General Biology

Bio 110

Chapter 5
Contents
Part 1 Life on Earth: An Overview Chapter 1
PART II Chemistry of Life
a. Basic Chemistry Chapter 2

b. Chemistry of Organic Molecules Chapter 3

PART III The Cell
a. Cell Structure and Function Chapter 4
b. Membrane Structure and Function Chapter 5
 Part III b

THE CELL
b. Plasma Membrane Structure and Function
 5.1 Plasma Membrane Structure and Function

 Plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer (Figure 5.1) in which

transmembrane protein molecules are either partially (peripheral) or
wholly embedded (integral).
 A phospholipid is an amphipathic molecule; has both a hydrophilic (water-
loving) region and a hydrophobic (water-fearing) region.
 The hydrophilic polar heads of
the phospholipid molecules
naturally face the outside and
inside of the cell, where water is
found. The hydrophobic non-
polar tails face each other.
 Cholesterol is another lipid
found in the animal plasma
membrane; and steroids are
found in the plasma membrane
of plants.
Figure 5.1 General structure of plasma membrane.
5.1 Plasma Membrane Structure and Function

a. Fluid-Mosaic Model:
 The fluidity of the membrane is due to its lipid component.
 The latter prevents the membrane from solidifying as external
temperatures drop. At higher temperatures, lipid makes the
membrane less fluid.
 The mosaic nature of the plasma membrane is due to its protein
content, which is able to move sideways in the membrane.

b. Carbohydrate Chains:
 Both lipids and proteins can have attached carbohydrate (sugar)
chains. If so, these molecules are called glycolipids and
glycoproteins, respectively.
 In animal cells, the carbohydrate chains of proteins facilitate adhesion
between cells, reception of signaling molecules and cell-to-cell
recognition. In humans, carbohydrate chains are also the basis for
the A, B and O blood groups.
5.1 Plasma Membrane Structure and Function
c. Functions of the Proteins:
 Channel protein; allows hydrogen ions to flow across the inner
mitochondrial membrane (Figure 5.2a).
 Carrier protein; transports sodium and potassium ions across the
plasma membrane of a nerve cell (Figure 5.2b).

Figure 5.2 Membrane protein diversity.

5.1 Plasma Membrane Structure and Function

c. Functions of the Proteins

(continued):
 Cell recognition protein; helps
the body recognizes when it is
being invaded by pathogens so
that an immune response can
occur (Figure 5.2c).
 Receptor protein; has a
particular shape that allows a
specific molecule to bind to it
(Figure 5.2d) causing the
protein to change its shape
and initiate a response.

Figure 5.2 Membrane protein diversity.

5.1 Plasma Membrane Structure and Function
d. Permeability of the Plasma Membrane:
 Plasma membrane regulates the passage of molecules into/out of the
cell.
 The plasma membrane can carry out this function because it is
differentially (selectively) permeable; eg., certain substances can
move across the membrane while others cannot (Figure 5.3).
 Small non-charged molecules,
such as carbon dioxide, oxygen
and alcohol, can freely cross
the membrane.
 These molecules are said to
follow their concentration
gradient as they move from an
area where their concentration
is high to an area where their
concentration is low.
Figure 5.3 How molecules cross plasma membrane?
5.1 Plasma Membrane Structure and Function
d. Permeability of the Plasma Membrane (continued):
 For example, carbon dioxide is produced when a cell carries on
cellular respiration. Therefore, carbon dioxide is also following a
concentration gradient when it moves from inside the cell to outside
the cell.

 Water passively moves through a

membrane channel protein called
aquaporin; eg., accounts for why
water can cross a membrane
more quickly than expected.
 Ions and polar molecules, such
as glucose and amino acids, can
slowly cross a membrane.
Therefore, they are often assisted
across the plasma membrane by
carrier proteins.
Figure 5.3 How molecules cross plasma membrane?
 Part III b

5.2 Types of Transport Across Cell Membrane

Passive Transport:
• Passive transport is a diffusion across the plasma
membrane with no energy investment.
• Passive transport could be :
a. Simple diffusion: Diffusion net movement of a
substance down its concentration gradient means from
a high concentration region to a low concentration
region.
b. Osmosis: is the special form of diffusion of water
across differentially ( selectively) permeable membrane
due to concentration difference.
c. Facilitated diffusion: Uses transport protein to move
high to low concentration without the use of energy.
Example: glucose or amino acids moving from blood
into a cell
5.2 Passive Transport Across Membrane
a. Diffusion:
 Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a higher to a lower
concentration until equilibrium is achieved; distributed equally (Figure
5.4).
 Ex., when a crystal of dye is placed in water, the dye and water
molecules move in various directions, but their net movement is
toward the region of lower concentration.

Figure 5.4 Diffusion process.

5.2 Passive Transport Across Membrane
a. Diffusion (continued):
 Eventually, the dye is dissolved in water, resulting in equilibrium and a
colored solution.
 A solution contains a solute (the dye); usually a solid, and a solvent
(water); usually a liquid.

Figure 5.4 Diffusion process.

5.2 Passive Transport Across Membrane.
b. Osmosis:
 Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a differentially (selectively)
permeable membrane due to concentration difference.
 To illustrate this, a tube containing a 10% solute solution is covered
at one end by a differentially permeable membrane and then
placed in a beaker containing a 5% solute solution (Figure 5.5a).

Figure 5.5 Osmosis process.

5.2 Passive Transport Across Membrane.

b. Osmosis (continued):
 Diffusion always occurs from higher to lower concentration.
 Therefore, a net movement of water takes place across the membrane
from the beaker to the inside of the thistle tube (Figure 5.5b).
 The solute does not diffuse out of the thistle tube because the
membrane is not permeable to the solute.

Figure 5.5 Osmosis process.

5.2 Passive Transport Across Membrane
b. Osmosis (continued):
 As water enters and the solute does not exit, the level of the solution
within the thistle tube rises (Figure 5.5c).
 In the end, the concentration of solute in the thistle tube is less than
10% and the concentration of solute in the beaker is greater than 5%.

Figure 5.5 Osmosis process.

5.2 Passive Transport Across Membrane

b. Osmosis (continued):
 Water enters the thistle tube due to the osmotic pressure of the solution
within the thistle tube.
 In other words, water will diffuse in the direction of higher osmotic
pressure.
 This explains why water is absorbed by the kidneys and taken up by
capillaries in the tissues.

Figure 5.5 Osmosis process.

5.2 Passive Transport Across Membrane
Water balance between cells and their surrounding is crucial to organism:

- Tonicity: is a term that describes the ability of a solution to cause a cell to

gain or lose water.

- Isotonic: indicates that the concentration of a solute is the same on both

sides.( outside and inside the cell).

- Hypertonic: indicates that the concentration of the solute is higher

outside the cell.

- Hypotonic: indicates a higher concentration of solute inside the cell.

5.2 Passive Transport Across Membrane

1. Isotonic Solution
 Solution where the solute and the water concentrations
inside and outside the cell are equal
5.2 Passive Transport Across Membrane:
2. Hypotonic Solution
 Solution that causes cells to swell, or even to burst (cytolysis),
due to intake of water due to the higher concentration of solute
inside the cell.
 The swelling of a plant cell in a hypotonic solution creates turgor
pressure and expansion of the cytoplasm because the vacuole
gains water.
 Organisms that live in fresh water, ex., protozoans, have to
prevent the uptake of too much water.
 Freshwater fishes have well-developed kidneys that excrete a
large volume of diluted urine.

Animal cell

Plant cell
5.2 Passive Transport Across Membrane
3. Hypertonic Solution:
 Solution that causes cells to shrink due to loss
of water (plasmolysis) from their vacuoles due
to the higher concentration of solute outside
the cell and water will leave the cell,
 Meats are sometimes preserved by salting
them, but the bacteria are not killed by the salt
but by the lack of facilitated water in the meat.
 Marine animals cope with their hypertonic
environment in various ways:
 Sharks increase/decrease urea in their Animal
blood until their blood is isotonic with the cell
environment.
 Marine fishes drink large amount of water
and excrete salts across their gills. Plant
 Have you ever seen a marine turtle cry? cell
 It is ridding its body of salt by means of
glands near the eye.
5.2 Passive Transport Across Membrane :
c. Facilitated Transport:
 Biologically useful molecules are able to enter and exit the cell at a
rapid rate either by:
 Ways of a channel protein; water transport.
 Because of membrane carrier proteins; glucose and amino acids
transport.
 These transport proteins are specific; each can transport with only a
certain type of molecule or ion (Figure 5.6),
 Ex., glucose can cross the membrane hundreds of times faster than
the other sugars.

Figure 5.6 Facilitated transport.

5.2 Passive Transport Across Membrane:
c. Facilitated Transport (continued):
 The carrier is believed to undergo a change in shape that moves the
molecule across the membrane.
 Facilitated transport explains the rapid passage of water and other
molecules across the plasma membrane.
 Neither diffusion nor facilitated transport requires an expenditure of
energy because the molecules are moving down their concentration
gradient in the same direction they tend to move anyway.

Figure 5.6 Facilitated transport.

 Part IIIb

5.3 Active Transport Across Membrane

5.3 Active Transport Across Membrane
a. Active Transport:
 In active transport, molecules or ions move through the plasma
membrane, exactly opposite to the process of diffusion.
 Both carrier proteins and an expenditure of energy are needed to
transport molecules against the concentration gradient.
 In this case, chemical energy (ATP molecules usually) is required for
the carrier to combine with the substance to be transported.
 Therefore, cells involved in active transport, such as kidney cells, have
a large number of mitochondria near membranes where active
transport is occurring.
 Proteins involved in active transport often are called pumps.
5.3 Active Transport Across Membrane

a. Active Transport:
One type of pump in animal
cells, but is especially
associated with nerve and
muscle cells, moves sodium
ions (Na+) to the outside of
the cell and potassium ions
(K+) to the inside of the cell;
sodium-potassium pump
(Figure 5.7).

Figure 5.7 Sodium-potassium pump.

,
5.3 Active Transport Across Membrane
b. Bulk Transport:
 Because macromolecules (polypeptides or polysaccharides) are
too large to be transported by carrier proteins, they are transported
into and out of the cell by vesicle formation; membrane-assisted
transport that requires an expenditure of energy.
 The vesicle membrane keeps the contained macromolecules from
mixing with molecules within the cytoplasm.
1. Exocytosis:
 Exocytosis is a way substances
can exit a cell and endocytosis
is a way substances can enter a
cell.
 During exocytosis, a vesicle -
often produced by Golgi-fuses
with the plasma membrane as Figure 5.8 Exocytosis.
secretion occurs (Figure 5.8) for
insulin, hormones and digestive
enzymes.
5.3 Active Transport Across Membrane
2. Endocytosis:
 During endocytosis, cells take in
substances by vesicle formation.
 Portion of the plasma membrane
invaginates to envelop the substance
and then the membrane forms an
intracellular vesicle.
 Endocytosis occurs in one of three
ways (Figure 5.9):
 Phagocytosis; to transport large
substances, ex., a virus, food
particle or another cell.
 Pinocytosis; to transport small
substances, such as a
macromolecule, into the cell.
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis; a
special form of pinocytosis.
Figure 5.9 Methods of endocytosis.
5.3 Active Transport Across Membrane
2. Endocytosis (cont.)
 Phagocytosis is common in
unicellular organisms such as
amoebas. It also occurs in humans.
Certain types of human white blood
cells are mobile like an amoeba.
This process is necessary towards
the development of immunity to
bacterial diseases.
 Pinocytosis occurs when vesicles
form around a liquid or very small
particles. The intestinal wall and
plant root cells use pinocytosis to
ingest substances. Pinocytosis
involves a significant amount of the
plasma membrane because it
occurs continuously.

Figure 5.9 Methods of endocytosis.

5.3 Active Transport Across Membrane

2. Endocytosis(cont.)
 Loss of plasma membrane due to
pinocytosis is balanced by the
occurrence of exocytosis.
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis uses
a receptor protein shaped in such a
way that a specific molecule such as
a vitamin or lipoprotein can bind to it.
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis is
involved in the transfer and
exchange of substances between
cells. Such an exchange takes place
when substances move from
maternal blood into fetal blood at the
placenta.

Figure 5.9 Methods of endocytosis.

Thank you