See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/228836272

Long-term forest fire retardants: A review of quality, effectiveness,

application and environmental considerations

Article  in  International Journal of Wildland Fire · January 2004

DOI: 10.1071/WF03001

CITATIONS READS

55 1,074

5 authors, including:

Elsa Pastor Luis G. Zarate

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya Universidad Popular Autónoma del Estado de Puebla (UPAEP)
69 PUBLICATIONS   631 CITATIONS    41 PUBLICATIONS   396 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Eulalia Planas Josep Arnaldos

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya
111 PUBLICATIONS   1,395 CITATIONS    75 PUBLICATIONS   1,621 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Plant-wide control on electrochemical reactors View project

Onshore pipeline risk assessment View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Josep Arnaldos on 29 May 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

CSIRO PUBLISHING
www.publish.csiro.au/journals/ijwf International Journal of Wildland Fire, 2004, 13, 1–15

Long-term forest fire retardants: a review of quality, effectiveness,

application and environmental considerations

Anna GiménezA,B , Elsa Pastor A , Luis ZárateA , Eulàlia PlanasA and

Josep ArnaldosA
A CERTEC: Centre d’Estudis del Risc Tecnològic (Centre for Studies on Technological Risk)
Department of Chemical Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Av. Diagonal,
647, E-08028 Barcelona, Catalonia (Spain).
B Corresponding author. Telephone: +34 93 4016675; fax: +34 93 4017150;

email: anna.gimenez@upc.es

Abstract. Since the beginning of the 1930s research has been directed towards improving the effectiveness of
water as a forest fire extinguishing agent. Throughout this time various chemical substances have been added to
the water, and this is still the case today. Among these substances are the various types of long-term forest fire
retardant, which maintain their ability to alter combustion when the water has been removed by evaporation. In
order to provide an account of the current state of development of studies on long-term forest fire retardants,
we carried out a bibliographic analysis with special attention to work done after 1976 on the different aspects
that influence the final effectiveness of forest fire retardant: quality (programs and evaluation), effectiveness,
application and environmental impact on streams and aquatic organisms, vegetation and humans. The scope of this
work covers the wide subject of fire retardants and it introduces the significant works related to all the aspects of fire
retardant use.

Introduction
Long-term fire retardants have been used extensively for
several years in different countries. Since the first stud-
ies (Barret 1931; Truax 1939; Tyner 1941), research has
been carried out on the large number of parameters that
influence their effectiveness and use. As different mixtures
of fire retardant were tried, new aspects arose in rela-
tion to their operational use. For example, the corrosive
effects and environmental impact of the retardants were
observed during Operation Firestop (1955a, 1955b). Nev-
ertheless, these aspects were not studied more extensively
until after the works that focused on how to evaluate the
effectiveness of mixed products and on the use of thicken-
ing agents were carried out (Davis et al. 1962; Johansen and
Shimmel 1963).
Hardy et al. (1962), as a result of a study to test new mix-
tures of retardants, showed that ammonium sulfate (AS) and
diammonium phosphate (DAP) reduced the rate of spread and
the radiant energy flux most effectively. From that moment,
research was dedicated to comparing the effectiveness of
sulfates and phosphates, studying their effects on the com-
bustion, pyrolysis and flammability of cellulose. George and
Blakely (1970) studied the rate of weight loss, which is related
to the energy release rate (Er ), the rate of flame spread and
the mass of residue in fuel beds treated with AS and DAP.
The fuel treated with DAP gave a significant reduction in
Er , and a greater amount of char was observed. A further
study by George and Blakely (1972) showed that DAP was
more effective than AS in reducing the parameters studied as
regards flammability. George and Sussot (1971) studied the
thermal behavior of ammonium sulfate and phosphate and
treated fuels in order to identify their effects on combustion
and pyrolysis. They found that the thermal behavior of these
two retardants was different, which may explain why phos-
phates have a greater impact on glowing combustion than
sulfates and the differences observed by George and Blakely
(1970, 1972).
While the effectiveness studies were developed, the
study of the aerial application of fire retardant began. The
experimental works consisted of drop tests in which a
fire chemical was delivered aerially over a cup-and-grid
system. This was to determine the coverage level pro-
duced for each drop type (Storey et al. 1959; Davis 1960;
Grigel 1970, 1971, 1972; Newstead 1973). The data pro-
vided by various drop tests allowed modeling of the aerial
delivery in order to estimate the ground pattern of fire
retardant in relation to the interaction of fuels (Swanson
and Helvig 1973, 1974; Anderson 1974) and to the

© IAWF 2004 10.1071/WF03001 1049-8001/04/010001

2 A. Giménez et al.

Table 1. Time-line chart of reviewed research

Studies 1977–1979 1980–1989 1990–1999 2000–2002
Quality George et al. (1977) Gehring (1980) Johnson and George (1990) USDA Forest Service (2000)
studies Gehring (1978) USDA Forest Service (1982) NWCG (2000)
Van Meter et al. (1985)
George and Johnson (1986)
Gehring and George (1986)
USDA Forest Service (1986)
Effectiveness Blakely (1983) Blakely (1990)
studies Blakely (1985)
Blakely (1988)
Application Rawson (1977) Van Meter and George (1981) George and Johnson (1990) Johnson and Jordan (2000)
studies Andersen and George (1982) Vandersall (1994) Lovellette (2000)
Wong (1978) Blakely et al. (1982) Robertson et al. (1997a, 1997b) Calogine et al. (2000)
Rees (1983) Vandersall (1998) Xanthopoulos and
Newstead and Noussia (2000)
Lieskovsky (1985)
Loane and Gould (1986)
Northeast Forest Fires
Supervisors (1987)
Environmental Johnson and Larson and Duncan (1982) Labat Anderson Inc. (1994) Kalabokidis (2000)
considerations Sanders (1977) Bradstock et al. (1987) Hamilton et al. (1996) Buhl and Hamilton (2000)
studies Norris et al. (1978) Norris and Webb (1989) Gaikowski et al. (1996) Little and Calfee (2000)
McDonald et al. (1997) Little and Calfee (2002a,
Buhl and Hamilton (1998) 2002b, 2002c)
Adams and Simmons (1999) Little et al. (2002)
Larson et al. (1999)

rheological1 properties (Andersen et al. 1976). In other drop
tests (George and Blakely 1973; George 1975) the authors
observed differences in drop characteristics and in the ground
pattern between retardants that contained gum or clay as
a thickening agent and unthickened retardants. Generally,
gum retardants exhibited more cohesiveness under high shear
conditions and allowed obtaining effective retardant cover-
age >2 gpc2 (0.8 L m−2 ) with higher and safer drops. Using
the data obtained in these two drop tests, Swanson et al.
(1975) developed the Pattern Simulation Model (PATSIM)
to obtain the first guidelines for aerial retardant drop. This
program was revised 2 years later (Swanson et al. 1977),
and validated experimentally by Swanson et al. (1978). This
work showed the effects of the airtank, gate systems and air
drop performance on the ground distribution pattern. Dur-
ing the extinction operations, at a technical level, it was
significant to know the amount of retardant mixture nec-
essary to attack a given type of wildland fire. Rothermel
and Philpot (1975) developed a model, which was based on
the model of Rothermel (1972), to estimate the maximum
useful concentration to reduce fire spread for different fuel
types. The values varied from 0.67 gpc (0.28 L m−2 ) to 13 gpc
(5.34 L m−2 ) and were determined for each fuel type defined
by the National Fire Danger Rating System (NFDRS) of the
Forest Service (USA).
Sometimes, after extinction operations next to streams,
high fish mortality was observed which led to the study of the
acute toxicity of fire retardants to aquatic organisms when it
is applied directly in streams (Davis et al. 1961; Dodge 1970;
Blahm et al. 1974). George (1970) reviewed studies showing
the effects of retardants on aquatic organisms and concluded
that the toxicity effects of retardants came from the amount
of available ammonia.
The performance of fire retardants during extinction oper-
ations is influenced by several parameters which are very
different from each other. Since the early stages of research
on fire retardants, these parameters have been studied sepa-
rately. In the review of George et al. (1976), the parameters
were divided into six categories: product formulation and
evaluation; base requirements; retardant cloud characteris-
tics; delivery characteristics; fire situation effectiveness; and
environmental impact. Later, Hardy (1977) included, more
extensively, all of these parameters in a general work.
The present work reviews the studies (Table 1) carried out
since the article of George et al. (1976), and it focuses on
the analysis of the most studied parameters that affect the use

1 Those properties, including viscosity and elasticity, affecting the flow characteristics of a fluid. These properties affect the behavior of the retardant as it is
dropped from an airtanker.
2 gpc: gallons per 100 square feet.
Long-term forest fire retardants
and application of long-term forest fire retardants: quality,
effectiveness, application systems and environmental impact.
Quality of fire retardants: programs and evaluation of
forest fire retardants
As the different types of forest fire retardant were approved,
various methodologies were introduced to determine the
chemical properties of the mixtures and concentrates; and
this allowed the evaluation of their applicability and use in
wildland fires.
Standards for the evaluation of commercially available
long-term forest fire retardant products are to be found
in USDA Forest Service (2000). This document defines
the essential terms employed in relation to the use of fire
retardants and describes the test procedures followed to anal-
yse their constituents to evaluate the fire retardant, in the
laboratory or in the field: tests of mammalian toxicity and
irritation, combustion retarding effectiveness, determina-
tion of optimum mixing and physical properties (active salt
content, viscosity, density, pH, product stability, corrosion,
pumpability, abrasion, air drop characteristics, field visibility
and operation field evaluation). This publication sets lim-
its required for each of the measured characteristics that
commercial fire retardants must meet.
The chemical analysis procedures for monitoring the
variety of commercial fire retardant products are based on
methodologies used to test other chemical substances, but
specific conditions, operations, and procedures have been
developed to yield optimum results with normal mixtures of
the ingredients present in fire retardants (Van Meter et al.
1985). The procedures in the field have to be fast: some
of them, for example the amount of retardant salts, require
calibration curves or tables relating to other properties.
Laboratory procedures, on the other hand, have to be exact
in order to improve on the indirect measures in the field
and detect chemicals that are partly absorbed into or react
with others and are therefore not detected. Van Meter et al.
(1985) gave a detailed description of the chemical analysis
procedures in the laboratory to determine the main chemi-
cal and physical properties of forest fire retardant mixtures
[ammonium polyphosphate (APP), DAP, monoammonium
phosphate (MAP), and AS].
The amount of active retardant salts is one of the most
important parameters, as it is these substances that alter the
process of combustion in a forest fire; this parameter and the
viscosity are the characteristics analysed for the evaluation of
fire retardants in the field. The sampling and analysis proce-
dures are described in George and Johnson (1986) and later
in NWCG (2000). According to the value obtained, George
and Johnson gave the corrective actions required in order to
bring the properties within the range of these two param-
eters, while another report showed the values for some of
3 The use of trade firm names in this publication is for reader information and does not imply endorsement by the Centre for Studies on Technological Risk.
3
the parameters for the retardants currently used by the Forest
Service (USDA). The viscosity and the amount of active salts
provide information on the quality but not the effectiveness
of fire retardants. Van Meter et al. (1985) described a method
for measuring the rate of coverage to determine the amount of
mixed retardant applied. This was the only aspect associated
with the effectiveness of the retardants that was evaluated in
the field, under operational conditions.
The most extensive study of retardant evaluation was car-
ried out by George et al. (1977) in order to evaluate a new
type of retardant: the ammonium polyphosphate (APP) liquid
mixtures (LC), and more specifically Fire-Trol 9313 -L, N, P
and Fire Trol 931-L with and without gum or inverter emul-
sifier thickened. The polyphosphate mixtures are considered
to be the most effective (George et al. 1977), as well as the
following mixtures: DAP, liquid type ammonium pyrophos-
phate (Pyro) and AS. The evaluation of the APP mixtures
was based on the study of the following parameters: stor-
age, specific weight, viscosity, corrosion, pH values, abrasion
and erosion, combustion retarding effectiveness (superiority
factor), color, health and safety, mixing, salt content, sepa-
ration, pumpability and air drop characteristics. All of the
methodologies used to analyse the different parameters of
those products followed strictly the applicable regulations,
and the corrosion, stability and air drop characteristics were
studied in depth.
The discussion about the corrosion caused by the APP
formulations was due to the lack of studies and specifi-
cations in this field. Fire retardants cause several types of
corrosion and effects of different kinds of the equipment
alloys; the corrosion studies developed later were centered
to cover some of these aspects. These studies were signif-
icant because corrosion is one of the characteristics that
has an affect on safety during extinction operations, par-
ticularly if we consider the potential hazards and damage
that may be associated with the aerial release of fire retar-
dants. The types of corrosion detected in the alloys of the
aerial release and ground equipment and the mix and stor-
age tanks are: uniform corrosion, intergranular corrosion,
pitting corrosion, galvanic corrosion, fatigue corrosion and
stress corrosion cracking. The maximum allowable corro-
sion rates because of uniform corrosion are published in
the specification cited above, USDA Forest Service (2000),
which specifies only the execution of corrosion tests for uni-
form corrosion and intergranular corrosion for four types
of alloys.
Gehring (1978, 1980) carried out laboratory studies to
determine which alloys are most affected by corrosion,
specifically uniform corrosion. Together with previous work
of Gehring (1974), this formed the basis for determin-
ing and checking the approved corrosion values caused by
commercialized retardant mixtures.
4 A. Giménez et al.
The results of the works analysing retardant-induced cor-
rosion are used both to determine whether the mixtures with
corrosion-inhibiting agents fall within the limits set, and
also to ascertain which alloys are most affected by a given
retardant mixture. Gehring and George (1986) developed
guidelines for preventing and reducing the corrosion caused
by fire retardants in airtankers and ground support equipment
(storage and mixing tanks).
Johnson and George (1990) evaluated the corrosivity of
the most frequently used long-term fire retardants (nine
types), short-term fire retardants and foams under different
temperature conditions. This study was performed both with
fresh products and with products that had been stored for
some time. The authors studied the damage caused to the
alloys by uniform and intergranular corrosion. The alloys
used in this study were representative of those exposed in
airtankers and helicopters and in use at retardant storage facil-
ities: 2024 T3-aluminium, AISI 4130 steel, yellow brass and
Az-31-B magnesium. The methods were executed accord-
ing to the appropriate Forest Service regulations for each
case (USDA Forest Service 1969, 1970, 1975a, 1975b, 1982,
1986). The study was conducted to compare the corrosive-
ness of the different products that were being used at the
time. The results showed that all the retardants tested were
within the corrosiveness limits for uniform and intergranu-
lar corrosion. The significance of this factor does not relate
only to safety; a knowledge of the uniform corrosion caused
by the fire retardants also allowed technicians to choose the
most appropriate retardant in relation to the type of equip-
ment and the specific conditions of the determined base. With
reference to intergranular corrosion, although the alloys did
not exhibit this type of corrosion, the tests had to be carried
out. This was because, according to the results and other data
obtained to date (1990), there was no way of predicting which
salt–inhibitor combinations would cause intergranular corro-
sion (Johnson and George 1990); just the specification for
long-term retardant USDA Forest Service (2000) determines
within the tests of physical properties.
Effectiveness of fire retardants
The increasing use of the long-term fire retardants proposed
by Hardy et al. (1962) has been accompanied by a steady rise
in the cost of this use, due in large part to the increasing prices
of the chemical products that constitute the active ingredients
of these fire retardants. This increasing price has prompted
further studies aimed at determining which fire retardant is
the most effective. The effectiveness of a fire retardant, as has
been discussed above, is a concept that should include other
more general parameters involved in the use of fire retardants,
but to determine its effectiveness experimentally the param-
eters to study are the rate of weight loss, the energy release
rate and the amount of residue after burning fuel beds in the
4A directional radiometer (Gier-Dunkle) was used to measure the maximum value of energy released.
laboratory. The retardant effectiveness cannot be accurately
predicted by analysis of total concentration of active salts, but
must be quantified by burning fuels treated with the chemical
formulations (Blakely 1988).
Blakely (1983) corroborated the conclusions of the stud-
ies of George and Sussot (1971), where it was determined
that the effectiveness of fire retardants associated with the
reduction in flammability and combustion was related to the
available P2 O5 in the retardant mixture. Blakely compared
the effectiveness of several retardant products containing
MAP obtained by means of different manufacturing pro-
cesses and from different manufacturers with the effective-
ness of DAP, which has been the standard for comparison
since 1970 (George and Blakely 1972), in an attempt to deter-
mine whether the manufacturing process or manufacturer had
an influence on the effectiveness of fire retardants. The rate
of spread and the rate of weight loss were studied statistically
and the authors found that the MAP mixtures tested on an
equal P2 O5 equivalent basis were as effective as DAP and
therefore fire retarding effectiveness of each MAP and DAP,
in a pure form, can be equated on the P or P2 O5 content.
The effectiveness of fire retardant is based on the chemi-
cal ability to hinder or reduce the combustion and it can be
evaluated by the superiority factor (SF), the value of which
must be greater than 0.6 for the retardant to be approved by
the Forest Service. Blakely (1988) determined the SF for four
forest fire retardants and compared the effectiveness of the
active salts contained in the long term retardant mixtures. The
salts studied were: MAP, DAP, AS and an MAP–AS mixture
(the samples had no additives or impurities). For the com-
parison between the fire retardants the amount of active salts
was calculated in DAP equivalents. The MAP–AS mixture
had more effectiveness than DAP or AS when used alone.
These studies about the effectiveness did not determine for
how long retardant agents maintained their ability to reduce
flaming combustion, when they were insufficient to stop all
combustion and then flaming recurred (combustion recov-
ery). Different retardants may have similar capabilities for
reducing flaming combustion but be very different in their
ability to maintain this effect (Blakely 1985). With this idea in
mind, Blakely (1985) conducted experimental tests to validate
a new method for determining the effectiveness of retardants
according to their ability to extinguish combustion recovery.
The assessment was carried out by the study of the effects of
different concentrations of retardants and thickening agents
when the combustion was already under way. The water, fire
retardant and thickening agents were not applied before burn-
ing the fuel but when the maximum energy release occurred4 ,
thus allowing the effect of the fire retardant on combustion
recovery to be studied.
Early tests showed that water was the primary agent con-
tributing to flame extinction; therefore, to compare the results
Long-term forest fire retardants 5

obtained in the experimentation, the amount of water was 13

maintained constant in all the trials, in order to determine the 12
effectiveness of long-term forest fire retardants and thick- 11
ening agents independently. To test the fire retardants, the 10
9
amounts of water and thickening agents were held constant

Time (min)
8
and different weights of chemical treatments were added as 7
a variable and, to determine the effectiveness of the thicken- 6
ers, the amount of the thickening agent was changed while 5
the amount of water and fire retardant remained constant. 4
This study determined the value and duration of the rate of 3 Water ⫹ 24 g MAP
energy release, Er (or the rate of weight loss). By monitoring 2 Water
the evolution of the variables the author was able to desig- 1
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
nate eight segments in the resulting weight–time curve. Two Mass of water
steady states of Er were detected in the tests on treated fuel.
The duration and the value of the steady states of Er were used Fig. 1. Time to start of combustion recovery for water, and for water
to evaluate the effectiveness of the different mixtures applied. plus MAP. (Blakely 1990)
The number of tests carried out by Blakely was insufficient
to evaluate the data obtained statistically, but it was shown that 100
Blakely’s method was valid for evaluating the extinguishing
ability of different forest fire retardants.
Blakely (1990) used this methodology with different 80
amounts of MAP and water. This study included a new
Reduction Er (%)

parameter, known as ‘knock-down’, which occurs when the

treatment has just been applied. The ‘knock-down’ is a period
of ∼15 s, during which the greatest effect of the fire retardants
and water on flaming combustion is noted. Tests were per-
formed with plain water (144, 216, 288, 360 and 432 g) and
with the addition of 24 g of MAP into the 144, 288 and 432 g
of water to obtain solution percentages of 14.3, 7.7 and 5.3%,
respectively (by weight). The values of Er and the duration of
the steady states obtained were compared for the untreated
and treated fuels with plain water and water plus fire retar-
dants. The study monitored the behavior over time and the
value of energy release during the steady-state periods and
at specific points. It analysed the duration of the buildup to
maximum energy release during the first steady-state period
(time until start), the total time during which the burning fuel
was held at a low Er by the addition of MAP before building
up to its maximum (time to maximum), and the magnitude
of the maximum Er (maximum magnitude).
The objective of the study by Blakely (1990) was to deter-
mine the extinguishing ability of plain water and whether
adding small amounts of chemical substances is enough to
increase the period of its effect. The study showed that the
fire retardant used improved the effectiveness of plain water,
reducing the rate of energy release and extending the dura-
tion of its effects on flaming combustion. Therefore, chemical
retardant can be a definite advantage during direct attack in
fire suppression efforts (Blakely 1990). When chemical prod-
ucts were added to the water, the time until start (during
the first steady-state) was prolonged, in comparison with
plain water (Fig. 1). By increasing the water treatment from
144 to 432 g the delay increased about 6-fold, while 24 g of
MAP increased this period of time by 273% when added to
60
40
Water ⫹ 24 g MAP
Water
20
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Mass of water
Fig. 2. Combustion recovery energy release rate for water and for
water plus MAP. (Blakely 1990)
the 144 g water treatment, and by 56% when added to the
432 g water treatment. The same trend was followed by all
the parameters; there was a significant difference between
the plain water treatment and the treatment with added MAP
when little water was used, and a smaller difference between
a large amount of water and this weight of water plus chemi-
cal. This was most notable in the value obtained for maximum
magnitude (Fig. 2), which was reduced by 62% when 144 g
of water was applied and by 80.3% when 24 g of MAP was
added. In contrast, the difference between the treatment with
the largest amount of plain water and the same amount of
water plus MAP was only 2.8%.
Although chemicals reduced the fire intensity and
extended the time until combustion recovery, water proved
to be the agent with greatest capability to reduce flaming to
smoldering combustion. These improvements in the use of
fire retardant on combustion recovery indicated not only the
advantages of their use, but allowed better understanding of
when and how they retarded combustion.
6 A. Giménez et al.

Table 2. Aerial drop tests of long-term forest fire retardant

Agency and country Reference Conditions, observations Results
and factors studied
USDA Forest Service, Johnson and Load size Development of aerial delivery guidelines of fire
United States Jordan (2000) Drop height retardants for several airtankers. (Wildland Fire
Drop speed Chemical Systems)
Three types of fire retardant: water,
foam and gum thickened
Victorian Forests Rawson (1977) Havilland Beaver plane Ground distribution patterns from effective ground
Commission, Australia Air speed constant at 148 km h−1 level concentration (>0.61 or >0.25 L m−2 )
Constant drop heights for studying the influence of canopy
Distribution of aerially applied was
studied in Pinus radiata aged
8, 12 and 15 years
Victorian Forests Rees (1983) Six types of plane Effective length and width of firebreak (>0.61 gpc
Commission, Australia Air speed between 176 and 215 km h−1 or >0.25 L m−2 )
Drop heights were observed
National Bushfire Loane and Project Aquarius The firebreaks built were not effective (0.24–5.4
Unit (CSIRO) Gould (1986) or 0.1–2.2 L m−2 ) for intensity of forest fire
>2000 kW m−1 , in Eucalyptus forest
Canadian Forest Newstead and Four types of airtanker Demonstration and discussion about how physical
Service, Canada Lieskovsky (1985) Load size retardant properties, environmental conditions and
Drop height the type of the tank effect on drop pattern
Drop speed
T ª, wind speed and direction
and the relative humidity
Viscosity

Fire retardant application of retardant) in order to assess the effectiveness of aerial

Fire retardant is usually applied from aerial delivery sys-
tems, ground application representing less than 1% of the
total fire retardant used each year (Blakely 1990). Within
the aerial delivery it has been estimated that 30% is car-
ried out in direct attack (Gale and Mauk 1983). The ground
application of fire retardant has some disadvantages against
aerial delivery and requires some planning and specific equip-
ment (Northeast Forest Fires Supervisors 1987); however, the
ground application gives better control of the fuel covered.
Aerial delivery is much more frequent than ground applica-
tion since the latter presents difficulties in the transport of the
chemical products and the problems involved with the use of
this application system.
Aerial delivery and therefore the final ground distribution
are affected by many parameters, each of which influences
retardant drop at different moments. The type of fire retar-
dant, its rheological properties, the type of airtanker and the
drop height are some of the factors that have an impact on
the ground distribution patterns (length, width, and coverage
level). Studies are usually inconclusive because of the large
number of variables, many of them interacting, the magnitude
of the effect of these variables, and the difficulty in quanti-
fying the overall effectiveness of the retardant application
(George 1982). For this reason there has been little agree-
ment on how to evaluate the most significant parameters
(drop height, airspeed, flow rate, load size and elasticity
retardant delivery.
According to Robertson et al. (1997a), these parameters
can be divided into factors that affect the ground pattern,
the actual firebreak characteristics and the critical firebreak
characteristics. The main parameters determining the ground
pattern are the flight altitude and airspeed, the wind direc-
tion and speed, the tank geometry and the physical properties
of the additives. The actual effectiveness of the firebreak is
influenced by the vegetation height, the coverage level and
the thickening agents. Finally, the behavior of the forest fire
and the characteristics of the firebreak (width, length and
ground pattern) are the parameters that influence the critical
firebreak effectiveness.
Experimental drop tests have been carried out in the
field to determine the effect of each parameter considered.
Drop tests are usually conducted under a variety of condi-
tions (flight altitude, airspeed and type of fire retardant),
above a grid of cups. The ground distribution pattern, length,
width, and covered area were calculated from the amount of
fire retardant in the cups. Robertson et al. (1997b) gave a
detailed explanation of the drop test methodology used in
New Zealand.
Several drop trials have been carried out by forest agen-
cies in different countries: the United States, New Zealand,
Canada and Australia (Table 2). The trials performed in the
United States by the Forest Service (Johnson and Jordan
Long-term forest fire retardants
2000) have yielded operational results and these tests have
been used to develop aerial drop guidelines. These guide-
lines associate the ground pattern of the fire retardant with
the airspeed and flight altitude and the coverage level for dif-
ferent types of airtankers and water-like fire retardants or gum
thickened. The other studies summarized in Table 2 evaluate
the effect of some parameters and characteristics of the drop
test on the coated vegetation. Table 2 shows that the drop
height and the drop speed were factors included in all the
studies as factors that influence the pattern of ground distri-
bution. Each study included other factors, depending on their
ability to be measured and the specific aim of the study. The
parameters affecting drop performance and ground distribu-
tion are known, but it is still difficult to determine the ground
distribution from specific known parameters.
The rheological properties of the fire retardants are con-
sidered to exert a strong influence on the ground distribution
pattern (Van Meter and George 1981; Vandersall 1994, 1998).
It is known that the viscous nature of the solution during
periods of extreme and relaxed shear and its elasticity are
important rheological properties (Vandersall 1994).
Viscosity is not directly associated with the characteristics
and behavior of fire retardant during aerial delivery; however,
its quantification may make it possible to relate these prop-
erties more appropriately to the retardant’s full-scale field
performance (Van Meter and George 1981). The retardant
cloud produced just after discharge is torn and rendered into
small droplets because of the interaction of external forces
(shear stress, wind and gravity). Droplet size will depend on
the rheological properties of the retardant mixture. Larger
droplets will be affected by external forces to a lesser extent
than smaller, lighter ones (Vandersall 1994, 1998), and will
result in less dispersion on the ground. Fire retardant mixtures
that contain clay thickening agents (water-like retardant; no
elasticity) exhibit droplet diameters of 2–3 mm, whereas the
individual droplets of guar gum thickened retardant solutions
(gum thickened; elasticity) varied from ∼3.5 up to about
5 mm, depending on the amount of gum contained in the
formulation (Andersen and Wong 1978).
Van Meter and George (1981) carried out laboratory
tests to determine the impact of rheological properties on
aerial delivery effectiveness.The trials employed a 17.8 m s−1
(maximum speed) wind tunnel air stream; there was a spe-
cial mechanism to apply fire retardant mixture from different
heights (maximum ∼0.762 m) above an array of cups (103
cups) to simulate aerial delivery of retardant. Specific weight,
viscosity, shear stress, surface tension and the droplet size
distribution were quantified for three thickening agents and
for three fire retardant solutions. By correlating the exper-
imental data together with other experimental data from
previous tests, an expression was obtained for the dis-
persal area pattern. The correlation is valid statistically,
but the different scale in field experiments must be taken
into account.
7
The computer program developed by Swanson et al.
(1975) (Pattern Simulation Model), which did not work for
constant flow tank systems, was used to devise the per-
formance guidelines for airtankers by George and Johnson
(1990). The model requires one main input: the flow rates for
each compartment. The methodology to quantify the flow
rate was described by Blakely et al. (1982), and is executed
by static testing. The other inputs of the program are related
to airtanker characteristics and drop performance, and the
outputs consist of a detailed pattern plot, contour interval
summaries and a scaled pattern plot. If it is necessary to per-
form consecutive releases from a single tank to reach the
desired ground pattern, the program will need more input
data and a subroutine (PATADD) is used. The guidelines were
developed for 35 different types of airtankers (representing
around 90% of fire retardant aerial delivery tankers in 1990
and now are not 100% applicable). The guidelines provide
information about the characteristics of the tank, the coverage
level, strategic charts from the PATADD option, and finally,
the safe drop height. For the fixed wing airtankers, this fac-
tor is the distance below the airtanker at which the retardant
begins to fall vertically, and it has lost its forward momentum.
This correlation, obtained by filming drop tests, depends on
the load size and the peak flow rate, and is expressed as:
S = 151 + 0.112L + 0.0202P, (1)
where S = Safe drop height (feet), L = Load size (gal), and
P = Peak flow rate (gal s−1 ).
The above equation to estimate the safe drop height is
expressed as follows using the metric system:
S = 46.025 + 0.9018L + 1.6265P. (2)
In this case, the units of parameters L and P are m3 and
m3 s−1 , respectively.
For the constant flow tank and single airtankers, equations
(1) or (2) do not provide an accurate representation. The safe
drop heights for most of the fixed wing tankers have been
calculated by Lovellette (2000), who determined this factor
for full and partial drops.
Other programs have been started up by various research
centers. The most notable programs have been the ACRE
project, a recent European project coordinated by CEREN
(Centre d’Essais et de Recherche de l’Entente) and the pro-
gram that have been carried out by USDA Forest Service over
several years (since the 1960s). Since 1998, Wildland Fire
Chemical Systems took care of most of the factors related
to the use of fire retardants, although Aerial Delivery Sys-
tems (ADS) was recently created for this purpose. This latter
group has developed drop guidelines for fixed and rotary
wing tankers on the basis of the drop tests summarized in
Table 2 (Johnson and Jordan 2000). ADS has studied the tank
and gating systems, flow rates, drop heights and airspeeds.
These characteristics significantly affect the aerial delivery
8 A. Giménez et al.

of fire retardants. The drop guide developed gave practical Heat received by the fuel on the opposite side of the gap
and operational instructions for the most effective coverage is the factor most heavily affecting whether a fire will cross
in every fire situation, and the characteristics of the tank. the fuel break and ignite this fuel (Xanthopoulos and Noussia
These guidelines considered fixed-wing tanks’ ability to con- 2000), and the parameter to evaluate this is the first temper-
trol flow rates, in order to improve retardant delivery, so as to ature peak; the lowest value recorded for which the flames
obtain a great line length for each coverage level. Although crossed the firebreak was 481K (208◦ C).
this type of airtanker provides an effective coverage, not all
fixed-wing aircraft are equipped with it. Environmental impact of fire retardants
The main objective of the ACRE project was to provide
Fire retardant delivery into the environment could have tox-
greater insight into the effectiveness and the methodology
icity effects on organisms. Initially it was thought that fire
for applying fire-retarding chemical additives (Giraud and
retardants would have no adverse effect on the environment,
Picard 2000). Several studies were carried out to obtain a
as their main active ingredients are agricultural fertilizers;
model for aerial drop performance in various aerial delivery
however, even materials of inherent low toxicity can cause
systems. The ACRE project began in July 1998 and was com-
adverse environmental effects when the rate or intensity of
pleted in October 2000. One of the studies included in this
use is sufficiently great (Norris et al. 1978).
project was the mathematical modeling of aerial retardant
Of the different substances that are present in fire retar-
drop (Calogine et al. 2000). To test this model a simula-
dant mixtures, various corrosion inhibitors and ammonia are
tion was run which provided the results of the length and
toxic components. Ammonia comes from the dissociation
the amount of retardant on the ground. These results are
of ammonium salts, which are present in the majority of
yet to be validated with experimental tests. The model has
long-term retardant products.
several disadvantages, as it does not show the ground dis-
The toxicity studies have been classified by: (a) the effect
tribution and is applicable only to Newtonian fluids. More
on water quality and consequently on aquatic organisms;
work will have to be done to improve and extend the model to
(b) toxicity effects on vegetation; and (c) toxicity effects on
non-Newtonian fluids (such as fire retardants). Nevertheless,
humans. There are three works that review the various studies
this was the first attempt to solve fluid mechanics equations
of the impact of fire retardant use on people and ecosystems,
more precisely than the rough approximation of the Bernoulli
by Labat Anderson Inc. (1994), Adams and Simmons (1999)
equation used in PATSIM on modern computers. This
and Kalabokidis (2000). Kalabokidis’ work has many refer-
work focused on modeling the rheological behavior of fire
ences to studies on the effects of fire retardants on people,
retardants.
whereas the work of Adams and Simmons (1999) presents a
Another phase of the ACRE project was centered on small-
review of the environmental impact of long-term fire retar-
scale study of the effective firebreak width to reduce and stop
dants and foams, with less emphasis on their effects on
fire spread in wildland fires. A new wind tunnel was used to
people. Labat Anderson Inc. (1994) deals with the ecological
carry out two different tests: in the first one retardant-treated
and human risks of the use of fire retardants.
fuel was located after the firebreak, and in the second the
For each long-term fire retardant mixture, the suppliers
treated fuel was located before the firebreak. The firebreak
publish the safety information in relation to its use (MSDS,
was simulated by leaving a gap of varying width (10–50 cm)
Material Safety Data Sheet); primarily human health hazards
in the fuel bed (needles of Pinus halepensis). The retardant
and environmental regulation data are specified along with
product used was a 20% (4 : 1) solution of Fire-Trol LC (Liq-
toxicity tests5, chemical and physical properties of the fire
uid Concentrate), which was applied in two coverage levels:
retardant, storage and handling conditions and reactivity.
1.47 gpc (0.6 L m−2 ) and 2.21 gpc (0.9 L m−2 ). In total, 52
Generally, environmental impact on surface fresh water
burnings (with the treated fuel after the firebreak) were per-
caused by retardant delivery is the topic that has been studied
formed under different wind speed conditions (0.9 m s−1 ,
in most detail, whereas fewer studies have been conducted
0.4 m s−1 and without wind) and different load and depth.
to determine the effects on vegetation and the reduction of
There were three thermocouples along the fuel bed. The tem-
species diversity caused by added nitrogen and phosphorus
peratures recorded and the visual evaluation of the reach of
in soils (Adams and Simmons 1999; Larson et al. 1999).
the fuel after the firebreak by the flame was studied. The
results showed a reduction in the minimum required width of
the firebreak when the fuel was treated. The results obtained Toxicity effects on water and aquatic organisms
when the fuel was treated before the firebreak also showed Evidence shows that the main impact that fire suppression
a reduction in the width of the firebreak; however the num- chemicals have on the environment may be through adverse
ber of burnings (seven) was not enough to lead to consistent effects on water quality and subsequently on freshwater fish
conclusions. and other stream biota (Kalabokidis 2000).

5 The toxicity tests are conducted by the manufacturers themselves or by a contracted laboratory.
Long-term forest fire retardants
As mentioned above, ammonium salts are one of the toxic
components of some long-term fire retardants for aquatic
organisms when it is dissociated by water to ammonia. On
the other hand the oxidation of ammonia to nitrate or nitrite
is very low under test conditions, and these are considered
low toxicity agents (Buhl and Hamilton 2000). The amount
of ammonia in water does not only depend on the concen-
tration of ammonium sulfate or phosphate delivered, but
also on the pH and the temperature of the water, as these
are parameters that influence the equilibrium reaction of
ammonium-ammonia.
Toxicity studies on aquatic organisms relate the results
obtained in the laboratory to the determined amount of fire
retardant and ammonia. The data show that ammonia is the
component which has most impact on these organisms under
laboratory conditions (Johnson and Sanders 1977; Hamilton
et al. 1996; McDonald et al. 1997; Buhl and Hamilton 1998,
2000). The objective of these studies was to establish dose–
response relationships to evaluate the effects of given levels
of fire retardant on specific fishes.
The acute toxicity tests performed in these works compare
the toxicity levels of both long-term fire retardants and foams.
Generally, the results show that foams are more toxic for
the species tested. The methodology and the conditions of
the trials followed the guidelines provided by ASTM (1989,
1998), and the groups of organisms studied were freshwater
fishes, algae and scuds. The tests were carried out in hard and
soft water. Table 3 describes the toxicity tests conducted by
some of these authors.
Many of these tests used freshwater fishes, Pimephales
promelas, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Hamilton et al. 1996) and
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Buhl and Hamilton 1998), at dif-
ferent life stages; it was observed that at the eyed egg stage
they were less sensitive due to their protective cell layers.
The results of the toxicity tests showed that fire retardants
applied directly into streams require great dilution to be non-
lethal for aquatic organisms; for example, a dilution in the
range of 100–1750 times was necessary to approach a safe
concentration for rainbow trout (Gaikowski et al. 1996). It
is essential, therefore, to avoid aerial retardant delivery near
streams.
Dose–response studies are important because of their
application in simulation models developed to estimate the
effect of direct aerial delivery on water and fish mortality.
Norris et al. (1978) developed an empirical mathematical
model using data from drop tests (Northern Forest Fire Lab-
oratory, USDA Forest Service) and on fish mortality (Blahm
et al. 1974). According to Norris et al. (1978), the fish mortal-
ity caused by direct applications into streams (normally due to
an accidental application) depends on three variables: deliv-
ery characteristics, the specific characteristics of the area, and
the properties of the stream.
The simulation of the toxicity effects of aerial delivery
requires the construction of three models: the aerial retardant
9
release, the dilution of the retardant as it moves downstream
and, finally, the effect of the retardant concentrations on
fish mortality. The first model not only takes into account
parameters that affect the retardant drop, but also introduces
stream parameters such as the leaf area index, thus taking
into account interception by streamside vegetation. To esti-
mate the downstream dilution of the retardant the dilution
rate of Phos-Chek XA (DAP) in a stream was compared
with the dilution of fluorescent dye, in different stretches
of stream (Norris et al. 1978). Finally, in the third phase of
the simulation, the mortality of fishes was related to the retar-
dant concentration. In this phase a new term was introduced,
the tolerance time, which indicates the maximum length of
time the organism can be exposed to a given concentration
of ammonia with negligible mortality (Norris et al. 1978).
Moreover, the model gives the variation in mortality over time
by taking into account changes in ammonia concentration for
a specific point and time.
Norris and Webb (1989) studied the effect of the direct
release of fire retardant (Phos-Chek XA) in four rivers; the
results corroborated the model developed by Norris et al.
(1978). Changes in the retardant concentration were regis-
tered up to a distance of 2700 m downstream, and mortality
was not noticed during the first 24 h for the amount and
release rate of the fire retardant applied in this study.
Recent studies showed that the toxicity of long-term fire
retardants could be heightened in the presence of UV-B radia-
tion and water (Little and Calfee 2000). These authors studied
the impact of UV-B radiation on the fire retardant product and
its effect on Oncorhynchus mykiss and Rana sphenocephala.
The toxicity of fire retardants caused by UV-B radiation is
due to sodium ferrocyanide (a corrosion inhibitor). This prod-
uct, in the presence of natural solar or laboratory-synthetic
UV-B and water, can decompose by photoactivation to yield
HCN. This substance is toxic for aquatic organisms when it
releases free cyanide; so the toxicity of fire retardants contain-
ing sodium ferrocyanide increased significantly when they
are exposed to UV-B radiation.
Further work was carried out (Little and Calfee 2002a)
on the main toxic components of certain retardant products
(total ammonia, un-ionized ammonia, nitrate and nitrite and
sodium ferrocyanide). The inclusion in these studies of other
factors served to enhance the knowledge of the effects of
fire retardants on the environment. These effects included the
environmental persistence of these toxic agents (Little and
Calfee 2002b) and the ability of organisms to avoid exposure
(Little et al. 2002). These three studies are reviewed in Little
and Calfee (2002c) and some data are summarized in Table 3.
These studies carried out by Little and Calfee demon-
strated the dangers of using retardants that contain YPS
(sodium ferrocyanide), and observed that photoenhanced
cyanide has a very low LC50 : 50 µg L−1 (Little and Calfee
2002b).According to these authors, the environmental impact
of retardants depends on their environmental persistence and
 Table 3. Toxicity tests of aquatic organisms
Authors (year) Species Retardants Method Results

Johnson and Oncorhynchus kisutch (fry and fingerling) Fire-Trol 100 (AS) Toxicity test expressed as LC50 , at Fire-Trol mixtures have less toxicity
Sanders (1977) Salmo gairdneri (fry and fingerling) Fire-Trol 931 (APP) 24 and 96 h. APHA (1971); than Phos-Chek mixtures, for these species
Pimephales promelas (fingerling) Phos-Chek 202 A (DAP) EPA (1975); Mount and Brungs (1967)
Lepomis macrochirus (fingerling) Phos-Chek 259 (DAP)
Micropterus salmoides (fingerling)
Gammarus pseudolimnaeus (mature scud)
Hamilton Pimephales promelas (all life stages) Fire-Trol GTS-R (AS) Toxicity test expressed as LC50 , at Generally these five fire retardants
et al. (1996) 24, 48 and 96 h, in soft and hard water. have the same toxic effect on fishes
ASTM (1989), ASTM (1990)
Oncorhynchus mykiss (all life stages) Fire-Trol LCG-R (APP) Determination of the ammonia, nitrite The Fire-Trol mixtures have more toxicity
and nitrate concentration on algae than invertebrates, as was also
observed in growth tests
Daphnia magna Phos-Chek D75-F (MAP–AS)
Hyalella azteca (invertebrate) Two foams
Selenastrum capricornutum (alga)
Buhl and Oncorhynchus tshawytcha Fire-Trol GTS-R Toxicity test expressed as LC50 , The life stage less sensitive is eyed-eggs for
Hamilton (all life stages) at 96 h, in soft and hard all fire retardant products in soft and hard water
(1998) water (ASTM 1989, 1990)
Fire-Trol LCG-R Determination of the ammonia, For all life stages the most toxic products is
nitrite and nitrate concentration Phos-Check WD-881 and the least is Fire-Trol LCG-R
Phos-Chek D75-F
Two foams
Buhl and Oncorhynchus mykiss Fire-Trol LCA-F (APP) Toxicity test expressed as LC50 , at 96 h, There is an important variability of the
Hamilton (all life stages) in soft and hard water. (ASTM 1989) toxicity values of fire retardant evaluated
(2000) Fire-Trol LCM-R (APP) Determination of the ammonia, Foams have more toxicity than long-term retardants.
nitrite and nitrate concentration The greatest mortality was in the first 24 h
Phos-Chek 259F (DAP)
Five foams and LAS and SDS
(anionic surfactants)
Little and Pimephales promelas Fire-Trol GTS-R (with and Percentage of fish mortality in a field 100% of mortality occurred in sunny conditions (at
Calfee (30–60 days after without sodium ferrocyanide) experimental stream. Determination of 128 mg L−1 of GTS-R with YPS), but no mortality
(2002a) yolk absorption) Phos-Chek D75-R (MAP–AS) the total and unionized ammonia, nitrate, occurred in cloudy conditions. 100% of survival
and WADA cyanide concentration in tests with GTS-R without YPS and D75-R
Little and Pimephales promelas Fire-Trol GTS-R (with and Toxicity test (LC50 at 96 h, ASTM Low LC50 values showed enhanced toxicity
Calfee (60–90 days without sodium ferrocyanide) 1998), under different light treatments. induced by UV photoactivation. Environmental
(2002b) post-hatch) Phos-Chek D75-R (not containing Determination of the ammonia, nitrate persistence of retardants depended on the type of
sodium ferrocyanide) and WAD cyanide concentration and the substrate; persistence was lower when percentage
persistence of retardant when weathered in organic matter was higher. Dilute solutions
different substrates and in diluted solutions were not toxic after 7 days of weathering
Little et al. Oncorhynchus mykiss Fire-Trol GTS-R (with and Avoidance/attractance behaviour of fish Rainbow trout avoided at concentrations 10% of LC50
(2002) (90 days post-hatch) without sodium ferrocyanide or using a counter-current avoidance in water treated with GTS-R and less of 1% with D-75-R.
ferrous oxide colorant) (DeLonay et al. 1996) Fish did not avoid YPS when this was tested
Phos-Chek D75-R (not containing alone. Salinity of the test water might be the sensor
sodium ferrocyanide) that induced avoidance response.
A WAD: weak acid dissociable.
Long-term forest fire retardants
their application rate. The first aspect was evaluated by field
tests in two different experiments. First, the retardants Fire-
Trol GTS-R (AS) and Phos-Chek D75-R (MAP–AS) were
watered for several days (up to 45), on different substrates
ranging from non-porous polypropylene surfaces to forest
soils with both low and high organic matter content. Second,
field tests of the persistence of diluted aqueous solutions pre-
pared at LC50 were carried out on fish (Table 3) and added
to substrates. As a result, they showed that the soil type and,
above all, the cation exchange capacity (CEC), which deter-
mines the ability of soils to exchange ions with the substances
in contact with the soil in such a way that leaching is reduced,
was likely to be a significant variable in the persistence of the
retardants.
The behavior of fish was studied by Little et al. (2002). The
results showed an avoidance response to low concentrations
of the retardants tested6 (Table 3). This was definitely not in
order to discard the hazard of using fire retardant, since many
factors could inhibit this behavior (chemical substances,
temperature of water or pH values). This avoidance behavior
could affect the habitat negatively, altering aquatic ecosys-
tems and causing significant biological and economic injury
to natural resources (Little et al. 2002). This study also tested
a solution of YPS with UV-B, which the fish did not avoid.
The increased toxicity of fire retardants in the presence
of YPS has been demonstrated, mainly in the work of Little
and Calfee (2002a). The absence of mortality during the tests
with the formulation that did not contain YPS is evidence of
the role of this corrosion inhibitor. On the other hand, the
absence of mortality under cloudy conditions while testing
the formulation with YPS proves that a minimum level is
necessary for the release of cyanide from the YPS to occur.
Finally, other fire-related substances such as ash, which, at
low concentrations clogs gill surfaces and leads to respiratory
failure, may have a higher toxicity than the fire retardants
themselves. In comparison with ashes, the hazard posed by
fire retardants may be negligible in view of large amounts
of ash that are likely to enter aquatic systems from rainwater
runoff (Little and Calfee 2002b).
Toxicity effects on vegetation
When fire retardant is dropped in excess, these chemical prod-
ucts can enter plant organisms and soil and have toxic effects
on the vegetation (Bradstock et al. 1987). Up to now, few
studies have been carried out to determine the impact on
the environment, and each of them deals with different plant
species and employs different methods.
Larson and Duncan (1982) studied the vegetation growth
of a burned area where fire retardant salt (DAP) was air-
dropped during extinction operations. The main plant species
present in the plot were Bromus mollis, B. diandrus, Vulpia
6 Fire-Trol GTS-R with and without sodium ferrocyanide or ferrous oxide colorant and Phos-Chek D75-R did not contain sodium ferrocyanide.
11
megalura and Erodium botrys. The area was divided into dif-
ferent types of plots: unburned plots with DAP, burned plots
with DAP, burned plots without DAP, and unburned plots
without DAP (these last two types of plots being the control
area). During the first year, both area treated with retardant
yielded 12 000 kg ha−1 , twice as much as the unburned con-
trol area. In the second year this difference in the yield was not
maintained, the highest yield being 4171 kg ha−1 , which was
produced by the treated burned plots, whereas the unburned
plots without DAP had the lowest yield, 2076 kg ha−1 . The
unburned control plots had a higher herbage yield than the
unburned, treated one. According to the results of the study,
the use of fire retardants increases forage yield in the first
year after a fire, but causes a drop in native clover production
for 2 years. However, in order to determine the true effect of
the retardant on these plants over a long period of time, long-
term studies of at least 10 years would be needed. Although
these results might be attributed to the fact that retardants
are fertilizers, this work allowed better understanding of the
role of these products in species richness and the growth of
vegetation.
The most specific study was carried out by Bradstock et al.
(1987), and described the toxic effects of a solution of ammo-
nium sulfate and Kelzan (an algae-based thickening agent)
on a particular vegetation type (Eucalyptus forest). The tests
were conducted in the field and in the greenhouse to deter-
mine the effects of each component of the fire retardant on
leaves and to ascertain to what extent rainfall can reduce
ammonium sulfate damage. The results showed that ammo-
nium sulfate is the agent that damages and kills leaves. In the
field it was also determined that there had been changes in the
coverage level of the vegetation and the number of species,
but the changes observed over a year were assumed to be
natural changes (Bradstock et al. 1987).
Larson et al. (1999) studied the acute toxicity of a long-
term fire retardant (Phos-Chek G-75 (MAP–AS)) and foam
on bush vegetation in two different habitat types (riparian
and upland), in burned and unburned areas. The parameters
measured were growth, resprouting, flowering, and incidence
of galling insects mainly on Chrysothamnus viscidif lorus and
Artemisia tridentata, which were not affected by the chemical
product.
Community characteristics (species richness, evenness
and diversity) and the number of stems m−2 in woody and
herbaceous plants were also measured. The majority of these
characteristics showed no response to the chemicals over the
course of the application (Larson et al. 1999). The lack of
a response in growth during the treatment seemed to dis-
agree with the results obtained by Larson and Duncan (1982).
However, this difference was attributed to the weather, specif-
ically a lack of precipitation. The relatively short duration
of the study was a limiting factor in the determination of
12
the real effect of the application of fire retardants on the
vegetation.
Toxicity effects on humans
The majority of the work done to determine the impact of
retardant use on people is reported by Labat Anderson Inc.
(1994), where hazard analysis was employed to determine an
acceptable dose level for the various commercial fire retar-
dants. This dose level was compared to the estimated doses
to which fire-fighters were exposed. The results of the com-
parison classified the hazard of the fire retardants approved
by the USDA Forest Service as negligible. The risk was con-
sidered to be significant only when the fire retardant comes
into direct contact with people. Some cases of skin and eye
irritation have been detected.
As discussed above, corrosion inhibitors are considered
toxic substances; the toxicity test conducted on animals (rats)
has determined the lethal dose of fire retardant mixtures. For
a fire retardant mixture that contains sodium dichromate7 as a
corrosion inhibitor, the lethal dose considered is 3 L of retar-
dant mixture for a man weighing 90 kg (USA Department of
Health, Education and Welfare Toxic Substance List).
Conclusions
This bibliographic analysis has shown that works on long-
term forest fire retardants encompass a significant variety of
parameters and this fact means that the results obtained from
these studies were different according to the factor evaluated.
On the other hand, if one considers the number of possible
variables, the works can be considered quite consistent. Each
parameter has a different influence on the effectiveness of
long-term forest fire retardants.
The various methodologies and the parameters to be eval-
uated to determine the quality of a fire retardant (chemical
and physical properties) are known, and these procedures are
established in various internal specifications (USDA Forest
Service). However, there are differences between the param-
eters evaluated in studies on aerial fire retardant delivery
due to the difficulty of controlling some of them, and some-
times external considerations may override the experimental
measures affecting the results.
The P2 O5 available in the DAP or MAP is known to be
the substance that makes these retardants more effective than
AS mixtures on combustion, particularly glowing combus-
tion. The parameters to be studied in order to evaluate the
effectiveness of fire retardants during fuel bed burning are
also known. Most studies have served to determine the effec-
tiveness of retardants during indirect attacks, because this is
their primary use. The works of Blakely (1985, 1990) con-
tributed a new evaluation methodology, during direct attack,
including new parameters for evaluation. These two papers
7 The use of this corrosion inhibitor was discontinued in the early 1970s, and it was never in most retardants.
A. Giménez et al.
gave a detailed account of the amount of time the effect
on combustion is maintained in relation to the amount of
water, thickening agent and retardant applied. Blakely (1985)
corroborated the fact that using a retardant is an improvement
on plain water, but no further studies to determine the mecha-
nism that extinguishes combustion recovery, so as to improve
the effectiveness of fire retardant use, were carried out.
Simulation models of aerial delivery of fire retardant were
carried out to obtain distribution patterns providing a descrip-
tion of several coverage levels. The effective coverage for
other fuel types or models linked retardant coverage levels
to effectiveness are defined using the range of NFDRS; even
so the adaptations do not provide the best basis for aerial
drop guidelines with a view to obtaining a known effective
coverage for other fuel models.
According to Gale and Mauk (1983), 70% of the aerial
retardant delivered is by way of indirect attack.Although most
of the effectiveness studies were made in indirect attack, the
results obtained were not evaluated with the purpose of giv-
ing operational and technical data for improving chemical
firebreaks building; only one study was found about building
of firebreaks (Xanthopoulos and Noussia 2000). The results
obtained in the laboratory were not transferred to full scale,
which would have provided guidelines for an effective fire-
break. In that case the firebreak was simulated by leaving a
gap rather than considering aerial delivery of fire retardant.
This bibliographic analysis shows that there are no specific
studies on the building of chemical firebreaks even though
in the United States the aerial delivery of fire retardant is
generally for indirect attack.
Another issue that must be taken into account with regard
to the use of fire retardants is their environmental impact. The
toxic effects of fire retardants on streams and aquatic organ-
isms are considered the most significant, and for this reason
there are a significant number of toxicity studies in compar-
ison with works on the toxic effect on vegetation (Table 1).
The amount of fire retardant and the place where it is deliv-
ered are the two main parameters determining the degree of
environmental impact. By taking these two factors into con-
sideration it is possible to reduce the fish mortality caused
by fire retardants. The most serious environmental impact of
fire retardant use can be mitigated by taking preventive action.
For example, the USDA Forest Service recommends avoid-
ing aerial delivery of retardant near streams as a performance
guideline.
Lastly, it should be emphasized that most of the envi-
ronmental impact and toxic effect studies on long-term fire
retardants have appeared over the last 10 years (Table 1),
whereas studies dealing with the effectiveness and applica-
tion of fire retardants are older. Nowadays, there is not so
much debate, and few studies aimed at determining the fac-
tors that affect aerial retardant delivery or in studies providing
Long-term forest fire retardants
an improvement in their use (Table 1) (when, where and
how to apply retardant) of forest fire retardants and their
effectiveness in the extinction of forest fires.
References
Adams R, Simmons D (1999) Ecological effects of fire fighting foams
and retardants. In ‘Proceedings of Australian Bushfire Conference’.
Albury. [on line]. Available from http://life.csu.edu.au/bushfire99.
Andersen WH, Brown RE, Louie NA, Katio KG, Buchfield IA,
Dalby JD, Zerpow L (1976) ‘Correlation of rheological properties of
liquid fire retardant with aerially delivered performance.’ Contract
26–3198 to USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station. (Ogden, UT)
Andersen WH, Wong JY (1978) ‘Dynamic interaction of fire retardant
droplets with fuel and the correlation with the rheological properties
of the retardant.’ Contract 839–2031–7 to USDA Forest Service,
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Final Report.
(Ogden, UT)
Anderson HE (1974) ‘Forest fire retardant: transmission through a tree
crown.’ USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station Research Paper INT-153. (Ogden, UT)
APHA (1971) ‘Standard methods for the examination of water and
wastewater (13th edn).’ (American Public Health Association:
Washington, D.C.).
ASTM (1989) Standard guide for conducting acute toxicity tests with
fishes, macroinvertebrates, and amphibians. Annual Book of ASTM
Standards 11.04, 378–397.
ASTM (1990) ‘Standard guide for conducting static 96-hour toxi-
city tests with microalgae.’ ASTM Guide E 1218–90. (ASTM:
Philadelphia, PA)
ASTM (1998) ‘Standard guide for conducting acute toxicity tests with
fishes, macroinvertebrates and amphibians.’ ASTM Guide E 729–
88a. (ASTM: Philadelphia, PA)
Barret LI (1931) Possibilities of fire extinguishes chemicals in fighting
forest fires. Journal of Forestry 29, 214.
Blahm T, Marshall WC, Snyder GR (1974) ‘Effect of chemical fire
retardants on the survival of juvenile salmonoids.’ Final Report. (US
Department of Commerce, NOAA National Marine Fish, Service
Environment Facilities: Prescott, OR)
BlakelyAD (1983) ‘Monoammonium phosphate: effect on flammability
of excelsior and pine needles.’ USDA Forest Service, Intermoun-
tain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Research Paper INT-313.
(Ogden, UT)
Blakely AD (1985) ‘Combustion recovery: a measurement of fire
retardant extinguishment capability.’ USDA Forest Service, Inter-
mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Research Paper
INT-352. (Ogden, UT)
Blakely AD (1988) ‘Flammability reduction comparisons of
four forest fire retardants.’ USDA Forest Service, Intermountain
Forest and Range Experiment Station, Research Paper INT-381.
(Ogden, UT)
Blakely AD (1990) ‘Combustion recovery of flaming pine needle fuel
beds sprayed with water/MAP mixtures.’ USDA Forest Service,
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Research Paper
INT-421. (Ogden, UT)
Blakely AD, George CW, Johnson GM (1982) ‘Static testing to evaluate
airtanker delivery performance.’ USDA Forest Service, Intermoun-
tain Forest and Range Experiment Station, General Technical Report
INT-78. (Ogden, UT)
Bradstock R, Sanders J, Tegart A (1987) Short-term effects on the foliage
of a eucalypt forest after an aerial application of a chemical fire
retardant. Australian Forestry 50(2), 71–80.
Buhl KJ, Hamilton SJ (1998) Acute toxicity of fire-retardant and
foam suppressant chemicals to early life stages of Chinook Salmon
13
(Oncorhynchus tshawytscha). Environmental Toxicology and Chem-
istry 17(8), 1589–1599.
Buhl KJ, Hamilton SJ (2000) Acute toxicity of fire-control chem-
icals, nitrogenous chemicals, and surfactants to Rainbow Trout.
Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 129, 408–418.
Calogine D, Leprévost JC, Rimbert N, Séro-Guillaume O (2000).
‘Modeling of dropping and atomization.’ ACRE project. Unpub-
lished data.
Davis JB (1960) ‘Air drop tests, Willows, Santa Ana, Ramona, 1955–
59.’ California Air Attack Coordinating Committee. (USDA Forest
Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station:
Berkeley, CA)
Davis JB, Dibble DL, Clinton BP (1961) ‘Firefighting chemicals … new
weapons for the fire suppression crew.’USDA Forest Service, Pacific
Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Miscellaneous
Paper PSW-57. (Berkeley, CA)
Davis JB, Dibble DL, Phillips CB, Mc Bride RS (1962) ‘Viscous water
and algin gel as fire control materials.’ USDA Forest Service, Pacific
Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station Technical Paper
PSW-71. (Berkeley, CA)
DeLonay AJ, Little EE, Lipton JJ, Woodward DF, Hansen J (1996)
Behavioral avoidance as evidence of injury to fishery resources:
applications to natural resource damage assessments. In ‘Environ-
mental toxicology and risk assessment: fourth volume’. (Eds TW
LaPoint, FT Price, EE Little) pp. 268–280. (American Society for
Testing and Materials: Philadelphia, PA)
Dodge M (1970) Nitrate poisoning, fire retardants, and fertilizers—any
connection? Journal of Range Management 23(4), 244–247.
EPA (1975) ‘Methods for acute toxicity tests with fish, macroinver-
tebrats and amphibians’. EPA Ecological Research Series. (Com-
mittee on Methods for Toxicity Tests with Aquatic Organisms:
Washington, D.C.)
Gaikowski MP, Hamilton SJ, Buhl KJ (1996) Acute toxicity of three
retardant and two fire-suppressant foam formulations to the early
life stages of Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Environmental
Toxicology and Chemistry 15(8), 1365–1374.
Gale RD, Mauk SG (1983) ‘An evaluation of fire retardant use.’ Policy
Analysis Staff Report. (USDA Forest Service: Washington, D.C.)
Gehring GA, Jr (1974) ‘An investigation of fire retardant caused corro-
sion.’ Contract 26–3250 Ocean City Research Corp. Ocean City NJ.
USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station, Final Report. (Ogden, UT)
Gehring GA, Jr (1978) ‘Laboratory studies of fire retardant corrosion.’
Contract 26–3250 Ocean City Research Corp. Ocean City NJ to
USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station, Final report. (Ogden, UT)
Gehring GA, Jr (1980) ‘Corrosion survey of selected northern California
airtankers.’ Contract 40–0353–7-799 Ocean City Research Corp.
Ocean City NJ to USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and
Range Experiment Station, Final Report. (Ogden, UT)
Gehring GA, Jr, George CW (1986) ‘Guidelines for preventing fire
retardant corrosion.’ USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest
and Range Experiment Station, General Technical Report INT-210.
(Ogden, UT)
George CW (1970) Literature review of the toxicity of fire retardant
components toward fish and other aquatic organisms. In ‘A report of
research on the behavior and impact of chemical fire retardants in for-
est streams’. Appendix III, pp. 1–11. (USDA Forest Service, Pacific
Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station: Corvallis, OR)
George CW (1975) ‘Fire retardant ground distribution patterns from
the CL-215 air tanker.’ USDA Forest Service, Intermountain
Forest and Range Experiment Station Research Paper INT-165.
(Ogden, UT)
George CW (1982) ‘Measurements of airtanker drop conditions dur-
ing firefighting operations.’ USDA Forest Service, Intermountain
14
Forest and Range Experiment Station, Research Paper INT-299.
(Ogden, UT)
George CW, Blakely AD (1970) Energy release rates in fire retardant
evaluation. Fire Technology 6(3), 203–210.
George CW, Blakely AD (1972) ‘Effects of ammonium sulfate and
ammonium phosphate on flammability.’ USDA Forest Service,
Intermountain Range and Experiment Station, Research Paper
INT-121. (Ogden, UT)
George CW, Blakely AD (1973) ‘An evaluation of drop characteristics
and ground distribution patterns of forest fire retardants.’ USDA
Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station,
Research Paper INT-134. (Ogden, UT)
George CW, Blakely AD, Johnson GM (1976) ‘Forest fire retardant
research—A status report.’ USDA Forest Service, Intermountain
Forest and Range Experiment Station, General Technical Report
INT-31. (Ogden, UT)
George CW, Blakely AD, Johnson GM, Simmerman DG (1977) ‘Eval-
uation of liquid ammonium polyphosphate fire retardants.’ USDA
Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station,
General Technical Report INT-41. (Ogden, UT)
George CW, Johnson CW (1986) ‘Determining fire retardant qual-
ity in the field.’ USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and
Range Experiment Station, General Technical Report INT-201.
(Ogden, UT)
George CW, Johnson GM (1990) ‘Developing air tanker perfor-
mance guidelines.’ USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest
and Range Experiment Station, General Technical Report INT-268.
(Ogden, UT)
George CW, Sussot RA (1971) ‘Effects of ammonium phosphate and
sulfate on the pyrolysis and combustion of cellulose.’ USDA For-
est Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station
Research Paper INT-18. (Ogden, UT)
Giraud F, Picard C (2000) ACRE project. In ‘Proceedings of the
Research Special Session. Euromediterranean Wildfire Meet-
ings Research Special Session’. Hyères, pp. 123–132. (CEREN:
Gardanne, France)
Grigel JE (1970) Air drop tests with the snow commander airtanker
and Gelgard fire retardant. M.F. Thesis, University of Montana,
Missoula.
Grigel JE (1971) ‘Air drop tests with Fire-Trol-100 and Phos-Check
205 fire retardants.’Information Report NOR-X-8. (Canadian Forest
Service: Edmonton)
Grigel JE (1972) B-26 Airtanker air drop tests with liquid concentrate.
Canadian Forest Service. Northern Forest Research Centre. Forest
Report 2(1), 4–5 [Edmonton.].
Hamilton SJ, McDonald SF, Gaikowski MP, Buhl KJ (1996) Tox-
icity of fire retardant chemicals to aquatic organisms: progress
report. In ‘Proceedings of International Wildland Fire Foam
Symposium and Workshop’ Thunderbay. [on line]. Available from
http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/othrdata/fireweb/toxicity/
toxicity.htm
Hardy CE (1977) ‘Chemicals for forest fire fighting. (3rd edn)’(National
Fire Protection Association: Boston)
Hardy CE, Rothermel RC, Davis JB (1962) ‘Evaluation of forest fire
retardants—a test of chemicals on laboratory fires.’ USDA For-
est Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station,
Research Paper INT-64. (Ogden, UT)
Johansen RW, Shimmel JW (1963) ‘Increasing the viscosity of
water and chemical fire retardants with clays and gums.’
Georgia Forest Research Council, Forest Research Paper 19.
(Macon, GA)
Johnson CW, George CW (1990) ‘Relative corrosivity of currently
approved wildland fire chemicals.’ USDA Forest Service, Inter-
mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Research Paper
INT-437. (Ogden, UT)
A. Giménez et al.
Johnson G, Jordan C (2000) ‘Airtanker drop guides.’ (USDA Forest
Service, Wildland Fire Chemical Systems, Missoula Technology &
Development Center: Missoula, MT)
Johnson WW, Sanders HO (1977) ‘Chemical forest fire retardants:
acute toxicity to five freshwater fishes and a scud.’ U.S. Department
of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Technical Paper No. 91.
(Washington, D.C.)
Kalabokidis KD (2000) Effects of wildfire suppression chemicals on
people and the environment—A review. Global Nest: The Interna-
tional Journal 2(2), 129–137.
Labat Anderson Inc. (1994) ‘Human health risk assessment: chemicals
used in wildland fire suppression’. Labat Anderson Inc. Contract 53–
3187–9-30 to USDA Forest Service, Fire and Aviation Management,
Arlington, VA.
Larson DL, Newton WE, Anderson P, Stein SJ (1999) Effects of fire
retardant chemical and fire suppressant foam on shrub steppe veg-
etation in northern Nevada. International Journal of Wildland Fire
9(2), 115–127. doi:10.1071/WF00013
Larson JR, Duncan DA (1982) Annual grassland response to fire
retardant and wildfire. Journal of Range Management 35(6),
700–703.
Little EE, Calfee RD (2000) ‘The effects of UVB radiation on the
toxicity of fire-fighting chemicals.’ USGS Columbia Environmental
Research Center, Final Report to USDA Forest Service, Wild-
land Fire Chemical Systems, Missoula Technology & Development
Center, Missoula, MT.
Little EE, Calfee RD (2002a) ‘Effects of fire-retardant chemical prod-
ucts on fathead minnows in experimental streams.’ USGS Columbia
Environmental Research Center, Final Report to USDA Forest
Service, Wildland Fire Chemical Systems, Missoula Technology &
Development Center, Missoula, MT.
Little EE, Calfee RD (2002b) ‘Environmental persistence and toxic-
ity of fire-retardant chemicals, Fire-Trol GRS-R and Phos-Chek
D-75 to fathead minnows.’ USGS Columbia Environmental
Research Center, Final Report to USDA Forest Service, Wild-
land Fire Chemical Systems, Missoula Technology & Development
Center, Missoula, MT.
Little EE, Calfee RD (2002c) ‘Environmental implications of fire-
retardant chemicals.’ USGS Columbia Environmental Research
Center, Project Summary to USDA Forest Service, Aviation and
Fire Management, Washington, D.C.
Little EE, Wells JB, Calfee RD (2002) ‘Behavioral avoidance/attractance
response of rainbow trout to fire-retardant chemicals.’ USGS
Columbia Environmental Research Center, Final Report to USDA
Forest Service, Wildland Fire Chemical Systems, Missoula Technol-
ogy & Development Centre, Missoula, MT.
Loane IT, Gould JS (1986) ‘Project Aquarius: aerial suppression
of bushfires—cost–benefit study for Victoria.’ (Commonwealth
Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Division of Forest
Research/National Bushfire Research Unit: Canberra)
Lovellette G (2000) ‘Safe drop height for fixed wing airtankers.’ USDA
Forest Service, Technology and Development Program, 0057–2317-
MTDC. (Missoula, MT)
McDonald SF, Hamilton SJ, Buhl KJ, Heisinger JF (1997) Acute
toxicity of fire-retardant and foam suppressant to Hyalella azteca.
Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 16(7), 1370–1376.
Mount DI, Brungs WA (1967) A simplified dosing apparatus for fish
toxicology studies. Water Resources 1, 21–29. doi:10.1016/0043-
1354(67)90061-9
Newstead RG (1973) ‘Recent airtanker drop tests.’ Northern Forest
Research Centre, Forest Report No. 3(1). (Canadian Forest Service:
Edmonton)
Newstead RG, Lieskovsky RJ (1985) ‘Air tanker and fire retardant
drop patterns.’ Information Report NOR-X-273. (Canadian Forest
Service: Edmonton)
 Long-term forest fire retardants
Norris LA, Hawkes C, Webb WL, Moore DG, Bollen WB, Holcombe E
(1978) ‘A report of research on the behavior and impact of chemi-
cal fire retardants in forest streams.’ USDA Forest Service, Pacific
Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Internal Report.
(Corvallis, OR)
Norris LA, Webb WL (1989) ‘Effects of fire retardant on water quality.’
USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experi-
ment Station, General Technical Report PSW-109. (Berkeley, CA)
Northeast Forest Fires Supervisors (1987). ‘An analysis of ground
application of retardants.’ Roscommon Equipment Center Program,
Project No. 41. (Roscommon, MI)
NWCG (2000) ‘Lot acceptance, quality assurance, and field quality
control for fire retardant chemicals.’ National Wildfire Coordinat-
ing Group, National Interagency Fire Center, Report NFES 1245.
(Boise, ID)
Operation Firestop (1955a) ‘Progress Report No. 4, Retardants-I.’
(USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Exper-
iment Station: Berkeley, CA)
Operation Firestop (1955b) ‘Progress Report No. 9, Aerial firefight-
ing.’ (USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range
Experiment Station: Berkeley, CA)
Rawson R (1977) ‘A study of the distribution of aerially applied
fire retardant in softwood plantations.’ Division of Forest Protec-
tion Report No. 1. (Fire Research Branch, Forest Commission:
Melbourne, Victoria)
Rees B (1983) ‘Retardant distribution for six agricultural aircraft.’
Division of Forest Protection Report No. 16. (Fire Research
Branch, Forest Commission: Melbourne, Victoria)
Robertson K, Fogarty L, Webb S (1997a) ‘Firebombing effectiveness—
Where to from here?’ Fire Technology Transfer Note N.11. (National
Rural Fire Authority, Forest Research Institute, Forest and Rural Fire
Research: New Zealand)
Robertson K, Fogarty L, Webb S (1997b) ‘Guidelines for determin-
ing aerial drop patterns in open areas.’ Fire Technology Transfer
Note N.12. (National Rural Fire Authority, Forest Research Institute,
Forest and Rural Fire Research: New Zealand)
Rothermel RC (1972) ‘A mathematical model for predicting fire
spread in wildland fuels.’ USDA Forest Service, Intermountain
Forest and Range Experiment Station Research Paper INT-115.
(Ogden, UT)
Rothermel RC, Philpot CW (1975) Reducing fire spread in wildland
fuels. Experimental methods in fire research. In ‘Proceedings of
the Meeting to Honor Clay Preston Butler’. pp. 369–403. (Stanford
Research Institute: Stanford, CA)
Storey TG, Wendel GW, Altobellis AT (1959) ‘Testing the TBM aerial
tanker in the southeast.’ USDA Forest Service, Southeast Forest
Experiment Station Paper 101.
Swanson DH, Helvig TN (1973) High altitude drop mechanization
study: Final report. Honeywell Contract 26–2888 Vol. I–II to USDA
Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station.
(Ogden, UT)
Swanson DH, Helvig TN (1974) Extended high altitude drop mecha-
nization study: Final report. Honeywell Contract 26–288 to USDA
Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station.
(Ogden, UT)
Swanson DH, Luedecke AD, Helvig TN (1978) Experimental tank and
gating system (ETAGS) Honeywell Contract 26–3245 to USDA
Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station, Final Report. (Ogden, UT)
http://www.publish.csiro.au/journals/ijwf
View publication stats
15
Swanson DH, Luedecke AD, Helvig TN, Parduhn FJ (1975) Devel-
opment of user guidelines for selected retardant aircraft: Final
report. Honeywell Contract 26–3332 to USDA Forest Service,
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. (Ogden, UT)
Swanson DH, Luedecke AD, Helvig TN, Parduhn FJ (1977) ‘Sup-
plement to development of user guidelines for selected retardant
aircraft.’ Honeywell Contract 26–3332 to USDA Forest Service,
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Final report.
(Ogden, UT)
Truax TR (1939) ‘The use of chemicals in forest fire control.’ Forest
Products Laboratory Report 1199. (USDA Forest Service: Madison)
Tyner HD (1941) Fire extinguishing effectiveness of chemicals in water
solution. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 33(1), 60–65.
USDA Forest Service (1969) ‘Specification for retardant, forest fire,
dry chemical for fixed-wing aircraft application. Interim specifica-
tion 5100–00301.’ (USDA Forest Service, San Dimas Equipment
Development Center: San Dimas, CA)
USDA Forest Service (1970) ‘Specification for retardant, forest fire,
liquid chemical, unthickened for aircraft or ground application.’
Interim specification 5100–00302. (USDA Forest Service, San
Dimas Equipment Development Center: San Dimas, CA)
USDA Forest Service (1975a) ‘Specification for retardant, forest fire,
dry chemical for aircraft or ground application.’ Interim specifica-
tion 5100–00301a. (USDA Forest Service, San Dimas Equipment
Development Center: San Dimas, CA)
USDA Forest Service (1975b) ‘Specification for retardant, forest fire,
liquid chemical, unthickened for aircraft or ground application.’
Interim specification 5100–00302b. (USDA Forest Service, San
Dimas Equipment Development Center: San Dimas, CA)
USDA Forest Service (1982) ‘Specification for long-term retardant, for-
est fire, aircraft or ground application.’ Interim specification 5100–
304. (USDA Forest Service, San Dimas Equipment Development
Center: San Dimas, CA)
USDA Forest Service (1986) ‘Specification for long-term retardant, for-
est fire, aircraft or ground application.’ Interim specification. 5100–
304a. (USDA Forest Service, San Dimas Equipment Development
Center: San Dimas, CA)
USDA Forest Service (2000) ‘Specification for long-term retardants,
wildland fire, aircraft or ground application.’ Interim specification
5100–304b. (USDA Forest Service, San Dimas Technology and
Development Center: San Dimas, CA)
Van Meter WP, George CW (1981) ‘Correlating laboratory air drop
data with retardant rheological properties.’ USDA Forest Service,
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Research Paper
INT-278. (Ogden, UT)
Van Meter WP, George CW, Johnson CW (1985) ‘Chemical analy-
sis procedures for forest fire retardant constituents.’ USDA Forest
Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station
General Technical Report INT-181. (Ogden, UT)
Vandersall HL (1994) Air attack: retardants, rheology and some new
options. International Journal of Wildland Fire 4(1), 45–51.
Vandersall HL (1998) The impact of rheology on the performance of
aerially applied wildland fire retardant solutions. In ‘Proceedings of
the III International Conference on Forest Fire Research, 14th Con-
ference on Fire and Forest Meteorology 16–20 Nov.1998’. Coimbra.
(Ed. X Viegas) Vol. II. pp. 2317–2333. (ADAI: Coimbra, Portugal)
Xanthopoulos G, Noussia P (2000) ‘Small scale evaluation of the width
of a retardant-reinforced firebreak required to stop a forest fire.
(Preliminary Version).’ ACRE project.