CARBOHYDRATES - Carbohydrates in the form of

cotton and linen are used as

clothing
Carbohydrates
- Carbohydrates in the form of
- It is commonly refer to as “sugars”
wood are used for shelter
which is taga store ng energy na
and heating and in making
pwede nating magamit in our
paper
everyday lives
- They are built from molecular
How are Carbohydrates made?
monomers or subunits called
- Yun daw mga carbohydrates is
sugars that only contain carbon,
nagagawa through photosynthesis.
hydrogen, and oxygen atoms
Kumabaga dito yung starting point
- Is an energy providing macronutrient
kung bakit tayo may carbohydrates.
- Carbohydrates in a form of glucose
is your body’s first choice of energy
- Na foform yung carbohydrates by
production.
the green plant from carbon dioxide
- Aside from energy, they also provide
and water during the processes of
structure
photosynthesis

Examples of Carbohydrates:
2 Main Uses of Plants for the
- Grains
carbohydrates they produce:
- Breads
1. Carbohydrates can be used in the
- Vegetables
structural element
- Legumes
2. in the form of starch, they provide
- Milk
energy reserves for the plants

Carbohydrates in Plants
Average Human Diet
- It is estimated that more than half of
- Should ideally be ⅔ Carbohydrates
all organic carbon atoms are found
by mass
in the carbohydrate material of
plants.
Why should we at least eat ⅔ of
- Human uses for carbohydrates of
carbohydrates by mass in our diet?
the plant kingdom extend beyond
- We should at least take ⅔ of carbs
food
by mass in our diet para di tayo
 nawawalan ng main source of
energy sa katawan and di tayo
manghina. Pero may risks parin pag
nasobrahan yung carbs sa
kawatawan natin like, maiincrease
yung risk natin sa many diseases
including obesity, heart disease, etc.
Functions of Carbohydrates in the
Human Body
- Carbohydrate oxidation provides
energy
- Carbohydrate storage, in the form of
glycogen, provides a short-term
energy reserve
- Carbohydrates supply carbon atoms
for the synthesis of other
biochemical substances (proteins,
lipids, and nucleic acids)
- Carbohydrates form part of the
structural framework of DNA and
RNA molecules
- Linked to lipids are structural
components of cell membranes
- Linked to proteins function in a
variety of cell-cell and cell-molecule
recognition processes
Why is learning Carbs important for us
nurses?
- it is very important for us to
understand the psychological effect
of carbohydrates for us nurses for us
to improve our understanding of how
carbs are classified and their many
forms and also to comprehend
different types of carbohydrates
affect our health for us to give the
patients proper nutritional guidance
under carbohydrates in a balance
diet.
-
Glycolysis
- your body metabolizes glucose into
pyruvate (during this process, 2 unit
of the body’s energy providing
molecules known as ATP is
generated)
- 45 seconds to 3mins
Glucose
- all carbs are eventually metabolized
into simple sugar glucose with
exception of dietary fiber since the
body isn’t able to break it down.
Glycogen
- Excess glucose in the body is stored
in the form of glycogen which is
simply glucose molecules chain
together into branches
- Glycogen can be stored with a limit
of 500 to 1200 grams
Ketosis
- at the point where your body
depletes both glucose in the
bloodstream and all of its glycogen
 stores, the body begins to transition
into a state known as ketosis
● Are all carbs created equal?
- Monosaccharides and
Disaccharides are the same sugars
found in fruits and dairy
- Glucose is a monosaccharide
- Processed food contains so many
monosaccharide in a single serving,
since these carbs are in its simplest
form, its relatively easy to digest in
one meal which pushes your calorie
intake up. (The more calorie you
consume the more weight you
gain)
- Good carbs are considered good
because they contain dietary fiber
which will make you feel fuller while
consuming fewer calories or they
contain complex carbohydrates such
as polysaccharide which takes
longer to digest.
● Consuming carbs before workout
might help with few extra reps
● If you are performing endurance
activities, carbs after will help
replenish glycogen levels
● If you are trying to lose weight,
eating fiber containing carbs and
more protein will help bring the
calories down
Whenever your body is low on carbs, it
breaks down glycogen into glucose in a
process known as glycogenolysis or it
metabolizes non carb substances such as
lactate and pyruvate into glucose in a
process known as gluconeogenesis.
Importance of Carbs in our Body
- Carbohydrates provide the body with
glucose, which is converted to
energy used to support bodily
functions and physical activity.
Importance of Carbs in Chemistry
- Carbohydrates serve as energy
sources and as essential structural
components in organisms
Sugar
- A typical sugar has a backbone of 3
to 7 carbon atoms
- Most of the carbon atoms have a
hydrogen group and hydroxyl group
attached to them
General Formula of Sugar / Classification
of Carbs
- (CH2O)n
This formula is where the “carbohydrates”
derived their name which literally means
“carbon + water”
Where:
 - N - number of carbons in the
backbone
- Carbohydrate: Polyhydroxy
aldehyde, ketone, or a compound
that produces such substances
upon hydrolysis
- Empirical formula of simple
carbohydrates
- CnH2nOn or Cn(H2O)n (hydrate of
C)
- n is the number of atoms
Are all Carbohydrates Sweet? Why or
why not?
- Not all carbohydrates are sweet
because there are different classes
of dietary carbohydrates; which are
called simple carbohydrates which is
sweet to taste and in complex
carbohydrates, starch and cellulose
are not sweet to taste
Functional groups determine function
What is the difference between Aldehyde
and Ketone?
- May hydrogen na naka attached sa
aldehyde kaya easy siya ma
oxidized while yung ketone, do not
have hydrogen
Organic Molecules
Carbohydrates- Sugars
- When dissolved in a watery-
environment such as the cytoplasm
of a cell, the carbon backbone of a
sugar usually circles up into a ring .
It is this in ring form that sugars are
linked together by dehydration
reactions to make a larger
carbohydrate molecules
Carbohydrates
- Fall into 1 out of 3 categories
depends on the sugar they contain
CLASSIFICATION OF
CARBOHYDRATES
1. Monosaccharides
2. Disaccharides
3. Oligosaccharides
4. Polysaccharides
Monosaccharides
- Single Sugar Monomers
- They have a short life span in the
cell
- Most of them are broken down to
provide energy or linked together by
dehydration reactions to form
disaccharides or polysaccharide
- Contain single polyhydroxy aldehyde
or ketone
- unit
- Cannot be broken down into simpler
substances by hydrolysis reactions,
(why is that? It's because they are
the simplest form of
carbohydrates and they are the
main source of energy for
metabolism particularly, glucose)
- Contain 3–7 C atoms
- 5 and 6 carbon species are more
common
- Pure monosaccharides - Water
soluble white, crystalline solids
Example: Glucose or Fructose, etc.
Ribose and Deoxyribose
- Important Monosaccharides
- They have both 5 carbons
- They are identical except that as the
prefix deoxy implies deoxyribose
molecules have 1 oxygen less than
rivals molecules
- Form critical parts of RNA and DNA
molecules respectively
Disaccharides
- Two Sugar Monomers
- They are formed by linking 2
monosaccharides cells especially
those of plants used disaccharides
to store and or transport energy
- When an organism needs energy
(disaccharides) are broken apart into
their monosaccharides subunits by
hydrolysis
- Contain 2 monosaccharide units
covalently bonded to each other
- Crystalline and water soluble
substances
- Common disaccharides - Table
sugar (sucrose) and milk sugar
(lactose)
- Upon hydrolysis, they produce 2
- monosaccharide units
Examples: Sucrose, Lactose, etc.
Sucrose and
- Each molecule of sucrose of table
sugar has one glucose and one
fructose molecule
- Sugar canes and beets produce
huge amounts of sucrose
Lactose
- While many female mammals
produce lactose or milk sugar by
adding a galactose molecule to a
glucose molecule to provide energy
for their nursing offspring
Oligosaccharides
- oxygen linked to amino acid side
- Contain three to ten
monosaccharide units covalently
bonded to each other
- Usually found associated with
proteins and lipids
in complex molecules
– Serve structural and regulatory
functions
Polysaccharides
- Are long chains of sugar
- Contain many monosaccharide units
covalently bonded
- Number of monosaccharide units
varies from a few 100 units to
50,000 units
Examples:
- Cellulose - Paper, cotton, wood
- Starch - Bread, pasta, potatoes, rice,
corn, beans, and peas
Difference between Oligo and
Polysaccharides?
- Number of chains
Glucose
- Most common MONOSACCHARIDE
- One of the most abundant source of
chemical energy in the living world
- It is a sugar that is found in the
highest concentration in the blood of
animals
- Our nervous systems are critically
dependent on glucose for energy
Glucose Molecules
- Building blocks for the
polysaccharide
Cellulose
- Major structural material in the
trunks and branches and trees
Chemical Formula of Glucose
C₆H₁₂O₆
This formula was also shared with fructose
and galactose (but they do have different
chemical structures)
RNA and DNA
 - Critical in passing the blueprints of
life from cell to cell and from
generation to generation
CHIRALITY
What is Chirality?
- or handedness, means that an
object or molecule cannot be
superimposed (when you look at
yourself in the mirror, all points are
the same) on its mirror image by any
translations or rotations
- We are dealing with handedness
- We are trying to find out if that
particular molecule is right or left
handed
- Chiral center: C atom attached to 4
different groups
- A C atom must have four different
groups attached to it in order to be a
chiral center
- Almost all monosaccharides are
right handed
Amino acids are always left handed
Superimposable (Chirality)
- Image that conside at all points
when images are laid upon each
other
Nonsuperimposable Image (Achirality)
- Images where not all points conside
when images are laid upon each
other
What will be the difference between
Achiral and Chiral?
- For achiral, they are not
superimposable and not identical to
the image in the mirror, while chiral
is superimposable means identical
yung image as mirror.
How will you determine if a molecule
possesses handedness?
-for organic and bioorganic compound, the
presence of your handedness is your
carbon which has 4 different groups bonded
together in a tetrahedral orientation
What is the importance of chirality?
- plays a fundamental role in the
binding affinity and interactions
between the drug and its target, thus
shaping the drug's pharmacology
- Response time, why? Some drugs
have a different response if it's a left
or right handed, if magbibigay ka ng
drug, it will always have a different
response from the right handed to
the left handed. Right handed will
have 20 times greater its response
than your left handed, kumabaga
how fast it will react to the different
molecules in our body
Fisher Project Formula
- 2 dimensional structural notation
showing the spatial arrangement of
group with your chiral center
- L and D system used to designate
the
 - handedness of glyceraldehyde
enantiomers are shown below
PROPERTIES OF ENANTIOMERS
What are enantiomers?
- They are stereoisomers which have
a non superimposable mirror image
of each other
Dextrorotatory and Levorotatory
Compounds
- Enantiomers are optically active, i.e.,
they are compounds that rotate the
plane of polarized light
Dextrorotatory Compound
- Chiral compound that rotates light
towards right (clockwise; +)
Levorotatory Compound
- Chiral compound that rotates light
towards left (counterclockwise; -)
Interactions between Chiral Compounds
- Right- and left-handed baseball
players cannot use the same glove
(chiral) but can use the same hat
(achiral)
- Two members of the enantiomer pair
(chiral) react differently with other
chiral molecules but they act
similarly to achiral molecules
- Enantiomeric pairs have same
solubility in
achiral solvents like ethanol and have
different solubility in chiral solvent like D-2-
butanol
CLASSIFICATION OF
MONOSACCHARIDES
Classification based on number of carbon
atoms:
- Triose - 3 carbon atoms
- Tetrose - 4 carbon atoms
- Pentoses - 5 carbon atoms
- Hexoses - 6 carbon atoms
Classification based on functional groups:
- Aldoses: Monosaccharides with one
aldehyde group
- Ketoses: Monosaccharides with one
ketone group
Most names for sugars end in -ose
Classified by number of carbons
6C = hexose (glucose)
5C = pentose (ribose)
3C = triose (glyceraldehyde)
Combined number of C atoms and
functional group
Examples:
• Aldohexose - Monosaccharide with
aldehyde group and 6 C atoms
• Ketopentose - Monosaccharide with
ketone group and 5 C atoms
Biochemically Important
Monosaccharides

D-Glucose (Dextrose or Blood Sugar)

- Most Abundant in Nature
- It tastes sweet and It is Nutritious
- Most important component in the
human diet.
- Blood Sugar (70 - 100 mg/dl)

*Since glucose is important, abnormal

functioning for the hormonal process for
blood glucose levels lead to the condition
known as diabetes.

Diabetes Mellitus
 - group of diseases that affects how
your body uses blood sugar.
Basically there is an increase in the
blood sugar levels in the body
because the pancreas does not
produce enough insulin in order to
balance the sugar levels in our body.
D-galactose
- milk sugar
- Produced in the mammary glands
for use in lactose
- Brain sugar (component of
glycoprotein found in brain and
nerve tissue)
- Present in the chemical markers that
distinguishes the various types of
blood (O, A, AB)
D-Fructose
- ketohexose
- Fruit sugar (sweet tasting of all
sugar found in fruits and honey.)
- Used as a dietary sugar due to
higher sweetness
D-Ribose
- part of variety of complex
molecules which includes : RNA,
ATP, DNA
Cyclic Forms of Monosaccharides
Cyclic Hemiacetal Forms of D-Glucose
2 Forms of D-Glucose
- alpha (the OH is found on the
opposite sides
- Beta (OH is on the same side)
Reactions of Monosaccharides
1. Five Important reactions of
Monosaccharides:
● Oxidation to acidic sugars - there
is the formation of your acid and it
depends on what type of oxidizing
agent will be used. (production of
acid)
● Reduction to sugar alcohol - the
blood sugar can turn into sugar or
fat.
● Glycoside Formation - it will form
your cyclical formation of
monosaccharides and since they are
hemiacetal they will react to your
alcohol to form acetals. (will produce
a glycoside bond)
● Phosphate ester formation - it
plays important roles particularly in
the metabolism of your
carbohydrates
● Amino Sugar Formation - its the
replacement of your hydroxyl group
with an amino group (examples of
amino sugars: D-glucosamine D-
galactosamine and D-monosamine)
 2. Glucose will be used as the
monosaccharide reactant
Summary of terminologies associated
and their derivatives.
Disaccharides
Disaccharides
- two monosaccharides can react to
form a disaccharide (the
monosaccharides are bonded with
glycosidic linkage)
Examples of Disaccharides
Maltose (Malt Sugar)
- Maltose is produced whenever the
polysaccharide breaks down as
happens in plants and when seeds
germinate and in human beings,
starch is being digested.
- Common ingredients in baby foods
and found in malted milk
- a reducing sugar because a glucose
unit on the right has a hemiacetal
carbon atom
Cellobiose
- Is a reducing sugar and has three
isomeric forms which produces 2 D-
glucose molecule
- Cannot be digested by humans
Lactose (milk sugar)
- Important ingredient in commercially
produced infant formulas that are
designed to stimulate mother’s milk
- Can be hydrolyzed by acids or by
the enzyme lactase which is forming
an equimolar mixture of lactose and
glucose
Lactose Intolerance or Lactase persistence
- condition in which people lack the
enzyme lactase needed to hydrolyze
lactose to galactose and glucose
- Deficiency of lactase can be caused
by genetic defect, physiological
decline with age or by injuries
Sucrose (Table sugar)
- non reducing sugar and the
hemiacetal center of each
monosaccharide is involved in the
glycosidic linkage (the result is a
molecule that contains two acetal
centers)
- Sucrose in solid and liquid state
exist in one form
Oligosaccharides - Two types : Homopolysaccharide
and Heteropolysaccharide (homo is
Oligosaccharides only one type of monosaccharide
- 3 to 10 monosaccharide unit bonded monomer is present. Hetero is more
to each other via glycosidic linkages than one or two to three types of
- Examples are: raffinose and monosaccharide monomer is
stachyose (r is made of 1 galactose, present)
glucose and fructose. S is made of 2
galactose, 1 glucose and fructose
unit)
- Found in onions, cabbage, broccoli
and whole wheat.

Characteristics of Polysaccharides
- are not sweet and do not show
positive tests with tollens and
benedict’s solutions
- They have limited water solubility
- Examples : starch and glycogen
Polysaccharides (storage polysaccharide), cellulose
and chitin (structural
Polysaccharides polysaccharide), hyaluronic acid and
- is a polymer that contains many heparin (acidic polysaccharide)
monosaccharides units
- Often called as glycans Storage Polysaccharide
Starch
Polymer chain - considered as a storage
- it is the identity of the polysaccharide
monosaccharide repeating units with - Homopolysaccharide containing only
polymer chains monosaccharide unit
 - It is the energy storage
polysaccharide
- When the cell cannot get enough
glucose, it hydrolyzes starch to
release glucose
Types of Polysaccharides isolated from
starch
● Amylose
- the number of glucose units
present in amylose chain depends
on the starch. It can either be
from 300-500 monomer units
● Amylopectin
- digested more readily by humans
Glycogen
- ideal storage form for glucose, the
large size of this macromolecules
prevent them from using out the cell.
- Excess glucose in blood is stored in
the form of glycogen
Structural polysaccharide (serves as
structural elements in plant cell and animal
skeletons)
Cellulose
- Is the structural component of plant
cell walls and is the most abundant
naturally occurring polysaccharide
- We can see it in the woody portions
of plants and trunks
- Not a source of nutrition for human
beings because we dont have the
enzyme to digest cellulose
- important compinent of a balance
diet (important in the digestion)
- Some of plants have the enzymes to
digest cellulose
Chitin
- is identical to cellulose except that
the monosaccharide present here is
what you call “nag”
- Gives rigidity to exoskeletons of
crabs, lobsters, shrimp, insects
Acidic Polysaccharide
- are involve in a variety of cellular
functions and tissues
- Examples are: hyaluronic acid and
heparin (both have unbranched
chain structure)
- Hyaluronic acid (highly viscous and
serve as lubricants in the fluid of
joints)
- Heparin ( with 15-90 disaccharide
residues Per chain) ( blood
anticoagulant)
Dietary considerations and
carbohydrates
Nutrition
 - foods high in carbohydrate content
constitute over 50% of the diet of
most people in the world (corn in
south america, rice in asia,starchy
root in parts of africa and potato and
wheat in north america)
- Balanced dietary food should
contain60% of carbohydrates

Classes of Dietary carbohydrates

Simple carbs
- dietary monosaccharides and
disaccharides
- Sweet tasting
Complex carbs
- dietary polysaccharides
- Not sweet to taste

Glycolipids and Glycoprotein (needed in

cell recognition)

Glycolipids
- Called cerebrosides and glycolipids
which occur in brain tissues
Glycoprotein
- they are called as you
immunoglobulin which are key
components of the body’s immune
system response to invading foreign
material