Organic Chemistry ● The monosaccharides most important

to humans include both 5- and

● Carbon has an ability to form covalent 6-carbon sugars.
bonds with other atoms making ● Common 6 carbon sugars: glucose,
formation of the large, diverse, fructose, and galactose, are isomers,
complicated molecules necessary for life which are molecules that have the same
possible. number and types of atoms but differ in
● Carbon atoms bound together by their three-dimensional arrangement.
covalent bonds constitute the ● Glucose (blood sugar) - major
“backbone” of many large molecules. carbohydrate in the blood and a major
● Four major groups of organic nutrient for most cells of the body.
molecules essential to living organisms ⮚ Insulin – regulate blood sugar
are: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins levels.
and nucleic acids. ⮚ Diabetic People – the body is
⮚ ATP - a high energy form of a unable to regulate glucose
nucleic acid building block. It is levels properly.
important organic molecule in ● Fructose and Galactose - important
cellular processes. dietary nutrients.
Carbohydrates – composed of carbon, ● Ribose and Deoxyribose – Important
hydrogen and oxygen atoms that ranges in 5-carbon sugar. Components of
size from small to very large. ribonucleic acid (RNA) and
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA),
● In most carbohydrates, there are respectively.
approximately two hydrogen atoms
and one oxygen atoms for each Disaccharides (two) - composed of two simple
carbon atom. Note that this two-to-one sugars bound together through a dehydration
ratio is the same as in water (H2O). reaction.
● The molecules are called carbohydrates ● Glucose and fructose, for example,
because carbon (carbo) atoms are combine to form a disaccharide called
combined with the same atoms that sucrose (table sugar) plus a molecule
form water (hydrated). of water.
● The large number of oxygen atoms in ● Disaccharides that are important to
carbohydrates makes them relatively humans: sucrose, lactose and
polar molecules. They are soluble in maltose.
polar solvents, such as water. ⮚ Lactose (milk sugar) - glucose
● Carbohydrates can be broken down to combined with galactose
provide the energy necessary for life. ⮚ Maltose (malt sugar) - two
● Undigested carbohydrates provide bulk glucose molecules joined
in feces, which helps maintain the together.
normal function and health of the
digestive tract. Polysaccharides - consist of many
monosaccharides bound together to form long
Monosaccharides (simple sugar) - Large chains that are either straight or branched.
carbohydrates are composed of numerous,
relatively simple building blocks. ● Glycogen (Animal Starch) -
polysaccharide composed of many
● Monosaccharides contain 3 carbons glucose molecules.
(trioses), 4 carbons (tetroses), 5 ● Glucose can be metabolized rapidly
carbons (pentoses), or 6 carbons and resulting energy can be used by
(hexoses). cells, glycogen is an important energy
storage molecule.
 ⮚ A substantial amount of the
glucose that is metabolized to
produce energy for muscle
contraction during exercise is
stored in the form of glycogen in
the cells of the liver and skeletal
muscles.
● Starch and cellulose - two important
polysaccharides found in plants, and
both are composed of long chains of
glucose.
● Starch – used by plants as an
energy-storage molecule.
● Glycogen – used by animals as an
energy stored molecule.
● Cellulose - is an important structural
component of plant cell walls.
⮚ Humans, however, do not have
the digestive enzymes
necessary to break down
cellulose.
⮚ Cellulose is eliminated in the
feces, where it provides bulk.
Lipids - are a second major group of organic
molecules common to living systems.
● They are composed principally of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but
some lipids contain small amounts of
other elements, such as phosphorus
and nitrogen.
● Lipids have low ratio of oxygen to
carbon than do carbohydrates, which
makes them less polar.
⮚ Lipids can be dissolved in
nonpolar organic solvents, but
they are relatively insoluble in
water.
Functions of Lipids in the body:
1. provide protection and insulation, help
regulate many physiological processes,
and form plasma membranes.
2. lipids are major energy-storage
molecules and can be broken down and
used as a source of energy.
3. Like carbohydrates, the fats humans
ingest are broken down by hydrolysis
reactions in cells to release energy for
use by those cells.
4. Conversely, if fat intake exceeds need,
excess chemical energy from any
source can be stored in the body as fat
for later use.
5. Fats also provide protection by
surrounding and padding organs, and
under-the-skin fats act as an insulator to
prevent heat loss.
⮚ Triglycerides - constitute 95% of the
fats in the human body.
⮚ Triglycerides consist of two
different types of building
blocks: one glycerol and three
fatty acids
⮚ Glycerol - a 3-carbon molecule
with a hydroxyl group attached
to each carbon atom, and each
fatty acid consists of a straight
chain of carbon atoms with a
carboxyl group attached at one
end.
⮚ Carboxyl group ( COOH) -
consists of both an oxygen
atom and a hydroxyl group
attached to a carbon atom. It is
responsible for the acidic
nature of the molecule because
it releases hydrogen ions into
solution.
⮚ Glycerides - can be described
according to the number and
kinds of fatty acids that combine
with glycerol through
dehydration reactions.
o Monoglycerides have
one fatty acid,
diglycerides have two
fatty acids, and
triglycerides have
three fatty acids bound
to glycerol.
⮚ Fatty acids differ from one another
according to the length and the degree
of saturation of their carbon chains.
⮚ Saturation - refers to the
number of hydrogen atoms in
the carbon chain.
⮚ Unsaturated Fatty Acid - it has
one or more double covalent
bonds between carbon atoms.
 o Unsaturated Fatty Acid
– liquid at room
temperature due to the
double covalent bond
that introduces a kink
into the carbon chain.
o Monounsaturated fats
- have one double
covalent bond between
carbon atoms.
o Polyunsaturated fats -
have two or more
double covalent bonds
between carbon atoms.
o Unsaturated fats – are
the best type of fats in
the diet. They do not
contribute to the
development of
cardiovascular disease
⮚ Saturated Fatty Acid – contains
only single covalent bonds
between the carbon atoms.
o Sources of Saturated
Fatty Acids: beef, pork,
whole milk, cheese,
butter, eggs, coconut
oil, and palm oil.
⮚ Trans Fats - are unsaturated fats that
have been chemically altered by the
addition of H atoms.
⮚ Addition of H atoms makes the
fats more saturated and hence
more solid and stable (longer
shelf-life). ● The eicosanoids are a group of important
o However, the double
covalent bonds that do
not become saturated
are changed from the
usual cis configuration
(H on the same side of
the double bond) to a
trans-configuration (H
on different sides.)
o This change in structure
makes the consumption
of trans-fats an even
greater factor than
saturated fats in the
risk for cardiovascular
disease.
⮚ Phospholipids are similar to
triglycerides, except that one of the fatty
acids bound to the glycerol is replaced
by a molecule containing phosphate
and, usually, nitrogen.
⮚ A phospholipid is polar at the
end of the molecule to which the
phosphate is bound and
nonpolar at the other end.
⮚ The polar end of the molecule is
attracted to water and is said to
be hydrophilic (water-loving).
⮚ The nonpolar end is repelled by
water and is said to be
hydrophobic (water-fearing).
⮚ Phospholipids are important
structural components of the
membranes of cells.
chemicals derived from fatty acids.
⮚ They include prostaglandins,
thromboxanes, and leukotrienes.
⮚ Eicosanoids are made in most cells
and are important regulatory
molecules.
⮚ Among their numerous effects is
their role in the response of tissues
to injuries.
o Prostaglandins have been
implicated in regulating the
secretion of certain
hormones, blood clotting,
some reproductive
 functions, and many other ➢ Vitamin E, D, A, and K are
processes. called the fat-soluble vitamins.
o Many of the ➢ Their structures are not closely
therapeutic effects related to one another, but they
of aspirin and other are non-polar (uncharged)
anti-inflammatory molecules essential for many
drugs result from normal body functions.
their ability to inhibit
prostaglandin
synthesis.
● Steroids differ in chemical structure from
other lipid molecules, but their solubility
characteristics are similar.
⮚ All steroid molecules are composed
of carbon atoms bound together into
four ring-like structures.
⮚ Important steroid molecules
include cholesterol, bile, salts,
estrogen, progesterone, and
testosterone.
o Cholesterol is an
especially important
steroid because other
steroid molecules are
synthesized from it.
o For example, bile salts,
which increase fat Protein
absorption in the
● All proteins contain carbon, hydrogen,
intestines, are derived
oxygen, and nitrogen bound together by
from cholesterol, as are
covalent bonds, and most proteins
the reproductive
contain some sulfur. In addition, some
hormones estrogen,
proteins contain small amounts of
progesterone, and
phosphorus, ion, and iodine.
testosterone.
● The molecular mass of proteins can be
o In addition, cholesterol very large.
is an important ● Proteins regulate body processes, act
component of plasma as a transportation system, provide
membranes. protection, help muscle contract, and
provide structure and energy.
o Although high levels of
cholesterol in the blood Protein Structure
increase the risk for
● The basic building blocks for proteins
cardiovascular disease,
are the 20 amino acid molecules.
a certain amount of
● Each amino acid has an amine group
cholesterol is vital for
(NH2), a carboxyl group (COOH), a
normal function.
hydrogen atom, and a side chain
● Another class of lipids is the fat-soluble designated by the symbol R attached to
vitamins. the same carbon atom.
● The side chain (separate
blockchain attached to parent
 blockchain using two-way peg)
can be a variety of chemical
structures, and the differences
in the side chains make the
amino acids different from one
another.
● Covalent bonds formed between amino
acid molecules during protein synthesis
are called peptide bonds.
○ Covalent bonds (molecular
bond)- is a chemical bond that
involves the sharing of electron
pairs between atoms.
Enzymes
➢ Dipeptide- is two amino acids
bound together by a peptide
bond.
➢ Tripeptide- is three amino acids
bound together by peptide
bonds.
➢ Polypeptide- is many amino
acids bound together by peptide
bonds.
➢ Proteins are polypeptides
composed of hundreds of amino
acids.
● The primary structure of a protein is
determined by the sequence of the
amino acids bound by peptide bonds.
● The secondary structure results from the
folding or bending of the polypeptide
chain caused by the hydrogen bonds
between amino acids.
● This change in shape is called
denaturation, and it can be
caused by abnormally high
temperatures or changes in the
pH of body fluids.
● The tertiary structure results from
large-scale folding of the protein driven
by interactions within the protein and
with the immediate environment.
➢ The tertiary structure
determines the shape of a
domain, which is a folded
sequence of 100-200 amino
acids within a protein.
➢ The functions of proteins occur
at one or more domains.
➢ Therefore, changes in the
primary or secondary structure
that affect the shape of the
domain can change protein
function.
● If two or more proteins associate to form
the spatial relationships between the
individual subunits.
● Proteins perform many roles in the body,
including acting as enzymes.
● An enzyme is a protein catalyst that
increases the rate at which a chemical
reaction proceeds without the enzyme
being permanently changed.
● The three-dimensional shape of
enzymes is critical for their normal
function because it determines the
structure of the enzyme’s active site.
➢ According to the lock-key model
of enzyme action, a reaction
occurs when the reactants (key)
bind to the active site (lock) on
the enzyme.
➢ The enzyme is like a glove that
does not achieve its functional
shape until the hand (reactants)
moves into place.
➢ At the active site, reactants are
brought into close proximity and
the reaction occurs.
➢ After the reactants combine,
they are released from the
active site, and the enzyme is
capable of catalyzing additional
reactions.
 ➢ The activation energy required
for a chemical reaction to occur
is lowered by enzymes because
they orient the reactants toward
each other in such a way that a
chemical reaction is more likely
to occur.
● Slight changes in the structure of an
enzyme can destroy the active site’s
ability to function.
➢ Enzymes are very sensitive to
changes in temperature or pH,
which can break the hydrogen
bonds within them.
➢ As a result, the relationship
between amino acids changes,
thereby producing a change in
shape that prevents the enzyme
from functioning normally.
● To be functional, some enzymes require
additional, nonprotein substances called
cofactors.
➢ cofactors can be an ion, such as
magnesium or zinc, or an
organic molecule.
➢ Cofactors that are organic
molecules, such as certain
vitamins, may be referred to as
coenzymes.
○ Cofactors normally form
part of the enzyme’s
active site and are
required to make the
enzyme functional.
● Because an enzyme’s active site can
bind only to a certain reactant, each
enzyme catalyzes a specific chemical
reaction and no others.
➢ Therefore, many different
enzymes are needed to catalyze
the many chemical reactions of
the body.
➢ Enzymes are often named by
adding the suffix -ase to the
name of the molecules on which
they act.
➢ For example, an enzyme
catalyzes the breakdown of
lipids is a lipase, and an enzyme
that breaks down proteins is a
protease.
● Enzymes control the rate at which most
chemical reactions proceed in living
systems.
➢ Consequently, they control
essentially all cellular activities.
➢ At the same time, the activity of
enzymes themselves is
regulated by several
mechanisms within the cells.
➢ Some mechanisms control the
enzyme concentration by
influencing the rate at which the
enzymes are synthesized;
others alter the activity of
existing enzymes.
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA
● The nucleic acids are large molecules
composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, and phosphorus.
● Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the
genetic material of cells, and copies of
DNA are transferred from one
generation of cells to the next
generation.
➢ DNA contains the information
that determines the structure of
proteins.
● Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is structurally
related to DNA, and three types of RNA
also play important roles in protein
synthesis.
➢ Messenger RNA (mRNA)- RNA
that carries information.
 ➢ Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)- it
incorporates into the ribosomes.
➢ Transfer RNA (tRNA)- used to
transfer specific amino acids to
growing polypeptide chains at
the ribosomal site of protein
synthesis during translation.
● Both DNA and RNA consist of basic
building blocks called nucleotides.
➢ Each nucleotide is composed of
a monosaccharide to which a
nitrogenous base and a ●
phosphate group are attached.
➢ The 5-carbon monosaccharide
is deoxyribose for DNA; it is
ribose for RNA
● The nitrogenous bases consist of
carbon and nitrogen atoms organized
into rings.
➢ They are bases because the
nitrogen atoms tend to take up
H+ from solution.
➢ The nitrogenous bases are
cytosine, thymine, and uracil,
which have a single ring, and
guanine, and adenine, which
have two rings each.
➢ Pyrimidines- single-ringed
bases.
➢ Purines- double-ringed bases
DNA has two strands of nucleotides
joined together to form a twisted,
ladder-like structure called a double
helix.
➢ The sides of the ladder are
formed by covalent bonds
between the deoxyribose
molecules and phosphate
groups of adjacent nucleotides.
➢ The rungs of the ladder are
formed by the bases of the
nucleotides of one side
connected to the bases of the
other side by hydrogen bonds.
➢ Each nucleotide of DNA
contains one of the organic
 bases: adenine, thymine, ➢ Therefore, the information
cytosine or guanine. contained in DNA ultimately
defines all cellular activities.
➢ Complementary base pairs are ➢ Other proteins that are coded by
bases held together by DNA, such as collagen.
hydrogen bonds. determine many of the structural
➢ Adenine and thymine are features of humans.
complementary base pairs ➢ RNA’s structure is similar to a
because the structure of these single strand of DNA.
bases allows two hydrogen ➢ Like DNA, four different
bonds to form between them. nucleotides make up the RNA
molecule, and the nitrogenous
➢ Cytosine and guanine are bases are the same, except that
complementary base pairs thymine is replaced with uracil.
because the structure of these ➢ Uracil can bind only to adenine.
bases allows three hydrogen
bonds to form between them.

● The two strands of a DNA molecule are Adenosine Triphosphate

said to be complementary. ● Adenosine triphosphate is an especially
➢ If the consequence of bases in important organic molecule in all living
one DNA strand is known, the organisms.
sequence of bases in the other
strand can be predicted
because of complementary
base pairing.
➢ The two nucleotide strands of a
DNA molecule are antiparallel,
meaning that the two strands
lide side by side but their sugar-
phosphate “backbones” extend
in opposite directions because
of the orientation of their
nucleotides.
➢ The sequence of nitrogenous
bases in DNA is a “code” that
stores information used to
● It consists of adenosine (the sugar
determine the structures and
ribose with the nitrogenous base
functions of cells.
adenine) and three phosphate groups.
● Gene- is the sequence of DNA that
● The potential energy stored in the
directs the synthesis of proteins or RNA
covalent bond between the second and
molecules.
third phosphate groups of ATP is
➢ Genes determine the type and
important to living organisms because it
sequence of amino acids in
provides the energy used in nearly all of
protein molecules.
the chemical reactions within cells.
➢ Because the enzymes are
● Removal of the third phosphate
proteins, DNA structure
generates adenosine diphosphate
determines the rate and type of
(ADP), which has only two phosphate
chemical reactions that occur in
groups.The catabolism of glucose and
cells by controlling enzyme
other nutrient molecules results in
structure.
 chemical reactions that release energy.
Some of that energy is used to
synthesize ATP from ADP and an
inorganic phosphate group (Pi):

ADP + Pi + Energy (from

catabolism) -> ATP

● The transfer of energy from nutrient

molecules to ATP involves a series of
oxidation-reduction reactions in which a
highly-energy electron is transferred
from one molecule to the next molecule
in the series.
➢ Oxidation-reduction reaction
(redox reaction)- is a type of
chemical reaction that involves
a transfer of electrons between
two species.
● Once produced, ATP is used to provide
energy for other chemical reactions
(anabolism) or to drive cell processes,
such as muscle contraction.
➢ In the process, ATP is converted
back to ADP and an inorganic
phosphate group.

ATP -> ADP + Pi + Energy (for

anabolism and other cell process)

● ATP is often called the energy currency

of cells because it is capable of both
storing and providing energy.
● The concentration of ATP is maintained
within a narrow range of values, and
essentially all energy-requiring chemical
reactions stop when the ATP levels
become inadequate.