CELL PHYSIOLOGY

At the end of the topic the learner should be able to:

1. Define cell physiology

2. Correlate the membrane structure with physiology in relation to permeability

3. Differentiate between diffusion, osmosis and active transport.

4. State and describe factors affecting diffusion, osmosis and active transport.

5. Carry out experiments on diffusion and osmosis.

6. Explain the roles of diffusion, osmosis and active transport in living organisms.

7. Explain turgor and plasmolysis in terms of osmotic pressure.

Cell physiology

Definition; The study of the functions of cell structures.E.g.

(i)Control of movement of substances in and out the cell through the cell
membrane. This occurs by the following process Diffusion, Osmosis and Active
transport. Others are: Phagocytosis, Pinocytosis, Exocytosis and Cytoplasmic
streaming.

(ii)Production of carbohydrates by photosynthesis in the chloroplasts

(iii)Energy production by respiration in the mitochondria

(iv)Protein synthesis by ribosomes

We confine ourselves to the movement of materials in and out of cells

Membrane structure

It is a surface structure which encloses the cell and organelles. Such membranes
includes; cell membranes Tonoplasts ,Nuclear membrane, Mitochondrial
membrane, Chloroplast membranes .

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NB: All these have a common basic structure. One to be considered here is the cell
membrane.

Cell membrane structure (P.32 KLB)

Consist of a phospholipid layer sandwiched between two protein layers [A

trilamelar].That the membrane is a liprotein layer made up of protein and lipid
layer. It measures about 7.5 nm thick and is perforated by small pores that allow
the passage of substances into and out of the cell.

Q. How is the cell membrane adapted to its functions?

Properties of cell membrane

(a) Semi-permeability

The pores on the membrane allow molecules of small size to pass and not large
ones. For example when a membrane is surrounded by dilute sugar, water
molecules will enter the cell but not the larger sugar molecules. In this regard the
membrane is said to be semi-permeable. However the cell wall has larger pores
and allows passage of larger sugar molecules and therefore said to be Permeable.
This property allows membranes to select what enters and leaves the cell.

(b) Sensitivity to changes in temperature and PH

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Cell membranes have a layer of protein .These are adversely affected by extreme
changes in temperature and PH. Such changes alter the structure of membranes and
its normal functioning is hindered. How this happens.

(c) Possession of Electric charges

A membrane has both positive and negative charges. These affect the manner in
which substances are moved in and out of cell. Helps cell to detect charges in the
environment.

Using plastic ruler, rub the hair, bring ruler close to skin .The hair raises to show
polarity /charges.

Physiological processes

The function of the cell membrane is to control entry and exit of substances in a
cell is best achieved through the following process;- Diffusion, Osmosis, Active
transport .

(A) Diffusion

The movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of

low concentration. This leads to even distribution of molecules. e.g. Scent of a
flower experienced by an individual. Movement of Potassium Manganate [VII]
molecules in water as seen in the demonstration. [Practical p 33].In the crystal the
concentration of Potassium Manganate VII was very high ,these break away,
dissolve and then diffuse through the water until they are evenly distributed. The
difference in concentration of particles /molecules between the region of high
concentration and low concentration is known as diffusion gradient.

Role of diffusion in living organisms

(a) Absorption of material

In plants these include;

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Many salts dissolve in soil water to form ions, small enough to diffuse into the
pores in the cell membrane of the root hair cells.

In animals amino acids and glucose diffuse across the wall of the ileum into the
blood for transportation to other parts of the animal body.

(b) Gaseous exchange

(i) Plants take in carbon Oxide and give out oxygen in the presence of sunlight
during photosynthesis.

Some of the oxygen is used in respiration and excess given out. At night plants
take in oxygen and give out carbon dioxide as a waste product. These gases enter
and leave through stomata by diffusion.

(ii) In animals, several structures are used as surfaces for gaseous exchange by
diffusion. These are gills, skins and tracheal system, lungs.

These provide large surface area for gaseous exchange. Carbon IV oxide and
oxygen leave and enter the body tissues by diffusion.

(iii) Excretion of nitrogenous wastes e.g. urea, uric acid and urine.

(iv) Diffusion is one of the mechanisms involved in transport of manufactured food

from leaves to other parts .Do question 3 page 35 klb

Factors affecting diffusion

(i)Diffusion gradient

A greater diffusion gradient between two points increase rate of diffusion.

Increasing the concentration of diffusing molecules also increases diffusion

gradient hence increases diffusion rate.

(ii) Surface area to volume ratio

Small organisms have a larger surface area to volume ratio than larger
organisms.(Ref page 36 KLB 1)

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Therefore, the higher the surface area to volume ratio the faster the rate of
diffusion.

Therefore small organisms depend on diffusion as a means of transport of foods

,respiratory gases and removal of waste products.

Larger organisms use not only diffusion but also have transport systems.

(iii) Thickness of membranes or tissues

The thicker the membrane or tissue the lower the rate of diffusion, therefore the
distance to be covered is greater.

The thinner the membrane /tissue the higher the rate of diffusion, therefore the
distance to be covered is short.

(iv)Size of molecules

Small and light molecules diffuse faster than larger and heavy molecules

(v) Temperature

Increasing the temperature raises the kinetic energy in molecules and therefore the
faster they will move thereby enhance diffusion rate.

(B) Osmosis

This is a special type of diffusion involving the movement of water molecules from
an area of high concentration of water molecules [dilute solution] to an area of low
concentration of water molecules [concentrated solution] through a semi-
permeable membrane.

Demonstration of osmosis done on

This may go on until the same concentration is obtained on either side of the
membrane –isotonic solution is attained i.e. –equal concentration of solute and
solvent.

Hypotonic –a solution with more solvent molecules than solute molecules than
solute molecules.
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Hypertonic –a solution with more solute molecules than solvent molecules.

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Osmotic pressure

When a concentrated solution is separated from water by a semi-permeable

membrane ,the solution develops a force with which it draws water molecules from
distilled water through the semi-permeable membrane .The pressure exerted on the
semi-permeable membrane to stop osmosis [movement of water] is known as
Osmotic Pressure. The osmotic pressure of a solution is measured by an
OSMOMETER.

Osmotic Potential

This is hidden pressure of a concentrated solution that only becomes real when a
solution is separated from distilled water by a semi-permeable membrane.

PRACTICAL 3 P.39 with potato cylinders

PRACTICAL 4 P.42 –Demonstration of plasmolysis

All the 8 groups able to mount the onion epidermal cells .Irrigated with sodium
chloride solution and were able to identify some plasmolysed cells.

DREW before and after PLASMOLYSIS

Re-established, status quo by irrigating with distilled.

Water relation in animals

If an animal cell e.g. R.b.c. is placed in distilled water (hypotonic solution) , these
would be a net flow of water into the cell by osmosis .

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The cell would swell and eventually burst .This bursting is known as Haemolysis

If an animal cell e.g. R.b.c. is placed in a hypertonic solution, the cell would shrink
a process known as Crenation.

This behavior of R.b.c. similarly indicates that in all animal tissues the
concentration in the cells and their environment should be the same [ISOTONIC]
or there should be a mechanism or regulating these within manageable range.

Water relation in plants

Plant cells bound by;

The cell wall which is permeable

The tonoplast (surrounding vacoule) which is semi-permeable

The cell membrane which is semi-permeable

If a plant cell is placed in distilled water (hypotonic solution) , water will

move into the cell by osmosis and cause distention of the cell .The vacuole
enlarges and exerts outward pressure on the cell wall called Turgor Pressure.

This pressure increases as more water enters the vacuole until the cell wall can
stretch no more.

At this stage the cell is said to be turgid.

As the turgor pressure pushes from inside, the counter pressure from outside is
known as wall pressure.

When a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, water molecules move out
of the cell by osmosis. The cell starts to shrink, becoming less rigid /flabby and is
said to flaccid. If this continues the plasma membrane pulls away from the cell
wall towards the centre. This process is known as plasmolysis. This can be
reversed by placing the flaccid cell in distilled water, a process known as
deplasmolysis.

Wilting

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A condition when the turgor in cells is reduced and the cells shrink leading to
plants drooping; brought about by the water loss being greater than water gain;

Most plants will recover from wilting at night but if they don’t they will undergo
what is known as Permanent Wilting point which will generally lead to drying
/death of the plant.

Role of osmosis in organisms

(i) Absorption of water from the soil

Water enters the root hairs by osmosis .Osmosis ensure distribution of the water
from cell to cell.

(ii) Support

Turgid cells are rigid and therefore gain support .This is important in seedlings,
leaves and herbaceous plants which are less woody.

(iii) Opening and closing of stomata

Guard cells gain water, become turgid and enable opening of stomata.

They lose water, become flaccid to allow closure of stomata.

(iv) Feeding in insectivorous plants

The change in turgor pressure enables the special structures such as leaves to close
and trap insects which are digested to provide amino acid e.g. pitcher plant.

(v) Osmoregulation

This occurs in the kidney where water is withdrawn from the kidney tubules by
osmosis.

Factors affecting osmosis

(i) Concentration of solution and concentration gradient

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The greater the concentration gradient between two points, the greater the speed of
osmosis.

(ii)Temperature

(C) ACTIVE TRANSPORT

A process by which molecules /substances move against concentration gradient

across the cell membrane.

The process requires energy to move these substances.

Examples of substances moved: Amino acids, sugar, many ions [e.g. bromide
ions]; iodine from sea water by sea weeds.

Movement is by help of carriers on the cell membranes which combine with

substances being transported and then move them from one side of the membrane
to the other. After depositing the ions, the carriers go back to their original
position.

Ion + carrier = CI complex (Carrier-Ion complex)

CI complex = Carrie + Ion

Role of active transport

(i) Reabsorption of sugar and some salts by the kidney tubules.

(ii) Absorption of some mineral salts from the soil by roots

(iii) Absorption of digested food from the alimentary canal of animals into the
blood stream

(iv)Accumulation of substances into the body to offset osmotic imbalance in arid

and saline environments.

(v) Excretion of (metabolic) waste products from body cells

Factors affecting active transport

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(i) Oxygen concentration

(ii) Change in PH

(iii) Glucose concentration

(iv) Enzyme inhibitors

(v) Temperature

(D)PHAGOCYTOSIS

Process by which some specialized cells take in solid materials e.g. w.b.c. ingest
and destroy foreign materials such as bacteria and viruses.

Unicellular organisms e.g. amoeba also take in food by phagocytosis.

Is a selective process as phagocytic cells will not ingest any material they come
across e.g. w.b.c. will only ingest certain kinds of bacteria ; amoeba will only
ingest materials of food value .

(E) PINOCYTOSIS

A process by which pinocytic vesicles containing liquids with specific materials

either rupture to release there substances or released after being broken down to
smaller molecules by digestive enzymes from lysosomes.

(F) EXOCYTOSIS

A process used for the release of secretory materials from cells.

Vesicles containing secretory materials fuse with plasma membrane releasing their
contents to the outside e.g. Golgi bodies.

END OF TOPIC

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