INTRODUCTION element: fluorine, oxygen, nitrogen.

In
alcohols, hydrogen bonds between
Alcohols are organic molecules
partially-positive hydrogen atoms and
containing the hydroxyl (OH) functional
lone pairs on oxygen atoms. These
group which is directly bonded to
hydrogen atoms are slightly positive due
carbon. Carbons that are directly
to the very electronegative oxygen
attached to OH are classified as
atoms that pull the bonding electrons. In
“carbinol” carbon, pertaining to methanol
contrast, alkanes’ intermolecular forces
or any derivatives of methyl alcohol.
are only Van der Waals dispersion
There are three most common
forces which compared to hydrogen
classifications that are used for alcohols,
bonding, are generally weaker. This
that being primary, secondary, and
makes separating alcohol molecules
tertiary. In determining which one is
require more energy than separating
which, the carbon bonded to OH must
alkane molecules and this is the key
be examined. If that carbon is bonded to
reason why there is a higher boiling
a single carbon, it is primary, two
point in alcohols.
carbons, secondary, three carbons,
tertiary. Phenols are compounds that
have a hydroxyl group bonded to an
aromatic ring. Although they are closely
similar to alcohol, they are different in
some respects such as their reactivity.
Phenols are considered as weak acids,
having a typical dilute solution of 5-6 in
water. With this said, they aren’t acidic
enough to turn litmus paper fully red.
Phenols are white crystalline mass
dissolved in an aqueous solution, having
a distinct slightly pink color and a sharp
burning taste. Having the chemical
formula (C6H5OH), phenols are widely
Figure 1: Structure formula of Alcohol
used today as antiseptics and
disinfectants. It is very toxic to humans
both internally and externally, externally
when it comes with the skin and cause
severe burns and externally for it is a
systemic poison which is carried and
affects all parts of the bodies.
Hydrogen bonding occurs when
molecules attached to a hydrogen atom
bond with a strongly electronegative
 Ethanol (C2H6O) is a clear,
colorless liquid, and rapidly absorbed by
the gastrointestinal tract. It is often used
as a topical disinfectant due to its
bactericidal activity, a preservative and
solvent for certain pharmaceutical
preparations, and as main ingredients of
alcoholic beverages. It also serves as a
fuel source for motor gasoline in the US,
having the term E10, which is made up
of 10 percent ethanol and 90 percent
gasoline enough to oxygenate the fuel
and minimize air pollution. Moreover,
ethanol is highly flammable and
produces a smokeless blue flame.
Figure 2: Structure of Ethanol
N-butyl alcohol, also termed as (1-
butanol, Butan-1-ol, n-butanol) is a
colorless liquid used in organic chemical
synthesis, plasticizers, and detergents. It
is a primary alcohol in which a hydrogen
of one of the methyl groups is
substituted by a hydroxy group. Small
amounts of it are produced by humans
through gut microbes and has a role of
protic solvent and a human metabolite.
It is miscible with may organic solvents
including ether and ethyl ether and is
very soluble in acetone as well. In
addition, n-butyl alcohol is a product of
fermentation and functions as a solvent
in surface coatings.
Figure 3: N-butyl alcohol
Sec-butyl alcohol (C4H10O), is a
clear colorless liquid with an alcohol
odor. It is less dense than water and has
vapor that is heavier than air. This
secondary alcohol is flammable, soluble
in water, and completely miscible with
polar organic solvents such as ethers
and other alcohols.
Figure 4: Sec-butyl alcohol
Tert-butyl alcohol (C4H10O) is an
isomer of butanol, having a tertiary butyl
group consisting of three methyl groups
attached to a tertiary carbon. It is a
colorless, oily liquid with a sharp odor,
possessing the ability to float and mix
with water. Its uses include denaturant
for ethanol, manufacture for perfumes
and paint removers, and ocatane
boosters in gasoline. Moreover, it serves
as a solvent for pharmaceuticals and
dehydration agent.
Figure 5: Tert-butyl alcohol
Benzyl alcohol is a clear,
colorless liquid, with a pleasant odor. It
is slightly denser than water, having a
boiling point of 401 degrees Fahrenheit.
Moreover, it is used as a local
anesthetic, reduces pain and associated
with Lidocaine injection. Like most
alcohols, when reacted to carboxylic
acid, ester is formed. It is partially
soluble in water and completely miscible
in alcohols and diethyl ether.
Figure 6: Benzyl alcohol
N-butyraldehyde is a 4-carbon aldehyde
species, and soluble in almost all
organic solvents. It has a chemical
formula C4H8O, it is a clear liquid with a
pungent odor. Moreover, it has a boiling
point of 75.7 degrees Fahrenheit. It is
both less dense and insoluble in water.
N-butyraldehyde is the aldehyde
derivative of butane.
Figure 7: N-butyraldehyde
Benzaldehyde (C7H6O) is an
aromatic aldehyde bearing a single
formyl group with an almond odor. It is
derived from natural resources;
therefore, it is abundant and used by the
chemical industry in order to prepare
various aniline dyes, perfumes,
flavorings, and pharmaceutical
preparations. Benzaldehyde is a clear
colorless to yellow liquid, it is denser
and insoluble to water, therefore, it
sinks. Benzaldehyde is an
arenecarbaldehyde that consists
of benzene bearing a single formyl
substituent; the simplest aromatic
aldehyde and parent of the class of
benzaldehydes.
Figure 8: Benzaldehyde
Acetone is a colorless liquid,
volatile, flammable, and organic solvent.
It occurs naturally in plants, trees, and
as a breakdown product of animal fat
metabolism. When combined with dry
ice, it creates a cooling bath that
reaches a temperature of -78 degrees
Celsius. In addition, acetone is miscible
with water but does not form an
azeotrope with water.
Figure 9: Acetone
Acetophenone is the organic compound
with the formula C6H5C(O)CH3. It is the
simplest aromatic ketone. It is a
colorless liquid with a sweet pungent
taste and odor resembling oranges. It is
slightly soluble in water and denser that
it sinks. Acetophenone is also a methyl
ketone in which one of the hydrogens in
the methyl group is replaced with a
phenyl group. Its uses include flavoring,
solvent, and as a polymerization
catalyst.
Figure 10: Acetophenone
Isopropyl alcohol, an isomer of 1-
propanol, is a colorless liquid that
possesses disinfectant properties. This
liquid is volatile, having a sharp musty
odor similar to rubbing alcohol. It is
mainly used in making cosmetics, hair
preparations, perfumes, etc. Being a
secondary alcohol, isopropyl alcohol can
be oxidized to acetone, which is the
corresponding ketone. Isopropyl alcohol
dissolves a wide range of non-polar
compounds.
Figure 11: Isopropyl alcohol
Acetaldehyde (C2H4O) is a
colorless flammable liquid, used in
manufacturing acetic acid, perfumes,
and, an intermediate to the metabolism
of alcohol. It is a naturally occurring and
has a suffocating smell. Commercially, it
was produced through oxidization of
ethylene with a help of palladium
catalyst. It also acts as a reducing agent
for silvering mirrors.
Figure 12: Acetaldehyde
The Lucas test involves the
coordination of anhydrous zinc chloride
with hydroxyl forming a sufficiently good
leaving group. It is used as
a reagent to test alcohols and classify
them in accordance to their reactivity. It
often provides classification information
for alcohols, as well as a probe for the
existence of the hydroxyl group.
Substrates that easily give rise to
cationic character at the carbon bearing
the hydroxyl group undergo this test
readily; primary alcohols do not give a
positive result. Since the Lucas Test
depends on the appearance of the alkyl
chloride as a second liquid phase, it is
normally applicable only to alcohols that
are soluble in the reagent. This limits the
test in general to monofunctional
alcohols lower than hexyl and certain
polyfunctional molecules.

Chromic Acid Test (Jones

Oxidation) detects the presence of a
hydroxyl substituent that is on a carbon
bearing at least one hydrogen, and
therefore oxid\izable.

2,4-Dinitrophenylhydrazone Test
can be used to qualitatively detect the
carbonyl functionality of a ketone or
aldehyde functional group.
Fehling’s Test and Tollens’ Silver
Mirror Test are used to detect
aldehydes. However, Fehling's solution
can only be used to test for aliphatic
aldehydes, whereas Tollens' reagent
can be used to test for both aliphatic
and aromatic aldehydes.

Iodoform Test is a test for methyl

carbinol (secondary alcohol with
adjacent methyl group) and methyl
carbonyl group.