TERM PAPER

ENGINEERING MATHMATICS
MTH101

TOPIC:

Can properties of a function be discovered from its maclaurin series?

Give example.

SUBMITTED BY: SUBMITTED TO:

HIMANSHU JAISWAL MISS RAMANJEET KAUR

Roll no:RB1001A11
Section:B1001
Reg no: 11006731
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It acknowledges all the contributors involved in the preparation of this

project. Including me, there is a hand of my teachers, some books and
internet. I express most gratitude to my subject teacher, who guided me in
the right direction. The guidelines provided by her helped me a lot in
completing the assignment.

The books and websites I consulted helped me to describe each and every
point mentioned in this project. Help of original creativity and illustration
had taken and I have explained each and every aspect of the project
precisely.

At last it acknowledges all the members who are involved in the preparation
of this project

Yes. If the Maclaurin expansion of a function locally converges to the

function, then you know the function is smooth. In addition, if the residual
of the Maclaurin expansion converges to 0, the function is analytic.
 PREFACE

From the first term paper,my aim has been to write about PROPERTIES OF
MACLAURIN SERIES , that provides a firm foundation in mathematical
and logical concepts and principles and to instill in ours an appreciation of
the vital part of algebric and geometrical plays in our daily lives.

I am presenting a broad range of topics in a clear,logical manner.I have tried

to strike a balance between theory and application and to illustrate basic
principles with everyday,example whenever possible.And above all,I have
placed the highest priority on writing a lucid and readable text.

I have strived to refine the pedagogy to develop our problem solving and
critical thinking skills and find new and more effective ways to present
abstract mathematical concepts about maclaurin series
At the same time, I employ the many tools has to offer to help us to study
about maclaurin series
 INTRODUCTION

In mathematics, the Taylor series is a representation of a function as an

infinite sum of terms calculated from the values of its derivatives at a single
point. The Taylor series was formally introduced by the English
mathematician Brook Taylor in 1715. If the series is centered at zero, the
series is also called a Maclaurin series, named after the Scottish
mathematician Colin Maclaurin who made extensive use of this special case
of Taylor's series in the 18th century. It is common practice to use a finite
number of terms of the series to approximate a function. The Taylor series
may be regarded as the limit of the Taylor polynomials.

The Taylor series of a real or complex function ƒ(x) that is infinitely

differentiable in a neighborhood of a real or complex number a is the power
series
 History

The Greek philosopher Zeno considered the problem of summing an infinite

series to achieve a finite result, but rejected it as an impossibility: the result
was Zeno's paradox. Later, Aristotle proposed a philosophical resolution of
the paradox, but the mathematical content was apparently unresolved until
taken up by Democritus and then Archimedes. It was through Archimedes's
method of exhaustion that an infinite number of progressive subdivisions
could be performed to achieve a finite result.Liu Hui independently
employed a similar method a few centuries later.
In the 14th century, the earliest examples of the use of Taylor series and
closely-related methods were given by Madhava of The Maclaurin series
was named after Colin Maclaurin, a professor in Edinburgh, who published
the special case of the Taylor result in the 18th century
Sangamagrama. Though no record of his work survives, writings of later
Indian mathematicians suggest that he found a number of special cases of
the Taylor series, including those for the trigonometric functions of sine,
cosine, tangent, and arctangent. The Kerala school of astronomy and
mathematics further expanded his works with various series expansions and
rational approximations until the 16th century.
In the 17th century, James Gregory also worked in this area and published
several Maclaurin series. It was not until 1715 however that a general
method for constructing these series for all functions for which they exist
was finally provided by Brook Taylor,after whom the series are now named.
Examples

The Maclaurin series for any polynomial is the polynomial itself.

The Maclaurin series for (1 − x)−1 is the geometric series

so the Taylor series for x−1 at a = 1 is

By integrating the above Maclaurin series we find the Maclaurin series for
−log(1 − x), where log denotes the natural logarithm:

and the corresponding Taylor series for log(x) at a = 1 is

The Taylor series for the exponential function ex at a = 0 is

The above expansion holds because the derivative of ex with respect to x is
also ex and e0 equals 1. This leaves the terms (x − 0)n in the numerator and n!
in the denominator for each term in the infinite sum

SERIES EXPNSION OF FUNCTIONS,MACLAURIN’S

SERIES

Many functions can be represented by polynomials. In this connection let us

note a relationship between the coefficients c0, c1, c2, ... ,cn of the polynomial
of degree n 1) f(x) = c0 + c1x + c2x2 + ... + cnxn

and its derivatives of order one through n at the point x = 0. Let us take the
first n derivatives of polynomial 1):

f '(x) = c1 + 2c2x + 3c3x2 + 4c4x3 + ...

f '' (x) = 2c2 + 2·3c3x + 3·4c4x2 + ...

f ''' (x) = 2·3c3 + 2·3·4c4x + ...

................................................

f(n)(x) = n!cn

Putting x = 0 in the above equations and solving for the c’s we obtain

T
hus we see that polynomial 1) can be written as

This representation of a polynomial provides us with a means of

representing more or less general functions by polynomials.

There is a completely analogous relationship between the coefficients c0, c1,

c2, ... ,cn of the power series in x-a of degree n

3) f(x) = c0 + c1(x-a) + c2(x-a)2 + ... + cn(x-a)n

and its derivatives of order one through n at the point x = a. If we take the
first n derivatives of power series 3) we get:

f '(x) = c1 + 2c2(x-a) + 3c3(x-a)2 + 4c4(x-a)3 + ...

f '' (x) = 2c2 + 2·3c3(x-a) + 3·4c4(x-a)2 + ...

f ''' (x) = 2·3c3 + 2·3·4c4(x-a) + ...

................................................

f(n)(x) = n!cn

Putting x = a in the above equations and solving for the c’s we obtain

T
hus we see that power series 3) can be written as

Since a power series is a polynomial, this is another polynomial

representation of a function. Note that 2) is a special case of 4) where a = 0.
Also note that if we allow n to increase without limit 2) and 4) become
infinite series. An infinite series of type 2) is called Maclaurin’s series and
an infinite series of type 4) is called Taylor’s series. Such series may be used
to represent rather general functions within some interval of convergence.
When some function f(x) is written in the form of an infinite series, the
function is said to be expanded in an infinite series and the infinite series is
said to represent the function in the interval of convergence.

Maclaurin’s Series.

A maclaurin series is an expansion of a function, into a summation of

different powers of the variable, for example x is the variable in ex. The
maclaurin series would give the exact answer to the function if the series
was infinite but it is just an approximation.

A series of the form

Su
ch a series is also referred to as the expansion (or development) of the
function f(x) in powers of x, or its expansion in the neighborhood of zero.
Maclaurin’s series is best suited for finding the value of f(x) for a value of x
in the neighborhood of zero. For values of x close to zero the successive
terms in the expansion grow small rapidly and the value of f(x) can often be
approximated by summing only the first few terms.

A function can be represented by a Maclaurin series only if the function and

all its derivatives exist for x = 0. Examples of functions that cannot be
represented by a Maclaurin series: 1/x, ln x, cot x.

Example 1. Expand ex in a Maclaurin Series and determine the interval of

convergence.

Solution. f(x) = ex, f '(x) = ex, f ''(x) = ex, f '''(x) = ex, ........ , f(n)(x) = ex

And f(0) = 1, f '(0) = 1, f ''(0) = 1, f '''(0) = 1, ....... ,f(n)(0) = 1

So
Maclaurin’s Formula with the Remainder. Let a function f(x) and its first
n+1 derivatives be continuous on a closed interval containing x = 0. Then
there is a number x0 between 0 and x such that

in which Rn+1(x), the remainder after n + 1 terms, is given by the formula

This is a special case of Taylor’s Formula, obtained by letting a = 0.

List of Maclaurin series of some common functions

The real part of the cosine function in the complex plane.

An 8th degree approximation of the cosine function in the complex plane.

The two above curves put together.

Several important Maclaurin series expansions follow.[8] All these

expansions are valid for complex arguments x.

Exponential function:

Natural logarithm:

Finite geometric series:

Infinite geometric series:

Variants of the infinite geometric series:

Square root:

Binomial series (includes the square root for α = 1/2 and the infinite
geometric series for α = −1):

with generalized binomial coefficients

Trigonometric functions:

where the Bs are Bernoulli numbers.

Hyperbolic functions:

Lambert's W function:

The numbers Bk appearing in the summation expansions of tan(x) and tanh(x)

are the Bernoulli numbers. The Ek in the expansion of sec(x) are Euler
numbers.
REFRENCES

 WIKIPEDIA
 COMPREHENSION MATHEMATICS BY A.THAKUR
 MATHEMATICS BY B.S GREWAL
 MATHEMATICS BY B.V RAMANNA