvial de I.M. No. 20),
particularly to Captain Nicolás López and Marine Jefferson
Garcı́a Sierra, for their collaboration in the bathymetric
survey. The drone images from 2014 were supported by
Carlos Montoya Baquero (Universidad EAFIT), and the rest
of drone and fieldtrip images were taken with the collabora-
tion of Lorenzo Portillo Cogollo and Ulises Orozco Villegas
(Universidad de Antioquia).
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