Differential Geometry of Curves

∗
2018-Summer Study Report

by BHAVNA JOSHI
Mentor: ATHARVA KORDE

∗
Organizer: Maths and Physics Club, IIT Bombay
 Preface

I have written this report to conclude my study on the topic, with my best
possible effort. Throughout, I try to interrogate and summarize, while main-
taining a conversational tone. All that I’ve been able to learn and write is due
to the lectures by Professor Claudio Arezzo on differential geometry. Along
with it reference book used was Differential geometry of curves and surfaces by
do carmo.

I want to thank the Maths and Physics Club organizers for the
encouragement.
 Introduction
The two aspects of Differential geometry are local and global. Local differ-
ential geometry is the study of properties of a geometric structure that (at each
point) depend only on the neighborhood of a given point. Global properties,
however, deal with the entire manifold (or at least properties of some region
larger than an arbitrarily small neighborhood)–properties that can change when
you alter a part of the manifold

We have done geometry and analysis in arbitrary dimensional Euclidean

spaces and Vector spaces (the distinction between these 2 spaces, intuitively, is
merely that there is no canonical choice of where the origin should go in the
space) and they are flat spaces. Those spaces have no curvature. Differential
geometry deals with geometric aspects of differential equations and geometric
structures when we are in any dimensional curved space. So, what is curvature?

A curvature can be intrinsic and extrinsic. Extrinsic tells how lower dimen-
sional objects are embedded in higher ones, it is something only detectable by
a higher dimensional being. Intrinsic curvature such as Gaussian curvature is
detectable to the inhabitants of a surface and not just outside observers.
 CURVES
Starting with building differential geometry for lowest dimensional curved
space, 0D, we find a curved point makes no sense. 1D, a curve which can have
only extrinsic curvature. 2D is a surface so it can have both types of
curvatures and the complexity from this dimension onward increases enough
to extend theory for even higher dimensions.

1.Definition
Curves: An infinitely differentiable (C ∞ ) parametrized curve is a map
α:I → R3 , I -(a,b) ⊂ R
α(t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t)) where x,y,z are (C ∞ ) i.e. smooth functions
α’(t) = (x’(t), y’(t), z’(t)) is the tangent(or velocity) vector at α(t).

Planar curves: α is called planar if ∃ a plane P ⊂ R3 such that the image set
or Trace of map α is a subset of that plane, α(I) ⊂ P.

For planar curves, by rigid motions we can always set P as, say, the plane z=0
and α will be of the form
α(t) = (x(t), y(t), 0)

Space curves: Those curves that cannot be contained in a plane in R3

2.Coments on the definition

Here are some peculiar planar curves

• The definition does not put restriction on self intersections for curves, α
is not required to be injective. e.g. α(t) = (t3 − 4t, t2 − 4) satisfies all
requirements thus this is a smooth curve and is called to have node at
origin. This node is an ordinary double point.

• α can have corners even if both components are smooth. e.g.

α(t)=(t2 , t3 ) this type of curve is called cusp and is said to have a
singular point at origin. A singular point is where α’(t)=0
• Even if α is injective (meaning not self intersecting), it is not necessary
for it to be an homeomorphism onto its image. Incase of non injective it’s
clear that it is not homeomorphic. But for the case when its injective and
still not homeomorphic onto it’s image we see e.g. α(t) =
(3t/(1 + t2 ), 3t2 /(1 + t2 )) where the topology of the image of α is not that
of the standard topology of its domain in the region around origin. This
curve has the name Folium of Decartes.

• Line α(t) = t~v + v~00

• Circle α(t) = ~c + r(cos(t/r), sin(t/r))
• It’s important to note that trace of the curve is different than the map
itself. Meaning, two different curves(maps) can have the same trace.
Then the difference lies in the magnitude of tangent vector.
e.g. α1 (t)=(cos(t), sin(t)) and α2 (t)=(cos(2t), sin(2t))
here are some Space curves

• Helices
t t t
α(t) = (a cos( √ ), a sin( √ ), b √ )
a2 + b 2 a2 + b2 a2 + b 2
• Twisted cubic (in projective 3-space): The twisted cubic is formed by
taking a parabola in the xy plane and bending the ends in the z direction
so that the shadow of the curve on the xz plane looks like a cubic. Note
that, while the parameterization of the function is extremely simple, its
arclength and Frenet frame are complicated.


α(t) = ~r(t) = t, t2 , t3
• Toroidal spiral
~r(t) = h(2 + sin 3t) cos t, (2 + sin 3t) sin t, cos 3ti
~s(t) = h(2 + sin 6t) cos 2t, (2 + sin 6t) sin 2t, cos 6ti.
Notice that ~s(t) = ~r(2t)

So as observed above, both these vector-valued functions will trace out the
same space curve.
3.Geometric properties of a curve

Length
For defining length of any curve
α:I → R3 , I = [a, b] ⊂ R

We make a choice of partition of [a,b] and consider set P of all partition points.
P = {t0 = a < t1 < t2 < ... < tn = b}

Norm of partition: |P | = max{i∈[1,n]} |ti − ti−1 |

As the norm minimizes, the partitions become denser and denser, length
approaches more to true value of curve length

Length of curve α between a Pand b, subject to partition P is then:

L a (α, P ) = ni=1 |α(ti ) − α(ti−1 )|
b
 The Analytic Description of Arc Length
Definition: The arc length (analytic) between a and b of α is defined to be

Z b
s(α) = |α0 (t)|dt
a

Theorem: ∀ε>0 ∃δ>0 such that

Z b
b
| P | <δ ⇒ | L a (α, P ) − |α0 (t)|dt | < ε
a
p
Proof : Define f : IxIxI → R as f(t1 , t2 , t3 )= x0 (t1 )2 + y 0 (t2 )2 + z 0 (t3 )2 where
I=[a,b] also notice that if all arguments of f are same it gives norm of tangent
vector

f is continuous → f is uniformly continuous (δ depends only on ε and not on

the partition point in the domain) on [a.b] × [a, b] × [a, b] = [a, b]3
So, ∀ε>0 ∃δ>0 such that if (t1 , t2 , t3 ) and (s1 , s2 , s3 ) ∈ [a, b]3 with
| t1 − s1 | <δ, | t2 − s2 | <δ, | t3 − s3 | <δ then | f (t1 , t2 , t3 ) − f (s1 , s2 , s3 ) | <ε

By mean value theorem, | α(ti ) − α(ti−1 ) |= f (βi , γi , δi )(ti − ti−1 ) for some
(βi , γi , δi ) ∈ [ti−1 , ti ]

Hence
n
X n
X
b
L a (α, P ) = | α(ti ) − α(ti−1 ) |= f (βi , γi , δi )(ti − ti−1 )
i=1 i=1

and
Z b n Z
X t n Z
X t n
X
0 0 0
|α (t)|dt = |α (t)|dt = | α (pi ) | (ti −ti−1 ) = f (pi , pi , pi )(ti −ti−1 )
a i=1 ti−1 i=1 ti−1 i=1

where pi ∈ [ti−1 , ti ]

Now | P | <δ ⇒ ti − ti−1 <δ ⇒| βi − pi | <δ, | γi − pi | <δ, | δi − pi | <δ ∀i

f being continuous and with above condition, we can find
ε such that | f (βi , γi , δi ) − f (pi , pi , pi ) | <ε. which means
f (βi , γi , δi ) = f (pi , pi , pi )

Hence proved.
 Coments

• Invariance under isometries: Length is one of those good geometric

properties that remain invariant under isometries of R3 (translations,
rotations, reflections)
To prove our defined length is invariant it must be so that
d(p,q)=d(φ(p), φ(q)) ∀p, q

This would imply φ is up to translation, a linear map whose associated matrix

A satisfies AAT = Id (orthogonal transformation)

• Line as minima: We find curve α of minimal length given two points in

euclidean space and α:I → R3 , I = [a, b] ⊂ R

Statement: |α(b) − α(a)| ≤ Lb a (α)

Proof: |α(b) − α(a)| =

Z b
α0 (t)dt
a
Rb
≤ a ||α0 (t)||dt
≤ Lb a (α)
Thus L is minimized when the curve is α(b) - α(a) which is a segment.

• Now arises one more complication, if we get equality in the above case, does it
necessarily mean that map α(a) - α(b) is segment? No, curve may look like a
segment but really the particle (just the point on the curve moving
corresponding to t) can be performing motion back and forth between the
points a and b before reaching b based on its parametrization, so the
parametrized path travelled will be more than just, segment-the geometric
path we call length.

Notice, length is not able to reconstruct the way the particle moves. From
geometric point of view it is unimportant what the motion is on the curve as
long as same image is produced.
 • Hence we find, there can be infinite number of parametrizations of the same
geometric object. This makes us ask certain questions:
– Given a parametrized equation of a curve, how do we go back to
geometric properties of original* curve?
– what properties are independent of the way the particle moves?
– We very comfortably used the definition of curves as smooth function
but there’s a price that we’re paying: several geometric things can be
described in completely different analytic ways. What is the way to
kill this freedom of possible parametrizations?
– If that’s the case, is there a best possible choice of a
parametrization(s)?

*original curve: the parametric curve on which particle has a uniform

motion along the geometric path.

• Given a diffeomorphim
φ : J → I (I and J are open Intervals)
φ is smooth(C∞ ), invertible with smooth (C ∞ ) inverse
and α : I → R3 ,
we can construct a new curve β : J → R3 as α composite φ : β = α ◦ φ

Now β maybe a different map and thus a different curve, but for a geometer it
is the same curve since image of α and β is the same. β is called a
reparametrization of α.

Proposition:
If φ: J → I is a dif f eomorphism
α:I → R3 , [a,b] ⊂ J
φ([a,b])=[c,d]
then Lb a (α◦φ) = Lc d (α)

In words, Reparametrization doesn’t affect the curve length (as it is a

geometric property).
Regular Curves

We consider α: I → R3 and t0 ∈ I
define s: I → R toR be arc length
t
s takes t (∈ I) → t0 |α0 (t)|dt= La b (α)

The function α’(u) : I → R

in general, with {| α0 (I) |} as it’s image set, is a continuous function. This
makes s just (C 1 ) since its an integral of it.

s’(t)=| α0 (t) | here, s in particular, is not diffeomorphism, to make it one we

need it to be smooth with smooth inverse. The only way s will not be able to
achieve this is when | α0 (t) |= 0.

Curves whose α’(t) never vanishes, have a well defined s(t) which is a
diffeomrophism. Such curves are called regular curves.

The s function takes in parameter t and gives the value of arc length between
the reference point α(t0 ), and α(t).
The φ function is inverse of s (defined because s is regular). Thus its domain
is the set of arc lengths and it outputs that corresponding point t.

So, define reparamertization (J → I → R3 )

β(s)= α ◦φ (s) : J → R3
where s is our parameter and achieves uniform motion:
β 0 (s)= α0 (φ(s))φ0 (s)
1
since s0 (t) = α0 (t) so φ0 (s) = 0 .
α (s)
0
α (φ(s))
β 0 (s)= 0 .
α (φ(s))
|β 0 (s)|= 1 ∀s ∈ I
Definition Parametrization with arc length:
α:I → R3 is said to be parametrized with arc length if | α0 (t)|= 1 ∀t ∈ I

Conclusion: Every regular curve can be parametrized with arc length.

Parametrization with arc length achieves uniform motion

Comments

– s is not unique, it depends on t0 and constant of integration

– Given a randomly parametrized curve, we want to convert that
parametrization into most favourable form for geometric analysis,
and that is parametrization by arc length because the particle with
that parametrization has constant speed 1. And in order to be able
to parametrize a curve by its arc length, we need it to be regular.
– As soon as the two curves are regular curves, they are intrinsically
indistinguishable from each other so it ends here as there remains no
intrinsic 1D geometry of curves to explore. This means a circle and a
straight line are same thing intrinsically(we are on the curve), but we
can extrinsically(we are in higher dimension) see they’re different.
Thus we will now develop techniques for extrinsic geometry of curves.

Steps to parametrize a curve with arc length

– write α(t) and find α’(t)
Rb
– find s using s(α) = a ||α0 (t)||dt
– find inverse of s i.e. φ(s)
– Construct β(s) = α ◦ φ(s)
 Extrinsic geometric properties: Frenet-Serret frame

To define extrinsic geometry, we associate at every point to a space curve a

special reference.
Suppose α(I) is our curve in R3 and is parametrized by arc length

• We have one natural vector of R3 associated with the curve, namely, α0 (s)
at every s, call it T(s) the tangent vector. where | T (s) |= 1 ∀s
• <T(s),T(s)>=1 (scalar product)
<T’(s),T(s)>+ <T(s),T’(s)>= 0 (taking derivative)
<T’(s),T(s)>= 0
Thus derivative of tangent vector is always orthogonal to tangent.

This induces natural definition of a function: let k(s) = | T 0 (s) | and call it
curvature of α at s . Curvature is only continuous in general, it can be smooth
if | T 0 (s) |6= 0∀s
From now on we will assume k(s)>0 ∀s (which means we are eliminating
possibility of even a piece of line)

T 0 (s) T 0 (s)
let N(s) = =
| T 0 (s) | | k(s) |
and call it the unit normal vector to α at s.
The plane determined by T(s) and N(s) is called the osculating plane.
• we have now 2 vectors defined at every point of the curve, those are T(s) and
N(s). to form a complete orthonormal basis of R3 , we want one more vector
perpendicular to both.

Define B(s) = T(s) x N(s) and call it binormal vector.

B’(s) = T’(s) x N(s) + T(s) x N’(s) = T(s) x N’(s)
since T’ and N are proportional, T’(s) x N(s) = 0
∴ B’⊥ T and B’ ⊥ N’
| B |= 1 ∀s; ⇒ <B, B> = 1 and <B 0 , B> = 0

But T,N,B are perpendicular vectors of R3 and B 0 is orthogonal to T and B.

So, it has to be proportional to N.
∴ B 0 (s) =τ (s) N(s)
where τ (s) is a proportionality factor called torsion of α at s.
• Finally we find derivative of N(s).
<N,T>= 0 ⇒ <N 0 , T > + <T 0 , N > = 0 ⇒ <N 0 , T > + k(s) = 0
<N,B>= 0 ⇒ <N 0 , B> + <N, B 0 > = 0 ⇒ <N 0 , B> + τ (s) = 0
∴ N 0 (s) = −k(s)T (s) − τ (s)B(s)

Note: T(s) is a set of all tangent vectors t(s) at all points on the curve.
Likewise for N(s) and B(s).

To each value of the parameter s, there are three orthogonal unit vectors t(s),
n(s), b(s). The derivatives, called The Frenet Serret formulas are:

T’(s) = k(s)N(s)
N’(s) = -k(s)T(s) - τ (s)B(s)
B’(s) = τ (s) N(s)

when these are expressed as matrix in the basis t, n, b, yield geometrical

entities (curvature and torsion) about the behavior of in a neighborhood of s.

Also some terminology,

rectifying plane: tb plane.
normal plane: nb plane.
principal normal: line which contain n(s) and pass through α(s).

We associated a regular curve with 2 functions, curvature(k) and torsion(τ ),

then we have a representation of how the 3 vectors move around in space,
thereby creating a curve.
Geometric interpretation of k and τ

• lines: α(t)=tv+v0
automatically | v | = 1 as parametrized by arc length.

– T(t)=v
– ∴ T 0 (t) = 0 ⇒ k(s) = 0

after this we cannot determine N and B. And it is rightly so because in

straight line, there is of-course a tangent vector but no unique normal
vector. There is only normal plane.

• Circle:
α(t)= r(cost(t/r), sin(t/r), 0) + c (notice: its planar)

Check: If it is a regular curve and parametrized by arc length

T(t)=( -sin(t/r), cos(t/r), 0) and | α0 |(t)=1

Now finding k and τ

−cos(t/r) −sin(t/r)
T 0 =( , , 0) ∴ curvature k(t) = 1/r (k>0)
r r
T 0 (t)
N = (−cos(t/r), −sin(t/r), 0) =
k(t)
B(t) = (0, 0, 1)
B is constant ⇒ B 0 = 0 ∴ τ =0

since circle is a planar curve τ =0 and its curvature is multiplicative inverse of

its radius.
• Helices: let c =
p
(a2 + b2 )

α(t) = ( a cos(t/c), a sin(t/c), (bt)/c )

−asin(t/c) acos(t/c) b
T(t) = α’(t)= ( , , ) and | T (s) |= 1
c c c
−acos(t/c) −asin(t/c) |a|
T’(t) = ( , , 0) thus k=
c2 c2 c2

N(s) = ( -cos(t/c), -sin(t/c), 0)

−b
τ= (from B’)
c2
Theorem for interpretting k and τ
Theorem: α : I → R3 parametrized with arc length, k>0, is planar iff τ =0
proof: A]
suppose τ =0
∴ B0 = 0
i.e. B=constant vector and | B |= 1
∴ consider<α(s),B>=a
taking derivative <T, v>=0 is satisfying the requirement of T ⊥ B
so, the solution is: <α(s),B>=a which is a plane.
∴ if τ =0 then curve is planar

B]
consider planar curve <α(s),B>=a
<T,v>=0
∴ B = vaconstant ⇒ B 0 = 0
∴τ =0
∴ if curve is planar then τ =0

τ measures the effort you have to put in twisting a planar curve to a non
planar

Theorem: α : I → R3 parametrized with arc length, , k=0 iff is a piece of

line
proof: A]
α(t)=t v+v~0 automatically | v | =1 as is parametrized by arc length.
T(t)=v
T’(t)=0
k(s)=0
∴ if curve is a line/ piece of line then k=0
B]
k(s)=0
∴ T=α’(t)=v constant
integrating we get, α(t)= t v+v~0 , which is a line
∴ if k=0 then the curve is a line or a piece of line
As far as for geometry, can we say that is all for curves? We can ask, given
any 2 functions for torsion and curvature, does there exist a curve? If so, how
many, or is it unique? If unique, unique up to what?

• groups are unique up to isomorphism

• vector spaces unique up to linear isometries
• topological spaces unique up to homeomorphism
• our geometry unique up to rigid motions

What are Rigid Motions?

Any way of moving all the points in the plane such that
a) the relative distance between points stays the same
b) the relative position of the points stays the same

Now, the way to prove that there is nothing more to discover is to prove that
if given k and τ there will exist a unique (up to rigid motions) curve having
that curvature k and torsion τ . Because if not, then there must be some more
variable(s) about curves that describe it and we are yet to define them.

Fundamental theorem of local theory of curves

Given a smooth function τ (s) and a positive smooth function k(s) on an

interval I containing 0, a point α0 ∈ R3 and two unit vectors T0 and N0 in R3 ,
there exists a unique unit-speed curve α(s) on I with curvature k(s), torsion
τ (s), initial position α(0) = α0 , initial velocity α0 (s) = T0 , and initial
acceleration α00 (s) = k(0)N0 .
For an end,

Classical problems in history of development of the theory for

differential geometry of curves.

Why study curves and surfaces? Curves and surfaces are to geometry what
numbers are to algebra. They form the basic ingredients of our visual
perception and inspire the development of far reaching mathematical tools.
Yet despite centuries of pure study, not to mention a wealth of growing
applications in science and technology, there are still numerous open problems
in this area which are strikingly intuitive and elementary to state, pointing to
fundamental gaps in our conceptions of space and shape. According to Ezra
Pound, music begins to atrophy when it departs too far from the dance and
poetry begins to atrophy when it gets too far from music. Perhaps the same
can be said of geometry, and indeed all of mathematics, if it looses sight of its
natural building blocks and connections to the physical world. So, Differential
geometry arose and developed as a result of and in connection to the
mathematical analysis of curves and surfaces. (source linked below)
Historical Outline:
• 250 B.C.; Isoperimetric Problem
• 200 A.D.; Pappus of Alexandria
• 50 A.D.; Dido’s Problem
• 1736; The general idea of natural equations for obtaining curves from
local curvature appears to have been first considered by Leonhard Euler.
• 1795; Monge’s paper.
• 1827; Gauss published his article, titled ’Disquisitiones Generales Circa
Superficies Curvas’
• 1854; The intrinsic geometry of Gauss was generalized to higher
dimensions by B. Riemann.
Q. Among all planar simple closed curves of given length L, which curve
bounds the region of largest area? Indeed intuitive, but not easy to prove,
called the Jordan seperation theorem (one of the early success of modern
topology).

The Isoperimetric Inequality:

Let c(t) = (x(t), y(t)) be a simple, closed, positively oriented and regular
parameterised C1 curve with t∈ [a, b]. Denote the area enclosed in the above
defined curve c(t) with A.
For a given length L of c(t) = (x(t), y(t)), we have L2 ≥ 4πA moreover
L2 = 4πA iff c is a circle.

There are various attempts for proving this using basic mathematical tools
from Linear Algebra and Analysis, which can be found
here:(https://www.math.uni-tuebingen.de/ab/GeometrieWerkstatt/
IsoperimetricInequality.pdf)

Another excellent read on the problems and the History: (https://www.maa.

org/sites/default/files/pdf/upload_library/22/Ford/blasjo526.pdf)

Highlights in Differential Geometry by Richard Schoen:

(http://msc.tsinghua.edu.cn/upload/news_2012426163954.pdf)

Thank you for reading. If you find anything wrong or misleading or want to make a comment, please send
your views on: bhavnajoshi45@gmail.com.