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Inflammatory Muscle Diseases PDF
Inflammatory Muscle Diseases PDF
Review Article
I
From the Department of Neurology, nflammatory myopathies are the largest group of potentially
Neuromuscular Division, Thomas Jeffer- treatable myopathies in children and adults. They constitute a heterogeneous
son University, Philadelphia; and Neuro-
immunology Unit, University of Athens group of disorders that are best classified, on the basis of distinct clinicopatho-
Medical School, Athens. Address reprint logic features, in four subtypes: dermatomyositis, polymyositis, necrotizing auto-
requests to Dr. Dalakas at the Depart- immune myositis, and inclusion-body myositis (throughout this review, I use this
ment of Neurology, Neuromuscular Divi-
sion, Thomas Jefferson University, 901 term to refer specifically to sporadic inclusion-body myositis).1-6 A fifth subtype,
Walnut St., Philadelphia, PA 19107, or at termed overlap myositis, is also beginning to be recognized. The identification of
marinos.dalakas@jefferson.edu. the correct subtype and the distinction of these conditions from other diseases
N Engl J Med 2015;372:1734-47. that have characteristics that mimic these conditions is fundamental, because each
DOI: 10.1056/NEJMra1402225 subtype has a different prognosis and response to therapies. This review reflects
Copyright © 2015 Massachusetts Medical Society.
the current knowledge of these conditions, highlights how best to avoid erroneous
diagnoses, describes the main clinicopathologic and immunologic features, and pro-
vides practical guidelines regarding therapies.
Gener a l Cl inic a l Fe at ur e s
Patients with inflammatory myopathies have increasing difficulty with tasks re-
quiring the use of proximal muscles, such as getting up from a chair, climbing steps,
or lifting objects.1-6 Tasks requiring distal muscles, such as buttoning or holding
objects, are affected early in inclusion-body myositis but only in advanced cases of
polymyositis, dermatomyositis, and necrotizing autoimmune myositis. The ocular
muscles are spared in all subtypes, but facial muscles are commonly affected in
inclusion-body myositis.3 In all disease subtypes, neck-extensor and pharyngeal
muscles can be involved, which results in difficulty holding up the head (head drop)
or in dysphagia. In advanced and rare acute cases, the respiratory muscles can be
affected. Muscle atrophy is detected early in inclusion-body myositis, with selective
atrophy of the quadriceps and forearm muscles, but it develops in all subtypes if
the weakness is severe and chronic. Myalgia and muscle tenderness may occur,
especially in patients with the antisynthetase syndrome (see the Glossary),6,7 but if
pain is severe and the weakness follows a “breakaway” pattern, in which the pa-
tient has difficulty sustaining effort, fasciitis or fibromyalgia should be ruled out.
Extramuscular manifestations may occur in all inflammatory myopathies, al-
though they occur in inclusion-body myositis only in rare cases; these manifesta-
tions include systemic symptoms, such as fever, arthralgia, and Raynaud’s phe-
nomenon, as seen in the antisynthetase syndrome4,6,7; cardiac arrhythmias or
ventricular dysfunction, in relatively uncommon cases in which the affected car-
diac muscle is clinically symptomatic; and pulmonary complications, due primar-
ily to interstitial lung disease, which are reported in 10 to 40% of patients.8 The
prevalence of interstitial lung disease, a condition that is best detected with high-
resolution computed tomography, is as high as 70% among patients with anti–his-
tidyl–transfer RNA (tRNA) synthetase (anti-Jo-1) or anti–melanoma differentiation–
Glossary
Anti–cytosolic 5′-nucleotidase 1A (anti-cN1A, or anti-NT5C1A): Autoantibody directed against the cN1A nuclear protein
involved in RNA processing; associated with inclusion-body myositis.
Anti–histidyl–transfer RNA synthetase (anti-Jo-1): The most common autoantibody associated with the antisynthetase
syndrome, which consists of myopathy, fever, interstitial lung disease, Raynaud’s phenomenon, arthritis, and “me-
chanic’s hands.”
Anti–3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl–coenzyme A reductase (anti-HMGCR): Autoantibody directed against HMGCR, the
pharmacologic target of statins; specific for necrotizing autoimmune myositis.
Anti–melanoma differentiation–associated protein-5 (anti-MDA-5): Autoantibody directed against a cytoplasmic RNA-
specific helicase; associated with amyopathic dermatomyositis or rapidly progressive interstitial lung disease.
Anti-Mi-2: Autoantibody directed against a nuclear DNA helicase involved in transcriptional activation; associated with
typical skin lesions of dermatomyositis.
Anti–signal recognition particle (anti-SRP): Autoantibody directed against a polypeptide complex involved in protein
transport to endoplasmic reticulum; specific for necrotizing autoimmune myositis.
Anti–transcriptional intermediary factor 1 γ (anti-TIF-1γ): Autoantibody involved in cell growth and differentiation; seen
in cancer-associated dermatomyositis, along with anti–nuclear matrix protein 2 (anti-NXP-2).
associated protein (MDA)–5 antibodies (see the bined with a red flush on the face, fatigue, and
Glossary).6-8 a reluctance to socialize.2,3
The symptoms of dermatomyositis may over-
lap with those of systemic sclerosis and mixed
Specific Cl inic a l Fe at ur e s
connective-tissue disease1-7; in such cases, the typi-
Dermatomyositis cal skin rash is transient or faint. Overlap myo-
The specific clinical features of inflammatory sitis is now starting to be recognized as a dis-
myopathies are described in Table 1 and in the tinct entity; it manifests without the rash that is
Supplementary Appendix, available with the full typical of dermatomyositis, with prominent patho-
text of this article at NEJM.org. Dermatomyositis logic changes in the perifascicular, interfascicular,
is seen in both children and adults, and the early and perimysial regions, and is frequently associ-
symptoms include distinct skin manifestations ated with antisynthetase antibodies.10 In adults,
accompanying or preceding muscle weakness; the the risk of cancer is increased during the first
skin manifestations include periorbital heliotrope 3 to 5 years after the onset of dermatomyositis,
(blue–purple) rash with edema; erythematous rash with reported a frequency of 9 to 32%.11,12 The
on the face, knees, elbows, malleoli, neck, anterior most common cancers are ovarian cancer, breast
chest (in a V-sign), and back and shoulders (in a cancer, colon cancer, melanoma, nasopharyngeal
shawl sign); and a violaceous eruption (Gottron’s cancer (in Asians), and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma;
rash) on the knuckles, which may evolve into a the risk of these cancers necessitates a thorough
scaling discoloration.1-7,9 The lesions are photo- annual workup in the first 3 years after disease
sensitive and may be aggravated by ultraviolet onset.11,12
radiation.6,7,9 Dilated capillary loops at the base
of the fingernails, irregular and thickened cuti- Polymyositis
cles, and cracked palmar fingertips (“mechanic’s Polymyositis is rare as a stand-alone entity and
hands”) are characteristic of dermatomyositis.1-3 is often misdiagnosed; most patients whose con-
Subcutaneous calcifications, sometimes extrud- dition has been diagnosed as polymyositis have
ing to the surface of the skin and causing ulcer- inclusion-body myositis, necrotizing autoimmune
ations and infections, may occur and are espe- myositis, or inflammatory dystrophy.3,13 Polymyo-
cially common among children. If the patient’s sitis remains a diagnosis of exclusion and is best
strength appears to be normal, the dermatomyo- defined as a subacute proximal myopathy in adults
sitis may be limited to the skin (amyopathic der- who do not have rash, a family history of neuro-
matomyositis),9 although subclinical muscle in- muscular disease, exposure to myotoxic drugs
volvement is frequent.1-3 In children, an early (e.g., statins, penicillamine, and zidovudine), in-
symptom is “misery,” defined as irritability com- volvement of facial and extraocular muscles, en-
limit of normal
Electromyography Myopathic units (active and chronic) Myopathic units (active and chronic) Active myopathic units Myopathic units (active and chronic)
with some mixed large-size poten-
tials
Muscle biopsy Perivascular, perimysial, and perifascic- CD8+ cells invading healthy fibers; wide- Scattered necrotic fibers with mac- CD8+ cells invading healthy fibers;
ular inflammation; necrotic fibers in spread expression of MHC class I rophages; no CD8+ cells or vac- widespread expression of MHC
“wedge-like” infarcts; perifascicular antigen; no vacuoles; ruling out of uoles; deposits of complement class I antigen; autophagic vacu-
atrophy; reduced capillaries† inflammatory dystrophies on capillaries‡ oles,§ ragged-red or ragged-blue
fibers; congophilic amyloid depos-
its¶
Autoantibodies Anti-MDA-5, anti-Mi-2; anti-TIF-1 and Antisynthetase antibodies (often seen in Anti-SRP and anti-HMGCR, specif- Anti-cN1A (of uncertain pathologic sig-
anti-NXP-2 (implicated in cancer- overlap myositis) associated with in- ic for necrotizing autoimmune nificance)
n e w e ng l a n d j o u r na l
* Drug-induced myopathies (e.g., penicillamine, statins, or antiretrovirals), inflammatory dystrophies (such as those due to mutations in the genes encoding dysferlin, calpain, or anocta-
min; Becker’s muscular dystrophy; facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy; or myofibrillar myopathies), inclusion-body myositis, necrotizing autoimmune myositis, metabolic myopa-
thies, and fasciitis or fibromyalgia need to be ruled out.
† Similar pathologic changes in the perifascicular, perimysial, and interfascicular areas (to a lesser degree of severity) can be seen in overlap myositis (without skin lesions) or the antisyn-
thetase syndrome.
‡ Metabolic muscle diseases presenting as myoglobinuria and toxic or drug-induced myopathies need to be ruled out.
§ In clinical inclusion-body myositis, when patients have the typical inclusion-body myositis phenotype, vacuoles are absent; such patients are erroneously thought to have polymyositis
because of polymyositis-like inflammation; ragged-red fibers or cytochrome oxidase–negative fibers are frequently present and are helpful in diagnosis.
¶ TDP43 and p62 deposits, detected with the use of immunostaining, have been proposed as tissue biomarkers.
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Inflammatory Muscle Diseases
docrinopathy, or the clinical phenotype of inclu- quadriceps muscles; frequent falls due to quad-
sion-body myositis.1-3 riceps muscle weakness causing buckling of the
knees; and mild facial-muscle weakness.1-5,20-23 The
Necrotizing Autoimmune Myositis axial muscles may be affected, which results in
Necrotizing autoimmune myositis is a distinct camptocormia (bending forward of the spine) or
clinicopathologic entity that occurs more frequent- head drop. Dysphagia occurs in more than 50%
ly than polymyositis, accounting for up to 19% of the patients.23
of all inflammatory myopathies.13 It can occur at
any age but is seen primarily in adults; it starts Di agnosis
either acutely, reaching its peak over a period of
days or weeks, or subacutely, progressing steadi- The diagnosis of the exact subtype of inflamma-
ly and causing severe weakness and very high tory myopathy is based on the combination of
creatine kinase levels.14,15 Necrotizing autoimmune clinical history, tempo of disease progression,
myositis occurs alone or after viral infections, in pattern of muscle involvement, muscle enzyme
association with cancer, in patients with connec- levels, electromyographic findings, muscle-biopsy
tive-tissue disorders such as scleroderma, or in analysis, and for some conditions, the presence
patients taking statins, in whom the myopathy of certain autoantibodies (Table 1). Typical skin
continues to worsen after statin withdrawal (if changes, with or without muscle weakness, indi-
the myopathy improves within 4 to 6 weeks after cate dermatomyositis; a subacute onset of proxi-
discontinuation of statins, it was probably caused mal myopathic weakness points to polymyositis
by toxic effects of the drug rather than by im- or necrotizing autoimmune myositis; and slowly
mune myopathy).3,4,6,14-16 Most patients with nec- progressive proximal and distal weakness with
rotizing autoimmune myositis have antibodies selective atrophy points to inclusion-body myosi-
against signal recognition particle (SRP) or against tis. Electromyography is diagnostically useful in
3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl–coenzyme A reductase all disease subtypes to rule out neurogenic con-
(HMGCR) (see the Glossary).14-16 ditions and assess disease activity. Serum creatine
kinase is elevated in all subtypes, but very high
Inclusion-Body Myositis levels from the outset point to necrotizing auto-
Inclusion-body myositis is the most common and immune myositis. Magnetic resonance imaging
disabling inflammatory myopathy among persons (MRI) is helpful for diagnosis when muscle edema
50 years of age or older.1-5,17-23 Its prevalence, is present or myofasciitis is suspected, as well as
which was initially estimated in the Netherlands for identification of the particular muscles affected
as 4.9 cases per million population,18 is much by atrophy in inclusion-body myositis. Muscle
higher when adjusted for age; in two later stud- biopsy is essential for the diagnosis of polymyo-
ies in Australia and the United States, the age- sitis, overlap myositis, necrotizing autoimmune
adjusted prevalence ranged from 51.3 to 70 cases myositis, and inclusion-body myositis, as well as
per million.19,22 In a small chart-review study con- for ruling out disease mimics such as dystrophies
ducted in one U.S. county, the estimated inci- or metabolic or vacuolar myopathies. Assessment
dence of inclusion-body myositis was 7.9 cases of autoantibodies is helpful for the diagnosis of
per million in the 1980s and 1990s.19 The dis- necrotizing autoimmune myositis and for the
ease starts insidiously and develops over a peri- classification of distinct subtypes and their as-
od of years, at times asymmetrically (i.e., it may sociations with systemic organ involvement, such
start or be more severe in one extremity or on one as interstitial lung disease.
side of the body), and progresses steadily, simu- Among muscle-derived enzymes in serum, the
lating a late-life muscular dystrophy or slowly most sensitive indicator of inflammatory myop-
progressive motor-neuron disease.1-5 Although in- athy is creatine kinase, which is elevated in pa-
clusion-body myositis is commonly suspected tients with active disease. The highest levels, up to
when a patient’s presumed polymyositis does not more than 50 times the upper limit of normal,
respond to therapy,3 features that can lead to an are seen in patients with necrotizing autoimmune
early clinical diagnosis include the early involve- myositis, and the lowest (less than 10 times the
ment of distal muscles, especially foot extensors upper limit of normal) are seen in patients with
and finger flexors; atrophy of the forearms and inclusion-body myositis. Although serum levels
of creatine kinase usually parallel disease activ- Figure 1 (facing page). Dermatomyositis: A Comple-
ity, they can be normal or only slightly elevated ment-Mediated Microangiopathy.
in patients with active dermatomyositis, overlap Panel A shows a cross-section of a hematoxylin and
myositis, or active inclusion-body myositis. Along eosin–stained muscle-biopsy sample with classic der-
with creatine kinase, aspartate aminotransferase matomyositis perifascicular atrophy (layers of atrophic
and alanine aminotransferase levels are also el- fibers at the periphery of the fascicle [arrows]) and
some inflammatory infiltrates. Panel B shows the de-
evated, a sign that is sometimes erroneously in- position of complement (membranolytic attack com-
terpreted as indicating liver disease and that leads plex, in green) on the endothelial cell wall of endo-
to an investigation with a liver biopsy instead of mysial vessels (stained in red with Ulex europaeus
a muscle biopsy. Serum aldolase levels may be lectin), which leads to destruction of endothelial cells
also elevated, especially if the fascia is involved. (shown in orange, indicating the superimposition of
red and green). Consequently, in the muscles of pa-
Electromyography can show myopathic motor- tients with dermatomyositis (shown in Panel C), as
unit potentials (short-duration, low-amplitude compared with a myopathic control (Panel D), the den-
polyphasic units on voluntary activation) and in- sity of the endomysial capillaries (in yellow–red) is re-
creased spontaneous activity with fibrillations, duced, especially at the periphery of the fascicle, with
complex repetitive discharges, and positive sharp the lumen of the remaining capillaries dilated in an ef-
fort to compensate for the ischemic process.1,2 Panel E
waves. These findings are useful in determining shows a schematic diagram of a proposed immuno-
whether the myopathy is active or chronic and in pathogenesis of dermatomyositis. Activation of com-
ruling out neurogenic disorders, but they cannot plement component 3 (C3) (probably triggered by anti-
be used for differentiating inflammatory myopa- bodies against endothelial cells) is an early event
thies from toxic or dystrophic myopathies.1-5 leading to the formation of C3b, C3bNEO, and mem-
brane attack complexes (MACs), which are deposited
MRI can be used to identify edema, inflam- on the endothelial cell wall of the endomysial capillar-
mation in muscle or fascia, fatty infiltration, fi- ies; this results in the destruction of capillaries, isch-
brosis, or atrophy. It is useful for assessing the emia, or microinfarcts, which are most prominent in
extent and selectivity of muscle involvement, es- the periphery of the fascicles, as well as in perifascicu-
pecially in cases of inclusion-body myositis; for lar atrophy. Cytokines released by activated comple-
ment lead to the activation of CD4+ T cells, macro-
identifying disease activity; and for guiding the phages, B cells, and CD123+ plasmacytoid dendritic
selection of the muscle with the greatest degree cells; enhance the expression of vascular-cell adhesion
of inflammation to biopsy.3,4,6,7 molecules (VCAMs) and intercellular adhesion molecule
Examination of muscle-biopsy samples reveals (ICAM) on the endothelial cell wall; and facilitate lym-
features distinct to each disease subtype, and phoid cell transmigration to endomysial tissue through
the action of their integrins, late activation antigen
although the results are not always typical or (VLA)–4, and lymphocyte function–associated antigen
specific, it remains the most important diagnos- (LFA)–1, which bind VCAM-1 and ICAM-1. The perifas-
tic tool. Muscle biopsy is most useful when the cicular regions contain fibers that are in a state of re-
biopsy site is properly chosen (i.e., in a muscle modeling and regeneration (expressing TGF-β, NCAM,
that does not have clinical signs of advanced or and Mi-2), cell stress (expressing heat shock protein 70
[HSP70] and HSP90), and immune activation (express-
end-stage disease but is also not minimally af- ing major histocompatibility complex [MHC] class I an-
fected), the specimen is processed at an experi- tigen, chemokines, and STAT1), as well as molecules as-
enced laboratory, and the findings are inter- sociated with innate immunity (such as MxA, ISG15,
preted in the context of the clinical picture.1-3,24,25 and retinoic acid–inducible gene 1 [RIG-1]).
In dermatomyositis, the inflammation is peri-
vascular and is most prominently located in the myositis, when the skin changes are absent or
interfascicular septae or the periphery of the transient)1-5,10,24,25 (Fig. 1A).
fascicles. The muscle fibers undergo necrosis and In polymyositis and inclusion-body myositis,
phagocytosis — often in a portion of a muscle the inflammation is perivascular and is most
fasciculus or the periphery of the fascicle — typically concentrated in multiple foci within the
owing to microinfarcts that lead to hypoperfu- endomysium; it consists predominantly of CD8+
sion and perifascicular atrophy.1-5 Perifascicular T cells invading healthy-appearing, nonnecrotic
atrophy, which is characterized by layers of atro- muscle fibers expressing major histocompatibil-
phic fibers at the periphery of the fascicles, often ity complex (MHC) class I antigen (normal mus-
with perivascular and interfascicular infiltrates, cle fibers do not express this antigen) (Fig. 2A,
is diagnostic of dermatomyositis (or of overlap 2C, and 2D). The finding of MHC expression and
A B
C D
Cytokines
CD8+ T cells (termed the MHC–CD8 complex) is In necrotizing autoimmune myositis, there are
useful for confirming the diagnosis and for rul- abundant necrotic fibers invaded or surrounded
ing out disorders with nonimmune inflamma- by macrophages (Fig. 2E and 2F). Lymphocytic
tion, as seen in some muscular dystrophies.2,3,5,17,25 infiltrates are sparse, and MHC class I up-regu-
A B C
D E F
Endothelium
MACR OPHAGE
T H1 7
R E GU LA T O R Y M Y O CYTE
CE LLS CD 8 +
T CE LL
Cytokines and
CD28
MHC chemokines CD40
class I CTLA-4
VCAM-1 ICOS
complex Cytokines CD 8 +
T CEL L ICAM-1 CD80 ICOSL T CE LL
BB1 ICOSL CD40L
MHC
Chemokine class I Perforin
ICAM-1
receptor complex
Necrosis
E ND OT HE LIUM
MHC
class I
complex
VLA-4 VCAM
VCAM-1
T C E LL
ICAM-1
ICAM
LFA-1
with creatine kinase levels and strength.31 Derma- protein 2 (anti-NXP-2), which are usually present
tomyositis-associated antibodies include anti-Mi-2, in patients with cancer-associated adult derma-
which is associated with the typical skin lesions; tomyositis,29 although their presence is influ-
anti-MDA-5, which is associated primarily with enced by geographic, racial, and genetic factors.
amyopathic dermatomyositis or interstitial lung Anti–cytosolic 5′-nucleotidase 1A (anti-cN1A) is
disease4,6,16; and anti–transcriptional intermedi- detected in 60 to 70% of patients with inclusion-
ary factor 1γ (anti-TIF-1γ) and anti–nuclear matrix body myositis,32,33 although the degree of sensi-
tivity and specificity varies according to the meth- surface of the muscle fibers, which cause myo-
od of detection used, and indicates B-cell activation. necrosis on release.42 Analysis of T-cell–receptor
molecules expressed by the infiltrating CD8+
T cells reveals clonal expansion of T-cell–recep-
Pathol o gic Mech a nisms
tor chains and conserved sequences in the anti-
Immunopathology gen-binding region, which suggests an antigen-
The causes of inflammatory myopathies are un- driven T-cell response.43,44 This is further supported
known, but an autoimmune pathogenesis is by the expression of costimulatory molecules and
strongly implicated. In dermatomyositis, comple- up-regulation of adhesion molecules, chemokines,
ment C5b-9 membranolytic attack complex is acti- and cytokines45-47 (Fig. 2G). Th17 and regulatory
vated early (before the destruction of muscle fi- T cells participate in the immune process.48 The
bers is evident) and deposited on the endothelial up-regulation and overload of MHC class I may
cells, leading to necrosis, reduction of the density also cause glycoprotein misfolding, which stress-
of endomysial capillaries, ischemia, and muscle- es the endoplasmic reticulum of the myofibers.49
fiber destruction resembling microinfarcts1-6,24,25,34; B-cell activation also occurs, most prominently
the remaining capillaries have dilated lumens to in inclusion-body myositis50 (although it is un-
compensate for the ischemia2,3,25 (Fig. 1A through clear whether the muscle can sustain germinal
1D). The residual perifascicular atrophy reflects center formations), in which anti-cN1A autoan-
the endofascicular hypoperfusion, which is most tibodies are also detected (see the Glossary).
prominent at the periphery of the fascicles.2,3,24,25 The factors that trigger inflammatory muscle
The activation of membrane attack complex, diseases remain unknown. Genetic risk factors
presumably by antibodies, triggers the release of regulating immune responses against undefined
proinflammatory cytokines, up-regulates adhe- environmental agents have been proposed.7
sion molecules on endothelial cells, and facili- Genetic interactions are supported by the associa-
tates migration of activated lymphocytes, including tions between HLA-DRB1*03 and anti-Jo-1, be-
B cells, CD4+ T cells, and plasmacytoid dendritic tween HLA-DRB1*11:01 and anti-HMGCR–pos-
cells, to the perimysial and endomysial spaces itive necrotizing autoimmune myositis, and
(Fig. 1E). Innate immunity also plays a role that is between HLA-DRB1*03:01 and HLA-DRB1*01:01
based on increased expression of type I interferon– and inclusion-body myositis.51 Viruses may be
inducible proteins in the perifascicular region,35 responsible for disrupting immune tolerance, but
an area where other inflammatory, degenerative, attempts to amplify viruses — including coxsacki-
or regenerative molecules are also overexpressed eviruses, influenza virus, paramyxoviruses (includ-
(Fig. 1E); it remains to be determined whether the ing mumps virus), cytomegalovirus, and Epstein-
effect of innate immunity is caused by retinoic Barr virus — from the muscles have failed.1-5
acid–inducible gene 1 signaling in response to The best evidence for a viral connection involves
local signals from the damaged fibers, which retroviruses, because polymyositis or inclusion-
leads to autoamplification of perifascicular in- body myositis develops in people infected with
flammation by activating interferon-β and MHC human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or human
class I36 (Fig. 1E). In juvenile dermatomyositis, T-cell lymphotropic virus I.52,53 However, retrovi-
maternal chimeric cells may contribute to the ral antigens are detected only in endomysial
pathogenesis of the disease.37 macrophages and not within the muscle fibers.
In polymyositis and inclusion-body myositis, The autoinvasive T cells are clonally driven, and
CD8+ cytotoxic T cells surround and invade some are retroviral-specific.52 HIV-associated poly-
healthy-appearing, nonnecrotic muscle fibers that myositis and HIV-associated inclusion-body my-
aberrantly express MHC class I (Fig. 2A through ositis should be distinguished from a toxic mi-
2D).38,39 MHC class I expression, which is absent tochondrial myopathy induced by antiretroviral
from the sarcolemma of normal muscle fibers, is drugs, which improves when the drugs are dis-
probably induced by cytokines secreted by acti- continued.54
vated T cells.40,41 The CD8–MHC class I complex
is characteristic of polymyositis and inclusion- Degenerative Component of Inclusion-Body
body myositis, and its detection aids in confirm- Myositis
ing the histologic diagnosis.2-5,25 The CD8+ T cells Inclusion-body myositis is a complex disorder be-
contain perforin granules directed toward the cause, in addition to the autoimmunity compo-
Possible triggers:
Viruses
Muscle aging
Chronic inflammation
Abnormal proteostasis
HLA genotypes
MYOCYTE
Impaired autophagy
Other
MHC
class I CYTOTOX IC Degeneration
CD8+ T CELL
complex
Cytokines
(e.g., interleukin-1β
interleukin-1
Perforin and interferon-γ)
interferon- DA MA G E D
and chemokines F A SC IC LE
Accumulation of
D AMAG ED misfolded proteins,
FASCICLE p-tau, ubiquitin
HE A LT HY
FA S C I C LE
nent, there is an important degenerative compo- the muscle fibers with the use of immunostain-
nent, highlighted by the presence of congophilic ing, have been advocated as diagnostic markers.20,55
amyloid deposits within some fibers.20-22 Similar In vitro evidence suggests that amyloid-β42 and
to what is seen in Alzheimer’s disease, these its oligomers are involved in the pathway of in-
deposits immunoreact against amyloid precursor tracellular toxicity,20 but it remains unclear how
protein, amyloid-β42, apolipoprotein E, α-synuclein, these proteinaceous aggregates, which are also
presenilin, ubiquitin, and phosphorylated tau, seen in other vacuolar myopathies, induce an in-
which indicates the presence of protein aggrega- flammatory and degenerative myopathy and what
tion.20 Deposits of TDP43, a DNA-binding pro- triggers disease, inflammation, or protein aggre-
tein aberrantly translocated from the nuclei to the gation.21 Laser microdissection of T-cell–invaded
cytoplasm, and p62, a shuttle protein that trans- fibers in comparison with noninvaded or vacuolat-
ports polyubiquitinated proteins, detected within ed fibers has revealed differential up-regulation
* The use of these agents is based on experience but not on controlled studies. Azathioprine can be given at a dose of up
to 3 mg per kilogram, methotrexate at a dose of up to 20 mg per week, mycophenolate at a dose of 2000 to 3000 mg
per day, and cyclosporine at a dose of up to 300 mg daily. Intravenous cyclophosphamide (0.8 to 1 g per square meter
of body surface area) and oral tacrolimus (4–8 mg per day) may help patients with interstitial lung disease.
† All glucocorticoid-sparing agents are ineffective, either alone or in combination.
‡ In some patients, the dysphagia responds to intravenous immune globulin.
§ Efficacy has not been established with a controlled study, but the evidence of efficacy is compelling.
¶ Candidate agents include eculizumab, alemtuzumab, tocilizumab (anti–interleukin-6), anti–interleukin-17, and anti–
interleukin-1β.
Although the life expectancy of patients with zyme and lecture fees from Baxter and Octapharma. No other
potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.
inclusion-body myositis is normal, most patients
Disclosure forms provided by the author are available with the
with end-stage disease require assistive devices full text of this article at NEJM.org.
such as a cane, walker, or wheelchair.23 I thank all the clinical and research fellows who participated
Dr. Dalakas reports having served on a data and safety moni- in my studies over many years, the numerous clinicians and
toring board for Baxter, serving on steering committees for scientists for their enormous contributions to the field, and all
Grifols/Talecris, Novartis, and Servier, and receiving consulting the patients who participated in my research and continue to
fees from Baxter, Therapath Laboratory, CSL Behring, and Gen- teach me about these diseases.
References
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