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Contents
Table of contents 1 Nomenclature...................................................................6
2 Pump Types .................................................................8–9
3 Selection for Pumping Water...........................................10
3.1 Pump Data................................................................................10
3.1.1 Pump Flow Rate.......................................................................10
3.1.2 Developed Head and Developed Pressure of the Pump..............10
3.1.3 Efficiency and Input Power.......................................................10
3.1.4 Speed of Rotation.....................................................................11
3.1.5 Specific Speed and Impeller Type...............................................11
3.1.6 Pump Characteristic Curves......................................................13
3.2 System Data..............................................................................16
3.2.1 System Head ............................................................................16
3.2.1.1 Bernoulli’s Equation..................................................................16
3.2.1.2 Pressure Loss Due to Flow Resistances......................................18
3.2.1.2.1 Head Loss in Straight Pipes.......................................................18
3.2.1.2.2 Head Loss in Valves and Fittings...............................................22
3.2.2 System Characteristic Curve......................................................26
3.3 Pump Selection..........................................................................28
3.3.1 Hydraulic Aspects.....................................................................28
3.3.2 Mechanical Aspects...................................................................29
3.3.3 Motor Selection........................................................................29
3.3.3.1 Determining Motor Power........................................................29
3.3.3.2 Motors for Seal-less Pumps.......................................................31
3.3.3.3 Starting Characteristics.............................................................31
3.4 Pump Performance and Control................................................34
3.4.1 Operating Point........................................................................34
3.4.2 Flow Control by Throttling.......................................................34
3.4.3 Variable Speed Flow Contol......................................................35
3.4.4 Parallel Operation of Centrifugal Pumps...................................36
3.4.5 Series Operation........................................................................38
3.4.6 Turning Down Impellers...........................................................38
3.4.7 Under-filing of Impeller Vanes...................................................39
3.4.8 Pre-swirl Control of the Flow....................................................39
3.4.9 Flow Rate Control or Change by Blade Pitch Adjustment.........39
3.4.10 Flow Control Using a Bypass....................................................40
3.5 Suction and Inlet Conditions.....................................................41
3.5.1 The NPSH Value of the System: NPSHa ...................................41
3.5.1.1 NPSHa for Suction Lift Operation............................................43
3.5.1.2 NPSHa for Suction Head Operation..........................................44
3.5.2 The NPSH Value of the Pump: NPSHr......................................44
3.5.3 Corrective Measures.................................................................45
3.6 Effect of Entrained Solids..........................................................47
4 Special Issues when Pumping Viscous Fluids...................48
4.1 The Shear Curve.......................................................................48
4.2 Newtonian Fluids......................................................................50
4.2.1 Influence on the Pump Characteristics.......................................50
4.2.2 Influence on the System Characteristics.....................................54
4.3 Non-Newtonian Fluids.............................................................54
4.3.1 Influence on the Pump Characteristics.......................................54
4.3.2 Influence on the System Characteristics.....................................55
Contents
5 Special Issues when Pumping Gas-laden Fluids...............56
1 Nomenclature
1 A m2 Area
Nomenclature A m Distance between measuring point and pump
flange
a m, mm Width of a rectangular elbow
B m, mm Vertical distance from suction pipe to floor
Cv gpm Flow coefficient for valves, defined as the flow
of water at 60 °F in US gallons/minute at a
pressure drop of 1 lb/in2 across the valve
cD Resistance coefficient of a sphere in water flow
cT (%) Solids content in the flow
D m (mm) Outside diameter; maximum diameter
DN (mm) Nominal diameter
d m (mm) Inside diameter; minimum diameter
ds m (mm) Grain size of solids
d50 m (mm) Mean grain size of solids
F N Force
f Throttling coefficient of an orifice
fH Conversion factor for head (KSB system)
fQ Conversion factor for flow rate (KSB system)
fη Conversion factor for efficiency (KSB system)
g m/s2 Gravitational constant = 9.81 m/s2
H m Head; discharge head
Hgeo m Geodetic head
Hs m Suction lift
Hs geo m Vertical distance between water level and pump
reference plane for suction lift operation
Hz geo m Vertical distance between pump reference plane
and water level for positive inlet pressure
operation
HL m Head loss
H0 m Shut-off head (at Q = 0)
I A Electric current (amperage)
K Dimensionless specific speed, type number
k mm, µm Mean absolute roughness
k Conversion factors kQ, kH, kη (HI method)
3
kv m /h Metric flow factor for valves, defined as the
flow of water at 20 °C in cubic metres per hour
at a pressure drop of 1 bar
L m Length of pipe
Ls m Straight length of air-filled pipe
M Nm Moment
NPSHr m NPSH required by the pump
NPSHa m NPSH available
Ns Specific speed in US units
n min–1 (rpm) Speed of rotation
s–1 (rev/s)
nq min–1 Specific speed in metric units
P kW (W) Power; input power
Nomenclature
1
pe Pressure in suction or inlet tank Indices, Subscripts
PN (bar) Nominal pressure a At outlet cross-section of
∆p bar (Pa) Pressure rise in the pump; pressure differential the system; branching off
(Pa ≡ N/m2) Bl Referring to orifice bore
p bar (Pa) Pressure (Pa ≡ N/m2 = 10–5 bar) d On discharge side; at dis
pb mbar (Pa) Atmospheric pressure (barometric) charge nozzle; flowing
pL bar (Pa) Pressure loss through
pv bar (Pa) Vapour pressure of fluid pumped dyn Denoting dynamic com
Q m3/s, m3/h Flow rate / capacity (also in litre/s) ponent
qair % Air or gas content in the fluid pumped E At the narrowest cross-
Qoff m3/h Flow rate at switch-off pressure section of valves (Table 5)
3
Qon m /h Flow rate at start-up pressure E At suction pipe or bell
R m (mm) Radius mouth inlet
Re Reynolds number e At inlet cross-section of
S m Submergence (fluid level above pump); system, e. g. in suction
immersion depth or inlet tank
s mm Wall thickness f Referring to carrier fluid
s’ m Difference of height between centre of pump im- H Horizontal
peller inlet and centre of pump suction nozzle in Referring to inlet flow
T Nm Torque K Referring to curvature
t °C Temperature L Referring to losses
U m Length of undisturbed flow m Mean value
U m Wetted perimeter of a flow section max Maximum value
3
VB m Suction tank volume min Minimum value
VN m3 Useful volume of pump sump N Nominal value
v m/s Flow velocity opt Optimum value; at best
w m/s Settling velocity of solids efficiency point (BEP)
y mm Travel of gate valve; distance to wall P Referring to pump
Z 1/h Switching cycle (frequency of starts) p Referring to pressure
z Number of stages r Reduced, for cutdown im-
zs,d m Height difference between pump discharge and peller or impeller vanes
suction nozzles s On suction side; at suc
tion nozzle
α ° Angle of change in flow direction; opening angle s Referring to solids
δ ° Angle of inclination stat Static component
ζ Loss coefficient sys Referring to system /
η (%) Efficiency installation
η Pa s Dynamic viscosity t Referring to impeller
λ Pipe friction factor prior to trimming
m2/s Kinematic viscosity V Vertical
kg/m3 Density w Referring to water
τ N/m2 Shear stress z Referring to viscous fluid
τf N/m2 Shear stress at yield point 0 Basic position, referred
ϕ Temperature factor; opening angle of a butter to individual sphere
fly valve; cos ϕ: power factor of asynchronous 1, 2, 3 Consecutive numbers;
motors items
ψ Head coefficient (dimensionless head generated I, II Number of pumps oper
by impeller) ated
2 Pump Types (Examples)
Impeller entries 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1
Motor type, Fig. 1..
Dry (standardized)
motor a b c d e f g h
Magnetic drive i
Submerged dry rotor
motor (See 3.3.2) j k l m
Wet rotor motor
(See 3.3.2) n o p
Pump Types (Examples) 2
c d e
f g h
i j k
l m n
Fig 1 (a to p):
o p Centrifugal pump classification
acc. to Table 1
3 Flow Rate · Head · Efficiency · Input Power
10
Efficiency · Input Power · Speed · Specific Speed 3
·g·Q·H ·g·Q·H ·Q·H viscous than water (see sec-
P = in W = in kW = in kW tion 4) or have high concentra
η 1000 · η 367 · η
(2) tions of entrained solids (see
section 6) will require a higher
where
input power. This is, for ex
Density in kg/m3 in kg/m3 in kg/dm3
ample, the case when pumping
Q Flow rate in m3/s in m3/s in m3/h
sewage or waste water, see sec
g Gravitational constant = 9.81 m/s2
tion 3.6.
H Total developed head in m
η Efficiency between 0 and <1 (not in %) The pump input power P is
linearly proportional to the
The pump efficiency η is given teristic curves (see section 3.1.6) fluid density . For high-density
with the characteristic curves for density = 1000 kg/m3. fluids the power limits of the
(see section 3.1.6). For other densities , the input motor (section 3.3.3) and the
power P must be changed in torque limits (for the loading on
The pump input power P can
proportion. coupling, shaft and shaft keys)
also be read with sufficient ac-
must be considered.
curacy directly from the charac Pumping media which are more
11
3 Specific Speed
dimensionless characteristic the definition in the right-hand Using Fig. 3 it is possible to de
parameter while retaining the version of the following equa termine nq graphically. Further
same numerical value by using tion [2]: types of impellers are shown in
Fig. 4: Star impellers are used in
√ Qopt/1 √ Qopt self-priming pumps. Periph-
nq = n · = 333 · n · (3)
(Hopt/1)3/4 (g · Hopt)3/4 eral impellers extend the speci
fic speed range to lower values
where Qopt in m3/s Qopt in m3/s = Flow rate at ηopt down to approximately nq = 5
Hopt in m Hopt in m = Developed head at ηopt (peripheral pumps can be de
n in rpm n in rev/s = Pump speed signed with up to three stages).
nq in metric units nq Dimensionless parameter For even lower specific speeds,
g Gravitational constant 9.81 m/s2 rotary (for example progressive
cavity pumps with nq = 0.1 to 3)
For multistage pumps the devel- “mixed flow” (diagonal) and or reciprocating positive dis
oped head Hopt at best efficiency eventually axial exits (see Fig. 2). placement pumps (piston
for a single stage and for double- The diffuser elements of radial pumps) are to be preferred.
entry impellers, the optimum pump casings (e.g. volutes) be The value of the specific speed
flow rate Qopt for only one im come more voluminous as long is one of the influencing para
peller half are to be used. as the flow can be carried off meters required when convert
As the specific speed nq in radially. Finally only an ing the pump characteristic
creases, there is a continuous axial exit of the flow is possible curves for pumping viscous or
change from the originally (e. g. as in a tubular casing). solids-laden media (see sections
radial exits of the impellers to 4 and 6).
In English-language pump lit
Approximate reference values: erature the true dimensionless
nq up to approx. 25 Radial high head impeller specific speed is sometimes des
up to approx. 40 Radial medium head impeller ignated as the “type number K”.
up to approx. 70 Radial low head impeller In the US, the term Ns is used,
up to approx. 160 Mixed flow impeller which is calculated using gal
approx. from 140 to 400 Axial flow impeller (propeller) lons/min (GPM), feet and rpm.
The conversion factors are:
K = nq / 52.9
Ns = nq / 51.6 (4)
12
Specific Speed · Impeller Types · Characteristic Curves 3
3.1.6
Pump Characteristic Curves
Unlike positive displacement
pumps (such as piston pumps),
Radial impeller *)
Radial doubleentry impeller*) centrifugal pumps deliver a var
iable flow rate Q (increasing
with decreasing head H) when
operating at constant speed.
Closed (shrouded) mixed flow impeller *) They are therefore able to ac
Star impeller for side channel pump commodate changes in the
(selfpriming)
system curve (see section 3.2.2).
The input power P and hence
the efficiency η as well as the
Open (unshrouded) mixed flow impeller
NPSHr (see section 3.5.4) are
dependent on the flow rate.
Peripheral pump impeller for very low
specific speed (nq ≈ 5 to 0)
Fig. 4:
Axial flow propeller *) Plan view shown without front shroud
Impeller types for clear liquids
13
3 Characteristic Curves
11OPT 11OPT
90 24 20
n = 2900 min–1 22 n = 1450 min–1 18 n = 980 min–1
80 20 16
18
Head H [m]
Head H [m]
14
Head H [m]
70 16 12 Operating limit
60 14
10
12
8
50 10
8 6
40 6 4
80 90 2
70 80 90
Efficiency H [%]
Efficiency H [%]
60 70 80
Efficiency H [%]
60 70
50
60
40 50
50
30 40
40
20 30
30
10 15
15
NPSHr [m]
NPSHr [m]
NPSHr [m]
10
5 10
5
5
0
0 100
17
30
Power P [kW]
80
Power P [kW]
Power P [kW]
16
60
20 15 40
14 20
10 13 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 0 100 200 300 400 500 550 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Flow rate Q [m3/h] > Flow rate Q [m3/h]
L Flow rate Q [m3/h] V
Fig. 6: Three examples of characteristic curves for pumps of differing specific speeds.
a: radial impeller, nq ≈ 20; b: mixed flow impeller, nq ≈ 80; c: axial flow impeller, nq ≈ 200.
(For NPSHr see section 3.5.4)
14
Characteristic Curves 3
is unstable (shown by the dash
line in Fig. 7). This type of
pump characteristic curve need
3TEEP CHARACTERISTIC CURVE only be avoided when two
&LAT CHARACTERISTIC CURVE intersections with the system
curve could result, in particular
(EAD (
(
parallel operation at low flow
1STEEP rates (see section 3.4.4) or when
5NSTABLE
it is pumping into a vessel which
REGION
can store energy (accumulator
1FLAT
filled with gas or steam). In all
&LOW RATE 1 other cases the unstable curve is
just as good as the stable charac
Fig. 7: Steep, flat or unstable characteristic curve teristic.
Unless noted otherwise, the
H/Q characteristics normally creases. For low specific speeds, characteristic curves apply for
have a stable curve, which the head H may – in the low the density and the kinematic
means that the developed head flow range – drop as the flow viscosity of cold, deaerated
falls as the flow rate Q in- rate Q decreases, i. e., the curve water.
15
3 System Head · Bernoulli
PA PA
A A VA A VA
VA
! " #
(GEO
VD
ZSD
VS
(SGEO
PE
E E
VE VE
$ %
Fig. 8: Centrifugal pump system with variously designed vessels in suction lift operation
A = Open tank with pipe ending below the water level
B = Closed pressure vessel with free flow from the pipe ending above the water level
C = Closed pressure vessel with pipe ending below the water level
D = Open suction/inlet tank
E = Closed suction/inlet tank
va and ve are the (usually negligible) flow velocities at position a in tanks A and C and at position e
in tanks D and E. In case B, va is the non-negligible exit velocity from the pipe end at a .
3.2 static pressure and kinetic and discharge sides. If the dis
System Data energy form. The system head charge pipe ends above the
3.2.1 Hsys for an assumed frictionless, liquid level, the centre of the
System Head inviscid flow is composed of the exit plane is used as reference
3.2.1.1 following three parts (see Figs. for the height (see Figs 8B and
Bernoulli’s Equation 8 and 9): 9B).
Bernoulli’s equation expresses • Hgeo (geodetic head) is the • (pa - pe)/( · g) is the pressure
the equivalence of energy in difference in height between head difference between the
geodetic (potential) energy, the liquid level on the inlet inlet and outlet tank, applic
16
System Head · Bernoulli 3
PA PA
A A VA A VA
VA
! " #
(GEO
PE
E VE E VE
$ %
(ZGEO
VD
ZSD
VS
Fig. 9: Centrifugal pump system with variously designed vessels in suction head (positive inlet pressure)
operation. Legend as in Fig. 8.
able when at least one of the piping, valves, fittings, etc in is referred to as the system pres
tanks is closed as for B, C or the suction and discharge lines sure loss.
E (see Figs. 8B, C, E, 9B, C, as well as the entrance and exit The sum of all four components
E). losses, see section 3.2.1.2), and yields the system head Hsys:
• (va2-ve2)/2g is the difference in
the velocity heads between the
tanks. Hsys = Hgeo + (pa – pe) / ( · g) + (va2-ve2)/2g + ∑HL (5)
17
3 System Head · Pressure Loss · Head Loss
Fig. 10: Pipe friction factor λ as a function of the Reynolds number Re and the relative roughness d/k
(enlarged view on p. 81)
DK
L 2E
&ULLY ROUGH K
,IM
ITIN
G
CU
RVE
0IPE FRICTION FACTOR L
18
Head Loss in Straight Pipes 3
For pipes with non-circular or plastic pipes made of poly clean water or for fluids with
cross-sections the following ethylene (PE) or polyvinyl chlor the same kinematic viscosity, for
applies: ide (PVC)) or for laminar flow, completely filled pipes and for an
λ can be calculated: absolute roughness of the pipe
d = 4A/U (10) In the laminar flow region inner surface of k = 0.05 mm,
(Re < 2320) the friction factor is i.e., for new seamless or longi
where tudinally welded pipes. (For
independent of the roughness:
A Cross-sectional flow area the pipe inside diameters, see
in m2 Table 4).
λ = 64/Re (12)
U Wetted perimeter of the
The effect of an increased
cross-section A in m; for
For turbulent flow (Re > 2320) surface roughness k will be de
open channels the free fluid
the test results can be repre monstrated in the following
surface is not counted as part
sented by the following empiri for a frequently used region in
of the perimeter.
cal relationship defined by Eck Fig. 11 (nominal diameter 50
Recommended flow velocities (up to Re < 108 the errors are to 300 mm, flow velocity 0.8
for cold water smaller than 1%): to 3.0 m/s). The dark-shaded
Inlet piping 0.7 – 1.5 m/s region in Fig. 11 corresponds
Discharge piping 1.0 – 2.0 m/s 0.309 to the similarly marked region
λ=
Re 2 (13) in Fig. 10 for an absolute rough
for hot water (lg )
7 ness k = 0.05 mm. For a rough
Inlet piping 0.5 – 1.0 m/s
ness increased by a factor 6
Discharge piping 1.5 – 3.5 m/s In Fig. 10 it can be seen that
(slightly incrusted old steel pipe
The pipe friction factor λ has the pipe friction factor depends
with k = 0.30 mm), the pipe
been determined experimentally on another dimensionless para
friction factor λ (proportional
and is shown in Fig. 10. It varies meter, the relative roughness of
to the head loss HL) in the
with the flow conditions of the the pipe inner surface d/k; k is
lightly shaded region in Fig. 10
liquid and the relative rough the average absolute roughness
is only 25% to 60% higher than
ness d/k of the pipe surface. The of the pipe inner surface, for
before.
flow conditions are expressed which approximate values are
given in Table 3. Note: both d For sewage pipes the increased
according to the affinity laws
and k must be expressed in the roughness caused by soiling
(dimensional analysis) using the
same units, for example mm! must be taken into considera
Reynolds’ number Re. For cir
tion (see section 3.6). For pipes
cular pipes, this is: As shown in Fig. 10, above a
with a large degree of incrusta
limiting curve, λ is dependent
tion, the actual head loss can
Re = v · d/ (11) only on the relative roughness
only be determined experimen
d/k. The following empirical
tally. Deviations from the no
where equation by Moody can be used
minal diameter change the head
v Flow velocity in m/s in this region:
loss considerably, since the pipe
(= 4Q/πd2 for Q in m3/s)
3 inside diameter enters Eq. (9) to
d Pipe inside diameter in m λ = 0.0055 + 0.15/ (d/k) (14)
the 5th power! (For example, a
Kinematic viscosity in m2/s
5% reduction in the inside dia
(for water at 20 °C exactly For practical use, the head
meter changes the head loss by
1.00 · (10)–6 m2/s). losses HL per 100 m of straight
30%). Therefore the nominal
For non-circular pipes, Eq. 10 is steel pipe are shown in Fig. 11
diameter may not be used as
to be applied for determining d. as a function of the flow rate Q
the pipe inside diameter for the
and pipe inside diameter d. The
For hydraulically smooth pipes calculations!
values are valid only for cold,
(for example drawn steel tubing
19
3 Head Loss in Straight Pipes · Dimensions and Weights of Steel Pipes
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Table 4: Inside diameter d and wall thickness s in mm and weight of typical commercial steel pipes and their
water content in kg/m to ENV 10 220 (formerly DIN ISO 4200). D = outside diameter, s = wall thickness
All dimensions in mm Seamless pipe Welded pipe
Seamless Welded weight in kg/m weight in kg/m
DN D s * d s ** d Pipe Water Pipe Water
15 21.3 2.0 17.3 1.8 17.7 0.952 0.235 0.866 0.246
20 26.9 2.0 22.9 1.8 23.3 1.23 0.412 1.11 0.426
25 33.7 2.3 29.1 2.0 29.7 1.78 0.665 1.56 0.692
32 42.4 2.6 37.2 2.3 37.8 2.55 1.09 2.27 1.12
40 48.3 2.6 43.1 2.3 43.7 2.93 1.46 2.61 1.50
50 60.3 2.9 54.5 2.3 55.7 4.11 2.33 3.29 2.44
65 76.1 2.9 70.3 2.6 70.9 4.71 3.88 5.24 3.95
80 88.9 3.2 82.5 2.9 83.1 6.76 5.34 6.15 5.42
100 114.3 3.6 107.1 3.2 107.9 9.83 9.00 8.77 9.14
125 139.7 4.0 131.7 3.6 132.5 13.4 13.6 12.1 13.8
150 168.3 4.5 159.3 4.0 160.3 18.2 19.9 16.2 20.2
200 219.1 6.3 206.5 4.5 210.1 33.1 33.5 23.8 34.7
250 273.0 6.3 260.4 5.0 263.0 41.4 53.2 33.0 54.3
300 323.9 7.1 309.7 5.6 312.7 55.5 75.3 44.0 76.8
350 355.6 8.0 339.6 5.6 344.4 68.6 90.5 48.3 93.1
400 406.4 8.8 388.8 6.3 393.8 86.3 118.7 62.2 121.7
500 508.0 11.0 486.0 6.3 495.4 135 185.4 77.9 192.7
600 610.0 12.5 585.0 6.3 597.4 184 268.6 93.8 280.2
* above nominal diameter DN 32 identical to DIN 2448 ** above nominal diameter DN 25 identical to DIN 2458
20
Head Loss in Straight Pipes 3
.EW UNTREATED STEEL PIPE
mm
M
15
M V
d=
20
M
25
S
32
40
50
2E
65
80
0
10
3PECIFIC HEAD LOSS (,
5
12
0
15
5
17
0
20
0
25
0
30
0
35
0
40
0
50
0
60
0
70
0
80
10 0
90
00
00
00
mm
12
d = 180 0
14
0
20 0
16
00
Fig. 11: Head losses HL for new steel pipes (k = 0.05 mm) (enlarged view on p. 82)
0LASTIC PIPE AND DRAWN METAL TUBING
M
M
M
2E
V
M
M
D
S
3PECIFIC HEAD LOSS (,
M
HL correction
#
Temperature t
MH
Fig. 12: Head losses HL for hydraulically smooth pipes (k = 0) (enlarged view on p. 83). For plastic pipe
when t = 10 °C multiply by the temperature factor j.
21
3 Head Loss in Straight Pipes · Valves and Fittings
16 17 18 19
22
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3
3 Head Loss in Valves and Fittings · Loss Coefficients for Fittings
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,
A
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Li`
viÀiÌ>ÊÜi`ÃÊ qÊ qÊ qÊ qÊ ÓÊ qÊ ÎÊ qÊ ÎÊ q
A
pL = ζ · · v12/2 (16)
where
pL Pressure loss in Pa
ζ Loss coefficient £°{ £°È £°n
Density in kg/m3
Ý«>ÃÊÌÃ\
v Flow velocity in m/s
iÜÃÌÞ«iÊiÝ«>ÃÊÌÊ
and the reversible pressure ÊÊÊÜÌ
ÉÜÌ
ÕÌÊ}Õ`iÊ««iÊ ZÊzÊä°ÎÉÓ°ä
change of the frictionless flow
«iÃ>ÌÊÌÕLiÊLi`Ê ZÊzÊä°ÈÊÌÊä°n
Ài>Ãi`ÊV«iÃ>ÌÊÌÕLiÊLi`Ê ZÊzÊ£°ÎÊÌÊ£°È
according to Bernoulli’s equa iÜÃÌÞ«iÊV«iÃ>ÌÊÌÕLiÊLi`Ê ZÊzÊΰÓÊÌÊ{
tion (see 3.2.1.1):
iÌÊ««iÊvÌÌ}Ã\
24
Head Loss in Valves and Fittings · Loss Coefficients for Fittings and Flow Meters 3
Table 8: Loss coefficients ζ for adapters ficient ζ when calculating the
Expansion Contraction pressure loss for water in valves:
v v v v
d D d α D D d D α d pL = (Q / kv)2 . /1000 (18)
v
D d α D
v
D d D ζ ≈ 16 · d4/kv2 (19)
where
ζ is referred to the velocity v at diameter D. d Reference (nominal) diameter
Diameter ratio d/D = 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 of the valve in cm (!)
Area ratio m = (d/D)2 = 0.09 0.16 0.25 0.36 0.49 0.64
Short Venturi tube ζ ≈ 21 6 2 0.7 0.3 0.2
Standard orifice ζ ≈ 300 85 30 12 4.5 2
Water meters (volume meters) ζ ≈ 10
For domestic water meters, a max. pressure drop of 1 bar is specified for the
rated load. In practice, the actual pressure loss is seldom higher.
Branch fittings (of equal diameter)
Note:
The loss coefficients ζa for the branched-off flow Qa or ζd for the main flow
Qd = Q – Qa refer to the velocity of the total flow Q in the branch. On the
basis of this definition, ζa or ζd may have negative values; in this case, they
A 2+
,OSS COEFFICIENT Z
are indicative of a pressure gain instead of a pressure loss. This is not to be 2ADIUS ON OUTER CORNER
25
3 Head Loss in Valves · System Characteristic Curve
V
J
,OSS COEFFICIENT Z
Fig. 15:
Loss coefficients
ζ of butterfly
valves, globe
valves and gate
10 valves as a
function of the
opening angle
V V or degree of
J A
Y
J opening (The
numbers desig-
nate the types
2ELATIVE OPENING ANGLE J n J J Degree of opening y/a or relative lift y/DN
illustrated in
Fig. 13)
3.2.2 Fig. 16: System characteristic curve Hsys with static and dynamic
System Characteristic Curve components
The system characteristic curve
plots the head Hsys required by
the system as a function of the
flow rate Q. It is composed of
the so-called “static” and
“dynamic” components (see
Fig. 16)3.
3YSTEM HEAD (SYS
3
One must be careful to distinguish
between this use of “static” and PA n PE
3TATIC COMPONENT (GEO
“dynamic” components and the pre q G
cisely defined “static head” and “dy
namic head” used in fluid dynamics,
since the “dynamic component” of
the system head curve consists of both
“static head” (i.e. pressure losses)
and “dynamic head” (i.e. velocity or &LOW RATE 1
kinetic energy head).
26
System Characteristic Curve · Selection Chart 3
n
n n n n n
n n
n n
n n
n n
n
n
n n n n
(
M
1 MH
1 LS
Fig. 17: Selection chart for a volute casing pump series for n = 2900 rpm
(First number = nominal diameter of the discharge nozzle, second number = nominal impeller diameter)
and outlet tanks, which are in the heads for each flow rate are
dependent of the flow rate. The added to obtain the total system
pressure head difference is zero curve Hsys = f(Q).
when both tanks are open to the For branched piping systems the
atmosphere. system curves Hsys1, Hsys2, etc.
The dynamic component con of the individual branches be
sists of the head loss HL, which tween the flow dividers are each
increases as the square of the calculated as functions of Q.
flow rate Q (see section 3.2.1.2), The flow rates Q1, Q2, etc. of
and of the change in velocity all branches in parallel for each
head (va2-ve2)/2g between the given head Hsys are then added
inlet and outlet cross-sections of to determine the total system
the system. Two points are suffi curve Hsys = f(Q) for all the
cient to calculate this parabola, branches together. The sections
one at Q = 0 and one at any before and after the flow
point Q > 0. dividers must be added as for a
For pipe systems connected series connection.
one after the other (series con
nection) the individual system
curves Hsys1, Hsys2 etc. are
plotted as functions of Q, and
27
3 Hydraulic Aspects of Pump Selection
3.3
Pump Selection
M
3.3.1
Hydraulic Aspects
H
(EAD
)MPELLER
MM
and the head H of the desired
operating point are assumed
to be known from the system
characteristic curve; the electric
MH
mains frequency is also given. ,S
With these values it is possible
Fig. 18: Complete characteristics MH
&LOW RATE
of a centrifugal pump
100
10
9 7
H 8 10 6
m 7 5
9
6 8
50 7 4 4
5
40 6
4 3 3
5
30
3 4
2 2
20 3
2
2
10
6
1 2 3 4 5 10 Q m3/h 20 30
0.3 0.4 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 Q l/s
Fig. 19: Selection chart for a multistage pump series for n = 2900 rpm
28
Hydraulic Aspects of Pump Selection · Motor Selection 3
the individual characteristic
curve (for example see Fig. 18).
conditions in %
and Qmax (for example due to
vibration behaviour, noise emis
sion as well as radial and axial K7
forces) are given in the product 0UMP INPUT POWER UNDER RATED CONDITIONS
literature or can be determined Fig. 20: Drive power as a function of rated pump input power at the
by inquiry [1]. operationg point
To conclude the selection, the Example as per ISO 9905, 5199 and 9908 (Class I, II and III)
NPSH conditions must be
checked as described in section 3.3.2 3.3.3
3.5. Mechanical Aspects Motor Selection
A multistage pump is chosen us When selecting a pump the me 3.3.3.1
chanical aspects require atten Determining Motor Power
ing the same general procedure;
its selection chart shows the tion in addition to the hydrau Operation of a centrifugal pump
number of stages in addition to lics. Several examples are: is subject to deviations from
the pump size (Fig. 19). – the effects of the maximum rated speed and fluctuations
For pumps operating in series discharge pressure and tem in the flow volume handled,
(one after the other) the devel perature of the fluid pumped and, consequently, changes in
oped heads H1, H2, etc. of the on the operating limits, the operating point (see section
individual characteristic curves 3.4.1). In particular if steep
– the choice of the best shaft
must be added (after subtracting power curves are involved (see
sealing method and cooling
any head losses which occur be Figs. 5 and 6), this may result
requirements,
tween them) to obtain the total in a higher required pump input
– the vibration and noise emis power P than originally speci
characteristic H = f(Q).
sions, fied. For practical purposes, a
For pumps operating in parallel,
– the choice of the materials of safety allowance is therefore
the individual characteristics H1,
construction to avoid corro added when the appropriate
H2, etc. = f(Q) are first reduced
sion and wear while keeping motor size is selected. Safety
by the head losses occurring up
in mind their strength and allowances may be specified
to the common node (head loss
temperature limits. by the purchaser, or laid down
HL calculation according to sec
in technical codes, see Fig. 20.
tion 3.2.1.2) and plotted versus These and other similar re
The safety allowances stipulated
Q. Then the flow rates Q of quirements are often specific to
by individual associations are
the reduced characteristics are certain industries and even to
shown in the relevant type series
added to produce the effective individual customers and must
literature [1] or the customer’s
characteristic curve of a “vir be addressed using the product
specification.
tual” pump. This characteristic literature [1] or by consulting
interacts with the system curve the design department. When energy-saving control
Hsys for the rest of the system methods are used (e. g., speed
through the common node. control systems), the maximum
29
3 Motor Selection
power peaks which may pos Table 9: Types of enclosure for electric motors to EN 60 529 and
DIN/VDE 0530, Part 5
sibly occur must be taken into
The type of protective enclosure is indicated by the IP code as follows:
account. Code letters (International Protection) IP
First digit (0 to 6 or X if not applicable) X
If a pump is selected for a Second digit (0 to 8 or X if not applicable) X
product with a density lower Alternatively letters A, B, C, D and H, M, S, W – for special purposes only.
than that of water, the motor Key to Protection of electrical Protection of persons against
power required may have to be digits: equipment against ingress of accidental contact by
solid objects
determined on the basis of the
First 0 (not protected) (not protected)
density of water (for example, digit 1 > 50 mm in dia. back of the hand
during the performance test or 2 > 12.5 mm in dia. finger
acceptance test in the test bay). 3 > 2.5 mm in dia. tool
4 > 1.0 mm in dia. wire
Typical efficiencies h and power 5 protected against dust (limited wire
ingress permitted, no harmful
factors cos ϕ of standardized IP deposits)
54 motors at 50 Hz are shown 6 totally protected against dust wire
in Fig. 21, and the curves of ef Protection against ingress of water with harmful consequences
ficiency h and power factor Second 0 (not protected)
digit 1 vertical dripwater
cos ϕ as a function of relative 2 dripwater up to 15° from the vertical
motor load P/PN in Fig. 22. 3 sprays (60° from the vertical)
4 sprays (all directions)
Table 9 lists types of enclosure 5 low-pressure jets of water
6 strong jets of water (heavy sea)
that provide protection of elec 7 temporary flooding
tric motors against ingress of 8 permanent flooding
foreign objects or water, and
of persons against accidental
contact.
H
The specific heat build-up in
both electric motors and flexi POLES
COS J
ble couplings during start-up
0OWER FACTOR COS J
30
Motors for Seal-less Pumps · Starting Characteristics 3
• The vapour pressure of the
K7 fluid pumped must be known,
H
so as to avoid bearing damage
caused by dry running when
the fluid has evaporated. It is
K7
advisable to install monitoring
0OWER FACTOR COS J
COS J • Data on specific fluid proper
ties such as its solids content
and any tendency to solidify
or polymerize or form incrus
tations and deposits, need to
K7
2ATED POWER 00. be available at the time of se
lection.
Fig. 22: Curve of efficiency η and power factor cos ϕ of standardized
IP 54 motors plotted over relative motor power P/PN
3.3.3.3
Starting Characteristics
Submersible borehole pumps, The primary component in
which are mostly used for ex turn is coupled to a commercial The pump torque Tp transmit
tracting water from wells, are dry driver. The impeller of a ted by the shaft coupling is
another type of ready-assembled canned motor pump is mounted directly related to the power P
units whose motors need not be directly on the motor shaft, so and speed of rotation n. Dur
selected individually (Fig. 1p). that the rotor is surrounded by ing pump start-up, this torque
On these pumps, the rotor and the fluid pumped. It is separated follows an almost parabolical
the windings are immersed in from the stator windings by the curve as a function of the speed
water [7]. Their electrical char can [7]. of rotation [10], as shown in
acteristics and permissible fre Fig. 23. The torque provided
Seal-less pump sets are generally
quency of starts are indicated in by the asynchronous motor
selected with the help of compu
the type series literature [1]. must, however, be higher so as
terized selection programs, tak
to enable the rotor to run up to
ing into account the following
duty speed. Together with the
considerations:
3.3.3.2 voltage, this motor torque has a
Motors for Seal-less Pumps • The rotor is surrounded by direct effect on the motor’s cur
Seal-less pumps are frequently the fluid pumped, whose kine rent input, and the latter in turn
used for handling aggressive, matic viscosity υ (see section on heat build-up in the motor
toxic, highly volatile or valu 4.1) must be known, as it windings. The aim, therefore, is
able fluids in the chemical and influences friction losses and to prevent unwanted heat build-
petrochemical industries. They therefore the motor power up in the motor by limiting the
include magnetic-drive pumps required. run-up period and/or current
(Fig. 1f) and canned motor • Metal cans or containment inrush [2] (see also Table 11).
pumps (Figs. 1n and 1o). A shrouds (for example made
mag-drive pump is driven by a of 2.4610) cause eddy current
primary magnetic field rotating losses, resulting in an increase
outside its flameproof enclosure in the motor power required.
and running in synchronization Non-metal shrouds in mag-
with the secondary magnets in drive pumps do not have this
side the enclosure [12]. effect.
31
3 Starting Methods
In the case of d.o.l. starting low-voltage grids (380 V), the For start-up, however, the wind
(where the full mains voltage regulations laid down by the en ings are star-connected, so that
is instantly applied to the mo ergy supply companies for d.o.l. the voltage at the windings is
tor once it is switched on), the starting of motors of 5.5 kW reduced by a factor of 0.58 rela
full starting torque is instantly and above must be complied tive to the mains voltage. This
available and the unit runs up with. If the grid is not suitable reduces the starting current and
to its duty speed in a very short for d.o.l starting, the motor can torque to one third of the values
period of time. For the motor be started up with reduced volt of d.o.l. starting, resulting in a
itself, this is the most favour ages, using one of the following longer start-up process.
able starting method. But at up methods: The motor runs up in star con
to 4 – 8 times the rated current,
Star-delta starting is the most nection beyond pull-out torque
the starting current of the d.o.l.
frequent, since most inexpen up to the maximum speed of
method places a high load on
sive, way of reducing the start rotation at point B’ in Fig. 23.
the electricity supply mains,
ing current. During normal Then, switchover to delta is ef
particularly if large motors are
operation, the motor runs in fected and the motor continues
involved, and may cause prob
delta, so that the full mains to accelerate up to rated speed.
lematic voltage drops in electri
voltage (for example 400 V) is During the switchover period of
cal equipment in their vicinity.
applied to the motor windings. approx. 0.1 s, the current sup
For motor operation on public
ply to the motor is interrupted
32
Starting Methods 3
and the speed drops. On pump An autotransformer also serves of the values for d.o.l. starting.
sets with a low moment of in to reduce voltage at the motor The fact that current supply is
ertia (canned motors and sub windings and – unlike star-delta never interrupted is another ad
mersible motors), this speed re starting – allows selection of vantage of autotransformers.
duction may be so pronounced the actual voltage reduction. A Soft starters are used for elec
that switchover to delta may 70% tapping of the transformer, tronic continuous variation of
result in almost the full starting for instance, will bring down the voltage at the motor wind
current being applied after all, the start-up torque and current ings in accordance with the
same as with d.o.l. starting. supplied by the mains to 49% dimmer principle. This means
that the start-up time and start
ing current can be freely selected
within the motor’s permissible
)
operating limits (heat losses due
to slip!). Special constraints re
garding the frequency of starts
(contrary to Table 10) have to
be heeded [1].
$gg
#URRENT )
4
4ORQUE 4
"
"g
40
OF NSYNCHR
-OTOR SPEED N
33
3 Pump Performance · Operating Point · Throttling
• for pumps with mixed flow Fig. 24: Change of the operating point and power saved by
impellers, by installing or throttling a pump whose power curve has a positive slope
34
Orifice Plate · Variable Speed 3
g Gravitational constant
9.81 m/s2
ΔH Head difference to be
throttled in m
Since the area ratio (dBl/d)2
must be estimated in advance,
an iterative calculation is neces
D"L sary (plotting the calculated vs.
D the estimated diameter dBl is
4HROTTLING COEFFICIENT F
recommended so that after two
iterations the correct value can
be directly interpolated, see
example calculation 8.20).
3.4.3
Variable Speed Flow Control
At various speeds of rotation n,
a centrifugal pump has differ
ent characteristic curves, which
are related to each other by the
affinity laws. If the characteris
!REA RATIO D"LD
tics H and P as functions of Q
are known for a speed n1, then
Fig. 25: Orifice plate and its throttling coefficient f all points on the characteristic
curve for n2 can be calculated
pump discharge side) the origi The same is principally true by the following equations:
nal system curve Hsys1 becomes of the installation of a fixed,
steeper and transforms into sharp-edged orifice plate in the Q2 = Q1 . n2/n1 (21)
Hsys2. For a constant pump discharge piping, which can be
H2 = H1 · (n2/n1)2 (22)
speed, the operating point B1 on justified for low power or short
the pump characteristic moves operating periods. The neces P2 = P1 · (n2/n1)3 (23)
to B2 at a lower flow rate. The sary hole diameter dBl of the
pump develops a larger head orifice is calculated from the Eq. (23) is valid only as long
than would be necessary for head difference to be throttled as the efficiency η does not de
the system; this surplus head is ΔH, using the following equa crease as the speed n is reduced.
eliminated in the throttle valve. tion: With a change of speed, the op
The hydraulic energy is irrevers erating point is also shifted (see
ibly converted into heat which dBl = f · Q/ g · ∆H (20) section 3.4.1). Fig. 26 shows the
is transported away by the flow. H/Q curves for several speeds of
This loss is acceptable when where rotation; each curve has an in
the control range is small or dBl Hole diameter of the orifice tersection with the system char
when such control is only sel in mm acteristic Hsys1. The operating
dom needed. The power saved f Throttling or pressure drop point B moves along this system
is shown in the lower part of coefficient acc. to Fig. 25 curve to smaller flow rates when
the figure; it is only moderate Q Flow rate in m3/h the speed of rotation is reduced.
compared with the large surplus
head produced.
35
3 Variable Speed · Parallel Operation
piping system, each with its
own non-return valve (Fig. 27).
Parallel operation of pumps is
1 ;= easier when their shutoff heads
H0 are all equal, which is the
Fig. 26: Operation of a variable speed pump for different system case for identical pumps. If the
characteristic curves Hsys1 and Hsys2 shutoff heads H0 differ, the low
(Power savings ΔP1 and ΔP2 at half load each compared with simple est shutoff head marks the point
throttling) on the common H/Q curve for
the minimum flow rate Qmin,
If the system curve is a parabola tion with it and hence, that no below which no parallel opera
through the origin as for Hsys1 operating point results; the low tion is possible, since the non-
in the example, the developed er speed range is then of no use return valve of the pump with
head H according to Eq. (22) is and could be eliminated. The smaller shutoff head will be held
reduced to one fourth its value potential power savings ΔP2 shut by the other pump(s).
and the required driving power at a given flow rate Q are less During parallel pumping it
in Eq. (23) to one eighth its than for the system curve Hsys1 must be kept in mind that after
value when the speed is halved. as shown in the lower part of stopping one of two identical
The lower part of Fig. 26 shows the diagram [4]. The improve centrifugal pumps (Fig. 27),
the extent of the savings ΔP1 ment compared with throttling the flow rate Qsingle of the re
compared with simple decreases as the static head maining pump does not fall
throttling. component Hsys,stat increases to half of Qparallel, but rather
If the system curve is a parabola (i.e., for a lower dynamic head increases to more than half. The
with a large static head compo component Hsys,dyn). remaining pump might then
nent as for Hsys2, it is possible Variation of the speed usually immediately run at an operat
that the pump characteristic at means varying the electrical ing point Bsingle above its design
reduced speed has no intersec driving frequency, which must point, which must be considered
36
Parallel Operation 3
when checking the NPSH values
(see section 3.5) and the drive
(
power (see section 3.1.3). The #HARACTERISTIC OF PUMP ) PUMP ))
reason for this behaviour is the
#HARACTERISTIC OF
parabolic shape of the system PUMP ) OR PUMP ))
(
characteristic Hsys. For the same "PARALLEL
4OTAL DEVELOPED HEAD (
reason, the reverse procedure of
3YSTEM CHARACTERISTIC (SYS "SINGLE
taking a second identical pump
on line does not double the flow -
rate Qsingle of the pump that 1SINGLE